Idea Transcript
ANNALS O F CLIN IC AL AND LABORATORY SC IEN CE, Vol. 29, No. 2 Copyright © 1999, Institute for Clinical Science, Inc.
R eview o f Risk Factors for Cardiovascular D iseases* LILY L. WU, Ph.D. Departments o f Pathology and Internal Medicine, University o f Utah Health Science Center, Salt Lake City, UT 84132
ABSTRACT Traditional risk factors for coronary heart disease (C H D ) include only the patient’s age and family history and w hether there is evidence o f hypertension, elevated LDL, low H D L , diabetes or history of smoking. In recent years, considerable progress has b e e n m ad e in id en tify in g a new g e n era tio n o f risk factors, including Lp(a), triglycerides, subfractions of H D L and LDL, modified LDL, apo E pheno/ genotype, homocysteine and fibrinogen. At th e same time, studies have broadened our knowledge of traditional markers. These advances have enabled physicians to make a b etter assessment of patient risk for C H D and to prescribe more appro priate treatm ent.
Introduction Coronary heart disease (CH D ) is a multifac torial disease. Many risk factors have been identified in the p ast.1,2,3 These are listed in table I. R ecent years have witnessed a signifi cant im provem ent in our understanding of these traditional risk factors. Additionally, a new generation o f biochem ical markers for C H D risk has been categorized. These devel opm ents have led to b e tte r assessm ent of patient risk and m ore accurate treatm ent for patients. This paper will endeavor to provide up-to-date information relating to traditional and newly-classified biochemical markers. C h olesterol
and
L ip o p r o t e i n s
Hypercholesterolem ia is a well-established risk factor for C H D .4 It has been suggested,
* Send reprint requests to: Lily L. Wu, Ph.D., ARUP Laboratories, 500 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108.
however, that any complete risk assessment of C H D should include other related m easure ments: triglycerides, high density lipoprotein (H D L) and the ratio of total cholesterol over H D L , particularly for individuals w ith low total cholesterol.4 Cholesterol and lipoprotein levels recom m ended for adults and children by the National Cholesterol Education Program (N CEP) are shown in tables II and III. L o w - D e n s it y L i p o p r o t e i n ( L D L )
Clinical studies have indicated that individu als w ith elev ated low -density lip o p ro te in (LDL) are at greater risk for CHD . M ost myo cardial infarctions (MI) occur in patients with 40 to 50 percent stenosis, rather than advanced occlusion. Studies have disclosed the im por tance o f stabilizing rupture-prone atheroscle rotic plaques. Recent clinical trials have dem o n strated th a t aggressively low ering L D L cholesterol (LDL-C) could stabilize, reduce or even reverse the progression o f atherosclerotic
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w u
Low
TABLE I Major Conventional Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors M ajor Risk Factor Age
Description Male > 45 yr. Female > 55 yr., or postmenopause without estrogen replacement
Family history of ECHD
Ml in male 1° relatives at age >55 Ml in fem ale 1° relatives at age > 65
Hypertension
Blood pressure > 140/90 mmHg or on antihypertensive medication
Low HDL < 35 mg/dl Diabetes mellitus Cigarette smoking High HDL
> 60 mg/dl (subtract one risk factor)
H i g h - D e n s i t y L i p o p r o t e i n ( H D L ) 8 ,9 ,1 0
T he prim e purpose o f high-density lipo protein (H D L) is to mobilize cholesterol from th e perip h ery and deliver to the liver for removal from blood circulation by catabolic mechanism. H D L concentration, therefore, is inversely correlated with risk for C H D .11,12 H D L can also protect L D L from oxidation damage. Each 1 percent increase in H D L cho lesterol has been associated with a 2 to 4 per cent decrease in C H D risk. H D L concentra tio n > 6 0 m g /d L ca n b e c o n s id e r e d a protective factor for C H D . Low H D L often is evidence of high levels o f other atherogenic lipoproteins and frequently accompanies other risk factors, such as insulin resistance, diabetes and elevated high blood pressure. This m ulti plicity of relationships may explain why low levels of H D L would predict C H D and would u n d e rs c o re th e im p o rta n c e o f m e a s u r ing HD L. H ig h T r ig ly c e r id e
ECHD = Early coronary disease. Ml = Myocardial infraction.
(TG) a n d
L ip o p ro te in R e m n a n ts
plaques.6 Lowering LD L-C is also considered effective in diminishing th e risk o f C H D m or bidity and mortality.7 Table IV outlines criteria and goals for treatm ent recom m ended for low ering LDL.
M ultiple analyses o f epidemiological data often disclosed that elevated triglyceride (TG) concentrations are not an independent risk factor for C H D . However, recent studies have suggested an independent association betw een TG and C H D .13’14,15,16 It is well known that triglyceride increases as H D L decreases. It is
TABLE II Lipid Abnormalities
Desirable
Borderline
High Risk
High Risk for Pancreatitis
Cholesterol
240
L D L -C
< 130
1 3 0 -1 5 9
>160
-
H D L -C Triglyceride TC/HDL»
>60 6.0
-
2 0 0 -4 0 0 5.0 - 6 . 0
-
> 1000 —
All in mg/dL except the TC /D H L. aNot yet recommended by ATP 1993, but it does provide substantial information about C H D .
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R E V IE W O F RISK F A C T O R S F O R CA RD IO V A SC U LA R D ISE A S E S
TABLE III
L ip o p r o t e i n S u b c l a s s e s
National Cholesterol Education Program Classification for Children and Adolescents L D L -C (mg/DL) (mmoL/L) Desirable Borderline High risk
TC
200
now considered im portant clinically if high tri glyceride concentrations are detected during the fasting state. Elevated TG is associated with over-production of very low-density lipo protein (VLDL), im paired chylomicron and V LD L catabolism . T he im proper catabolic products o f chylomicron and VLDL—the socalled rem nants— are very atherogenic. They tend to bind to arterial endothelium and to the deendothelialized areas, w here locally present lip opro tein lipase will in itiate triglyceride hydrolysis and reduce the size of adhering par ticles. These then are allowed to en ter the deeper structures of the arterial wall, resulting in atherosclerosis. Increased serum triglycer ides can also effect changes in the size and com position o f H D L and L D L particles. Elevated serum triglyceride levels are strongly associated with small dense, and more athero genic, L D L particles. TABLE IV National Cholesterol Education Program Low -Density-Lipoprotein Cholesterol Decision Values (mg/dL)
Patient’s Condition
Therapy D iet Drug
Ideal G oal
(C H D Risk factor3) < 2 risk factors
>160
> 190
2 risk factors
>130
> 160
100
> 130
apo E3/3 > apo E3/2. The response to drug treatm ent in the apo E phenotype is significantly different. Patients carrying E 4 have a lower response than those with the apo E2 phenotype.31 The composition of lipoprotein particles is influenced by the apo E phenotype. Apo E4 individuals are m ost likely to have smaller dense atherogenic L D L particles and are at greater risk for C H D . Apo E2 has a protective effect on C H D and is associated with longevity. Apo E2/2 is useful for confirming type III hyperlipidem ia (familial dysbetalipoproteinem ia).32 Type III hyperlipidemia is character ized by elevated plasma cholesterol and tri g ly cerid e levels an d by th e p re se n c e o f significant amounts of abnormal chylomicron and V LD L rem nants, which are collectively known as (3-VLDL. 3 -VLDL can be up-taken into peritoneal macrophages or smooth muscle through receptors. These P-VLDL receptors are not down-regulated by intracellular choles terol concentration. Thus, the massive choles terol accumulation can lead to foam cell for m ation and eventually to atherosclerosis. Apo E2 has a m uch lower affinity for receptors than is the case in E 3 or E4. Consequendy, individuals who are homozygous for the E2 allele (phenotype E2/2) are prone to a buildup of lipoprotein rem nant particles in their blood circulation. About 5 percent of E2 homozy gotes will evidence large quantities of rem nant particles as a result of the presence of an addi tional lipid-increasing factor w hich causes
R E V IE W O F RISK FA CT O RS F O R C A R D IO V A SC U LA R D ISE A S E S
elevated lipoprotein-exceeded apo E2/2 han dling ability. These factors can be excessive dietary cholesterol and/or fat intake, obesity, d iab etes or a g en e tic tra it such as L D L receptor m utation in familial hypercholesterolnem ia, th e re b y b rin g in g a b o u t type III hyperlipidemia. Diagnosis o f type III hyperli poproteinem ia is im portant. It is associated with accelerated atherosclerosis of both the c o ro n ary an d p e rip h e ra l a rte rie s , w hich responds extremely well to dietary and fibrateclass drag therapy.33 H o m o c y s t e in e
Hom ocysteine (Hey) is a thiol-containing amino acid. In plasma, 70 to 80 percent of Hey is present in protein-bound form, primarily bound to albumin. T he rem ainder exists as dimers of homocysteine (homocystine), mixed disulfides and only trace am ount as free thiol (homocysteine). Currently, all forms are col lectively called to tal plasm a hom ocysteine (tHcy). M ore than a dozen enzymes and cofac tors have a role in the complex processes to m aintain th e hom eostasis o f hom ocysteine. D eficien cy o r d y sfu n ctio n o f any o f th e enzymes or cofactors (such as vitamins B6 or B12 or folate) involved in the Hey metabolism may raise levels o f homocysteine in the blood circulation. Elevated homocysteine is an inde p en d en t risk factor for atherosclerosis and thrombosis.34,35,36 Elevated tH cy also acts synergistically with other risk factors, such as high LDL-C, Lp(a) and fibrinogen. Extrem ely high levels o f tH cy may be attributed to a major gene effect. Plasma tH cy levels are also influ enced by polygenic and environm ental factors. tH cy levels are im pacted by age, by a history of smoking and by many drugs. These factors are listed in table V. Homocysteinuria is a rare form o f inborn errors of metabolism (1:200,000 to 500,000). The most com m on form results from defi ciency of cysthionine-p-synthase. O thers may involve m ethylenetetrahydrofolate reductase or methyltransferase. T he major gene defect causes the enzyme to lose m ore than 90 p e r cent o f its activity. Hom ocysteinuria is charac-
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TABLE V Factors Causing Elevated Plasma Homocysteine Enzyme defects-genetic factors Cystathionine p synthase 5 , 1 0-M ethylene tetrahydrofolate reductase Methionine synthase Cobalamin (B 12) metabolism disorder Vitamin deficiencies B 12, B 6 and folate Diseases Renal and liver failure Acute lymphoblastic leukemia Drugs Methotrexate, nitrous oxide, metformin, phenytoin antagonists, anticonvulsants, 6-azaurdine Age and gender
terized by extrem e elevation of plasma hom o cysteine (50 to 500 |xmol/L). Patients with homocysteinuria are at high risk at an early age for pulm onary embolism, stroke, myocardial infarction, arterial occlusion or venous throm boembolism. Thirty percent of homocystein uria individuals experience a throm boem bolic event by age 30, and their mortality rate is 20 percent before age 20. M oderately elevated plasma Hey is present in 5 to 7 percent of the general population and 20 to 40 p erce n t of cardiovascular disease patients. Recent clinical studies indicate that m oderately elevated plasma Hey (15 to 50 (xmol/L) is an independent predictor for ath erosclerosis and thromboembolism. It is linked w ith cerebral, peripheral and cardiovascular diseases. Patients with homocysteinemia are also at risk for deep vein thrombosis and p re m ature occlusive vascular disease. Individuals w ith homocysteinemia and coagulating factor defects such as Factor-V (Leiden) m utation may experience thrombosis at a very young age. Nygard recently dem onstrated a strong, graded connection betw een the plasma Hey level and overall mortality in patients diag nosed with angiographically-confirmed C H D .
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wu TABLE VI Normal Reference Range for Plasma Homocysteine (Fasting)
Age Group
N ew born
Adole scents
Adult M ale
Adult Fem ale
Elderly
Centena~ riants
1 5 -2 0
2 5 -2 7
Plasma Hey (|o.M)
3 -6
5 -8
6 -1 5
3 -1 2
Hey = Homocysteine.
In this group, the four-year mortality was 3.8 percent, versus 24 percent if their plasma Hey level had been