Idea Transcript
Do you want to learn how to build your own robot? This is easy and quite cheap to do! The tutorial below will instruct you on how to build a BeetleBot, which moves very similarly to a Roomba. This is a great introductory robotics project for almost any age or experience level. Things You'll Need
2 small motors (these can be found in some toys and in electric toothbrushes) 2 SPDT or 3-way switches 1 AA battery holder (with space for 2 batteries) 1 piece of metal (roughly 1”x3”, aluminum works well) 2 spade connectors Heat-shrink tubing 1 small bead A handful of paper clips Two "servo" motors Steps
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1 Fit the heat-shrink tubing to the wheel on the original motor. Cut a piece of the tubing just a little longer than each wheel, fit it onto the wheel and shrink it using a lighter or the soldering iron. You may wish to put a few layers in increasing diameters to really build up the “tires”.
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2 Glue the switches to the backside of the battery holder. Glue the switches to the back end of the battery holder on the flat side. This should be the end which the wires come out of. Place them at an angle in the corners, such that the contacts farthest from where the lever-looking metal bar goes into the device are touching at the center line of the device. The levers, which are the switches themselves, should be at the outside, near the wires.
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3 Place the metal strip. Place the 1”x3” strip of aluminum just behind the switches, center it, and then bend the excess down at a 45° angle. Glue it in place with hot glue. Let it set completely before moving on.
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4 Attach the motors to the metal wings. Using hot glue, attach the motors to the bent down sections of metal such that the “tires” are touching the ground. You will want to pay attention to the charge markings on the motors, as the tires will need to go in opposite directions. Make sure that one motor is placed “upside down,” as compared to the other.
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5 Form the back wheel. You will need a back wheel so that the robot doesn’t drag. Take a large paperclip and form it into the outline of a TARDIS or a house, with a medium-sized round bead at the peak. Place it at the opposite end from the protruding wires and hot glue the ends of the clip to the sides of the battery holder.
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6 Solder the robot. You will need to use a soldering iron and solder to connect all of the electrical wires between the components of the robot. This must be done carefully in order to ensure that it works. There are several connections you will have to make: First, solder the connection of the two switches. Next, solder a small wire between the two center connections on the switches. Solder two wires, one from the negative motor and one from the positive motor, to the final connection on the switch. Solder a longer wire between the remaining connections on the motors (connecting the motors to each other). Solder a longer wire between one of the back connections between the motor and the back section of the battery holder where the positive and negative charges meet. Take the positive wire from the battery holder and solder it to the center, touching connections on the switches. The negative wire from the battery holder will go to the center connection on one of the switches.
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7 Create the feelers for the robot. Cut the rubber/plastic ends off of the spade connectors, open up two paper clips (until they form a shape like a bug’s feelers), and attach the spade connectors to the feelers with more heat-shrink tubing.
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8 Attach the feelers to the switches and the servo motor. Attach the feelers to the switches using the spade connectors and glue (if you need it, they should clip or slip on just fine) then connect the servo motor directly to the center back of the battery holder.
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9 Turn it on by putting in batteries. (If you want to you can program a remote from a remote controlled car and turn it on that way). The robot should move in much the same way a roomba does. It just won’t clean your floor. Unless your that good. Congratulations! You've made your robot. Make sure to teach your little guy the Three Laws of Robotics.
Source
It’s widely held that computer programming is the new literacy. (Disagreement can be found, even among computing professionals, but it’s not nearly as common.) It’s an effective analogy. We all agree that everyone should be literate, and we might see a natural association between writing letters for people to read and writing programs for computers to carry out. We also find a historical parallel to the pre-Gutenberg days, when written communication was the purview mainly of the aristocracy and professional scribes. Computation is an enormously valuable resource, and we’re only beginning to explore the implications of its being inexpensively and almost universally available. But is programming-as-literacy an appropriate analogy? We tend to think that basic literacy is achieved by someone who can say, “Yes, I can read and write.” Let’s see what this means in the context of programming. Historically, programming has been a matter of writing down instructions for a computer to follow, a style now called imperative programming. This is trickier than giving instructions to a human being, though. You’re a human being, which means you know what others are capable of doing and what they will understand. For example, if you were writing down instructions as part of a recipe, you might say, “Place two cups of frozen peas in the microwave for six minutes.” You don’t bother to add that the microwave should be on for those six minutes, that the peas should be in a container, or that “cups” means the English measuring units rather than, say, two coffee mugs. The capabilities of a computer are less obvious, though, which makes instructions harder to write. Worse, they don’t “understand” anything at all, at least in the same sense that people do. In 1998, for example, the Mars Climate Orbiter was lost, because one programming team used English units, and another team used metric units. A reasonable person given a set of instructions for maneuvering through space might wonder, “Are we all clear on what we’re talking about?” A computer would need to be given instructions to do the same.
Other approaches to programming have emerged over the years, and they involve something different from writing instructions. In some environments programming has the flavor of creating a rulebook, as you might do for a new board game. Your rules aren’t directly concerned with the details of specific games: “If Jane rolls a four with her dice and moves her piece to a red square, then…” Instead, your rules govern the flow of a game — any game — at a more abstract level. “If a player lands on a red square, then…” You develop comparable rules when you write a spreadsheet macro. Your macro (a tiny program in itself) isn’t concerned with specific numbers, but more generally with the mathematical relationships between cells that contain those numbers. “The number in this cell is the sum of the numbers in these other cells.” Ideally, your program will work on cells that contain any numbers at all; it depends on the structure of a given spreadsheet rather than its specific contents. Thinking about how to express these rules, or constraints, is part of constraint-based programming. Yet other kinds of programming are like writing out appropriate responses for workers in a customer service department. Such-and-such a request from a customer should be handled with this procedure; business rules behind the scenes govern what’s possible and what’s not. Programming a graphical user interface means thinking along similar lines. The application waits for a button press or a menu selection, runs the relevant procedure, and then responds. This is event-driven programming, in which each event triggers its own small program to do the right thing. Does all this sound like literacy? I’d argue yes, that these are no less forms of literacy than being able to write a business plan, a compelling legal brief, or perhaps an evocative concrete poem. In these more familiar examples of writing, literate people are expressing themselves with knowledge of a set of underlying concepts, conventions, and goals. But we wouldn’t expect hundreds of thousands of people in any given year to try to become businesspeople, lawyers, or poets in their spare time. What makes programming special? One answer comes from Alan Turing, the father of computer science. In 1950, he wrote: This special property of digital computers, that they can mimic any discrete state machine, is described by saying that they are universal machines. The existence of machines with this property has the important consequence that, considerations of speed apart, it is unnecessary to design various new machines to do various computing processes. They can all be done with one digital computer, suitably programmed for each case. It will be seen that as a consequence of this all digital computers are in a sense equivalent. It seems obvious that our everyday world can’t be shoehorned into a perspective that’s all about business or legal briefs or even poetry. But a computational perspective? The universality of computers makes the idea more promising. Konrad Zuse, a German computing pioneer, speculated in 1967 that all of physical existence might be interpreted in terms of computation, and this possibility has seen growing attention in the years since. Even if we can’t reprogram the basic principles of the universe, it’s a fascinating thought that the principles might be computational. That seems worth understanding, and learning how to program is one way to start. If this isn’t compelling enough, we can be more practical. A few years ago, for example, I was curious whether the Democratic and Republican candidates for President used different words in their debate. I could have spent a few minutes looking for a text analysis application online and figuring how to use it, but instead I spent the time writing a small program of my own that counted unique words, ignoring the non-meaningful ones, and compared the results. This was easy, partly because I know how to program, but probably more because I’ve learned a useful set of concepts, strategies, and skills for solving computational problems. A side benefit of learning to program. The results my program generated were nothing unexpected, but after I was finished I felt a small, familiar sense of accomplishment. I’d built something new, by myself, rather than depending on what others had given me. Literacy, even programming literacy, can be its own reward. Robert St. Amant is an Associate Professor of Computer Science at North Carolina State University, and is the author of Computing for Ordinary Mortals, out this December from Oxford University Press.
Source : http://blog.oup.com/2012/09/computer-programming-is-the-new-literacy/
The computing power in the few micro processors that are now in a Ford Motor Car is much more than all the computing power that was put in the space vehicle that landed the first men on the moon and brought them back. In today's do-more-with-less business environment, with increasing demands from customers, shareholders, and regulators, the IT organization is not only asked to work harder and smarter, but is being asked to take on the role of assuring the business. Humanity has progressed from agricultural revolution to the industrial revolution and is now moving to an information revolution. It is this awesome computing power at continuously falling prices and the computers being networked over global telecom highways that is leading to the use of Information Technology in every sector of human activity be it communication, banking, trading, learning and teaching, entertainment, socializing, government, management and librarying. Just as machines have extended man's mechanical power and his convenience and comfort, Information Technology as commonly picturized by computers, is extending man's mind or brain or intellectual power. The term information technology has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology, and the term is more recognizable than ever before. Objective: Looking at the present scenario, one can easily predict the dominance of Information Technology in daily life. Despite of hectic schedules and lots of burdens, IT always wins in the long run. Globalization and Liberalization has expanded their wings in the world and even beyond that in terms of bringing the global space on to a common platform. Ranging from magnificent infrastructures to wearable transmitters, IT manages it all. On the contrary, there are negation points of the same for different cases. A brief research has been portrayed in this article. Thoughts: Just as chemical or metallurgical or electrical technologies enable the processing of raw materials into usable goods, to satisfy man's and societies' needs so does information technology (IT) help the storage, processing, transmission and exploitation of information to satisfy a person's, company's, society's or government's needs for information. The invention of printing was the first big breakthrough in Information Technology. It enabled literacy and education to go up from 10% to over 80% within 50 years by making available vast amount of reading material. That reading also led to the Reformation in Europe. Other break-through for Information Technology were the inventions like telegraphy, telephony, wireless or radio, television, broadcasting, computers (from room size to desk top to lap top to palm top and very soon, wearable ones.) There had been breath-taking inventions in electronics and photonics, micro-miniaturization, super and megascale integration; optical fiber and communication satellite transmissions, electronification and digitization of all information, storage and display devices and the transport of electronified information on worldwide telecommunication networks, increasingly under the control of the sender and the receiver. Information covers voice as in telephony, text as in fax, images as in video and data as between computers. The limitation for transmission and reception of information only from instruments connected to wires and therefore only from particular places, has been dramatically overcome by earth-based cellular mobile, radio telecoms and now by satellite based globe wide mobile systems like the Iridium. Information Technology devices like microprocessors are becoming mass appliances from pace makers for the heart, hearing aids, and efficiency enhancers in automobile engines and devices to steer space vehicles on the moon. Technology is an enabler for more effectively managing the business, but does not solve the problem unless it is tied directly to business and governance objectives. There is an urgent need for IT in underdeveloped areas where access to even the smallest bits of knowledge can have far-reaching, long term effects. The use of technology has a great many effects; these may be separated into intended effects and unintended effects. The implementation of technology influences the values of a society by changing expectations and realities. Technology, throughout history, has allowed people to complete more tasks in less time and with less energy. However, work has continued to be proportional to the amount of energy expended, rather than the quantitative amount of information or material processed. In countries like India, which undertook government-centered development since Independence, government has become obstreperous, taking in the largest fraction of the GDP as taxes and the largest amount of their savings as loans. Government is not confined to its primary role of defense, internal security, justice, primary education, primary health, irrigation and roads, but it encompasses production, industries, services and businesses. It is commonly known that most of government's money is spent very inefficiently and much of it, on the salaries and establishment of the Government servants them selves and yet every service is inefficient. And the delays and the non-transparency and controls breed corruption. Talking about IT, Information technology (IT), as defined by the IATA, is, "The study, the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware." IT deals with the use of electronic computer and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and securely retrieve information. Technology has had profound effects on lifestyle throughout human history, and as the rate of progress increases, society must deal with both the good and bad implications. Technology often enables organizational and bureaucratic group structures that otherwise and heretofore were simply not possible. Technology enables greater knowledge of international issues, values, and cultures. Due mostly to mass transportation and mass media, the world seems to be a much smaller place. The effects of technology on the environment are both obvious and subtle. The more obvious effects include the depletion of nonrenewable natural resources (such as petroleum, coal, ores), and the added pollution of air, water, and land. The more subtle effects include debates over long-term effects (e.g., global warming, deforestation, natural habitat destruction, coastal wetland loss.) Each wave of technology creates a set of waste previously unknown by humans. Humanity at the moment may be compared to a colony of bacteria in a Petri dish with a constant food supply: with no way to remove the wastes of their metabolism, the bacteria eventually poison themselves. Today, the term information technology has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology and the term is more recognizable than ever before. The information technology umbrella can be quite large, covering many fields. IT performs a variety of duties that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking and engineering. When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology, or "InfoTech". Information Technology (IT) is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information. There are mixed consequences of IT on environment. As previously discussed, each wave of technology creates a set of waste previously unknown by humans. Talking of life, about fifty years, back the line, no one was familiar with what is called Cyber Waste, but we are now. So, the point is, despite of higher achievements, there are major drawbacks that IT has failed to rectify during course of its evolution. Most modern technological processes produce unwanted byproducts in addition to the desired products, which are known as industrial waste and pollution. While most material waste is re-used in the industrial process, many forms are released into the environment, with negative environmental side effects, such as pollution and lack of sustainability. Different social and political systems establish different balances between the value they place on additional goods versus the disvalues of waste products and pollution. Some technologies are designed specifically with the environment in mind, but most are designed first for economic or ergonomic effects. Historically, the value of a clean environment and more efficient productive processes has been the result of an increase in the wealth of society, because once people are able to provide for their basic needs, they are able to focus on less-tangible goods such as clean air and water. The effects of technology on the environment are both obvious and subtle. The more obvious effects include the depletion of nonrenewable natural resources (such as petroleum, coal, ores), and the added pollution of air, water, and land. The more subtle effects include debates over long-term effects (e.g., global warming, deforestation, natural habitat destruction, coastal wetland loss). Each wave of technology creates a set of waste previously unknown by humans: Toxic waste, radioactive waste, Electronic waste. One of the main problems is the lack of an effective way to remove these pollutants on a large scale expediently. In nature, organisms "recycle" the wastes of other organisms, for example, plants produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, and oxygen-breathing organisms use oxygen to metabolize food, producing carbon dioxide as a by-product, which plants use in a process to make sugar, with oxygen as a waste in the first place. No such mechanism exists for the removal of technological wastes. Impacts of Technology Technology, throughout history, has allowed people to complete more tasks in less time and with less energy. Many herald this as a way of making life easier. However, work has continued to be proportional to the amount of energy expended, rather than the quantitative amount of information or material processed. Technology has had profound effects on lifestyle throughout human history, and as the rate of progress increases, society must deal with both the good and bad implications. In many ways, technology simplifies life: The rise of a leisure class A more informed society can make quicker responses to events and trends Sets the stage for more complex learning tasks Increases multi-tasking (although this may not be simplifying) Global networking Creates denser social circles Cheap price
In other ways, technology complicates life:
Pollution is a serious problem in a technologically advanced society. The increase in transportation technology has brought congestion in some areas. Techniques New forms of danger existing as a consequence of new forms of technology, such as the first generation of nuclear reactors. New forms of entertainment, such as video games and internet access could have possible social effects on areas such as academic performance. Increases probability of diseases and disorders, such as obesity. Social separation of singular human interaction. Technology has increased the need to talk to more people faster.
Conclusion
Concluding from the aspects stated above, the only line which comes to mind is "In one line of thought, technology develops autonomously, in other words, technology seems to feed on itself, moving forward with a force irresistible by humans. Information is knowledge and knowledge is power. Knowledge plus experience is wisdom and it is the wise use of information that gives advantage to those who have information."
BAB I PENDAHULUAN A. Latar belakang Pancasila adalah ideologi dasar bagi negara Indonesia. Nama ini terdiri dari dua kata dari bahasa Sanskerta yaitu pañca berarti lima dan śīla berarti prinsip atau asas. Pancasila merupakan rumusan dan pedoman kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia.
Lima sendi utama penyusun Pancasila adalah Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa, kemanusiaan yang adil dan beradab, persatuan Indonesia, kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmat kebijaksanaan dalam permusyawaratan/perwakilan, dan keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia, dan tercantum pada paragraf ke-4 Preambule (Pembukaan) Undang-undang Dasar 1945.
Beberapa prinsip dasar sistem pemerintahan Indonesia yang terdapat dalam UUD 1945 adalah bahwa Indonesia ialah negara yang berdasarkan atas hukum (Rechtstaat), sistem konstitusi, kekuasaan negara yang tertinggi di tangan MPR, Presiden adalah penyelenggara pemerintah negara yang tertinggi dibawah Majelis, Presiden tidak bertanggungjawab kepada DPR, Menteri negara ialah pembantu Presiden, menteri negara tidak bertanggungjawab kepada DPR, dan kekuasaan kepala negara tidak tak terbatas.
B. Rumusan masalah 1. Bagaimana prinsip dasar sistem pemerintahan Indonesia yang terdapat dalam UUD 1945? 2. Siapa pemegang kekuasaan di Indonesia? 3. Apa Perbandingan SPNI(Sistem Pemerintahan Negara Indonesia) berdasarkan UUD 1945 sebelum dan sesudah Amandemen?
BAB II PEMBAHASAN Prinsip Dasar Pemerintahan RI Beberapa prinsip dasar sistem pemerintahan Indonesia yang terdapat dalam UUD 1945, adalah: · Negara yang berdasar atas hukum (rechtstaat) · Sistem Konstitusi · Kekuasaan negara tertinggi di tangan MPR · Presiden adalah penyelenggara pemerintah negara dibawah Majelis · Presiden tidak bertanggungjawab kepada DPR · Menteri negara adalah pembantu Presiden · Menteri negara tidak bertanggungjawab kepada DPR · Kekuasaan kepala negara tidak tak terbatas
Berdasarkan ketentuan-ketentuan dalam UUD 1945, pemegang kekuasaan di Indonesia : 1. Kekuasaan eksekutif, dipegang oleh Presiden 2. Kekuasaan legislatif, dipegang oleh Presiden dengan persetujuan DPR 3. Kekuasaan yudikatif, dipegang oleh Mahkamah Agung dan Badan-badan Peradilan lainnya
Dalam kekuasaan legislatif, Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat menyerahkan pelaksanaannya kepada Presiden dan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat yang, bahwa kedua lembaga ini dalam membuat Undang-undang harus bekerja sama. Kekuasaan legislatif ini diberikan berdasarkan prinsip opdracht van bevoegheid, dan ini membawa konsekuensi logis bahwa harus ada pertanggungan jawab dari badan legislatif kepada Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat sebagai Mandataris adalah bahwa Presiden dapat dipecat sebelum masa jabatannya habis.
1. Tahun 1945 ± 1949 Terjadi penyimpangan dari ketentuan UUD 1945 antara lain: a) Berubah fungsi komite nasional Indonesia pusat dari pembantu presiden menjadi badan yangdiserahi kekuasaan legislatif dan ikut menetapkan GBHN yang merupakan wewenang MPR. b) Terjadinya perubahan sistem kabinet presidensial menjadi kabinet parlementer berdasarkan usul BP ± KNIP.
2. Tahun 1949 ± 1950 Didasarkan pada konstitusi RIS. Pemerintahan yang diterapkan saat itu adalah sistem parlementer kabinet semu (Quasy Parlementary). Sistem Pemerintahan yang dianut pada masa konstitusi RIS bukan kabinet parlementer murni karena dalam sistem parlementer murni, parlemen mempunyai kedudukan yang sangat menentukan terhadap kekuasaan pemerintah.
3. Tahun 1950 ± 1959 Landasannya adalah UUD 1950 pengganti konstitusi RIS 1949. Sistem Pemerintahan yang dianut adalah parlementer kabinet dengan demokrasi liberal yang masih bersifat semu. Ciri-ciri: a) presiden dan wakil presiden tidak dapat diganggu gugat. b) Menteri bertanggungjawab atas kebijakan pemerintahan. c) Presiden berhak membubarkan DPR. d) Perdana Menteri diangkat oleh Presiden.
4. Tahun 1959 ± 1966 (Demokrasi Terpimpin) Presiden mempunyai kekuasaan mutlak dan dijadikannya alat untuk melenyapkan kekuasaan-kekuasaan yang menghalanginya sehingga nasib parpol ditentukan oleh presiden (10 parpol yang diakui). Tidak ada kebebasan mengeluarkan pendapat.
5. Tahun 1966 ± 1998 Orde baru pimpinan Soeharto lahir dengan tekad untuk melakukan koreksi terpimpin pada era orde lama. Namun lama kelamaan banyak terjadi penyimpangan-penyimpangan. Soeharto mundur pada 21 Mei 1998.
6. Tahun 1998 ± Sekarang (Reformasi) Pelaksanaan demokrasi pancasila pada era reformasi telah banyak memberikan ruang gerak pada parpol maupun DPR untuk mengawasi pemerintah secara kritis dan dibenarkan untuk unjuk rasa
Perbandingan SPNI berdasarkan UUD 1945 sebelum dan sesudah amandemen:
1. Sistem Pemerintahan menurut UUD 1945 sebelum diamandemen: Pokok-pokok sistem pemerintahan negara Indonesia berdasarkan UUD 1945 sebelum diamandemen tertuang dalam Penjelasan UUD 1945 tentang tujuh kunci pokok sistem pemerintahan negara tersebut sebagai berikut. · Indonesia adalah negara yang berdasarkan atas hukum (rechtstaat). · Sistem Konstitusional. · Kekuasaan negara yang tertinggi di tangan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat. · Presiden adalah penyelenggara pemerintah negara yang tertinggi dibawah Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat. · Presiden tidak bertanggung jawab kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. · Menteri negara ialah pembantu presiden, menteri negara tidak bertanggungjawab kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. · Kekuasaan kepala negara tidak tak terbatas.
Berdasarkan tujuh kunci pokok sistem pemerintahan, sistem pemerintahan Indonesia menurut UUD 1945 menganut sistem pemerintahan presidensial. Sistem pemerintahan ini dijalankan semasa pemerintahan Orde Baru di bawah kepemimpinan Presiden Suharto. Ciri dari sistem pemerintahan masa itu adalah adanya kekuasaan yang amat besar pada lembaga kepresidenan.
Hampir semua kewenangan presiden yang diatur menurut UUD 1945 tersebut dilakukan tanpa melibatkan pertimbangan atau persetujuan DPR sebagai wakil rakyat. Karena itu tidak adanya pengawasan dan tanpa persetujuan DPR, maka kekuasaan presiden sangat besar dan cenderung dapat disalahgunakan.
Mekipun adanya kelemahan, kekuasaan yang besar pada presiden juga ada dampak positifnya yaitu presiden dapat mengendalikan seluruh penyelenggaraan pemerintahan sehingga mampu menciptakan pemerintahan yang kompak dan solid. Sistem pemerintahan lebih stabil, tidak mudah jatuh atau berganti. Konflik dan pertentangan antar pejabat negara dapat dihindari.
Namun, dalam praktik perjalanan sistem pemerintahan di Indonesia ternyata kekuasaan yang besar dalam diri presiden lebih banyak merugikan bangsa dan negara daripada keuntungan yang didapatkanya.
Memasuki masa Reformasi ini, bangsa Indonesia bertekad untuk menciptakan sistem pemerintahan yang demokratis. Untuk itu, perlu disusun pemerintahan yang konstitusional atau pemerintahan yang berdasarkan pada konstitusi. Pemerintah konstitusional bercirikan bahwa konstitusi negara itu berisi : a) Adanya pembatasan kekuasaan pemerintahan atau eksekutif, b) Jaminan atas hak asasi manusia dan hak-hak warga negara.
Berdasarkan hal itu, Reformasi yang harus dilakukan adalah melakukan perubahan atau amandemen atas UUD 1945. dengan mengamandemen UUD 1945 menjadi konstitusi yang bersifat konstitusional, diharapkan dapat terbentuk sistem pemerintahan yang lebih baik dari yang sebelumnya. Amandemen atas UUD 1945 telah dilakukan oleh MPR sebanyak empat kali, yaitu pada tahun 1999, 2000, 2001, dan 2002. berdasarkan UUD 1945 yang telah diamandemen itulah menjadi pedoman bagi sistem pemerintahan Indonesia sekarang ini.
2. Sistem Pemerintahan setelah amandemen (1999 ± 2002) Sekarang ini sistem pemerintahan di Indonesia masih dalam masa transisi.Sebelum diberlakukannya sistem pemerintahan baru berdasarkan UUD 1945 hasil amandemen keempat tahun 2002, sistem pemerintahan Indonesia masih mendasarkan pada UUD 1945 dengan beberapa perubahan seiring dengan adanya transisi menuju sistem pemerintahan yang baru. Sistem pemerintahan baru diharapkan berjalan mulai tahun 2004 setelah dilakukannya Pemilu 2004. Pokok-pokok sistem pemerintahan Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut : · Bentuk negara kesatuan dengan prinsip otonomi daerah yang luas. Wilayah negara terbagi dalam beberapa provinsi. · Bentuk pemerintahan adalah republik, sedangkan sistem pemerintahan presidensial. · Presiden adalah kepala negara dan sekaligus kepala pemerintahan. Presiden dan wakil presiden dipilih dan diangkat oleh MPR untuk masa jabatan lima tahun.Untuk masa jabatan 2004-2009, Presiden dan wakil presiden akan dipilih secara langsung oleh rakyat dalam satu paket. · Kabinet atau menteri diangkat oleh Presiden dan bertanggung jawab kepada Presiden. · Parlemen terdiri atas dua bagian (bikameral), Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) dan Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD). Para anggota dewan merupakan anggota MPR. DPR memiliki kekuasaan legislatif dan kekuasaan mengawasi jalannya pemerintahan. · Kekuasaan yudikatif dijalankan oleh Makamah Agung dan badan peradilan dibawahnya. Sistem pemerintahan ini juga mengambil unsur-unsur dari sistem pemerintahan parlementer dan melakukan pembaharuan untuk menghilangkan kelemahankelemahan yang ada dalam sistem presidensial. Beberapa variasi dari sistem pemerintahan presidensial di Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut : a) Presiden sewaktu-waktu dapat diberhentikan oleh MPR atas usul dari DPR. Jadi,DPR tetap memiliki kekuasaan megawasi presiden meskipun secara tidak langsung. b) Presiden dalam mengangkat penjabat negara perlu pertimbangan atau persetujuan dari DPR. c) Presiden dalam mengeluarkan kebijakan tertentu perlu pertimbangan atau persetujuan dari DPR. d) Parlemen diberi kekuasaan yang lebih besar dalam hal membentuk undang-undang dan hak budget (anggaran) Dengan demikian, ada perubahan-perubahan baru dalam sistem pemerintahan Indonesia . Hal itu diperuntukan dalam memperbaiki sistem presidensial yang lama.Perubahan baru tersebut, antara lain adanya pemilihan secara langsung, sistem bikameral,mekanisme check and balance, dan pemberian kekuasaan yang lebih besar kepada parlemen untuk melakukan pengawasan dan fungsi anggaran.
BAB III Penutup A. Kesimpulan Dari tahun ke tahun sebelum amandemen Sistem Pemerintahan Republik Indonesia selalu berubah yaitu pada tahun : Tahun 1945 ± 1949 Tahun 1949 ± 1950 Tahun 1950 ± 1959 Tahun 1959 ± 1966 Tahun 1966 ± 1998 Tahun 1998
Sistem Pemerintahan setelah amandemen (1999 ± 2002) Sekarang ini sistem pemerintahan di Indonesia masih dalam masa transisi.Sebelum diberlakukannya sistem pemerintahan baru berdasarkan UUD 1945 hasil amandemen keempat tahun 2002, sistem pemerintahan Indonesia masih mendasarkan pada UUD 1945 dengan beberapa perubahan seiring dengan adanya transisi menuju sistem pemerintahan yang baru.
Daftar Pustaka http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancasila http://pratiwinurt.blogspot.com/2013/03/prinsip-dasar-pemerintahandan-sistem.html http://cipruy.wordpress.com/prinsip-dasar-pemerintahan-republikindonesia/ http://cita-lestari.blogspot.com/2011/04/prinsip-dasar-pemerintahanrepublik.html https://www.scribd.com/doc/47393122/Prinsip-Dasar-PemerintahanRepublik-Indonesia