Journal of Indonesian Natural History [PDF]

Journal of

Indonesian Natural History

July 2015 Vol.3 No.1

Journal of Indonesian Natural History Editors Dr. Wilson Novarino

Dr. Carl Traeholt

Associate Professor for Biology Department of Biology Andalas University, Indonesia

Programme Director, Southeast Asia Research and Conservation Division Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark

Email: [email protected]

Email: [email protected]

Editorial board Dr. Ardinis Arbain

Dr. Ramadhanil Pitopang

University of Andalas, Indonesia

Tadulako University, Indonesia

Indra Arinal

Dr. Lilik Budi Prasetyo

National Park Management, Department of Forestry Indonesia

Bogor Institute of Agriculture, Indonesia

Dr. Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz

Dr. Dewi Malia Prawiradilaga

Nottingham University Malaysia Campus, Malaysia

Indonesia Institute of Science, Indonesia

Dr. Mads Frost Bertelsen

Dr. Rizaldi

Research and Conservation Division, Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark

University of Andalas, Indonesia

Dr. Susan Cheyne

Dr. Dewi Imelda Roesma

Oxford University, Wildlife Research Unit, United Kingdom

University of Andalas, Indonesia

Bjorn Dahlen

Dr. Jeffrine Rovie Ryan

Green Harvest Environmental Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia

Wildlife Forensics Lab, Dept. of Wildlife and National Parks, Malaysia

Dr. Niel Furey

Boyd Simpson

Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Research and Conservation Division, Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark

Dr. Benoit Goossens

Robert B. Stuebing

Cardiff University, United Kingdom

Herpetology and Conservation Biology, Indonesia

Dr. Djoko Iskandar

Dr. Sunarto

Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia

Dr. Matthew Linkie

Fauna & Flora International, Singapore

Dr. Erik Meijaard

People and Nature Consulting International, Indonesia

Dr. John Payne Borneo Rhino Alliance, Malaysia

WWF-Indonesia

Dr. Jatna Supriatna University of Indonesia

Dr. Campbell O. Webb The Arnold Aboretum, Harvard University, USA

Dr. Zainal Z. Zainuddin

Borneo Rhino Alliance, Malaysia

The Journal of Indonesian Natural History is published biannually by the Department of Biology at the Andalas University, Padang, Sumatra Barat, Indonesia, in collaboration with Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark. The Department of Biology at Andalas University is dedicated to educating Indonesian biologists in the study and conservation of Indonesia’s biodiversity and natural history. Copenhagen Zoo, through its Research and Conservation Division, supports in-situ conservation in Southeast Asia by assisting local organizations and individuals who undertake research, capacity building and the implementation of conservation programmes and projects.

The Journal of Indonesian Natural History is published by the Department of Biology, Andalas University, Indonesia in collaboration with Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark. It is available for free from www.jinh.net Cover photo: Tall canopy of a pristine tropical rainforest © Carl Traeholt

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© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Editorial

Mapping the conservation value of biodiversity outside protected areas in Indonesia Carl Traeholt1 and Wilson Novarino2 Copenhagen Zoo, Southeast Asia Programme, Malaysia Andalas University, Padang, Sumatra

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Corresponding authors: email: [email protected]

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iodiversity across the Globe has experienced repeated set-backs, with species being declared either locally or globally extinct annually (JuffeBignoli et al., 2014; Pimm et al., 2014; Thomas et al., 2004). This negative trend is particularly caused by widespread habitat loss and subsequent increased habitat fragmentation (Haddad et al., 2015; Margono et al., 2014). Vast landscapes of prime habitat is being divided into ever smaller pieces and the large tracts of intact ecosystems are becoming increasingly rare. The loss of species is a 1000 times faster than “normal background rate” (De Vos et al., 2015). Indonesia has not been immune to this negative development (Margono et al., 2013; Wilcove et al., 2014) (Fig. 1). The enormous tracts of primary rainforest landscapes on the islands of Kalimantan and Sumatra are undergoing fragmentation at an unprecedented rate, and in smaller fragments, biodiversity is exposed to a multitude of detrimental aftermaths caused by “edge

effects” and climate changes (Gibson et al., 2013; Laurance et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2004). When a population of a specific species become too small they become increasingly vulnerable to stochastic variables (Lacy and Pollak, 2014; Trail et al., 2010). Ironically, the total land area gazetted as Protected Area has increased steadily (Juffe-Bignoli et al., 2014; Pfaff et al., 2014; Ritchie et al., 2013). This may seem counter intuitive, however, even if all the reasons for the World’s ongoing biodiversity loss may never be described fully, there is enough scientific evidence to conclude that relying on protected areas alone, will not halt the loss of biodiversity (Juffe-Bignoli et al., 2014; Venter et al., 2014). The need to consider the biodiversity value of landscapes outside a protected areas network is essential to sustaining a meaningful biodiversity conservation in the future. This issue of the Journal of Indonesian Natural History is dedicated to Murung Raya, which stands as an example of an immensely biodiversity rich area that does not form part of Indonesia’s protected areas network. With this issue, we hope to stimulate more focus and dedicated biodiversity work in areas that are not yet afforded any form of protection in Indonesia. Considering the conservation value of such areas, this will contribute enormously to mapping the nation’s biodiversity heritage for future effective and efficient management and protection.

References Figure 1: Annual primary forest cover loss, 2000–2012, for Indonesia as a whole and by island group (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Papua, Sulawesi, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara and Java and Bali). From Margono et al., 2013.

2015 Journal of Indonesian Natural History Vol 3 No 1

De Vos, J.M., Joppa, L.N., Gittleman, J.L., Stephens, P.R. and S.L. Pimms (2015). Estimating the Normal Background Rate of Species Extinction. Conservation Biology 29: 452–462. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12380

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Gibson, L., Lynam, A.J., Bradshaw, C.J.A., Fangliang H., Bickford, D.P, Woodruff, D.P., Bumrungsri, S. and W.F. Laurance (2013). Near-Complete Extinction of Native Small Mammal Fauna 25 Years After Forest Fragmentation. Science 341(6153): 1508-1510. [DOI:10.1126/science.1240495] Haddad, N.M., Brudvig, L.A., Clobert, J., Davies4,, K.F., Gonzalez, A., Holt, R.D., Lovejoy, T.E., Sexton, J.O., Austin, M.P., Collins, C.D., Cook, W.M., Damschen, E.I., Ewers, R.M., Foster, B.L., Jenkins, C.N., King, A.J., Laurance, W.F., Levey, D.J., Margules, C.R., Melbourne, B.A., Nicholls, A.O., Orrock, J.L., Dan-Xia Song and J.R. Townshend (2015). Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Science Advances 1(2): e1500052 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1500052 Juffe-Bignoli, D., Burgess, N.D., Bingham, H., Belle, E.M.S., de Lima, M.G., Deguignet, M., Bertzky, B., Milam, A.N., Martinez-Lopez, J., Lewis, E., Eassom, A., Wicander, S., Geldmann, J., van Soesbergen, A., Arnell, A.P., O’Connor, B., Park, S., Shi, Y.N., Danks, F.S., MacSharry, B., Kingston, N. (2014). Protected Planet Report 2014. UNEP-WCMC: Cambridge, UK. Lacy, R.C. and J.P. Pollak (2014). Vortex: A stochastic simulation of the extinction process. Version 10.0. Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, Illinois, USA. Margono, B.A., Potapov, P.V., Turubanova, S., Stolle. F. and M.C. Hansen (2013). Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000–2012. Nature Climate Change 4: 730–735. doi:10.1038/nclimate2277 Margono, B. A., Bwangoy, J-R. B., Potapov, P. V. and M.C. Hansen (2014). Mapping wetlands in Indonesia using Landsat data sets and derived topographical indices. Geo-spatial Inform. Sci. 17: 60–71. Pfaff, A., Robalino, J., Herrera, D. and C. Sandoval (2015). Protected Areas’ Impacts on Brazilian Amazon Deforestation: Examining Conservation – Development Interactions to Inform Planning. PLoS ONE 10(7): e0129460. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129460

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Ritchie, E.G., Bradshaw, C.J.A., Dickman, C.R., Hobbs, R., Johnson, C.N., Johnston, E.L., Laurance, W.F., Lindenmayer, D., McCarthy, M.A., Nimmo, D.G., Possingham, H.H., Pressey, R.L., Watson, D.M. and J. Woinarski (2013). Continental-Scale Governance and the Hastening of Loss of Australia’s Biodiversity. Conservation Biology 27(6):1133-5. DOI:10.1111/ cobi.12189. Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R.E, Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L.J., Collingham, Y.C., Erasmus, B.F.N., Ferreira de Siqueira, M., Grainger, A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley, B., van Jaarsveld, A.S., Midgley, G.F., Miles, L., Ortega-Huerta, M.A., Peterson, A.T., Phillips, O.L. and S.E. Williams (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427: 145–148. Traill, L.W., Brook, B.W., Frankham, R.F. and C.J.A. Bradshaw (2010). Pragmatic population viability targets in a rapidly changing world. Biological Conservation 143:28-34. Pimm, S.L., Jenkins, C.N., Abell, R., Brooks, T.M., Gittleman, J.L., Joppa, L.N., Raven, P.H., Roberts, C.M. and J.O. Sexton (2014). The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344(6187): DOI:10.1126/science.1246752 Venter, O., Fuller, R.A., Segan, D.B., Carwardine, J., Brooks, T., Butchart, S.H.M., Di Marco, M., Iwamura, T., Joseph, L., O’Grady, D., Possingham, H.P., Rondinini, C., Smith, R.J., Venter, M. and J.E.M. Watson (2014). Targeting Global Protected Area Expansion for Imperiled Biodiversity. PLoS Biology 12(6): e1001891. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001891 Wilcove, D. S., Giam, X., Edwards, D. P., Fisher, B and Koh, L. P (2014). Navjot’s nightmare revisited: Logging, agriculture, and biodiversity in Southeast Asia. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28: 531–540.

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

News and Notes Songbird Crisis Summit, 26-29th September

The Oriental Bird Club in collaboration with Wildlife Reserves Singapore, TRAFFIC, and Cikananga Wildlife Centre will be convening for Asia’s 1st Songbird Crisis Summit. The overarching goal of the Summit is to raise awareness and profile of the songbird trade crisis to enhance conservation and enforcement efforts for threatened species of birds. As a platform to meet this objective the Southeast Asian Songbird Working Group will be formed that will help provide current information and recommendations to BirdLife International to aid in the IUCN Red List status re-assessment of key species for 2016. The event will take place from 26-29th September 2015, at Jurong Bird Park, Singapore. For more information, please visit: http://orientalbirdclub. org/2015/05/07/summit-on-songbird-crisis-in-asia/

The 2nd International Wildlife Symposium, West Sumatra, 3-4th November

Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatra, will be hosting the 2nd International Wildlife Symposium. The objective of the event is to promote communication and collaboration between researchers and practitioners in Sumatra, nationally and internationally as well as foster stronger linkages between wildlife management, people and culture in Sumatra. The event will take place in the Convention Hall at Andalas University. For more information and registration please email to: [email protected], or call Inda (+62 822 8279 3617) or Fauziah (+62 853 6559 7917).

ASEAN illegal wildlife trade

Illegal wildlife trade has been rife in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region for years. Despite repeated pledges from regional governments, very few positive changes have emerged on the ground. With the ever increasing habitat loss to agricultural and urban development, combined with a high demand for wildlife derivatives for medicine and consumption, an increasing number of species are being pushed closer to extinction. Perhaps there is hope that ASEAN nations will finally begin to take sufficient action on the ground to curb illegal poaching and trading, and ensure proper prosecution will befall those, who violate the respective wildlife laws.

2015 Journal of Indonesian Natural History Vol 3 No 1

From 30th March to 1st April, 2015, Malaysia and the United States of America co-hosted the Regional Forum on Combating Wildlife Trafficking in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. The forum focused on enhancing transboundary and regional cooperation to combat poaching and illegal trade in wildlife. Representatives from all ten ASEAN member States attended the forum, along with the CITES Secretariat, INTERPOL and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and all partner agencies of the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC). In addition, representatives from various other agencies, including the Royal Malaysian Customs Department and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as a number of nongovernmental organisations, participated in the forum. Many high level country representatives admitted that it is well recognised that poaching and illegal trade in wildlife have a significant impact on entire species and ecosystems, local communities and their livelihoods, national economies, and national and regional security. While the ASEAN Regional Forum on Combating Wildlife Trafficking enhanced political momentum and buy-in to combating illegal trade in wildlife, it remains to be seen if any of the many pledges will translate into tangible positive changes on the ground.

UN to Push for anti- wildlife trafficking

At the end of July, the 69th session of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly adopted a resolution committing countries to step up their collective efforts to address wildlife crime and put an end to the global poaching crisis. Resolution A/RES/69/314 on Tackling the Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife, supported by more than 80 nations, calls for countries to “adopt effective measures to prevent and counter the serious problem of crimes that have an impact on the environment, such as illicit trafficking in wildlife and wildlife products…as well as poaching.” Whereas Resolution A/RES/69/314 took a big step forwards in clearly recognising illegal killing and trading of wildlife constitutes a serious crime, the Resolution fell short of including what many consider key actions to counter the broader impacts of wildlife crime, including the undermining of good governance, the rule of law and the well-being of local communities. Without addressing these associated negative impacts, it remains uncertain how effective implementation of Resolution A/RES/69/314 will translate into tangible effects on the ground, where the trade is often dominated by well-organised criminal gangs.

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Tiger poachers apprehended in Jambi

In April, 2015, the conservation agency in Jambi, together with the province’s police force, detained two people for allegedly attempting to sell Sumatran tiger skin in Berbak National Park. One of the suspects was a park ranger, and both could face five years in jail or pay Rp 100 million (~$7,739) fine if found guilty of violating law: No 5 1990 on Conservation of Natural Resources and their ecosystem.

Wildlife crimes posted on Facebook

In July 2015, local media reported that the Indonesian Government are fast-tracking a push to revise the conservation law as Indonesians post wildlife crimes to Facebook. The Government has promised to crack down on the growing number of people showing off dead or abused endangered animals on social media. In 2015, there has been a surge in the number of postings on social media involving wildlife crimes. Postings have included individuals posing with illegally killed species, such as the endangered Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), Bornean orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus), proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) and the critically endangered Celebes crested macaque (Macaca nigra). Whereas these and similar postings have been widely condemned in Indonesia, few such crimes are brought to court and even fever translate into prosecution and conviction. The Natural Resources Conservation Agency (BKSDA) faces a monumental challenge in combating wildlife crimes.

New study claims there are only two types of tiger

Whereas the number of wild tigers have declined steadily during the past 25 years, the number of subspecies has grown to the current six accepted species. This number has largely been based on the paper by Luo et al. (2004). Sceptics suggested that the conservation community at large, embraced the number of tiger-subspecies, because a higher number of subspecies offered better fundraising opportunities. After genetic forensics have become increasingly mainstreamed, and forms part and parcel of most conservation initiatives today, the “subspecies inflation” has not always been an advantage to onthe-ground conservation activities. Furthermore, the classification of the number of species and subspecies is inherently dependent on, where a researcher draws

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the speciation time-line. In theory, each individual can be considered “subspecies” if the speciation time-line is set as recently as one generation. It is exactly this dilemma a new paper by Vilting et al. (2015) addresses. The authors have revisited the “tiger subspecies” scenario by analysing variation among all nine putative tiger subspecies, using extensive data sets of several traits, such as morphological (craniodental and pelage), ecological and molecular. Their analyses revealed little variation and large overlaps in each trait among putative subspecies, and molecular data showed extremely low diversity. Their results support recognition of only two subspecies: the Sunda tiger, Panthera tigris sondaica, and the continental tiger, Panthera tigris tigris. In reality, this groups the Sumatran, Javan and Bali tigers in the P.t.sondaica group, and the rest of all tigers in the P.t. tigris group. The publication is based on solid and rigorous analyses of a variety of parameters, yet, it has attracted a huge amount of criticism. Its legacy does not lie in its conclusion, that there are only two tiger subspecies, but because it questions the “established” opinion. It is a welcome contribution to tiger conservation and conservation biology in general, because it forces everyone to rethink conservation approaches. Luo, S.J., J. H. Kim, W. E. Johnson, J. van der Walt, J. Martenson, N. Yuhki, D. G. Miquelle, O. Uphyrkina, J. M. Goodrich, H. Quigley, R. Tilson, G. Brady, P. Martelli, V. Subramaniam, C. McDougal,S.Hean,S.Q.Huang,W. Pan,U.K.Karanth,M.Sunquist,J.L.D.Smith,S.J.O’Brien (2004). Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris). PLOS Biol. 2, e442 (2004). Wilting, A., Courtiol, A., Christiansen, P., Niedballa, J., Scharf, A.K., Orlando, L., Balkenhol, N., Hofer, H., Kramer-Schadt, S., Fickel, J. and A.C. Kitchener (2015). Planning tiger recovery: Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation. Science Advances. 1(5): e1400175

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

The biodiversity of Murung Raya Godwin Limberg1 Daemeter Consulting, Jl. Tangkuban Prahu no. 1, Bogor 16151, Indonesia

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n recent years, a lot of conservation attention has been drawn to the Heart of Borneo and the urgent need for action to ensure the long term survival of this unique area. Geographically, the Murung Raya district is exactly in the centre of Borneo. However, until today, this district remains a little known part of Borneo. Even these days as development is expanding into the more remote interior of Borneo, reaching the area is still difficult. The area may have been historically protected from rapid exploitation and development by its isolation. However, it has also resulted in paucity of information on the biological and cultural richness and significance of this area. Oral history from inhabitants of the area indicate that some caves have possibly been used by various groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers for centuries. So far, no scientific investigation has been conducted to verify this information and enrich our understanding of who those people exactly were and how long their history dates back.

2015 Journal of Indonesian Natural History Vol 3 No 1

Similarly there is limited information on the biological diversity of this area, which is suspected to be high because of the geological variety. One exception has been the Barito Ulu project, a long term research effort that not only confirmed the high biodiversity but also the unique interaction between humans and nature in the area. The Indonesia Science Council has recognised the significance of this area and initiated research to propose the area as a World Heritage Site because of its importance for in situ conservation. Against this background, it is timely that the Indonesian Journal of Natural History dedicates a special issue to Murung Raya. The articles not only augment the scientific body of information and knowledge about the biological diversity of this area, it also describes the interaction between humans and the natural resources they encounter in their surroundings. Finally, it draws attention to an important and delicate issue: local perceptions on development (driven by natural resource based operations) and conservation.

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How nature is used and valued by villagers in two villages in Uut Murung Andrea Hoeing1,2, Andhi Suncoko1,3, Deni1,3,4, Dominic Rowland1, Erisa Murray1,5, Iis Sabahudin1,5, Michal Zrust1,6, Peter Houlihan1,7,8, Kristina Grossmann9,Matthias Waltert2 and Susan M. Cheyne1,10 BRINCC (Barito River Initiative for Nature Conservation and Communities), The Avenue, Hitchin, Herts, UK, SG4 9RJ Georg-August-Universität, Conservation Biology / WG on Endangered Species, Bürgerstrasse 50, Goettingen, Germany 3 Faculty of Human Ecology, Bogor Agricultural University. Indonesia 4 Faculty of Forestry, Kuningan University, West Java, Indonesia 5 Faculty of Social and Political Science, Postgraduate Department of Anthropology, University of Indonesia, Indonesia 6 Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, England NW1 4RY 7 Department of Behavioral Biology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA 8 Department of Biology & Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA 9 Department for Development and Cultural Studies, Southeast Asia, University of Passau, Germany 10 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Oxon, OX13, 5QL, U.K. 1 2

Corresponding author: Andrea Höing, email: [email protected] Abstrak

Masyarakat lokal di bagian hulu Uut Murung hidup dalam lingkungan hutan yang terpencil, dengan sumber daya alam yang sangat kaya, sehingga banyak pihak yang tertarik, baik dari pemerintahan, industri ekstraktif dan pelaku konservasi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memahami ketergantungan masyarakat lokal terhadap sumber daya alam dan perbedaan nilai pemanfaatan. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan melaksanakan ekspedisi selama dua bulan ke dua desa di Uut Murung dengan menggunakan kuisioner, metode perangkingan dan pertanyaan semi terstruktur. Secara umum masyarakat lokal melakukan berbagai aktivitas untuk mempertahankan hidupnya, seperti memancing, berburu, berkebun dan mencari kayu gaharu. Nilai terpenting sumber daya alam menurut responden dari dua desa tersebut adalah sebagai sumber makanan dan air, namun sumber daya juga penting sebagai tempat untuk hidup, cadangan untuk obat-obatan dan cadangan untuk kebutuhan komoditas lainnya. Berbagai spesies satwaliar yang dijumpai digunakan sebagai bahan makanan, komoditas, obat-obatan dan bentuk pemanfaatan lainnya, seperti untuk kebutuhan ritual tradisional. Kami berpendapat bahwa anggota masyarakat pada lokasi penelitian mungkin mempunyai pemahaman yang fleksibel dan untung-untungan. Temuan kami juga mendukung pendapat yang menyatakan bahwa sumber daya bisa saja memiliki lebih dari satu kegunaan, dan bukan itu saja, setiap komunitas berbeda dari komunitas lainnya, begitu juga, di dalam komunitas itu sendiri pemahamannya juga tidaklah sama. Temuan kami menekankan pentingnya pemahaman terhadap ketergantungan masyarakat lokal terhadap sumber daya, serta struktur sosial yang berperan di belakang pemanfaatan sumber daya, untuk kesuksesan inisiatif konservasi dan pembangunan jangka panjang. Abstract Local communities in the upstream part of Uut Murung live in a remote forest environment. Due to its richness of natural resources there has been much interest in the region by various actors, including the government, extractive industry and conservationists. This study aimed at understanding local peoples dependencies on natural resources and the different kind of use values. Therefore, we conducted a two month expedition to two villages in Uut Murung where we conducted questionnaires, ranking methods and semi structured interviews. In general, locals were found to engage in a variety of activities to sustain livelihoods, such as fishing, hunting, gardening and searching for eaglewood. Respondents from both villages valued nature as most important from food and water supply, but also as a place to live, a stock for medicines and a stock for commodities. Animal species were found to serve different purposes for food, commodities, medicine to other purposes, such as traditional rituals. We argue that community members at our study sight might behave opportunistically despite being flexible. Our findings support the idea that a single resource might have more than one purpose; each community differs from each other, but also even within the community itself, is not homogeneous. Our findings stress the importance that locals dependencies on natural resources and social structures behind resource use, need to be understood for the long term success of any conservation or development initiative. Keywords: resource use, livelihoods, Murung Raya, perceptions, conservation

Received 12th June, 2014; revision accepted 1st February, 2015

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© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Nature use by Uut Murung villagers

Introduction Uut Murung covers 726,300 ha, is one of the largest sub-districts in the north-eastern part of Murung Raya, comprising of huge areas of rainforest (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2014). The biodiversity rich Muller-Schwaner mountain range lies in the North West of Murung Raya (WWF, 2012). Apart from being home to a wide variety of plant and animal species, of which many are endemic to Kalimantan, Uut Murung is rich in natural resources. Logging companies had been operating and some of them were still operating in the area in 2014 (BRINCC unpublished data). In the same year, coal mining companies started to explore the area (compare Hoeing et al. 2015 in this issue). In 2014, the conservation of the area became the interest of, not only some local conservation initiatives, FFI (Fauna Flora International) and WWF’s “Heart of Borneo programme”, but also of an international REDD+ programme, mostly aiming at biodiversity conservation as well as on sustaining local peoples livelihoods. Transformation There is an ongoing transformation of ecosystems as well as local peoples livelihoods, among others, due to

the influence of outsiders approaching the area, such as companies and conservationists. The extractive industry might offer different kinds of work and provide better access to the area. They further should provide community development programs, but they are also known for often introducing prostitution, gambling and alcohol (World Rainforest Movement, 2004). The companies activities go alongside with the destruction of the surrounding nature of the communities. The destruction of nature mostly leads to biodiversity loss, which might be important for the subsistence of local people. For various reasons, we found it important to give insight into how local villagers used and depended on nature. Our main reasons include, one, to be able to document social transformation, two, to enable conservationists and companies to get an insight on local peoples current livelihoods, which might lead to a better understanding of local peoples needs and hence, to secure mid- or long-term communities livelihoods. Therefore, this empirical study aimed at getting a better understand basic needs of local communities and their dependency on natural resources. Furthermore, the study tries to understand different meanings a resource might have to local people; for example, fish might be important for food, but can also be a source of cash

Figure 1: Location of study villages in the sub-district Uut Murung (A), and the district of Murung Raya (B), in Indonesia (C).

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Hoeing et al.

income, apart from that, it might be used for traditional ceremonies. We present in more detail, the perceived importance of different resources for different purposes as a complementary part to our biodiversity surveys.

Methods We used a variety of methods to gain a better understanding on how locals perceive and value different resources important to sustaining their livelihoods (compare Sheil et al., 2002). Ethics statement This study was conducted after in depth consultation with the local government, international NGOs operating in the Murung Raya Regency, such as “Fauna and Flora International”, as well as with the local communities themselves. In February 2011, a preexpedition was conducted, aimed at gathering data, as well as on giving local communities the chance to influence research directions. Although BRINCC has its own academic and conservation research priorities, we aimed to incorporate a significant component of community directed research, whereby local people can request research on topics important to them. Therefore, the research plans were adapted accordingly to the request of villagers, to map an area of high social importance and subsequent support to strengthen community management rights through the application for a village forest (hutan desa). Before conducting the research, all national and local research permits were obtained. At the beginning of the data collection in July 2011, further consultations was carried out. In the agreement between villagers and researchers, it was stated that original results from Focus Groups Discussions, e.g. maps, time lines, etc. would be left with the community and no maps would be published without permission. Personal data from interviews were anonymized. Study site/Demographic data The BRINCC research team intended to conduct research in the interior of Kalimantan, Borneo, hence, study sites were selected using the following criteria: a relatively unstudied, rural area, with high forest cover and forest dependency of the communities, but which is subject to land use change, e.g. anthropogenic disturbance, such as logging or mining.

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The villages that were subject to this study belong to the sub-district Uut Murung, situated in the north east corner of the Murung Raya regency. The sub-district Uut Murung comprises a total area of 7,263 km². Uut Murung consists of five villages: Tumbang Olong I, Tumbang Olong II, Kalasin, Tumbang Tujang and Topus (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2009). The villages are located along the upper part of the Murung River (also known as the upper Barito), which is geographically situated in the highlands of the Murung Raya regency in Central Kalimantan. They are surrounded by hilly to mountainous terrain with altitudes ranging between 200m in valleys- 1900m on mountains tops (compare Figure 1). The ethnic groups which are thought to originate from the study area are Siang and Punan Murung. The Punan Murung were formerly known as one of the nomadic hunter and gatherer tribes in Kalimantan, whereas Siang were known for their swidden cultivation (Sellato, 1994). Nowadays, a variety of ethnic groups with origins in Kalimantan, such as the Punan, Bekumpai, Siang, Otdanum, Kahayan and Kapuas, but also some migrants e.g. East Nusa Tenggara were living in the villages (A. Hoeing personal observation). A detailed description of the study area, especially on demographic data, can be found in Hoeing et al. (2015) in this issue.

Survey Methods

A variety of qualitative methods were employed (mostly based on Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)) including, in depth and semi-structured interviews, questionnaires and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Topics covered during FGDs included the identification and detailed descriptions of activities related to natural resource use, seasonal calendars, village histories and participatory land use mapping of the area. Data collection Secondary data, such as demographic of the area, statistical data on resource use of the area, maps of the region, etc. were collected before and after entering the study area. First contact with local villagers A formal introductory meeting with the villagers was conducted by the entire expedition with the team intention to seek permission to carry out the research, as well as to clarify aims, motivation and perspectives of

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Nature use by Uut Murung villagers

the expedition. First, exercises were conducted, such as creating a historical time line of the village. Community members were grouped into main activities important to their livelihood for follow up FGD. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) Focus groups were divided into main activities related to natural resources, such as farming, fishing, collecting eaglewood. Although men made up the majority of FGD participants, extra care was taken to invite women. The different exercises carried out within the focus group meetings were: description of activities, the possible commodities resulting from the activity, equipment which is needed for the activity, traders and other actors involved as well as potential problems. Seasonal calendars for the different activities were created to find out peak seasons and seasons in which the activity cannot be done. Participatory mapping was also conducted in FGDs. Semi-structured and in-depth interviews Semi-structured interviews were carried out with key informants in the village, which included village leaders, teachers, elders and a variety of villagers from different backgrounds e.g. local traders, migrants. Semi-structured interviews were used to get a basic understanding of life in the villages. These interviews were also used to adapt questionnaires to the local context. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted, which were used to gain a deeper understanding on certain topics, especially regarding the use of certain main commodities (e.g. eaglewood and animal parts) and their relation to the local and global market chain. Furthermore, in depth interviews were conducted to triangulate results of the research. Pebble distribution method The pebble distribution method is a ranking method to assess the relative importance of different kinds of activities relating to resource use important to local peoples’ livelihoods e.g.: the importance of different animal species as source of food, "others", commodity or medicine (compare Sheil et al., 2002). 100 pebbles were used by the group of participants. After achieving consensus, they were distributed on different cards representing categories, in this case, animal species. Participants thus valued the different categories with regards to different research questions, e.g. "How

2015 Journal of Indonesian Natural History Vol 3 No 1

important is each animal as a source of food?". If participants placed twice as many pebbles on category “A” than on category “B”, it meant category “A” is twice as important than category “B”. Categories which did not play an important role for the participant, was left empty. After all pebbles were distributed, confirmation that all pebbles were correctly placed by all participants. The group of participants were then asked to explain the reasons for the chosen importance. The facilitator made notes and recorded the discussion. We did compare the full range of categories in our analysis to get a first insight of what species might be important to local people for different purposes. Participants were chosen opportunistically, gatherings of a mixture of mainly young (females and males 40 years) and gender. One additional category was made to include respondents in higher positions, such as the village head, the village representative, the village secretary and the head of the customary rights. Age classes were set after consulting with community members about the age-line between young people and adults as well as adults and elder person. For a more detailed description on the sampling of questionnaires compare Hoeing et al. (2015) in this issue. Questionnaires represented individual opinions. They were tested and adopted before starting the sampling process in the villages. The questionnaires consisted of 32 questions covering several topics, such as: general information on the use of natural resources by community members, commodities, access to markets, attitudes towards nature, conservation, and environmental changes including perceptions on the impact of companies/NGOs and traditional beliefs. The questionnaires contained open, as well as closed, questions. In some questions, the contingent ranking method (crm) was applied; for example, in order to figure out the relative importance of different forest

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resources to people's livelihood. The questionnaires were filled in by A.H., A.S., D. and E.M. after reading out the questionnaires. In case the respondent agreed, we recorded the responses to be able to recheck information. Data Analysis Data from the questionnaires were analysed using Open Office Org. 3.1.1- Calculator and SPSS 17.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows.

Results The most important sources nature offers to locals During the first village meetings, villagers named several activities important to sustain their livelihoods. The activities were similar in both villages and included: upland rice farming; gardening (vegetables, fruits and rubber); hunting; fishing; collecting eaglewood (a fungi infected heartwood from the genus Aquilaria); traditional gold mining; handicrafts, such as wood carving and weaving baskets from rattan; trading, mainly of groceries, animal parts, gemstones and gold. In Kalasin, respondents additionally listed sawn timber production from Meranti (belonging to the genus Shorea) and Ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri), for

local housing and the regional markets. Respondents mentioned that the wood is mainly used for government buildings in Puruk Cahu, or road constructions, such as bridges. From the questionnaires, it is revealed that in general, villagers did not just practice one activity but various activities. Only eight out of 53 respondents stated they only had one occupation/activity (Figure 2); four of them belonged to the category >40 years old. We identified activities not directly related to forest use and resource extraction, because they were mainly based in the village, for example: chicken breeders, shamans, house wives, teacher and government employees, etc. What are the most important sources nature offers to locals? From the questionnaires, we identified the most important sources nature offers to respondents’ livelihoods (Figure 3). Villagers were asked to rank a maximum of five different main sources the forest offers for their daily lives. Results are presented as a percentage of respondents (per village). Results from questionnaires have shown that in both villages, respondents found “food” to be one of the most important sources nature offers, followed by “drinking water”. The category "others" includes statements made by a few respondents, such as oxygen, firewood as well as forest as a protection against land slides. Main

100

92

90 80

68

Respondents [%]

70 60

54

50

75 57 48 36

40 20

14

10 Farmer

Gold searcher

21

28

11

8

Trader

54

32

25

30

0

64

Eaglewood searcher

Crafts

Fishing

others

Hunting

Figure 2: Activities which play an important role for the livelihoods of respondents in Tumbang Tujang (black) and Kalasin (white). The category “others” included activities not directly related to resource extraction or land use, such as chicken breeders (in the village), teaching, government employees and housewives.

12

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Nature use by Uut Murung villagers

100

93

96 88

Importance for [%] respondents

90 80

84 72

71

70

68

60 46

50

44

50 52

40 28

30

21

20

7

10 0 Food

Drinking Water

Medicine

Place to live Commodities Handicrafts Building Material

11 12

Others

Figure 3: Respondents were asked to name the five most important sources which nature plays in their personal lives, Tumbang Tujang (black) and Kalasin (white).

differences in perceptions were found in the categories: “place to live” (63% higher in Kalasin), “stock for medicine” (26% higher in Kalasin), “commodities” (22% higher in Tumbang Tujang) and “material for handicrafts” (21% higher in Kalasin). What kind of animals do locals depend on, for what purpose? To get an overview of what kind of animals are hunted or collected by locals for different purposes, we conducted the PDM. Animals were ranked using four different categories: commodities, food, medicine and “others”. A total of 17 different kinds of animal species/animal groups were named by villagers in Tumbang Tujang and 28 were named in Kalasin. Questionnaires, ranking methods (pebble distribution methods) and focus group discussions showed that different animals are not only important for one purpose, but could be essential for different categories. For example, in Tumbang Tujang the samba deer (Cervus unicolor) was given the highest value of importance to nourishment, but it also played an important role for medicine; the skin is used as a medicine, for women with problems during birth, as well as the antler and meat are important as commodity. Antlers of C. unicolor were further categorized as “others” and are mainly used to decorate the walls of houses, with the belief that they would prevent fires.

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Detailed tables on the ranking of animals for different purposes can be found in Table 1. The pangolin (Manis javanica) was found to be important to the different categories in Kalasin. It was valued to be important for food, commodity (scales, used for jewellery), as medicine against asthmatic sicknesses and as “others”. Main differences between the valuing of the importance of different animals for different purposes between the two villages could be found that in Tumbang Tujang C. unicolor was valued as an important food species, whereas in Kalasin, the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) was valued higher than C. unicolor. Important sources of medicine were big spiders, such as tarantulas (Theraphosidae) and C. unicolor, whereas in Kalasin, M. javanica and sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) were most important. Main commodities were fish and C. unicolor in Tumbang Tujang, whereas in Kalasin M. javanica scales as well as meat from C. unicolor and S. barbatus were most valued as commodities. In Tumbang Tujang as “others”, participants valued the crestless fireback (Lophura erythrophthalma) as most important followed by birds, S. barbatus, fish and C. unicolor. In Kalasin, a favourite animal of participants in the category “others” were birds, that were kept as pets, followed by scales of M. javanica and antlers of C. unicolor. Many of the animals important to local livelihoods are listed in the IUCN Red list of threatened species, such as M.

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Table 1: Results from the ranking method (PDM) on the importance of different animals for different purposes in two villages T.Tujang and Kalasin.

Birds

T.Tujang Kalasin

T.Tujang Kalasin

Medicine

Commodities

11

Fish 11

Frog

10

Pangolin

Food

Others

4

10

4

10

18

7

14

12

10

1

1

8

6

11

4

7

7

Monkeys/ Primates

4

Mouse deer 8

38

Pheasant

6

3

9

9

7

Porcupines

9

Samba deer

12

Snakes

6

Spiders

13

Sun bear Turtles

T.Tujang Kalasin

9

Flying fox Forest Chicken/ Argus pheasant

T.Tujang Kalasin

11 7

10

7

8

6

3

8

7

27

19

7

5

9

5

7

17

9

18

4

10

15

7

8

3

2

4

13

9

17

7

4

1

1

4

14

11

8

5

3

9

7

8

Wild boar

8

9

16

10

Wild cats

3

5

2

2

Banded linsang

4

1

Big gekko

3

Additional animals mentioned in Kalasin

Civets

3

Flying lemur

1

Forest rat

6

Green lizard

6

often, but mentioned after the exercise

Longtailed porcupine

3

3

Monitor lizard

3

Otter civet

3

Deer

5

Snail

11

4

3

Soft shelled turtle

6

4

Squirrel Total

1 100

100

100

javanica, which is listed as endangered, S. barbatus, H. malayanus, C. unicolor, L. erythrophthalma are found to be in the category vulnerable. Animals were mainly hunted in hunting groups as well as individually with the use of spears and dogs. To hunt some animals, rope traps were used. To kill birds, which were found to be an important food species (mentioned in

14

12

100

100

100

100

100

Kalasin) air rifles were mentioned to be used sometimes, as well as traps made from sticky rubber strings which were attached to trees. Fish were usually caught by nets, angles and spears. Illegal techniques for capture were electric fishing and poisoning, which were strictly prohibited by customary and governmental law.

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Nature use by Uut Murung villagers

Table 2: The table presents the use of markets for different products by villagers in Tumbang Tujang. In brackets (*) are trade routes used by middle men in the villages. Numbers represent the amount of responses from questionnaires. The data might not be complete and some trade routes of products might be missed out. Rice Wine

Banjarmasin

Swallow Nest

Muara Teweh

National

1

Honey

Province

1

Birds

Buyer comes to village

1

Wood

Puruk Cahu

District

18

1

Animal Parts

District

5

Meat

T.Olong/ Company

2 (1*)

Handicraft

Middle Man in T.Tujang

Sub-district

2 (1*)

Gemstones

Village

Fish

Other villagers

Vegetable/ Fruits/ Rice

Village

Gold

Market

Eaglewood

Level

1 1

(2*)

3 (4*)

1 1

1

(1*)

Table 3: The table presents the use of markets for different products by villagers in Kalasin. In brackets (*) are trade routes used by middle men in the villages. Numbers represent the amount of responses from questionnaires. The buyers who come to the villages were in the opinion of the respondents mainly from Puruk Cahu.

1

2

5

7

1

1

(2*)

Rice Wine

1

Swallow Nest

4

Honey

1

Birds

9 (1*)

Wood

2

4

Animal Parts

11

Meat

7

11

Handicraft

Middle Man in Kalasin To T.Tujang

17

Gemstones

Village Sub-district

Fish

Other villagers

Vegetable/ Fruits/ Rice

Gold

Village

Market

Eaglewood

Level

1 1

1

Sub-district

T.Olong/ Company

District

Puruk Cahu

District

Buyer comes to village

1

1

Province

Muara Teweh

1

1

National

Banjarmasin

1 (2*)

1

3

1

1

1

5 (1*)

1

1 (1*)

1

3

2 (1*)

3

1

(1*)

Discussion This research found that relatively remote living communities, which were the subject of this study, are still dependent on forest resources to maintain their livelihoods. It is important to understand use values and factors that influence people’s perception on the forest, for example, for policymaking (Meijaard et al., 2013) as well as for projects aimed toward nature conservation or community development. Our data, as it refers to a relatively small sample size, is not representative but gives an insight into resource use and perceptions of nature to inhabitants of the two communities in 2011. In our case study, respondents

2015 Journal of Indonesian Natural History Vol 3 No 1

1

2

1

2 1

1 1

1 1

1

(1*)

mentioned a wide range of daily activities, from upland rice farming, to fishing, hunting, eaglewood collection, work with companies etc. We would like to point out that respondents mostly did not only conduct one activity to maintain their livelihoods, but that they combined several activities, such as farming, hunting, fishing, artisanal gold mining. When revisiting the area in 2014, almost all male villagers were engaged in the acquisition of eaglewood, as the prices on the international market increased vastly. Therefore, we conclude that community members might behave in an opportunistic and flexible manner. Dependencies, and the use of natural resources, might change over time due to various reasons; such as market value, change of abundance, government restrictions or outsiders activities.

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In our case study, we found a wide variety of species used for different purposes such as for medicine, food, "others" or to be sold as commodity. Nevins & Peluso (2008) point out that a commodity itself is a highly dynamic and complex entity that has social lives and meanings. A commodity, as in example the pangolin, can be important to villagers for more than just monetary reasons, if it is also used for traditional medicines or for cultural purpose. Conservation that looks only for alternative sources of income to mitigate pangolin extinction might not be sufficient. An observation which needs to be highlighted, is the fact that over the years, it has become more and more difficult to buy vegetables in the villages (AH personal observation, 2011-2014). In 2011, villagers already had problems planting paddy, apparently due to a shift in seasons, which made the timing to prepare the forest gardens and to plant paddy difficult. In 2011, villagers in Kalasin, which had always been subsistent in their rice production, had to buy subsidised rice from the government for the first time. In 2014, villagers from Tumbang Tujang mentioned that the harvest was poor and that most of the vegetable grown in the gardens were sold to the logging and mining companies, which operated upstream, close to the gardens. Thus, only small amounts of vegetable sources arrived in Tumbang Tujang. Therefore, we suggest more research is needed in terms of food security, adaptation mechanisms to seasonal changes and general research on social transformation. Some differences were found regarding the perceived importance of nature between the two villages. A place to live, medicine and handicrafts were more important to respondents in Kalasin, the village that is closer to the capital of the district and sub-district, than to respondents in Tumbang Tujang. Between 2011 and 2014, we observed a transformation in Kalasin; some villagers moved to another location where they established their forest gardens and built small houses. Nevertheless, they still kept the old houses in the village. Living over weeks and months in those forest gardens does not allow regular access to the village, which also means to a nurse and shops. Hence, knowledge of medicinal plants and skills to produce handicrafts and to farm and hunt are essential to survive. On the other hand, one of those new locations, where several villagers settled, is situated next to the still accessible road to the capital of the district. In 2014, this was a huge asset, because the road connecting Tumbang Tujang and Kalasin collapsed in the rainy season between the year 2012 and 2013. Hence, the new location offers an easier road to Puruk

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Cahu. It might be interesting to reassess the importance of nature to those villagers. We found more differences between the two villages. In Kalasin, wild boar was more important to respondents than in Tumbang Tujang. This is mostly due to their religious affiliation. Additionally, in Kalasin the majority of respondents perceive themselves as Christians or Hindu-Kaharingan, whereas in Tumbang Tujang, the majority perceived themselves as Muslim, for whom eating pig is forbidden due to religious reasons. This points out the importance of acknowledging that not only communities do differ from each other, but that a community itself is a heterogeneous dynamic group, which consists of multiple actors with various interests and interrelations forming institutional arrangements as stressed by Agrawal & Gibson (2001) (also compare Leach et al., 1999). We furthermore observed complex structures of social relations related to resource use (e.g. patron-client relationships, as defined by Scott, 1972, in the extraction of eaglewood), which would go beyond the scope of this article, but which makes us believe that a more detailed social network analysis might be important to understand social relations related to resource extraction in the villages. Those understandings might be important to ensure long-term success of conservation. Many of the animal and plant species identified to be used by local villagers in this study were listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Apart from habitat loss, mainly caused by companies present in the area, some of the species, such as eaglewood, are endangered due to overexploitation by the villagers themselves (BRINCC unpublished data, 2011). To be able to conserve the area, we believe that a sound understanding of human nature interactions is essential. We further believe that the local communities themselves have to perceive the need for the protection of threatened resources in order to secure those resources for their future survival. The programmes of Murung Rayas government are aiming at modernization, development and advancement. The future shall differ significantly from the present. Backwardness and so called “uncivilized jungle life” shall be exchanged against economic development, which is possible through the richness of minerals in Murung Raya. The aimed transformation of local people’s livelihoods, which is perceived differently for a variety of reasons, should include the needs of those people who have to actually live in the area of concern (Harrington, 2014). To ensure a more just development and conservation approach, further research is strongly recommended.

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Nature use by Uut Murung villagers

Acknowledgments We would like to thank the Indonesian Ministry of Science and Technology, the Department of Forestry for permission to carry out research in Murung Raya and all offices in the Murung Raya Regency that supported our research. We further thank the "Centre for the International Cooperation in Sustainable Management of Tropical Peatlands" (CIMTROP) for sponsoring this research. Special thanks to the communities of Tumbang Tujang and Kalasin. Our biodiversity expedition team: Mila Rhamania, Laurio Leonald, Juli Setiawan, Muhamad Saputra (Yunus), Edwin Hermawan and Kursani as well as Leni Mentari, Dewi, Junaidy Shalat and Suparjan. Special thanks to Dominic Rowland for being an excellent expedition leader. Our gratitude goes to Godwin Limberg and Ratu from "Flora and Fauna International" (FFI), the team of the NGO POKKER in Plangkaraya, Horma from "Yayasan Tambuhak Sinta", Palangkaraya, Pak Sadiwibowo from the Bogor Institute of Agriculture "Institut Pertanian Bogor" (IPB) for their support and advice. Furthermore, we would like to thank the "German Academic Exchange Service" - DAAD for supporting AH with a scholarship and Garmin Germany for providing a free one year ArcGIS license for thesis writing. We would also like to gratefully acknowledge all participators and helpers with the charity run "Run forest Run", especially Marcus Sanden and his family, Madlen Baumert, Irendra Radjawali and all participants and sponsors, Christian Oekermann, Claudia Garcia, Sven Krafft, Ludwig Thoma, Tabea Seitz, Merlin Schaefer, Paul Bomke and Emeline. A special thank you to all the school children and teachers, especially Joachim Lange from Waldhofschule in Templin, Germany, who financially supported our research by carrying out a charity run.

References Agrawal, A., & Gibson, C.C. (2001). Introduction. The Role of Community in Natural Resource Conservation. In: Agrawal, A., & Gibson, C.C. (Eds.). Communities and the environment: Ethnicity, gender, and the state in community-based conservation. Rutgers University Press. Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya. (2009). Kecamatan Uut Murung dalam Angka 2009. Puruk Cahu: BPS Kecamatan Uut Murung.

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Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya. (2014). Statistik Daerah Kecamatan Uut Murung 2014. Puruk Cahu: BPS Kecamatan Uut Murung. Césard, N. (2007). A sociohistorical transition. Trade in forest products and bride-price among the Punan Tubu of Eastern Kalimantan. Anthropos 102(2): 455-477. Harrington, M.H. (2014). Changing Exchanges: A modern Siang village amidst resource extraction in regional Indonesia. PhD dissertation, Asia Institute, University of Melbourne. http://www.icassecretariat. org/files/ChangingExchanges.pdf, accessed on 01.02.2015. Hoeing, A., Suncoko, A., Deni, Rowland, D., Murray, E., Sabahudin, I., Zrust, M., Houlihab, P., Großmann, K., Waltert, M., Cheyne, S.M. (2015). Perceptions towards companies and Forest conservation in two villages of Uut Murung, Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal of Indonesian Natural History 3(1): 19-30. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.1. . Downloaded on 24 June 2014. Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Forth Worth. TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc. Leach, M., Mearns, R., & Scoones, I. (1999). Environmental entitlements: dynamics and institutions in community-based natural resource management. World development 27(2): 225-247. Meijaard, E., Abram, N.K., Wells, J.A., Pellier, A-S., Ancrenaz, M., et al. (2013). People's Perceptions about the Importance of Forests on Borneo. PLoS ONE 8(9): e73008. Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073008. Nevins, J., & Peluso, N. L. (Eds.). (2008). Taking Southeast Asia to market: Commodities, nature, and people in the neoliberal age. Cornell University Press. Scott, J. C. (1972). Patron-client politics and political change in Southeast Asia. The American Political Science Review 91-113. Sellato, B. (1994). Nomads of the Borneo Rainforest. The Economics, Politics, and Ideology of Settling Down. University of Hawaii Press.

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Sellato, B. (2001). Forest Resources and People in Bulungan: Elements for a History of Settlement, Trade, and Social Dynamics in Borneo, 1880-2000. CIFOR. Sheil, D., Puri, R.K., Basuki, I., Van Heist, M., Syaefuddin, Rukmiyati, Sardjono, M.A., Samsoedin, S., Sidiyasa, K., Chrisandini, Permana, E., Angi, E.M., Gatzweiler, F., Johnson, B. & Wijaya, A. (2002). Exploring biological diversity, environment, and local people's perspectives in forest landscapes: Methods for a multidisciplinary landscape assessment. CIFOR, Jakarta.

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World Rainforest Movement (2004). Women’s Life Devastated by Mining. WRM Bulletin No. 79. WWF (2012). Factsheet 15: Protection of Biodiversity, Livelihood and Ecological Function of MullerSchwaner. World Wildlife Fund Indonesia.

© University of Andalas / Copenhagen Zoo

Perceptions towards companies and forest conservation in two villages of Uut Murung, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia Andrea Hoeing1,2, Andhi Suncoko1,3, Deni1,3,4, Dominic Rowland1, Erisa Murray1,5, Iis Sabahudin1,5, Michal Zrust1,6, Peter R. Houlihan1,7,8, Kristina Grossmann9, Matthias Waltert2 and Susan M. Cheyne1,10 1 BRINCC (Barito River Initiative for Nature Conservation and Communities), Hitchin, Herts, UK, SG4 9RJ 2 Georg-August-Universität, Conservation Biology/ WG on Endangered Species, 37075 Goettingen, Germany 3 Faculty of Human Ecology, Bogor Agricultural University. Indonesia 4 Faculty of Forestry, Kuningan University, West Java, Indonesia 5 Faculty of Social and Political Science, Postgraduate Department of Anthropology, University of Indonesia, Indonesia 6 Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, England NW1 4RY 7 Department of Behavioral Biology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA 8 Department of Biology & Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA 9 Department for Development and Cultural Studies, Southeast Asia, University of Passau, Germany 10 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Oxon, OX13, 5QL, U.K.

Corresponding author: Andrea Höing, email: [email protected] Abstrak Peningkatan jumlah perusahaan dengan rencana alih fungsi hutan dalam berbagai industri seperti petambangan dan pengusahaan hutan, semakin mendesak ke bagian daerah terpencil di pedalaman Kalimantan. Penelitian ini mengkaji sikap masyarakat lokal terhadap perusahaan-perusahaan tersebut. Kegiatan dilakukan dengan melakukan ekspedisi selama dua bulan ke dua desa pada kecamatan Uut Murung, Murung Raya, Kalimantan Indonesia, kelompok tim sosial melakukan kajian dengan kuisioner dan wawancara semi terstruktur. Faktor-faktor yang mungkin mempengaruhi sikap masyarakat terhadap perusahaan tersebut dianalisa, termasuk keuntungan dan kerugian yang didapat untuk kehidupan responden. Selain itu, dilakukan juga penilaian terhadap persepsi pentingnya konservasi. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa jenis kelamin, umur, kepercayaan dan jumlah bentuk keuntungan yang didapat mempengaruhi sikap mereka terhadap perusahaan. Untuk menemukan keseimbangan antara keuntungan ekonomi yang didapatkan perusahaan dan konservasi daerah ini, kami menyarankan perlunya pendekatan lintas disiplin ilmu yang melibatkan berbagai pihak, baik akademisi maupun non akademisi untuk bisa melakukan perlindungan keanekaragaman hayati dan kehidupan masyarakat dengan melakukan transformasi pengetahuan Abstract An increasing number of companies in industries such as mining or logging with forest conversion plans, are advancing into remote areas in the interior of Kalimantan. This study investigates attitudes of local villagers towards those companies. We conducted a two months expedition to two villages to the sub-district of Uut Murung, Murung Raya, Kalimantan, Indonesia, where the social science team completed questionnaires and semi structured interviews. Factors potentially influencing those attitudes towards companies were analysed using step-wise linear regression, as well as perceived benefits and disadvantages for respondent's livelihoods. In addition, perceptions of the importance of conservation were assessed. Our results show that gender, age, the belief in forest spirits and the number of advantages named, significantly influenced the attitude towards companies. We found communities generally highly receptive to economic development but hostile of environmental degradation, suggesting a difficult trade off between conservation and development. Communities desire the protection of livelihoods and sources of environmental income but also the investment and infrastructure development associated with extractive industries. To find a balance between economic interests from company investments and conservation of the area, we suggest a trans-disciplinary approach which includes different actors - academic and non academic - to be able to protect biodiversity and livelihoods by creating transformation knowledge. Keywords: Companies, Conservation, Human-nature relations, Natural resources, Murung Raya, Perceptions. Received 12th June, 2014; revision accepted 1st February, 2015

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Hoeing et al.

Introduction Murung Raya’s forests are known for their richness in natural resources such as timber, coal, gold and copper, which attract national and international investors. Recent investment in and proposed expansion of, infrastructure to the area has enabled easier and cheaper transportation of minerals and coal. One such proposal is the building of a freight railway to connect the interior of Kalimantan to the coast, for the exclusive transportation of coal (Ministry For Economic Affairs, 2011). This plan has already been released to the international media, attracting investment in companies with forest conversion plans to operate in the area (Arman, 2013). The Murung Raya regency has an estimated one billion tonnes of exportable coal, and to date, 66 mining licenses have been issued by the regency government (Arman, 2013). The establishment of open mines will not only influence biodiversity and forest cover, but also significantly impact local communities living in the area, such as the two communities that are part of this study in the sub district Uut Murung. These circumstances stress the importance for nature conservation initiatives, including the protection of people’s livelihoods in the area. Research studies in Borneo on social adaptation to changes in landscape concomitant with cultural transformation have highlighted trade-offs between conservation and development. For example, studies on the Punan Tubu in East Kalimantan (Levang et al., 2007), the Penan in Sarawak (Pritchard, 2005 in Levang et al., 2007) or the inhabitants of the North Barito district in Central Kalimantan (Orth, 2009), have shown that local communities attempts to gain the best outcome from both modernization and conservation which is not always possible to achieve (Levang et al., 2007). Trans-disciplinary research for conservation Barito River Initiative for Nature Conservation and Communities (BRINCC) interdisciplinary research design focuses on the conservation of rainforests and its human and non-human inhabitants (Cheyne et al., 2012). Environmental degradation and loss of natural resources does not only affect biodiversity, but also communities living in the surrounding area. With the combination of social science and biodiversity research we aimed to find ways to understand so-called, 'real world problems', which means those problems that are of relevance to societies (Christinck & Padmanabhan,

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2013). Therefore, BRINCC has been working towards an transdisciplinary approach that involves not only scientific knowledge, but also non-academic knowledge. The transdisciplinary approach is aimed at creating a transformation knowledge needed to be able to change an undesirable situation into a more favourable one. For this, there is a need to involve a variety of actors (Christinck and Padmanabhan, 2013). BRINCC mainly worked with local villagers and also consulted governmental agencies, such as the Bupati (Regional Governor) before and after the 2011 expedition, as well as the Department Kehutanan (local Forestry Department). Data were mainly collected at the village level but secondary data from the statistical office (Badan Pusat Statistic) were used. This article intends to describe the attitudes of two local communities towards companies with forest conversion plans and the factors that might influence those perceptions. We present perceived advantages and disadvantages of the presence of companies and local perceptions on the importance to conserve nature. The research was conducted in two different villages in the sub district of Uut Murung which lies in the district of Murung Raya in the Province of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Methods Ethics statement This study was conducted after in-depth consultation with the local government, international NGOs operating in the Murung Raya Regency, such as “Fauna and Flora International” (FFI), as well as with the local communities themselves. In February 2011, a pre-expedition took place, which focused on gathering preliminary data, as well as giving local communities the chance to influence research directions. BRINCC aimed to incorporate a significant component of community directed research, whereby local people can request research on topics important to them. Therefore, the research plans were adapted accordingly, based on the requests of villagers to map an area of high social importance in order to strengthen community management rights through the application for a village forest (hutan desa). Before conducting the research, all national and local research permits were obtained. Further consultations were conducted to carry out our research at the beginning of the data collection

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Perceptions towards companies and forest conservation

Figure 1: Location of study villages in the sub-district Uut Murung (A), and the district of Murung Raya (B), in Indonesia (C).

in July, 2011. In the agreement between villagers and researchers, it was stated that original results from Focus Group Discussions, e.g. maps, timelines, etc. will be left with the community and all maps will be left with the villagers. Personal data from interviews are treated anonymously.

Figure 2. We used the Likert scale in our interviews for questions regarding general attitudes towards companies with forest conversion plans. The faces represent a range of personal feelings from very unhappy, unhappy, neutral, happy and very happy (from left to right).

Study site/ Demographic data The BRINCC research team conducted research in the interior of Kalimantan, Borneo (Figure 1). Study sites were selected using the following criteria: a relatively unstudied, rural area that is subject to land use change (e.g. anthropogenic disturbance such as logging or mining), high forest cover and forest dependency of the community. The two villages belong to the sub-district Uut Murung which is situated in the north east corner of the Murung Raya regency. The regency of Murung Raya spans over a total area of 23,700 km² between 113º 12’ 40,98’’ E 115º 8’ 6,52’’ E and 0º 51’ 51,87’’ S - 0º47’ 25,24’’ N (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2013). The Murung Raya is surrounded by: East and West Kalimantan in the North, East Kalimantan in the East, the Barito Utara regency in the South and the Kapuas regency as well as West Kalimantan in the west. The

Table 1. Number of respondents to questionnaires per village and category. Total Women number (40+)

Men (40+)

Women (20-39)

Men (20-39)

Village leaders

Tumbang Tujang

28

7

4

6

6

5

Kalasin

25

4

6

5

6

4

Total

53

11

10

11

12

9

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Table 2. Variables and their categories, which were tested in the backward stepwise linear regression, for their influence on the grade of acceptance of companies approaching the villages. Independent variables

Categories

Age Class

20-39, >=40

Gender

Male/Female

Level of Education

No education / elementary school/ high school

Village

Tumbang Tujang/ Kalasin

Community Leader

Yes/No

Native

Yes/No

Ever worked for a company?

Yes/No

Importance to protect the forest

Likert scale: very unimportant -> very important

Amount of different forest resources important for livelihood

Restricted to a maximum of 5

Belief in forest spirits

Yes/No

Importance to transfer traditional knowledge

Yes/No

Amount of advantages of companies

Restricted to a maximum of 5

Amount of disadvantages of companies

Restricted to a maximum of 5

Table 3. Final model with six variables included, their regression coefficients and standard error, the standardized regression coefficient Beta and the significance of each variable within the model.

Modela

Standardisized coefficient

Non standardized coefficients

Sig.

Regression coefficient B

Standard error

(Constant)

3.332

0.407

Gender

-0.671

0.25

-0.30

0.01

Age class

0.949

0.252

0.43

0.00

Belief in spirits

-0.384

0.141

-0.31

0.01

Number of disadvantages

-0.105

0.109

-0.12

0.34

Number of advantages

0.453

0.118

0.45

0.00

Village

-0.139

0.266

-0.06

0.60

Beta 0.00

a. Dependent Variable: Acceptance of companies Table 4. Pearson Correlation coefficients of all variables included in the final model.

Dependent variable

Accept companies

Independent variables

Gender Age class Belief in spirits Disadvantages Advantages Village

Accept companies

Gender

Age

Belief in spirits

Disadvantages

Advantages

Village

-

-0.25*

0.35**

-0.25*

-,17

0.37**

,11

-

-,05

-,12

,20

,14

,11

-

,19

-0.28*

-,16

,02

-

-0.25*

-,20

-,10

-

,08

-0.28*

-

0.29* -

Significance: *0.05, **0.01, ***0.001

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Perceptions towards companies and forest conservation

80

Respondents [%]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

very low

low

neutral

high

very high

Figure 3: Acceptance of companies by respondents from the two study villages in % (dark grey --- Tumbang Tujang, white --- Kalasin).

Figure 4. Proportion-Proportion plot of observed cumulative proportion plotted against the expected cumulative proportion with the dependent variable: acceptance of companies implies a normal distribution of data.

Figure 5. Standardised residuum plotted against standardised estimated values in a multiple linear regression model with dependent variable: acceptance of companies. Data are represented in points; the scale represents the size of points and its respective number of respondents.

average annual rainfall in Murung Raya is 266.67 mm/ month (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2013), the average temperature is 26.5°C (midday) and 23.2°C (night) (Bagian Humas Sekretariat Daerah Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2010). The sub-district Uut Murung comprises a total area of 7,263 km². Uut Murung consists of five villages: Tumbang Olong I, Tumbang

Olong II, Kalasin, Tumbang Tujang and Topus (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2009). The two villages are located along the upper part of the Murung River (also known as the upper Barito), which is geographically situated in the highlands of the Murung Raya regency in Central Kalimantan. They are surrounded by hilly to mountainous terrain with

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Hoeing et al. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

NB

C

CSR

E

ACG

SG

R

0

FR

10

Figure 6. Different kinds of advantages of companies in % named by respondents (black --- Tumbang Tujang, white --- Kalasin). Abbreviations: ACG – Availability of cheap goods, SG – Selling goods, R – Road, E – Employment, CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility, C – Compensation payments, FR – Free rides, NB – No benefits. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

ND

DLE

NE

LCW

NBS

NC

PR

LL

DR

0

CND

10

Figure 7. Different kinds of advantages of companies in % named by respondents (black --- Tumbang Tujang, white --- Kalasin). Abbreviations: LL – Loss of land, DR – Decrease of resources, CND – Cause of natural “disasters”, PR – Polluted rivers, NC – No (appropriate) compensation, NBS – No benefit sharing, LCW – Loss of customary wood, NE – No employment for uneducated, DLE - Destruction of living environment, ND – No disadvantage

80

Respondents [%]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 very unimportant

unimportant

neutral

important

very important

Figure 8. Rating of respondents [%] from Tumbang Tujang (grey) and Kalasin (white) for the grade of the importance to protect the forest.

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Perceptions towards companies and forest conservation

altitudes ranging between 200 m in valleys and 1900 m on mountains peaks. The Murung River, with its origin in the highlands of Central Kalimantan in the Murung Raya regency, is a tributary of the Barito river which travels southwards via Central Kalimantan and flows into the Java sea nearby Banjarmasin, the capital of South Kalimantan. The 900 km long Barito River is the second longest waterway in Indonesian Borneo (MacKinnon et al., 1996; Bagian Humas Sekretariat Daerah Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2010). In Kalimantan, many human settlements are situated along main rivers (MacKinnon et al., 1996). Local communities depend on the Barito River for their daily needs e.g. water supply for drinking and washing, fishing for food. Forest gardens are established alongside the river, trade (e.g. floating markets), human and raw material transportation and the extraction of gold. In the year 2011, Tumbang Tujang was accessible via a road, built by a logging company, with a distance to the sub-district capital, Tumbang Olong, of 88km and to the capital of the regency, Puruk Cahu, of 178km. The road was only accessible by 4 wheel drive cars. In 2014, parts of the road were impassable, hence, to access the villages, boats had to be taken. In 2014 the trip took two days instead of one full day as in 2011, when the road was still accessible. The area that belongs officially to Tumbang Tujang, covering 2,862 km², is the largest among the other villages in the Uut Murung sub-district (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2009). Tumbang Tujang has 592 inhabitants from which in 2009 were Muslims (323), Protestants (34) and Hindus (2) and 233 belonged to the category “other religions” (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2009). During the field-work, we found that “other religion” were mainly “Hindu-Kaharingan”; respondents from three ethnic group: Punan, Otdanum and Kahayan belonged to this religion. The Punan Murung were formerly known as one of the nomadic hunter and gatherer tribes in Kalimantan who lived in the study area (Sellato, 1994). Nowadays, a variety of ethnic groups with origins in Kalimantan, such as the Punan, Bekumpai, Siang, Otdanum, Kahayan and Kapuas, but also some migrants e.g. from East Nusa Tenggara were living in the villages (A. Hoeing personal observation). In the village, there was one mosque and one temple of the Hindu-Kaharingan religion. The village had an elementary school, a kindergarten and - for health care issues - a nurse (Pustu). In 2009, there were three small shops (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya,

2015 Journal of Indonesian Natural History Vol 3 No 1

2009) - in 2011 there were around seven shops, which mainly provided snacks, instant noodles and sweets, material for painting or repairing boats, washing powder, batteries, torches, clothes, etc. In 2014, we also noticed sales of loudspeakers to enable listening to music from mobile phones and of some other small electrical devices (A. Höing personal observation). Kalasin could be reached via logging road in 2011; in 2014, the last kilometre had to be covered by boat as the road was impassible by car. The distance to the capital of the sub-district Tumbang Olong was 57 km, to Puruk Cahu, the distance by road was 147 km. The area which belongs to Kalasin comprises 572 km² and was the smallest area of the sub-district Uut Murung. Kalasin had 546 inhabitants from which in 2009, the main religion was defined as “others” (385 inhabitants) (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2009); from personal communication it was found to be the Dayak religion of Hindu-Kaharingan, 152 Protestants and 12 Muslim. A protestant church was located in the village. Kalasin had an elementary school, a kindergarten and a nurse (Pustu). In 2009, there were two small shops (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Murung Raya, 2009) - the number doubled by 2011, and in 2014, almost every second house that was visited contained a small shop with basic goods and sweets (A. Hoeing, K. Grossmann personal observation). Survey Methods Sampling of Questionnaires Sampling was designed as non-probability quota sampling, a technique commonly used to assess public opinion using polls. The method was chosen to ensure that perceptions from small groups were adequately represented (Kerlinger, 1986; Trochim & Donnelly, 2007). The sampling was chosen to aim for an equally distributed representation of four different categories, which were divided by: age class (20-39 years, >40 years) and gender. One further category was made for “important persons” in higher social positions (Table 1), such as the Village Head, the village representative, the village secretary and the Head of Customary Rights. Age classes were established after consultation with community members about the age-line between adults and elder person. Questionnaires represented individual opinions, they were well established and tested prior to the start of sampling in the villages. Questionnaires contained 32 questions covering several topics, including:

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Hoeing et al.

general information about the use of natural resources, commodities, access to markets, attitudes towards nature conservation and environmental changes, attitudes towards companies with resource extraction plans and questions about traditional beliefs. The questionnaires contained open, as well as closed questions. The Likert scale is an ordinal ranking method, that is widely used to assess attitudes, opinions and beliefs with “equal values” (Kerlinger, 1986; Orth, 2009) (Figure 2). The Likert scale was used to identify overall attitudes towards companies with forest conversion plans approaching the villages. The question following the Likert scale aimed at identifying advantages and disadvantages of companies approaching the villages, as perceived by the respondents. The questionnaires were filled in by A.H., D., E.M. and A.S. after reading out the questionnaires. The researchers who conducted interviews and questionnaires were either native speaker (A.S., D., and E.M.) or fluent in Indonesian (A.H.). Where the respondent agreed, interviews were recorded, to be able to re-check information. Interviews and questionnaires were mainly conducted in the houses of the respondents. The presence and interference of other family/community members were noted. In cases where significant interference could not be avoided, the interview/questionnaire was excluded from the analysis. Data Analysis The data from the questionnaires were analysed using Open Office Org. 3.1.1- Calculator and SPSS 17.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows. Non-normal distributions, outliers and missing data were analysed and clarified by visual examination. To analyse variables which might influence the grade of acceptance, villagers had towards companies with forest conversion plans approaching the village, the backward stepwise multiple linear regression method was used. This method allowed identification of key variables that might play a significant role in influencing the dependent variable (here: acceptance of companies). Thirteen independent variables were included in the regression (Table 2). Answers from respondents on the question: "Do you believe in forest spirits", resulted in: yes, no and half-half. The answer “half-half” was defined as a belief in forest spirits to a lesser extent and/or the lack of any rejection towards the presence of forest spirits. These data were incorporated into the “yes” category for pairwise analysis of the beliefs

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in presence versus absence of forest spirits. Missing values, caused by respondents who did not reply to all questions, were excluded in a pair wise manner. The model with the best fit was chosen through the adjusted coefficient of determination: R². Default settings in SPSS for probability thresholds were used which had a significance level of p .10 to remove independent variables from the model. To analyse possible inter-correlations, which might weaken the model, a correlation cross table including all variables which were used in the final model, was calculated using Pearson correlation in SPSS.

Results What variables influence the acceptance of companies approaching the area? Data gained from questionnaires show a tendency of neutral-to-high acceptance of companies approaching the area in both villages. Respondents from Kalasin seemed to have a higher acceptance of companies approaching the area than respondents from Tumbang Tujang (Figure 3), though the difference between the degree of acceptance did not differ significantly in the backward stepwise multiple linear regression analysis. What variables influence the acceptance of companies approaching the area? From the thirteen independent variables, which might influence the choice of respondents on the grade of acceptance of companies, four variables were included in the final model: age class, gender, amount of advantages of companies and belief in spirits. The variable “village” was added back into the final model as it was one of the main aspects of comparisons in this study. Further, the variable “amount of disadvantages” regarding companies approaching the village was included in the final model, in order to enable a comparison to the standardised coefficients of regression with the variable “amount of advantages” regarding companies approaching the village (Table 3). The significance of the model tested with ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) for the two extra variables did not change (the model explained 42.5% of the variance without the two manually added variables: “village” and “amount of disadvantages”, instead of 41.2% when including the two extra variables). Hence, the

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Perceptions towards companies and forest conservation

model used here includes six independent variables: age, gender, belief in spirits, amount of advantages, amount of disadvantages and village. The ANOVA of the model resulted in a significance of p