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LEADING THROUGH CRISIS: A CASE STUDY OF SUPERINTENDENT LEADERSHIP DURING CRISIS

By STEVEN D. CANTRELL Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 1992 Master of Science in Educational Leadership Northeastern State University Tahlequah, Oklahoma 1996

Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION July, 2016

LEADING THROUGH CRISIS: A CASE STUDY OF SUPERINTENDENT LEADERSHIP DURING CRISIS

Dissertation Approved:

Dr. Bernita Krumm Dissertation Adviser Dr. Ed Harris Chair Dr. Katherine Curry Committee Member Dr. Bill Weeks Outside Committee Member

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my committee for all of their efforts, dedication, and support throughout this doctoral process. Dr. Bernita Krumm has been the driving force behind my doctoral journey. She has been an excellent advisor, mentor, and teacher to me, however, her kindness and compassion outweigh everything else! Dr. Harris and Dr. Curry, thank you both for your enthusiasm and your willingness to help an old stray find his path. Dr. Weeks, you were there at the beginning of my teaching career, and now at the conclusion of my academic progression. Thank you for helping me become who I am today. I would like to thank all of the teachers in my family: J.C., Pauline, Diane, Tammy, Nancy, Brad, G.T., and Yolanda. Each of you has had a remarkable influence on my life and career. Thank you to the staff at Newman Middle School. You guys are the best! Finally, I would like to thank my family for taking up the slack at home. I love all of you. Thank you Ted and Connie, and Brad and Gayle Ann. Parker and Karstyn, never quit learning and searching for answers. To Mom and Dad, Thank you for teaching me the love of reading, and how to be a servant leader. Mom, I wish you were here to read this. Michelle, I can never fully explain how much you have devoted to this process, or how much you mean to me. All I can say is I love you and thank you. iii Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University.

Name: STEVEN D. CANTRELL Date of Degree: JULY, 2016 Title of Study: LEADING THROUGH CRISIS: A CASE STUDY OF SUPERINTENDENT LEADERSHIP DURING CRISIS Major Field: SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Abstract: This case study examined the leadership skills utilized by two rural Oklahoma Superintendents to lead the Oologah-Talala (Oologah) School District through two crisis situations. The study also examined the affect these skills had in maintaining high levels of trust in the school, and a positive school climate. Finally, the study examined the theoretical framework characterized by the skills used by the superintendents to lead the school effectively through the crises. Dr. Keith Ballard was the superintendent of schools for Oologah in the spring of 1991. On April 26, 1991 at 9:44 p.m. an F-5 tornado barreled through the community of Oologah. The K-12 campus of Oologah Schools took a direct hit. The tornado damaged or destroyed all of the buildings on the campus and wiped out the entire school bus fleet. The school would not open back up until the fall of 1991. In 72 working days the school was back in session. Mr. Rick Thomas was the superintendent for Oologah in the Spring of 2010. On Wednesday, March 10, 2010 a case of Neisseria meningitidis (bacterial meningitis) was reported to the Oklahoma State Department of Health. Within three days six more students were identified with the disease. School was dismissed on Thursday, March 11 at 12:00 p.m. to remove students from proximate contact with each other. On the afternoon of March 11, the lower elementary gymnasium was converted to a prophylactic medical clinic. Two Oologah students lost their lives as a result of the meningitis infection. The two superintendents were interviewed on two separate occasions. In addition, interviews were conducted with two school personnel who were employed by the district at the time of the crisis. The superintendent data were coded for the presence of themes, triangulated with the employee data, and the extensive artifact data.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter

Page

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.........................................................................1 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................4 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................5 Research Questions ..................................................................................................6 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................6 Research Method / Procedure ..................................................................................8 Significance of the Study .........................................................................................8 Assumptions / Limitations of the Study...................................................................9 Overview of the Study ...........................................................................................10

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..................................................................................12 Definition of Crises ................................................................................................15 Historical Significance ...........................................................................................16 Definition of Leadership ........................................................................................17 Definition of Trust .................................................................................................20 Definition of School Climate .................................................................................22 Definition of Student Achievement .......................................................................23 Relationships, Trust, and School Climate ..............................................................25 Summary ................................................................................................................27

III. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................28 Research Design.....................................................................................................29 Case Selection ........................................................................................................29 Data Collection ......................................................................................................31 Data Analysis .........................................................................................................34 Case Limitations ....................................................................................................36

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Chapter

Page

Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................37 Trustworthiness ......................................................................................................38 Internal Validity ...........................................................................................38 Reliability.....................................................................................................39 Researcher Background .........................................................................................41 Summary ................................................................................................................43

IV. FINDINGS .............................................................................................................44 Introduction ............................................................................................................44 Research Design.....................................................................................................45 The School: Oologah - Talala Public Schools ......................................................46 Keith Ballard and the Oologah Tornado of 1991...................................................49 Leadership Skills..........................................................................................53 Leadership Characteristics ...........................................................................57 Rick Thomas and the Oologah Meningitis Outbreak of 2010 ...............................61 Leadership Skills..........................................................................................67 Leadership Characteristics ...........................................................................72 Trust and School Climate.......................................................................................76 Summary ................................................................................................................83 V. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS ...........................................84 Primary Research Question -- What Leadership Skills were Needed Most in Leading through the Crisis?: ................................................................................................84 Communication: Listen to Input .....................................................................85 Communication: Provide as much Information as Possible ...........................87 Communication: Curtail Misinformation .......................................................88 Develop Relationships .....................................................................................90 Preparation .......................................................................................................90 Secondary Question 1 -- What Theoretical Leadership Framework was used by the Superintendents? ....................................................................................................91 Secondary Question 2 -- How did the Leadership Skills and Framework affect Trust and School Climate? ..............................................................................................93 Conclusions ............................................................................................................94 Primary Conclusion .........................................................................................94 Secondary Conclusions ....................................................................................95 Implications............................................................................................................97 Implications for Future Practice.......................................................................97 Implications for Leadership Theory.................................................................98 vi

Recommendations for Future Research ...........................................................99 Personal Reflections.............................................................................................100 REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................102 APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................115

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LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

1 Trustworthiness of Data ........................................................................................40 2 Oologah - Talala Public Schools Student Achievement Indicators ......................47

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

School administrators are constantly looking for a better way to reach and maintain high achievement levels of students. Many school districts look far and wide for a “Silver Bullet” to raise student achievement. Some schools have “it,” some have “it” and lose “it,” and some will never have “it” (Groeschel, 2008). This “it” is leadership. Leadership occurs anytime an individual tries to influence the thinking, beliefs, or development of another individual or entity (Blanchard, 2013). Quality school leadership has been proven to have a positive impact of as much as one standard deviation in student achievement (Marzano & Waters, 2009). However, leadership is not genetic, inherited, or about personality. It is about relationships formed between the individual who wants to lead and those who will follow (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). To lead his or her school effectively, a superintendent must develop an overall school climate that is positive and trusting. Trust has been defined as a relationship where one party allows him/herself to become vulnerable to the other party (Hoy, & Tschannen-Moran, 1999). The development of these relationships is vital to the success of any school. A quality relationship between all parties involved at the school should be at the forefront of real 1

school improvement (Breunlin, Mann, Kelly, Cimmarusti, Dunne, & Lieber, 2005). Schools must rely more and more on the development of these relationships between the administration, teachers, parents, community, and most importantly, the students. The development of better relationships between all facets of the school environment is essential for building trust (Sheldon, 2002). The development of trust within the school climate is important during all times of the school year, but becomes even more important during times of crisis. Schools in the United States are faced with more challenges than ever before. School leaders are challenged with situations that administrators twenty years ago did not have to deal with such as classroom misbehavior, students’ work ethics, and teacher and parent autonomy. Administrators today deal with students who do not want to be at school (Noguera, 2002), classrooms that have a high student to teacher ratio (Ready, Lee, & Welner, 2004), and students who have been exposed to unprecedented levels of violence (Hurt, Malmud, Brodsky, & Gianetta, 2001). Today’s school principals must deal with those issues in addition to unfunded mandates, a larger number of at-risk students, high stakes testing, and an increase in local, state, and national media attention. Much of this attention has led to a national initiative for wholesale school reform (Brand, Felner, Shim, Seitsinger, & Dumas, 2003). With the higher level of scrutiny, educators must band together to ensure autonomy within the local schools. Now more than ever, there must be a team approach to leading schools. This approach places a high value on all of the entities involved within the organization and places a premium on the organizational structure and climate of the school. But, what happens to this climate when crisis is thrust upon schools? Even worse, what happens when this crisis

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occurs due to ineffectual or immoral leadership? The effectiveness of any school organization is at risk if there are no safeguards to overcome such obstacles. Having a good working relationship may be easy for superintendents and principals when things are going well, but the story is often different when a school experiences tragedy. Unfortunately, this phenomenon is occurring more frequently than in the past. Over the last fifteen years, homicide has risen to the second highest cause of death for young people between the ages of 15 and 24, and between the years of 1985 and 1994 weapons arrests for people under the age of 18 rose 104% (Skiba, Boone, Fontanini, Wu, Strussell, & Peterson, 2000). In the past fifteen years, over 15 times as many individuals have been killed in U.S. schools due to school violence than by tornadoes, earthquakes, and fire combined (McBride, 2013). Estimates from as early as 2005 have the number of guns brought to school each day by students as high as 270,000 (Smith & Birney 2005), and this statistic is not improving. According to the National School Safety Center, students were responsible for over 400 gun related deaths in the last 20 years. These acts of violence occurred either on school property, on the way to school, or at a school sponsored event (National School Safety Center, 2006). School administrators today must work diligently to ensure the safety of all students before, during, and after school hours. Of all of the tasks and responsibilities parents expect of schools, safety is number one. In 2000, The Massachusetts Citizens for Children polled 400 citizens and discovered that 46% of parents listed “safety from abuse, neglect, and violence” as the number one safety issue for children (A State Call to Action, 2001). In addition, Trooper Cowden of the Oklahoma Homeland Security Department (2013) stated the number one service a school provides its students is not education, but security. When

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dealing with a crisis, the administration becomes the incident commander for the crisis in addition to the educational leader of the school. The district will need to deal with the crisis, set up support systems for the students, and protect the integrity of educational programs while trying to survive the additional scrutiny that will certainly occur (McBride, 2013). In order for a school system to survive a crisis situation and progress past the crisis, the convergence of leadership styles and trust level between patrons and superintendents must be extremely high. These relationships can be defined as social capital, which has been studied extensively in research. However, theory and research is useful only if it is relevant to the practice of education (Bush, 2003). Problem Statement A successful superintendent must be both an efficient manager and a welcomed leader in order to attain a school setting conducive to student achievement. As the school leader, the superintendent must provide a positive leadership strategy, and a conducive climate for learning, as well as develop policies for instruction, achievement, and stewardship (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). The superintendent has to effectively manage and dynamically lead the organization by providing his/her very best service every single day (Tschanen-Moran, 2003).The ability to manage and lead a district is often based on theoretical inquiry, practical knowledge, and personal experiences. Theoretical research in educational leadership is bountiful. The use of data and research in education has been instrumental in the passage of government mandates such as “No Child Left Behind,” and “Race to the Top,” but the research for many of these studies focused on schools during normal working conditions. While the theoretical research is plentiful, the research providing practical knowledge of leadership during crisis situations is

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extremely limited. The lack of practical leadership research has led to the rise of "Ivory Tower Academicians" with a plethora of theoretical knowledge, but too few practical experiences to know if the theory is plausible (Saenz, 2014). Are school leaders prepared to lead their schools during a time of crisis? More importantly, what leadership techniques are required to lead a school through crisis and still maintain high levels of student achievement? Without high quality leadership, and a positive school climate, achieving a level of effectiveness and normalcy for the school may be unlikely (Tschannen-Moran, 2003). During crises, the uncertainty surrounding the entire school community will be abundant. The effective leader will have had to develop a trust level with his/her patrons to reduce this uncertainty and to maintain order within the organization (Hoy, & Tschannen Moran, 1999). The old adage of "it won't happen to me," can no longer be used in educational administration. According to Bond (2014), education has experienced a paradigm shift from, "What if a crisis occurs?" to "When will a crisis occur?" It is imperative as school leaders to be ready to undertake the challenge of returning schools to normal as soon as possible after a crisis occurs. One avenue to achieve a return to normalcy is to have practical examples of how quality superintendents led their schools through crisis situations and to understand the leadership skills used to rebuild their school climates. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to analyze the leadership skills utilized by two rural Oklahoma superintendents during crisis situations at their school systems. The study focused on individual real world crises faced by the superintendents, the leadership style of each superintendent prior to the crisis, and the leadership skills each used during the crises to

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return the school to normalcy. The study also analyzed the level of trust and the school climate developed by the superintendent in the time preceding and following the two crises; a medical epidemic and a catastrophic weather event. Research Questions The central question addressed by this study was what leadership skills were most instrumental in leading schools through crisis. Secondary questions addressed how these skills influenced trust and climate within the school system. In addition, the study evaluated which leadership theoretical framework best exemplified the skills utilized by the superintendents. For this research study, I determined the type of leadership style employed by each superintendent and the impact that particular style made during the crisis situation. In addition, I reviewed the levels of trust created by each superintendent and determined how influential trust was during the crisis. Lastly, I explored the changes in school climate after the crisis to determine steps superintendents should take for future crises. Multiple data sources were used such as interviews with each superintendent, news reports, and pertinent documents. Each interview was recorded and transcribed by the researcher. Theoretical Framework Anfara and Mertz (2006) defined a theoretical framework "as any empirical or quasiempirical theory of social and/or psychological processes, at a variety of levels...that can be applied to the understanding of phenomena" (p. xxvii). Cresswell asserted that within case study research, a theoretical perspective may or may not play a part in the study based on the researcher and/or the study (Anfara, & Mertz, 2006). However, Yin (1994) stated that case

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study research, more than other qualitative studies, relies on the need of a theoretical framework to help guide the questions posed by the researcher. This case study was based in the social interpretive theoretical framework. Merriam (2002) stated, "The key to understanding qualitative research lies with the idea that meaning is socially constructed by individuals in interaction with their world" (p. 3). Cresswell (2003) stated that a constructivist, combined with an interpretive perspective contains assumptions made by individuals based on their understanding of the world and situations they live in. The tenets of an interpretive theoretical perspective will help drive the collection and analysis of data. According to Merriam (2002), there are four over-riding traits in interpretive qualitative research. They are: 1) The researcher must make sense of the experience based on perceptions of the individuals. 2) The researcher is the instrument used in data collection and analysis. 3) The research process is inductive. 4) the product is heavily descriptive. Through the analysis of the data collected, I intended to identify relevant leadership characteristics based on authentic leadership theory. Authentic leadership theory is encompassed in the leader's desire to serve and help others while building relationships within the organization (George, 2003). Authentic leadership is based on the components of the beliefs, ethical values, communication, and relational transparency of the leader within an organization (Banks, Mhunpiew, 2012). The development and identification of leadership traits may prove to be beneficial for superintendents during and after crisis situations.

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Research Method / Procedures This research of superintendent leadership during crisis utilized a qualitative case study methodology. A basic qualitative research study seeks to understand a phenomena, the processes and perspectives, and the views of the individuals involved (Merriam, 2002). Case study (along with ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and narrative research) is an accepted research strategy utilized within the broad expanse of qualitative research (Cresswell, 2003). Yin (1994) defined a case study as "an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (p. 13). A single case study design was used to study the phenomena. Data were collected through interviews with the superintendents in charge during the crises, observations of the school, and historical artifacts. Significance of the Study The intent of the study was to add to the overall knowledge about best leadership practices employed by superintendents in the k-12 public school setting. Specifically, this study focused on the traits and skills needed by superintendents to lead schools effectively through crisis situations. The articles and books written on the theoretical perspectives of leadership are plentiful. However, the practical application of leadership in real world scenarios is lacking. Daily routines are important to schools, but according to Brock and Jimmerson (2012), research has shown that children experienced symptoms such as anxiety, and hopelessness over one year after the experience of a tornado in Oklahoma. How do superintendents lead the school, while caring for students who may be suffering from the effects of the crisis?

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In addition to leadership, this study examined the impact trust and school climate have on overcoming crises. The decisions made by the superintendent will have long reaching effects on the students, parents, and communities during a disaster, and time will be a factor for those decisions. According to Bond (2014), a superintendent does not have the luxury of time to mull over issues; decisions which historically could have taken hours, must be made within minutes during and after a crisis. The actions that real world superintendents made during an extreme crisis situation is an appropriate starting point to assist in the knowledge base of what leaders can and should do in the future during a time of crisis. Assumptions / Limitations of the Study Several assumptions were made in this study. The first of these assumptions is that leadership is not crisis specific. Although school shootings gain the lion's share of media attention, schools are far more likely to experience a natural disaster than a man-made disaster (Hukill, 2014). While the impact of school shootings should never be taken lightly, and the impact of violence is addressed in the review of the literature, this study did not focus expressly on school violence. A secondary assumption is that positive superintendent leadership is necessary to replicate findings of successful school transition through the crisis. The age old adage that it is better to be lucky than good is appropriate for many past crisis situations. The goal of this research was to focus on what skills leaders used to make the transition through the crisis as successful as possible without relying on luck to assist their decision-making. The last assumption is that high levels of trust in the superintendent and a positive school climate will aid in the decision making process of the school superintendent. Limitations of the study are fully outlined in Chapter Three of this dissertation; however, a brief overview of the limitations includes the following: School size--the case studies in

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question occurred in a single school district that would be classified as both small and rural. The second limitation is that of gender; both leaders are male. This study did not try to make inferences based on gender at any time during the process. Public opinion is another limitation. The case studies were conducted on a school in Oklahoma that experienced crisis on two separate occasions. During both situations, there was ample media coverage. The intent of the study was to accentuate what the superintendents did correctly in leading their school through crisis. The study was not intended to discredit the leadership, school, or community based on possible mistakes. Another limitation for the study is that of timeframe. The tornado in Oologah occurred in 1991. Over 25 years, recalling specific details and nuances becomes more difficult. The last limitation is that of bias. Due to the fact that I have known these gentlemen for many years, and one of the superintendents is currently my supervisor, it was challenging for me to put away all preconceived ideas I held in regard to identifying their leadership styles. However, I reviewed all documents and transcripts thoroughly to ensure that all coding and groupings were independent of my previous opinions and based on the data collected. Overview of the Study In addressing the need for analyzing the leadership style of superintendents during times of crisis, Chapter 2 focuses on crises, leadership, trust, and climate within the context of educational organizations. In addition, Chapter 2 incorporates the theoretical application of leadership theory to the role of the superintendent while reporting related research findings relevant for consideration of the proposed study. Chapter 3 restates the purpose of the proposed study and identifies the researcher's role in the study. Chapter three also describes participants, methods and procedures for interviews and analysis, and assumptions and

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limitations of the proposed study. Chapter 4 reports data and a summary of all relevant findings. Finally, chapter 5 provides a complete overview and discussion of study conclusions, limitations, contributions to school leadership literature, application to practice and theory, and implications for future research.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is focused on the theoretical basis behind the phenomenon investigated in this research study and will review the literature associated with each aspect of the phenomenon. This research study focused on the theoretical development of leadership, and the leadership needed during a crisis situation. The study attempted to provide insight on the leadership skills deemed necessary by successful superintendents during crises situations, what framework of leadership theory was most used by the superintendents and determine if their leadership aided in trust and school climate. The organizational structure of schools cannot be defined as logically as many business structures. In fact school structure has for the most part been confusing to many management theorists. Schools are ordinarily too small to utilize a true managerial approach to organization, yet they are too big to utilize a familial approach to management (Starratt, 1990). In addition, schools have different goals than businesses. Business structures are in place to develop a product or provide a service. In order to maximize profit, structures can be adjusted to increase production, reduce input costs, or streamline personnel.

Schools not only provide a service in the education of students,

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they also turn out a product in a graduate who has the skills and knowledge to be successful in the global community. However, public schools must operate without the opportunity to raise costs to the parents--regardless how much production costs increase. In order to make the school work successfully, administrators must employ more than basic management practices. They not only must possess quality management skills but also exhibit prominent leadership skills in order to meet their stated objectives in success and efficiency (Bush, 2003). The superintendent must work with those individuals within the organization to provide the highest service to its patrons and produce the greatest commodity: A student who has maximized his or her academic abilities. Student academic success, along with providing a safe and secure school environment, is at the top of every administrator’s list of goals for the organization. The two go hand-in-hand, as research has shown that students who have been continually exposed to violence have reduced abilities for problem solving (Berenson, Wiemann, & McCombs, 2001), a reduction in reading levels (Delaney-Black, Covington, Ondersma, Nordstrom-Klee, et al., 2002), and a higher rate of absenteeism (Smith, & Hoy, 2004). A safe and secure learning environment, therefore, is crucial to achieving academic success. However, a safe learning environment alone does not ensure that student success will be achieved; it is simply the starting point with which administrators must start. Maximizing student achievement is a huge undertaking, and it is one that should be shared by all parties involved including the local school board, students, staff, community, and administration (Ivory & Acker-Hocevar, 2007). Yet, in reality the research on central office and building level administrators’ effect on classroom instruction is clouded. Schmoker (2006) suggested that the effect on classroom

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instruction and student outcomes by central office administration is virtually nonexistent. However, Marzano and Waters (2009) argued that highly effective district leadership may be correlated with student achievement. In fact, their study found that highly effective district and school site leadership were able to impact student achievement despite average instruction. Many times, administrators will be blamed for poor academic success due to the inability to hire additional staff members to reduce class size. One former national teacher of the year disputed that theory by stating that a bad teacher with thirty kids is still going to be a bad teacher with fewer students (Clark, 2011). Chavis, Director of the American Indian Public Charter School, utilizes the philosophy that the best gift a district can give to its students is to simply hire a great teacher (Chavis, & Blakely, 2009). Every administrator tries to hire the best teachers, but in reality there are far too many average teachers and administrators interacting with students today (Clark, 2011). In order to maximize student achievement, the effective administrator must work to develop the skills necessary to become a judicious manager and a valued leader. Research conducted by Johnson (2008) listed factors such as experience and tenure as key contributing factors to the success of administrators. The lessons administrators learn while on the job are numerous. The ability of a superintendent to make decisions based on prior experience is a great help when problems arise within the school district. In addition, Johnson found that student achievement was higher in districts where the tenure of the superintendent was greater than 10 years. However, experience and intelligence alone may not be enough to aid a superintendent during troubling times.

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Experience is important, but more important is what the administrator learns during that time (Sternberg, 2011). Intelligence is also an important trait for a superintendent to possess. However, many historically intelligent leaders suffered from conflicting inward emotions that led to their demise as leaders (Burns, 1978). Sternberg (2002) stated that intelligence may be a better indicator of management ability than leadership ability. In this vein, today’s superintendent must provide leadership that is credible (Kouzes, & Posner, 2012), develop trust from all parties within the organization (Hoy & Sabo, 1998), exhibit wisdom (Sternberg, 2002), and create and manage the organizational culture at large (Schein, 1992). These factors become even more important during and immediately after a crisis situation. Definition of Crises Crises have been synonymously categorized as emergencies, catastrophes, disasters, and tragedies (http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu). No matter what name is used to label it; a crisis at school is serious business. Most schools have a plan to handle such events, but what truly works when an actual crisis occurs is rarely able to fit into a prediagrammed schematic plan. The superintendent's leadership and management through the crisis are paramount for the school to be successful. Crisis management has been defined as “that part of a school division’s approach to school safety which focuses more narrowly on a time-limited, problem-focused intervention to identify, confront and resolve the crisis, restore equilibrium, and support appropriate adaptive responses” (http://www.doe.virginia.gov).

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Historical Significance Crises are nothing new to American schools. The first recorded school crisis occurred in 1764 when nine students and a school master were killed in Pennsylvania (http://www.k12academics.com). The largest school massacre in the United States occurred in Bath, Michigan, in 1927 when a disgruntled school board member blew up the school killing 47 children (http://www.epicdisasters.com). Even though school crises have occurred throughout history, the 1997 school shooting in Paducah, Kentucky, changed the way school leaders perceived their role during crisis situations by changing priorities off of education and onto school safety (Bond, 2014). Furthermore, in 1999, one of the most storied and publicized tragedies to occur on school property--the Columbine school shootings in Littleton, Colorado--changed the way law enforcement think and react to crises. Prior to, and including the Columbine shooting, emergency responders waited to enter the school to attempt to negotiate with the shooters. After Columbine, the police tactic changed to enter the facility as soon as possible and immobilize the active shooter (Cowden, 2012). All school emergencies, however, have not been created and executed by human beings. In 1918, an influenza epidemic swept the planet with one of the worst medical disasters in history. While this crisis was not created at school, the influenza outbreak closed schools and businesses, and killed an estimated 675,000 Americans and over 20 million individuals worldwide (http://www.healthline.com). These types of crises are still a threat to school systems today. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), it is not a matter of if we will have another influenza pandemic, but when (www.flu.gov).

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School catastrophes have also been caused by acts of nature. On May 11, 2011, an EF-5 tornado tore through Joplin, Missouri, leaving a community in shambles. The tornado completely destroyed five school buildings and partially damaged five others. The aftermath left over 4,000 students without a school to attend (http://www.joplinschools.org). Two years later on May 20, 2013, every administrator's worst fear became reality when another EF-5 tornado destroyed two elementary schools in the community of Moore, Oklahoma. The twister destroyed Plaza Towers Elementary and took the lives of 7 students when a wall they were crouching by fell on them (http://newsok.com). In today's society of media saturation and the proliferation of social media; the superintendent will be thrust into the spotlight further than ever before. In order to maintain the continuity of school for students, the superintendent must excel at leading his or her school. Definition of Leadership Within the realm of educational research, the discussions and labels defining leadership are numerous. Leadership can be creative, visionary, charismatic, or ideological (Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, 2003). It has been defined as the “process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2007), and has evolved throughout history. In the early 1900's leadership was classified more as the ability to control individuals to attain cooperation (Northouse, 2016). In the 1970's, leadership was described as being either transactional or transformational (Burns, 1978). Bush (2003) used the definition by Miller and Miller (2001) to describe transactional leadership as a style built on the relationship between a

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leader and his or her followers’ dependent upon a transfer of a valuable entity. Transformational leadership, on the other hand, deals more with the actual relationship between the leader and the followers. As theory progressed into the late 20th century the focus shifted to a form of transformational leadership known as Moral Leadership. Moral leadership builds on the relationship aspect of transformational leadership and narrows the perspective of leadership by focusing on the shared values and goals that raise the expectation of human behavior and ethical considerations of the leader and the followers within the organization (Burns, 1978). Sergiovanni (1992), summarized the three types of leadership into the following management perspective: a. Transactional Leadership: Work is accomplished when it gets rewarded. b. Transformational Leadership: Work is accomplished when it is rewarding. c. Moral Leadership: Work gets accomplished when it is the right thing to do. (pp 24-27) By classifying leadership based on these perspectives, one could identify the fallacies of transactional leadership and transformational leadership. If work is accomplished only because it is being rewarded or rewarding, then the converse would also be true in that work will not be performed if it is NOT rewarded or rewarding. (Sergiovanni, 1992). Moral leadership does not suffer from these fallacies because of the fact that if something is not the right thing to do, it most likely should not be performed. For the transactional superintendent, there is no focus on the relationship between the central office and the individuals working within the organization. It is lack of relationship building that is the downfall of the transactional leader due to the lack of

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continuity of a common pursuit or ideal (Burns, 1978). A transformational approach to leadership also has several pitfalls. The transformational leader may lose support within the organization due to regulations and government mandates that can affect the values and goals of the organization (Bush, 2003). The transformational leadership approach focuses on the relationship between the leader and the followers. The relationship between a superintendent and building level administrators is important, but it cannot overtake the common mission of the school district. In addition, these relationships must be developed because it is the right thing to do, not just to obtain a desired outcome from the organization (Sergiovanni, 1992). Doing the right thing is the basis of moral leadership. This moral tenet of transformational leadership is also open to an evolution of sorts, and may best be described by the newer approaches in leadership theory of authentic and servant leadership. Northouse (2016) described authentic leadership as placing an emphasis on the authenticity of the leader. He described servant leadership as assuming the role of a servant and utilizing a focus on the needs of others. The positive school leader must be a person of integrity who espouses the values of the organization for everyone to witness (Kouzes, & Posner, 2012). Many leaders are capable of doing the right things; others are capable of being efficient. The successful leader is one who interacts with followers based on common values, motives (Burns, 1978), and in a manner that lends to organizational effectiveness (Sergiovanni, 1992). Bennis (1989) differentiated the moral leader from an effective manager by stating, "Leaders are people who do the right thing; managers are people Who do things right. Both roles are crucial, but they differ profoundly. I often observe people in top positions doing the wrong

19

things well." (p. 18) This principle is not lost within the education setting. Many times superintendents appear to be great managers of finance when in reality they have little or no business sense and are pushing the districts further and further into debt (Chavis & Blakely, 2009). Superintendents must be able to manage the resources of the district on a daily basis and make decisions in the best interest of the district as a whole. Some superintendents are exceptional managers, but they do not have the support of those within the organization. Wilmore (2008) posits that many good administrators can lead or manage well, but great administrators can do both. In order for a superintendent to be the educational leader to an administrative team, he or she must have followers (Maxwell, 1993). Research has shown that most people look for certain traits in a person before they will follow them. The most common traits for a successful leader are to be honest, competent, and inspirational, and have a vision for the organization (Kouzes, & Posner, 2012). Many of these characteristics are the same as the characteristics of a trustworthy person: respectful, competent, honest, reliable and benevolent (Forsyth, Barnes, & Adams, 2006). When leaders focus not only on doing things right but also doing the right thing, they may see an improvement in trust levels of colleagues and subordinates. Definition of Trust Trust is not a new concept to school improvement theorists. Trust has been described as a group’s expectation that other entities can be relied on (Hoy, W. K., & Kupersmith, 1985). Bryk and Schneider (2002) conceptualized trust as a series of calculated decisions upon which an individual decides whether or not to engage in actions with someone else, despite the risk. Similar to the concept of leadership, trust

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involves an interaction between two or more people. This positive interaction is based on the perceptions developed by the parties involved in the interaction. These positive perceptions are important in building trust relationships between administrators (Tarter, Bliss, & Hoy, 1989). However, if the perceptions between the parties are negative, then the interactions between administrators will be negative. When interactions between willing participants are negative, those within the organization become less willing to take risks, develop means of reducing betrayal, try to develop more sanctions to protect their own interests (Kramer, and Tyler, 1996), and are more likely to challenge the decisions being made in the organization (Tyler, & Degoey, 1996). With all of the negatives surrounding the lack of trust, it is important to understand how administrators build positive relationships that support trust. Hoy and Tschannen–Moran (1999) defined trust as a “party’s willingness to be vulnerable to another party based on the confidence that the latter party is benevolent, reliable, competent, honest, and open“ ( p 189). These traits are similar to Sternberg’s traits for ethical relations, which have been listed as “reciprocity, sincerity, honesty, integrity, and compassion” (2011). Administrators must work to develop positive interactions with those who work with and for them in order to start building levels of trust. If principals and superintendents cannot work together and build a positive level of trust, their opportunity to develop a positive working relationship may be compromised (Tarter, Bliss, & Hoy, 1989). This relationship is important as superintendents try to lead their schools and develop a positive school climate.

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Definition of School Climate The leadership of school administrators is paramount in determining the organizational climate of the school (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1998). The creation and development of a positive school climate is a task that every administrator faces. The public school administrator of today is faced more than ever before with challenges in regard to developing a positive school climate. Schools are faced with the growing pressure of maintaining high test scores in a setting that is positive and safe. Before a school can determine if a positive climate exists, administrators must first understand what school climate is. School climate has been studied since the 1960s (Anderson, 1982), and has been conceptualized as a “personality” of the school (Halpin & Croft, 1963), the “health” of the school (Hoy, Tarter, & Kottkamp, 1991), and the “leadership” of the school (Kelley, Thornton, & Daugherty, 2001). Hoy (1991), along with several colleagues, operationalized school climate in different manners. One early definition stated that school climate is the quality of the “school experience” as perceived by students, parents, and staff (Hoy, Tarter, & Kottkamp). School climate can be operationalized as a group of internal factors that separate one school from any other school and can impact the behavior of all participants within the school (Hoy & Tarter, 1992). School climate, however, should not be confused with school culture. While the two are similar, the culture of a school becomes more entrenched than school climate. Culture provides insight to a school's belief system, preferences and dislikes; whereas, climate tends to focus on the morale of the organization (Gruenert, 2008). Administrators have a direct effect on both climate and culture based on their interactions

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with others. These interactions with others are useful in determining the school vision and school mission (Kelley, Thornton, & Daugherty, 1991), finding ways to motivate others (Hoy, & Woolfolk, 1993), helping with the development of curriculum and instruction (Printy, & Marks, 2006), developing the organizational structure of the school (Sinden, Hoy, & Sweetland, 2004), and obtaining support from the local community (Hoy, & Hannum, 1997). The definition of school climate should not be confined to the boundaries of the school buildings. The climate also extends to the vision set forth for the district as a whole, including as many factions and groups as feasibly possible (Wilmore, 2008). The unification of the district with a common vision is critical for developing a positive school climate. Definition of Student Achievement Student achievement is second only to student safety in the minds of many educational leaders. Achievement can be measured in many ways. One way widely recognized is the grading system teachers utilize within their classrooms. But is standard grading a true representation of student success? Early in the twentieth century, Finkelstein (1913) presented his opinions in regard to the practicality of grading in his review of the history of grading by stating: When we consider the practicality universal use in all educational institutions of a system of marks, whether numbers or letters, to indicate scholastic attainment of the pupils or students in these institutions, and when we remember how very great stress is laid by teachers and pupils alike upon these marks as real measures or indicators of attainment, we can but be astonished at

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the blind faith that has been felt in the reliability of the marking system. School administrators have been using with confidence an absolutely uncalibrated instrument… (p. 1).

In the 90-plus years since Mr. Finkelstein penned those words, very little has changed how educator’s rate their students’ success. Today, most schools in America utilize an alphabetical rating system (A,B,C,D, and F). Students receiving an “A” are believed to have the greatest student achievement while those receiving an “F” have the lowest student achievement. This is a subjective method of rating student achievement as the quality of an “A” for School 1 may not have the same meaning as an “A” for School 2. In order to standardize student achievement, educational scholars strove to create a system to evaluate one set of students against another. This need created what is known as a “norm referenced test.” A norm referenced test is one that compares the score of a group of students against the scores of a sample or “norming group” (www.fairtest.org). While these tests do provide a standardized method to monitoring student achievement, the results give only a snapshot into the achievement of a student. In many cases, it may simply measure the ability of a student to take a test. Norm-referenced tests, originally developed to measure the success of the students, have more often been used to measure the effectiveness of the school (Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, 2003). In 2001, standardized testing became a hot topic after the amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. This amendment, referred to as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), was intended to "even the playing field" between disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged students (www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/107-110.pdf). NCLB was an attempt by the 24

government to ensure that all districts had measurable academic goals based on basic skills and knowledge and that annual testing was performed and the results disaggregated and disseminated (Ivory & Acker-Hocevar, 2007). Many people posited that the NCLB legislation made schools accountable for the achievement of their students for the first time in the history of United States education (Marzano, & Waters, 2009). In reality, what ensued was another political battle focused on public versus private schools and an under-funded mandate that further drove a wedge between schools and their patrons, reduced the trust level between the two, and became a political tool for revamping public schools (Garrison, 2009). Relationships, Trust, and School Climate Trust and school climate can be intertwined in many ways. Two of the most prevalent ways they are linked together are by organizational structure and leadership. The structure of the school can have a direct effect on the climate within a school and the trust exhibited by members of the organization. Organizational structure can be divided into two major categories: schools with structures that enable workers or those that hinder workers (Sinden, Hoy, & Sweetland, 2004).

Enabling school structure can have

a direct impact on the relational trust of the organization by moving decisions to “frontline stakeholder” (Lam, 2005), and fostering a system of open dialogue and cohesion (Hoy, & Sweetland, 2001). Successful schools focus on being open with all of the stakeholders within the district. The climate of a school district is built upon trust, and specifically built around the relationships developed within the school district as a whole. Only through positive relationships will successful districts be able to operate effectively

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(Ivory & Acker-Hocevar, 2007). The relationships developed by the school and its parents are at the core of developing a positive school climate. An important goal for many school administrators is that of improving school climate. A positive school climate has been shown to improve student performance (Hoy, Tarter, & Bliss, 1990), reduce safety concerns of parents (Gunzelmann, 2005), and connect with “at-risk youth” (Dufresne & Dorn, 2005). School climate is a foundational building block in sociological theory and school reform. Sociological theory presents school climate as a series of relationships found within the school, and it focuses on how those relationships can help or hinder the effectiveness of the school (Anderson, 1982). The development of these relationships within schools is important and may be necessary for schools to continue to improve. Administrators and teachers strive to give students new experiences and develop positive relationships at school. The experiences students receive at school have a great effect on school climate, both positive and negative. The administration helps set the tone for the school district based on leadership style and expectations for the school. The style of leadership and the way a superintendent carries out the functions of the position help to determine how effective the school’s climate will be (Sergiovanni, & Starratt, 1998) and how effective the school can become. If there is not a common vision and direction for the climate of the district, teachers may be under the misconception their position is predicated on the number of students who “pass” their class. Administrators have to provide teachers with a school climate conducive to learning, but not superficial in nature. Without this structure,

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teachers may create what Schmoker (2006) calls a “Crayola Curriculum” in which students are given grades for creativity and completions, instead of true mastery. The Crayola Curriculum eschews a negative climate in the school by skewing the data used by administration in the decision making process. With the passage of NCLB, schools today must utilize more research in their decision making processes. According to Hill and Flynn (2006), research conducted by Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning was instrumental in moving the focus from teaching as an art form to that of a science. Gone are the days of adopting a practice because that is the way it has always been done. Schools today must utilize practices that are scientifically based, yet flexible enough to not lose the relationships developed within the school system (Marzano & Waters, 2009). Summary A superintendent must be able to lead his or her school effectively through any situation. The ability to lead a school through a crisis situation is something every administrator must be prepared for. The ability to lead the school system, manage the crisis, and maintain the integrity of the position, coupled with sustaining a high level of student achievement is paramount to the success of a superintendent. The research utilized in this chapter describes the history of school crises in the United States. The chapter shows the relationships between leadership, trust, and school climate. Finally, the chapter expounds on the significance that leadership, trust, and school climate all have on student achievement.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to explore the leadership skills that two successful superintendents utilized to lead one school district through crisis situations. Through the use of case study, the superintendents' leadership styles and the overall social dynamic of the school district were studied. I examined each crisis situation to provide context; however, the focus of the study was the leadership utilized by superintendents before, during, and after the crisis. The central focus of the study revolves around one central research question, and two secondary questions: 1) What leadership skills did each superintendent utilize to lead his district through the crisis situation? a) How did these skills affect school climate and trust? b) What leadership theoretical framework is helpful in explaining this phenomenon? This chapter outlines the general research design utilized in this study. It also includes a discussion of case selection, data collection, data analysis, case limitations, and ethical considerations, and gives a detailed description of the researcher's background. 28

Research Design This study utilized a qualitative case study design. According to Kowalski (2005), "Ethnography and case studies have become synonyms for qualitative research" (p. 5). Case studies are utilized to study in detail an organization, activity or event and the processes that individuals utilized during a specific timeframe (Cresswell, 2003). Bromley (1990) defined case study research as “systematic inquiry into an event or a set of related events which aims to describe and explain the phenomenon of interest” ( p. 302). In addition, case studies utilize data obtained from archival records, interviews, and observations (Zucker, 2009). The phenomenon I intend to explain through case study is that of positive leadership throughout a crisis situation. In addition, I focused on the actions taken by the superintendents before, during, and after the crisis to determine the climate of the organization (Anfara, and Mertz, 2006). Through the use of a qualitative case study design, the collection and analysis of data, provided insight into the expressions of personal feelings and emotions experienced by each of the superintendents that could not have been ascertained through a quantitative study. Case Selection This study used pre-selected cases: two crises situations that occurred in the same school district located in the Northeast corner of Oklahoma. Each case was selected as a representative sample of major crises, as defined by the Oklahoma Safe Schools Guide (Oklahoma State Department of Education, 2006). The two crises were a natural disaster and medical epidemic.

The cases were chosen due to the widespread media coverage of

the crises, the superintendents' individual responses to the crisis, and the consistent achievement pattern set by the students of the district. The school district represented is a

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small to medium sized rural school with a k-12 student population of 1,200 during the first crisis and 2,500 students during the 2nd crisis twenty years later. The school utilized a small central office, with a superintendent and one assistant superintendent during each crisis situation. This type of organizational structure was chosen to better focus on the leadership style of one central figure instead of the potential bureaucratic nature of a larger school district. The crises faced by the school district were separated by 20 years and were experienced by two different superintendents. Both administrators were active superintendents at the district and at other school districts after the crisis. Despite the fact the crises occurred in the same district, the research focused on the superintendents' leadership and not the school district. The Crises studied occurred 20 years apart at the same school in Oklahoma, the Oologah - Talala Consolidated School District. The district encompasses the community of Oologah and Talala. The combined population of the small rural communities during the crisis was 2160 and 4119 individuals, respectively (http://www.census.gov). The crises I used to conduct my research occurred due to a medical condition that ran rampant throughout the school district and a tornado that ravaged the school district. Neither superintendent was employed by the district during this research study. The first crisis situation for the Oologah-Talala School District occurred due to an act of God. On a spring evening, the superintendent, Keith Ballard, had a normal school system and less than 24 hours later the school was in a crisis situation. An F-5 tornado ravaged the school district that evening leaving almost half of the district's facilities damaged and the vast majority of the bus fleet destroyed (www.Oologahonline.com).

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The second crisis situation was a medical crisis which required action by Superintendent Rick Thomas, and the school district to prevent an outbreak of a deadly, and debilitating bacteria. The district required help from the State Health department, the State epidemiologist, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.tulsaworld.com). During this crisis, the school district experienced fatalities of students and wide-spread panic from the community, students, and parents. While these crises were very different in nature, it is proposed that they are closely intertwined in the response needed by the superintendent, the impact on the communities, and the well-being of the students involved. In addition, the crises studied were chosen based on their relevance to potential crises in Oklahoma as well as the prevalence of these types of crises over other examples of crisis such as gun violence (Cowden, 2013). Data Collection After obtaining approval from my dissertation research committee, I contacted the superintendents to ensure they would be agreeable to participate in a study of this nature (Appendix F). Due to the fact I had pre-determined specific crisis cases to be studied, I contacted the potential superintendent participants prior to submitting my application for permission to conduct research. After I received the superintendents' confirmation, I applied for approval through the Oklahoma State University Institutional Review Board. As soon as I received approval from the review board, I contacted the superintendents to begin data collection. The first superintendent was scheduled through his assistant, but the second was scheduled directly through him.

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The main method of data collection for this study was that of formal interviews. According to Yin (2014), “One of the most important sources of case study evidence is the interview.” Due to the fact that both superintendents are currently employed, I wanted to minimize the disruption to their daily schedules. I arrived approximately 10 minutes early for each interview to facilitate obtaining the consent signatures (Appendix A), and to start the interviews on time. Before the interview started, I read the consent statement, explained the purpose of my research, and explained that due to the public nature of the crises I would be using their names and would not utilize a pseudonym. I also explained that they were free to stop the interview and withdraw from the study at any time. Each superintendent enthusiastically agreed to participate under those guidelines. The superintendents also agreed to follow-up interviews to fill in any gaps or address further questions. Each superintendent was interviewed twice, and each interview lasted approximately 50-60 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded for transcription purposes. My next step in this study was to identify employees who worked under the superintendents during the crisis situation and were potential informants. Because I live and work close to the community where the crisis occurred, I was able to locate many employees who were potential interviewees. I asked the current superintendent of schools for permission to contact employees and was granted permission (Appendix G). I sent a questionnaire (Appendix C) to known employees of the district. The questionnaire consisted of two questions regarding the employees work history for Oologah Public Schools. The first question determined if the respondent was employed by the district during the tornado crisis of 1991. The second question determined if the

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respondent was employed by the district during the meningitis crisis of 2010. The questionnaire was hand delivered and collected. I received questionnaires with affirmative responses from four employees. I contacted the employees and asked about their job positions during the crisis situation. The first employee chosen was employed by the district during both the tornado and the meningitis crises. This employee was chosen because he/she could give a perspective of comparing the two crises that none of the other respondents could give. The second employee was employed by the district during the meningitis crisis. This respondent was chosen because he/she was a teacher in the district and lived within the community. The other respondents did not live in the community. From the employee living within the community, I could gain insight to how the community responded to the crisis, in addition to a description of the school setting. Each of these employees was interviewed once for 40 minutes. I called each of the two employees chosen to arrange a location convenient for them. Each expressed a desire to get out of their offices/classrooms to obtain privacy, so each agreed to come to my office for the interviews. At the beginning of each interview, I obtained a consent signature from the employee (Appendix E). I read the consent agreement, and explained the purpose of the study. I also obtained a pseudonym for each of the employees. Employee number 1 was given the pseudonym of Sue Richards, and employee 2 was given the pseudonym of Marla Moss. These interviews were also audio-recorded for transcription purposes. According to Yin (2014), reliability can be defined as, “the consistency and repeatability of the research procedures used in a case study” (p. 240). Repeatability can only be achieved through the extensive documentation by the researcher (Yin, 2014).

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The triangulation of data can be attained by utilizing various data sources (Patton, 2002). I was able to triangulate the data through the documentation of interviews, journaling, note taking, and through artifacts. Prior to the interviews, I obtained numerous artifacts found on the internet through multiple search engines. The documents utilized for this study included newspaper articles, editorials, and the dissertation of one of the superintendents. This dissertation examined the leadership skills and details performed by the school district during the tornado crisis. I also gained permission from the current superintendent of the school district to walk the campus of the school. This school district sits on a single school site with PK-12 housed in different buildings all at the same location. I was able to take photographs of the various structures that were specifically mentioned during the interview process (Appendix J). The final form of data collection was that of journaling. The formal journal included field notes taken during the research study and allowed me to record my observations and perceptions about the studied events. Data Analysis Due to the qualitative nature of this study, I utilized the guidelines set forth by Rudestam and Newton (2001) for each transcript: 1. Review each statement for how well it describes the experience. 2. Record all relevant statements. 3. Remove all statements that are redundant or overlap with others, leaving the key meaning units of the experience. 4. Organize the invariant meaning units into themes.

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5. Coalesce the themes into a description of the textures of the experience and augment the description with quotations from the text. 6. Using your imagination and taking multiple perspectives to find possible meanings in the text, construct a description of the structures of your experience. 7. Create a textural-structural description of the meanings and essences of your experience (pp. 157). All superintendent interviews were numerically coded for specific themes. Employee interviews and artifacts were similarly coded for common themes. In addition, employee interviews were coded for new information. These were then similarly coded after follow up interviews with superintendents. In addition, I took relevant data, i.e.: transcripts, articles, artifacts, and journals and analyzed the data through the theoretical lense of authentic leadership (Kilbourn, 2006). The first step in the analysis of the data was to transcribe all of the interviews, assemble my field notes and journal entries, and scan or print all historical artifacts. I read through all of the case data one time without making any notes to familiarize myself with the data. I then reread the data making notations and comments about the data, including any ambiguity that might need to be readdressed. Prior to interviewing the employees I chunked the data gained from the superintendent into common themes. I categorized each chunk of data for further review. Within each chunk of data I then clustered the data into common themes (Cresswell, 2003). From these common themes I then coded the data utilizing a numerical coding system to determine patterns and major ideas (Cresswell, 2003). As I reviewed my data through the chunking and coding process I was able to classify my categories into a preliminary descriptive narrative. 35

I analyzed my data through a coding system which allowed for ideas and concepts to merge together easily. I first analyzed the data from the artifacts I gathered. This started a baseline of information that could lead to a detailed description from the superintendent. Utilizing the data obtained from the superintendent interviews, I could then code the information into common themes revolving around leadership. From this information, I was able to delve deeper into the interviews with the employees. After the conclusion of the interviews with the employees, I utilized the analysis description mentioned above to again find common themes that would corroborate the data obtained from the superintendents. Finally, I interviewed the superintendents a second time to fill in any gaps and to dive deeper into concepts unearthed during the employee interviews. These data were again analyzed in the same manner. After the coding of all data and cross-checking codes for superintendents versus employees, I analyzed the information into major themes, and looked for relationships between the data obtained from artifacts, superintendent interviews, and employee interviews. Through the data analysis process, I identified areas of commonality in the leadership characteristics of the two superintendents and the skills used to maintain high levels of trust. Case Limitations I acknowledge several limitations to this case study. This research study is limited to a rural school, and may not be applicable to other contexts. Secondly, both study participants were male: however, this detail should have no bearing on the assumptions made as I am not trying to establish a difference in gender leadership styles. The third limitation is public opinion. This research study focused on crises that occurred in one single community. The rural community was very heavily scrutinized by the local

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media, but my focus was not on the community. Rather, I focused on the individuals leading the district during each crisis. As previously mentioned, this media attention leads itself to a plethora of historical artifacts to examine, which was of benefit to the research. A fourth limitation to the study is time. The first crisis occurred in 1991. As time passes it is more difficult to separate fact from opinion and remember minute details that may be valuable to the research. The last limitation is bias. I have known, or known of, both of the superintendents for many years. One of the superintendents worked in a neighboring district where my father was a building principal. The other superintendent is a former colleague, and my current supervisor. Despite my familiarity with both of the superintendents and both of the crises, I strived for objectivity in examining each case study and clarified any issues that arose. Ethical Considerations Throughout this study, I interacted with all participants with respectful, courteous, and ethical dialogue and treatment. I followed all guidelines prescribed for ethical research as determined by the Oklahoma State University Institutional Review Board (IRB). The only risk I identified was that of anonymity. Due to the high profile nature of the crises, the ability to maintain the anonymity of the research study was limited and not guaranteed to the superintendents. The two employees interviewed for the triangulation of data, however, were granted anonymity. A pseudonym was given to each employee interviewed and was utilized throughout this study to ensure the anonymity of those individuals. Every caution was taken to ensure the integrity of the study and allow all participants to withdraw from the study if they so chose.

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The purpose of this research study was not to criticize, disparage, or point out faults or weaknesses of the superintendents. The study focused on what the superintendents did well as they led their district through individual crisis situations. Since both superintendents are still involved in the education sector, I attempted to determine what, if any, things they would change during the crisis. I believe this information will be beneficial and pertinent to current and future administrators who read this study. Trustworthiness Validity does not have the same meaning in qualitative research as it does in quantitative studies, but it can be seen as a strength of qualitative research (Cresswell, 2003). Yin (2014) described four tests that are common for social science studies: construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability (p. 46). It is important to note that these terms are generally utilized for quantitative research and not qualitative. According Steele (2016), terms such as “credibility” can be applied to the concept of internal validity, “transferability” to external validity, and “dependability” to reliability. For this study I utilized the terms generally intended for a quantitative structure, but described by Yin (2014) to be acceptable for case study research. I did not include external validity as a trustworthy measure in this research as qualitative research is not generalizable. Internal Validity For this study I utilized four specific techniques described by Yin (2014) and Cresswell (2003) to analyze the data and maintain internal validity: pattern matching and explanation building. Pattern building is the comparison of a pattern taken from the data

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with a predicted phenomenon already determined (Yin, 2014). For my study, the predicted phenomenon was the successful leadership skills utilized by each superintendent during crisis situations that contributed to maintaining the levels of student achievement over an extended period of time by the students at the Oologah Public School system. In addition, I utilized the concept of explanation building. Explanation building occurs in a narrative form, and according to Yin (2014), “The explanations reflect some theoretically significant propositions” (p.147). In this study I attempted to explain the leadership skills utilized by the superintendents and the leadership style exhibited by the superintendents. I consistently questioned myself throughout the analysis portion to avoid any bias. Due to the fact that I am familiar with the superintendents, I had to set aside my suppositions to create questions that would filter through any potential bias. In addition, the triangulation of data from multiple sources helps to validate the findings within the study (Cresswell, 2003). For this study, I triangulated data from historical artifacts, four superintendent interviews, two employee interviews, journal entries, and observations made during the study. Reliability Reliability in case study research is the assurance that a later researcher can follow the protocol of the previous researcher, conduct the case study again, and obtain the same conclusions through the documentation of procedures and the limiting of bias (Yin, 2014). Throughout the study, I followed a detailed interview protocol, transcribed the recordings in a timely manner, classified all artifacts, and journaled my thoughts and feelings in an attempt to ignore any bias developed during the interview process.

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Throughout this study, I tried to limit my personal biases; however due to the qualitative nature of the study many of the perceptions of the cases studied are evaluated through the lens of my experiences as an administrator. Additional trustworthiness techniques are listed in Table 1. Table 1: Trustworthiness of Data Technique Engagement

Observation

Interview

Triangulation

Detailed

Examples I met with both superintendents twice each, and employees once. Methods of communication: e-mail, telephone calls, and interviews.

Data Presentation Methodology: Sampling Procedures

Observed participants during interviews, wrote observation notes, visited the school campus. I also accessed school websites.

Observation: Sampling Procedures

I followed a pre-determined interview protocol. I followed all university guidelines as the researcher.

Observation: Sampling Procedures

I utilized multiple forms of data: Superintendent interviews. employee interviews, observations, and historical artifacts

Methodology: Sampling Procedures

The profile of the school district, superintendents, and crises experienced

Data presentation: Case Studies

The following may be accessed: transcripts of the interviews, observation notes, emails, school report cards, news articles, Keith Ballard - Dissertation.

Methodology

Data presentation: Case Studies

Data presentation: Case Studies

Data presentation: Case Studies

and data analysis

narrative Audit trail

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Researcher Background I have spent almost my entire life in school and have experienced school from the aspect of student, support staff, substitute teacher, teacher, principal, central office administrator, and most importantly as a parent. I am a proud member of an education family with more than 10 teachers and administrators. I am the son of a lifetime administrator and feel it is my privilege to follow in the footsteps of my father. My father was employed as an educator for forty-three years. Forty-two of those years were spent as an elementary principal in a small rural community. As the child of an administrator, I was never far from the school. I spent almost every break and most of the summer with my dad at school. Throughout college, I worked as a weekend custodian buffing floors and painting classrooms. On all breaks from college, I worked as a substitute teacher. It was inevitable, from an early age: I would turn to education as a career. Upon graduation from Oklahoma State University with a degree in education, I became a science teacher in a suburban community. I remained in the position of teacher and coach for eleven years; during that tenure, I obtained my Master’s Degree from Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, in Educational Leadership and Administration. When I graduated from college, I knew I needed to be a teacher, but that was never my end goal. My destiny was always in the field of administration. I wanted nothing more than to be like my father, be the leader of my own building, and eventually be a superintendent. After a very enjoyable tenure as a teacher, I was able to make that first move toward my goal in administration by accepting an assistant principal position at Owasso High School.

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I have been in administration for the past 13 years. During that time, I have held the position of assistant principal, principal, and briefly as assistant superintendent. Being a school administrator, like my father, has been the culmination of the achievement of goals I set many years ago. But, it has also been met with many challenges. I have had the honor and pleasure of working with many administrators who were great leaders and others who did not "measure up." As a practitioner, I have always been fascinated with the fact that administrators with very similar training can react and handle situations very differently. The more experience I gained, the more I became convinced that the differences had little to do with education methodology and more to do with leadership knowledge and skills. In order to reach my ultimate goal of being a superintendent, I decided to enroll in doctoral classes in the field of Educational Leadership at Oklahoma State University (OSU). It was at this time I was exposed to the tenets of leadership, trust, school climate, and efficacy. I had just finished most of my coursework and was contemplating a research proposal when the district I was working in experienced a crisis causing the resignation of our superintendent. I was asked by the school board and interim superintendent to assist during that tumultuous time. For six months I maintained my position as middle school principal as well as assisting our interim superintendent as needed. The interim superintendent was a competent individual, but was considered to be part of the crisis. This crisis led to a district and individual schools that were divided. It was during this time of dysfunction that I realized that crises happen all the time in schools, and every district cannot handle the crisis as inefficiently as ours did. I became fascinated even further with the

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leadership required during a crisis, and really wanted to find out how other superintendents handled their respective crises while managing the day-to-day activities of school. At the end of the 6-month trial period, our interim superintendent retired, a new interim superintendent was hired, and I was able to resume my somewhat neglected duties as principal. The community and school response to our crisis, however, did not end for several years. The trust in our school had been shattered, and I knew I wanted to discover real world examples of what great leaders do during their own crisis situations! Summary This chapter included a description of the methodology utilized in this study. The case selection, crisis selection, data collection, and analysis were described. In addition, research validity and reliability factors were presented along with the case limitations, and the ethical considerations within the study. The chapter concluded with a detailed background history of my involvement in the education profession, and my desire to pursue this research topic.

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CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

Introduction The purpose of this study was to analyze the leadership skills utilized by two rural Oklahoma superintendents during crisis situations at their school systems. I focused the research on two separate incidents that occurred on two separate occasions at the same school district. The studies were indicative of crises situations that could be faced by superintendents at any school system. I conducted the research through the design of case study I utilized the individual real world crises faced by the superintendents. I was able to construct a description of presumed leadership skills, and tactics that were utilized. I also analyzed the traits the superintendents used to build trust within the school and its affect on the school climate before and after the crises. Lastly, I examined various leadership frameworks to determine the framework that best exemplified the leadership style of the superintendents. The two crises, while occurring in the same small community, were separated by a time span of almost twenty years and the types of crises encountered. Each

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superintendent in charge of the district at the time was highly qualified and held in high regard by their associates and colleagues. Throughout the course of this study, I took great care to ensure that the focus of the research was on what the leaders did right, not a condemnation of any decisions made. However, an essential component of the research was to try to ascertain actions the superintendents might have changed with the benefit of hindsight. I utilized effective leadership and trust within an organization as the framework of this study. The central question utilized in this study was, "What leadership skills were most instrumental in leading the school through crisis?" Additionally, I explored the role trust played during and after the school crisis and changes in school climate, if any, that occurred after the crisis. Research Design In August of 2014, I sent an inquiry to two individuals to determine if they would be agreeable to participating in a qualitative study regarding their experiences as superintendents of a small school district in northeast Oklahoma. Both were agreeable to be interviewed and were excited at the prospect of being able to add a practical application to leadership theory. After approval of my research proposal, I conducted the interviews in mid-October of 2015 and February of 2016. The first participant I interviewed was superintendent of the Oologah Talala (Oologah) School District in 1991. During the school year of 1991 the district was hit by a tornado that resulted in closing the school. The second person I interviewed was the superintendent in Oologah in 2010. In the Spring of 2010, the school was devastated by an outbreak of Bacterial Meningitis. In addition to the interviews of the two superintendents, I interviewed two individuals

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from the district to gain employee insight of the superintendents' leadership, and the effect on the school district from their perspective. While discussing the research with another educator, I determined that the individual had been employed by the district during both of the crises situations. A second individual was also identified as being an employee during the meningitis outbreak. Surveys (Appendix C) were given to the individuals to determine if they were suitable candidates for the study. The employees were interviewed in January and February of 2016. This chapter includes the demographics and history of the school district of this study, Oologah-Talala Public Schools, as well as the two reports from the cases studied. Each case begins with an overview of the professional resume of the superintendent in charge of the Oologah School District, and a description of the crisis encountered by the district. The final section of each case focuses on the identification and rationale of specific leadership skills employed by the superintendent during each crisis. In addition to the interviews with each of the superintendents, I garnered information given in the cases through the analysis of documents I gathered as well as information provided by the school employees. Due to the widespread media attention garnered by each of the crises, and the public knowledge surrounding each situation, the superintendents agreed to participate in the study and granted the use of their names and identities. Anonymity was granted to the other participants of this study. The School: Oologah - Talala Public Schools The Oologah - Talala (Oologah) School District is a small rural school district located 25 miles northeast of Tulsa, Oklahoma. The district is a consolidated school district serving the communities of Oologah and Talala. Oologah schools started

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operation in 1911 with 8 teachers (O'Dell, 2016).

In 1959, the Oologah School District

consolidated with the Talala School District. Talala is located approximately seven miles north of Oologah proper. While the annexation did not dramatically increase the student population, consolidation did substantially increase the overall geographic size of the school district (Ballard, 1993). Student population grew from several hundred students in the early 1900s (O'Dell, 2016) to 1,200 students in 1991 (Ballard, 1993). By 2010, that number had grown to 1,846 and has remained stable through the most recent reporting (www.schoolreportcard.org). To accommodate the student growth, the district purchased land in 1964 and constructed a building to house the students at its current location. Additional buildings were constructed in 1971, 1974, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1984, and 1988 (Ballard, 1993). In 1991, and currently, all students attend school on a single campus located on 45 acres just north of the Oologah City Limits. The Oologah - Talala School system is a rural district with a relatively small amount of commerce. However, the district is well funded due to a Public Service of Oklahoma (PSO) coal-fired power plant. Due to the tax revenue generated by the power plant the facilities at the school system are first class. According to Ballard, in the early 1990s the tax base was large enough to run several high end bond issues that were passed with minimal effort (1993). In 2009, the school reported an average property valuation per student of $61,117.00. This valuation is $22,000.00 over the current state average. In addition the average household income rose from $29,861 in 1990 to $66,833 in 2010 (www.SchoolReportCard.org). While student achievement may not be correlated to facilities, as the school district grew, student achievement increased.

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The Oologah school system consistently maintained high student success in addition to its growth. According to the Office of Accountability, since its inception of tracking schools in the 1996-97 school-year to the present time, Oologah has been well below the state average for 4-year cohort dropouts. The district also has maintained graduation rates, end of instruction passing rates, and ACT scoring averages higher than the state average (www.SchoolReportCard.org). Although I was unable to obtain accountability data from 1991, one could infer that the school maintained a high level of student success during that time period as well. These achievement indicators as compared to the state averages in (Table 2) illustrate the stability the school maintained before, during, and after the crisis. Table 2 Oologah Student Achievement Indicators Compared to the State of Oklahoma Average Year

District/State Graduation Rates (%)

District/State Average ACT Score

2007

District/State 1st-3rd Reading Remediation (%) 26.7/35.0

94.8/97.0

21.5/20.8

2008

19.3/35.7

97.6/97.3

20.5/20.8

2009

12.5/34.3

99.3/97.8

21.6/20.8

2010

9.3/34.0

99.2/97.9

21.4/20.8

2011

13.9/34.1

98.5/97.9

21.1/20.8

2012

12.0/35.7

98.0/97.7

21.3/20.8

2013

11.7/34.8

98.5/97.6

22.2/20.9

2014

26.0/40.1

99.3/98.1

20.7/20.8

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Keith Ballard and the OologahTornado of 1991 Dr. Keith Ballard currently is a professor at the University of Oklahoma. Dr. Ballard earned a Bachelor of Arts in Speech and Psychology from Fort Hays State University, a Master of Education from Northwestern Oklahoma State University, and a Doctorate in Educational Administration from Oklahoma State University. Dr. Ballard retired from K-12 education as the leader of the Tulsa Public School System, Oklahoma's largest public school district. Prior to leading the Tulsa School System, Dr. Ballard served as director of the Oklahoma State School Board Association (OSSBA) and as Superintendent of the Claremore and Oologah-Talala Public Schools. Dr. Ballard began his teaching career in 1972 with Coweta Public Schools. In 1974 he moved his family to Oologah where he taught and coached for 3 years. In 1977, Dr. Ballard began his administrative career. During that time, he served as a principal, curriculum director, federal programs director, and overseer of transportation and operations. Dr. Ballard became the superintendent of Oologah Schools in 1986. Under Dr. Ballard's leadership, Oologah Schools was considered to be one of the leaders in Oklahoma in regard to school facilities. Dr. Ballard was the Oologah school superintendent for a total of 6 years. I met with Dr. Ballard in his office at the University of Oklahoma's Schusterman Center in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to discuss his time in Oologah. Dr. Ballard's office is typical of most college professors. Text-books and other reading references were located on the book shelves, family pictures were prominently displayed above the computer credenza and current research and class notes were being prepped on the main desk. The difference between this office and that of many other professors is the amount of

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hardware on the walls. Most offices have a wall with diplomas, pictures, and awards; Dr. Ballard's office has all those, as well as a Commendation from the Governor of the State of Oklahoma, and memorabilia highlighting Dr. Ballard's "Tulsan of the Year" and Oklahoma Association of School Administrators "Superintendent of the Year" awards from 2012. Despite the fact that Dr. Ballard has rehashed the events of the tornado of 1991 numerous times, he was eager to discuss the events surrounding the tornado and expand on the learning opportunities provided by this research study. We started our discussion with the "tables being turned:" he asked me questions about my history and goals for the future. I explained to him that my father was Duane Cantrell, former principal at Collinsville's Wilson Elementary school. He seemed pleased when I explained to him that my father wanted me to tell him "hello". Whether Dr. Ballard really remembered my father was not mentioned, but that discussion along with the discussion of common peers and co-workers helped put me at ease. That ability to put people at ease became even more evident as the interview progressed and we discussed the tornado crisis. Most superintendents have events that change the course of their future at one point; however, little did Dr. Ballard know that a tornado would be that event for him. A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that extends from the sky to the ground. In the United States, this storm phenomenon is responsible for 60-65 fatalities and 1,500 injuries per year on average (National Weather Service, 2016). In Oklahoma, the average number of tornadoes is 55 per year. Most of these tornadoes occur in the spring months of April and May (www.srh.noaa.gov). In April of 1991, Oklahoma recorded 24 tornadoes that touched down across the state. On April 26, 1991, a rotating

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column of destruction carved a path over 1/2 mile wide through the farm country of Rogers County and took aim on the Oologah School District facilities (www.srh.noaa.gov). The tornado would later be classified as an F-5 tornado with wind speeds over 200 miles per hour. An F-5 tornado as rated by the Fujita scale at the time was the highest rating given to tornadoes. Today, meteorologists use an Enhanced Fujita scale (National Weather Service, 2016). Even on the newer enhanced scale, the Oologah Tornado would still be given the highest rating possible based on the damage and destruction caused by the high winds. April 26th, 1991, is a day that Keith Ballard will never forget. It was on that day that he became the first source of reference on how to lead a school through the crisis of rebuilding a school after the mass destruction of the Oologah School Site. Dr. Ballard left Oologah after the conclusion of school on that Friday afternoon. He and his family travelled out of town to visit family near Lawton, Oklahoma. Dr. Ballard received a phone call around 2:00 a.m. with the news that no superintendent ever wants to hear. The call was from middle school principal, Dan Willits. According to Ballard, "Dan simply said we had a tornado hit, and it’s a complete total devastation." When I asked Dr. Ballard what time the tornado hit the school he said, “I know that the tornado hit the school at 9:44 p.m., because that is when the clocks stopped.” The tornado destroyed or damaged the roof of every building on campus, completely destroyed two buildings, and either completely destroyed or damaged every vehicle in the district's fleet except the one driven home by the superintendent. Total damages for the district were well over $10,000,000.00. In addition to dealing with the destruction of the fleet, and the damage

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to the facilities, the school still was faced with the task of educating its students (Ballard, 1993). April 26th was the last day of school for the students of Oologah during the 19901991 school year. Most of the buildings were heavily damaged, and the school had no way to transport any students due to the destruction of the bus fleet. Thus, the school district obtained a waiver from the Oklahoma Stated Department of Education (OSDE) to suspend school for the remainder of the year. The waiver from the OSDE allowed the district to focus on rebuilding and making preparations for resuming classes in the fall of 1991. By closing the school early it would leave 72 workdays to make repairs and get ready for the next school year. The task of rebuilding began on April 27th. The superintendent called a meeting of all district administrators and set forth the guidelines for starting the rebuilding process. Each administrator listed tasks and problems the school was facing. No discussion took place at that time; it was simply a starting point to identify problems that "needed to be tackled" first. The important topic addressed at the meeting was how the district would take care of its most important commodity: the students. Over the next seventy-two workdays, the administrative team met with various government agencies, insurance companies, contractors, community leaders, and elected officials to start the rebuilding and healing process (Ballard, 1993). Seventy-two days is not a lot of time to build a house or make repairs to a single school building, let alone an entire school complex. However, seventy-two days is exactly how long it took the school district and the community to make repairs and rebuild in order to start school on time for the 1991-92 school year. It took enormous

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efforts from everyone within the community to make the deadline. According to estimates made by the general contractor, Harwood Rice, at different times there were as many as 700 workers, volunteers, and school employees in action on the school site (www.newsok.com). Less than three months after the devastating tornado hit Oologah, the students returned to school on new buses, sat in new desks in newly repaired and painted classrooms, and completed the process of rebuilding by attending class. Those students could not have started that school year without the exceptional leadership of Dr. Ballard and the administrators of the Oologah-Talala School District. Leadership Skills Communication was the leadership skill Dr. Ballard mentioned most often as crucial during and after the tornado. Communication was even more difficult due to the non-existence of technology currently utilized every day. There were no cellular devices. Social media was nowhere to be found, and emails were still a thing of the future. This lack of cellular devices sounds like a modern day Nirvana to me as a middle school principal tasked with controlling all of these things on a daily basis. However, in 1991, the lack of these technological advances put enormous pressure on administrators to effectively communicate with school patrons. Making the matter even more difficult was the fact that the tornado went through a large portion of the school district. According to Dr. Ballard, “My first actions were to contact the [school] board. That was in the days before we had cell phones. So, it was difficult with the lines that were down.” With the land lines disconnected, Dr. Ballard had to make a concerted effort to inform the public of relevant information. Many of these communications came through the news media.

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Dr. Ballard spent a large portion of his time dealing with the news media. According to Dr. Ballard, "I was spending too much time in dealing with the media." Dr. Ballard explained that he did not have scheduled media events. "When a reporter called me, I took the time out of my schedule to speak with him." This endeavor of trying to provide as much information as quickly as possible actually became one of the areas that Dr. Ballard admitted he would do differently. However, Dr. Ballard made it very clear that as a superintendent "Communicating with those who are impacted is absolutely imperative." As land lines came back on line some of the communication with the media subsided. The district was able to utilize its "calling trees" to further disseminate important information regarding the disaster. The scope of information Dr. Ballard had to disseminate to parents was enormous. Questions needed to be answered such as: Can we turn school out? Will we have to make up the days? Will students be allowed to graduate? How will returning students be remediated to ensure they are at grade level? All of these questions were addressed and the answers disseminated to the public in as timely a manner as possible. While communication was the most mentioned skill needed by Dr. Ballard, it was not his primary focus. Dr. Ballard made it abundantly clear who was the number one focus for his administrative team. He told his team that every decision they made "We would put the needs of the kids first." In order to ensure that the students were always the primary priority, leadership had to remain organized and focused on the task at hand. The task would seem monumental to any organization: Rebuild or repair every building on a school campus in 72 days. Yet, that is exactly what happened. The administrative team

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members were given tasks, and they were responsible for those tasks. Dr. Ballard was in charge of dealing with insurance. Assistant Superintendent Bob Boyd was in charge of reconstruction. All administrators were given an area they were in charge of, and they gave updates to the superintendent. Regardless the task or the problem, Dr. Ballard stressed that "it would be kids first." It was not easy to keep everyone focused. In every community, there may be factions that feel their need is more important than the need of others. Especially in a consolidated school of two separate communities. Dr. Ballard stated "There was a division between Oologah and Talala, so I was mindful of [the division]." While the rebuilding process was tedious for all, Dr. Ballard was given the added focus of dealing with the outside entities such as the insurance company and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). On May 8, 1991, disaster number 905 was issued by FEMA. FEMA-905 was a disaster proclamation for the State of Oklahoma that included tornados occurring on April 26th, and 27th of that year (www.fema.gov). The Oologah tornado, and specifically the Oologah Talala bus fleet, was part of this disaster recovery package. Prior to 1991 the administrative team in Oologah made the decision that it would no longer carry replacement insurance on its bus fleet. The fleet was well aged, and plans were in the works to replace buses individually as needed in the coming years. No one anticipated the entire fleet being destroyed. Dr. Ballard stated, When the tornado blew through we were very well insured, except for the fleet. It was extremely difficult, but I will say we were very well organized because I was focused on what I needed to be focused on. Bob [Boyd] was focused on what

55

he needed to be focused on, and I think that is the absolute centerpiece for what allowed us to move forward. Due to the disaster certification, the school district was able to utilize federal FEMA funds to replace the bus fleet (Ballard, 1993). The district had a plan to move forward. That plan was vocalized by Dr. Ballard on numerous news stories. For those listening to those news reports there was no doubt that Dr. Ballard's team was going to "make it to the finish line" on time. According to staff member Sue Richards, There was so much unknown, and we didn't really have the cell phones at that point and the same with internet technology that we have now... but he presented that confidence that things are going to be taken care of, that they're addressing the issues as they come up. While discussing the meningitis outbreak of 2010, Rick Thomas mentioned the air of confidence that Dr. Ballard exudes. Mr. Thomas was a teacher in Sperry at the time of the Oologah tornado. He stated that he still remembers hearing "the confidence in his voice that everything was going to work out." The last leadership skill deemed necessary by Dr. Ballard was preparation. As stated throughout this study, the focus of this research was to present what each superintendent did well through the crisis. Dr. Ballard made it very clear throughout our discussions that after the tornado he was lucky in many ways that the right people were in position, and the administrative team was able to work their way through the crisis. Dr. Ballard explained that the district was lucky to have Assistant Superintendent Boyd on its payroll. Dr. Ballard referenced Mr. Boyd as the "Detail Guy" while he, himself, was the

56

"Big Picture Guy." The two worked closely together to ensure that all details regarding the reconstruction went as smoothly as possible. Dr. Ballard emphasized, "Without Bob Boyd, many details could have been missed" due to the lack of crisis planning by the district. Administrators learn lessons throughout their careers. Dr. Ballard learned about disaster preparation in 1991. On May 20, 2013, the city of Moore, Oklahoma, was devastated by a tornado that impacted an elementary school during class time and caused extensive damage and loss of life for some of its students and staff. The day after the Moore tornado Tulsa Public Schools Superintendent, Keith Ballard, sent a letter to the parents of Tulsa Public Schools (See Appendix K). Throughout this letter, Dr. Ballard highlighted the drills, planning, and preparation the school had undertaken to ensure the safety of its students (www.tulsaschools.org). Before the Oologah tornado, there was no preparation letter, but according to Dr. Ballard, "Keith Ballard has never been unprepared in a crisis since April 26, 1991." Leadership Characteristics A person once asked the question, "What do you call a leader with no followers?" The answer is just a person taking a walk. It is very easy to see why, when Dr. Ballard walks, people follow. According to Ms. Richards, "He is very charismatic and very wellspoken, a polished speaker who puts peoples' minds at ease." When discussing the tornado, Dr. Ballard continually referred to the term collaboration. He described a collaborative leader as, “One who believes in and who is willing to go out amongst the people and listen, talk to them, include them, and actually think about what they have to

57

say.” Dr. Ballard described the following three scenarios in which his collaborative style was beneficial to the districts he served. Immediately after the tornado, Dr. Ballard utilized his collaborative leadership style to work with Mr. Ted Jones to organize a community clean-up day on the campus. Over one thousand people showed up to assist, and the entire campus was cleaned up in one day. The second scenario occurred at Dr. Ballard's subsequent superintendent position in Claremore, Oklahoma. In Claremore, he was a part of adding two controversial programs to the curriculum and extracurricular programs, and in trying to pass a bond election for the first time in numerous years. The district held over 55 public hearings with various groups, and Dr. Ballard initiated a question and answer session with the Claremore Ministerial Alliance to get as much input as possible from the patrons. However, one of the most intriguing recollections of collaboration came not from the crisis at Oologah, but at Tulsa Public Schools. In 2011, Tulsa Public Schools was at a crossroads. Operational costs were continuing to rise and student performance was still declining. The administration proposed a major change in the way school was being conducted within the district. Multiple scenarios were presented to the community through months of public hearings leading to the proposal that would close a dozen schools and lead to changes in almost every school in the district (www.krmg.com). According to Dr. Ballard, The night of the vote a total of three people spoke about the proposal. Hundreds spoke prior to that night at town hall meetings, but that night, only three. The proposal that night passed on a 5-2 vote, but without the input from the

58

community and a willingness to listen by the administration, the vote could have easily gone the other way. While discussing leadership styles, Dr. Ballard mentioned several times the need for passionate beliefs, relationships, and a servant attitude. Many leaders can be charismatic, but ineffective due to their inability to connect with others. Throughout the tornado crisis, Dr. Ballard needed people to believe they were headed in the right direction and that the school would be built in time for the next school year. A key factor in being able to rebuild the school so quickly was that Dr. Ballard was able to persuade others to follow his decisions. He was able to persuade others because he appealed to the greater good and because he was considerate of their feelings. In addition, Dr. Ballard had the confidence necessary to make those tough decisions and the compassion to put the needs of others first. According to Sue Richards, Dr. Ballard was "Right in there helping [the community] bring it all together. [Many people] lost their work, but some of them lost their homes." Some of those who lost their homes were the students of Oologah-Talala Schools. Obviously, they were the primary focus of the administration. April 26th fell on a Friday in 1991. The students left school that Friday afternoon as they always had. Little did they know that their school year would not continue. Over the weekend the administration met to work through pressing issues. Dr. Ballard conducted the round table meeting where all of the administrators presented their challenges and issues. Problems were voiced by each administrator until no further issues could be identified. No issues or possible solutions were discussed at this initial meeting. It was a fact finding meeting to determine what the most pressing obstacles were going to be as the

59

district proceeded (Ballard, 1993). According to Dr. Ballard, "Students were the focal point of every decision made." Student well-being was a concern for everyone. The F-5 tornado ripped through the community destroying not only the school, but homes as well. Many of these students were in need of clothes and shelter in addition to education. The school administrative team worked through all of the obstacles with a "student first" mentality. The primary need of the district was to provide its students with an education. This priority could not occur due to the fact that all of the buildings were damaged and no buses were operational to even transport students to a different location. The district applied for a waiver by the State Department of Education to remove its requirement of 175 days in the school year. This waiver was approved, ending the 1990-1991 Oologah Talala school year. However, the end of the school year did not end the concern Dr. Ballard and the administrative team had for their students. Even with the academic issue solved, there still were many problems to combat. When could they schedule graduation, and where could it be held? Was there a way to determine if students still had money on their lunch accounts? And how could the school return items to students? Nothing was too small for the team to consider and analyze. Many of the students and staff had left personal items in the building. Many of these items were blown away during the tornado, but the items that remained needed to be sorted and claimed. Staff members came to the school and attempted to sort items that belonged in their classrooms. According to Ms. Richards,

60

The plan was to kind of essentially locate everything in one room so we could get that out of there. Then the next batch of storms came, and it rained on everything. It ruined most of the stuff we had tried to save. Lesson learned there. Dr. Ballard pointed out that his own kids were students during the tornado. His children were distraught with the fact that they had been working on a Mother's Day project for their Mom which they would not get to finish and present to her. While small items might seem trivial to adults, many of these items were sentimental to students, and Dr. Ballard made it a priority to do everything he could to ease the fears and anxiety of the students. He stated, The teachers trusted me. They knew I was interested in what they thought. I did not believe in top-down management. I was totally collaborative. I believed in servant leadership. I believed I was a servant and that we wanted to be excellent. I could not be excellent without the input from those marvelous wonderful teachers.

Rick Thomas and the Oologah Meningitis Outbreak of 2010 Rick Thomas is the current superintendent for the Skiatook Public School System. Mr. Thomas has been employed as the superintendent for the past five years. Prior to that, he was the Superintendent at the Oologah-Talala School District. Mr. Thomas earned a Bachelor of Science from Oklahoma State University, a Master of Education from Northeastern State University, and a Specialist Degree in School Superintendency from Oklahoma State University. Mr. Thomas began his educational career as a teacher and coach in Sperry, Oklahoma. In 1992, he moved to Owasso, Oklahoma, where he taught for nine years 61

before assuming an administrative position as an assistant principal. Within a few years, Mr. Thomas was promoted to building principal at the Owasso 6th Grade Center. In 2001, Mr. Thomas was hired as the assistant superintendent at Oologah. He held that position for four years before assuming the superintendency. I have known Rick Thomas for twenty-four years. I began my teaching career in Owasso, Oklahoma, the year Rick moved to Owasso. During his time in Owasso we coached football together and were colleagues. Through the years, Rick moved to Oologah, and in 2005, I moved to Skiatook to become the middle school principal. Although we were in different districts, we occasionally saw each other at administrative meetings and several times on the golf course. In 2011, Rick accepted the superintendent position in Skiatook and became my superintendent. It was at that time that Rick became Mr. Thomas to me. Mr. Thomas came into a very bad situation in Skiatook. Due to two scandals involving the school in a ten-year span, the trust between the school and community was very low. Mr. Thomas was the right person for the job. He brought credibility and stability to a very unstable workplace. As an administrator in a school just 20 miles from Oologah, I was familiar with the meningitis outbreak that swept through the school. I was very eager to learn more about how Mr. Thomas led the district through that situation and was very excited when he agreed to be a part of this study. We met in his office at the Education Service Center after school in late October. His office is highlighted with numerous pictures of his family and golf paraphernalia. On one wall is a white board with the notes for him "To Do." Every time I walk into his office I check to make sure there is nothing about my middle school on the board. He is

62

the epitome of a leader with an open door policy. Unless he was already engaged with an appointment, I have never been turned away or asked to come back later to discuss an issue. Mr. Thomas is a soft spoken, genial man of few words. He has an infectious smile and laughter, but it is also easy see if something is wrong or if a mistake has been made. He has a great sense of humor and loves to smile and make kids smile. On the day of the interview, Mr. Thomas started out as jovial as usual. However, as soon as we started discussing the meningitis outbreak, a seriousness and "pained" look came over his face.

Over his thirty year career as a science teacher, coach, principal and

superintendent, Mr. Thomas has had many successes and I am sure, some very trying situations. None of these situations could prepare him for the tragedy that beset the Oologah School District in 2010. It was during that year that Meningitis became a household word in Northeast Oklahoma. Meningitis is a disease caused by an inflammation of membranes surrounding the brain and/or spinal cord. There are numerous forms of meningitis including bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, and non-infectious (www.cdc.gov). On March 9, 2010, a school nurse for the Oologah Talala School district was informed that an elementary aged student was possibly diagnosed with meningitis. The school nurse was informed by the county health department that the case was suspicious, but not confirmed; therefore, it was not reportable (www.fox23.com). The next day it was confirmed that the student did contract meningitis. This form of meningitis was not the viral or fungal type of meningitis, but was the more severe and deadly bacterial meningitis. Bacterial meningitis

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affects on average 4,100 people, and accounts for 500 deaths in the United States each year (www.cdc.gov). The main pathogens responsible for bacterial meningitis are Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus B, and Neisseria meningitidus (N. menigitidus (www.cdc.gov). Symptoms of meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, and fatigue. The testing for meningitis is most typically conducted through a culture identification of spinal fluid (www.ok.gov/health). All of these symptoms became the focus of parents all across the Oologah School System during that week before spring break in 2010. While transmission of meningitis is not as common as the transmission of a cold or the flu, the bacteria can be transmitted by kissing or through respiratory or throat secretions such as saliva or mucus (www.cdc.gov). Instead of anticipation for the week long spring break, fear became the most prevalent emotion for the school, the parents and students, and the community of Oologah. During the end of that week, academics were "pushed to the background" and school safety and survival were thrust to the forefront for administrators, teachers, students, parents and citizens of the Oologah and Talala communities in Northeast Oklahoma. The week before spring break for the Oologah schools began much the same way it always had. However, that week in 2010 would end much differently than any other week. By the close of business on Friday March 12, the school was rocked by the death of two students, hospitalization of 5 other students, the dismissal of classes for one and a half days, and the campus becoming an emergency medical clinic. Oologah is a small community, but by the end of that week Oologah was a focal point for the health

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departments of Rogers County, the State of Oklahoma, Tulsa area hospitals, and the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia. After the conclusion of the meningitis outbreak the Oklahoma State Department of Health distributed a timeline of all correspondence between the hospitals, the county health department, the school, and the reaction team in place for the OSDH. I have outlined some of the important information from that timeline in the following paragraphs. At 11:12 a.m. on Wednesday, March 10, 2010, the Oklahoma State Department of Health (OSDH) received its initial notice that there was a positive case of N. menigitidus. At 2:16 p.m. that same day, the Rogers County Health Department was notified of the positive sample from a resident of that county. This patient was labeled as Case 1. The next day Case 2 was identified as a possible positive patient with meningitis. The OSDH was also informed that another patient, Case 3 was admitted to Saint Francis Hospital in Tulsa with similar symptoms and that all three patients were students at Oologah. Before 8:30 a.m. on Thursday morning, one of the patients, Case 2, had passed away and another patient, Case 4, had been admitted to Saint Francis. Between 8:30 a.m. and 11:30 a.m., the OSDH gathered the crucial information, gained access to needed medication, and along with an Oklahoma Highway Patrol escort, drove the 143 miles from Oklahoma City to Oologah. That Thursday morning the gymnasium at the Oologah Lower Elementary School became an emergency health clinic staffed with doctors and nurses from Oologah, Claremore, Rogers County Health Department, and the State Department of Health. Instead of students playing basketball or jumping rope, scared

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students, parents, and teachers waited in lines that ran around the gym for the medication needed to treat or prevent the meningitis bacteria. The OSDH pharmacy provided one of the two treatments needed to battle the bacterial infections. The pharmacy provided the Lower Elementary Clinic with ten bottles of 300 milligram Rifampin and five bottles of 150 milligram bottles of the antibiotic. The other medication needed to combat the infection was Ceftriaxone. In order for the members of the Acute Disease Service (ADS) team to gather enough Ceftriaxone from the pharmacy, they were required to get approval from the State HIV/STD Service to utilize their allotment of the medication. The ADS was given permission to utilize the antibiotic and went to Oologah with four hundred ninety 250 milligram doses of the antibiotic. Despite administering 640 doses of antibiotic between 12:00 p.m. and 8:00 p.m. that Thursday afternoon and evening, it was not enough to prevent two additional students Cases 5 and 6 to be admitted to St. Francis Hospital and the tragic loss of Case 4: The second student from Oologah to perish. The final student, Case 7, suspected of meningitis was admitted to the hospital at St. Francis the morning of March 12th. At 12:00 p.m. on Thursday and all day Friday, the Oologah School System was closed for normal school business. In addition to the emergency medical clinic set up in the lower elementary gymnasium, the administration was working through media reports, health concerns of the students still hospitalized, and the overall safety of the students they served, as well as mourning the loss of two precious young students. At 3:00 p.m., the close of business, on Friday, the ADS team departed Oologah. Final numbers had over 845 people receiving antibiotics through the school clinic, 304 calls to the OSDH

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phone bank, and 1 school district devastated by the loss of two of its students (www.news9.com). (For Full Timeline See Appendix G) Leadership Skills Many school decisions can be made easily. In late February of 2016, the Oologah Talala School district was shut down for a week due to a gas leak that could not be located. Interestingly, the gas lines were not easily located due to the fact that the overall campus blue prints were destroyed by the tornado in 1991 (www.newson6.com). When student lives are in danger, a leader must make decisions based on what is best for the students. Similar to the gas leak of 2016, the decision to cancel classes in March, 2010, was an easy one to make. The timing and dissemination of the decision, however, needed all of the communication skills Mr. Thomas possessed. Until the first fatality, very little was known about the situation. Teachers were conducting business as usual that Tuesday and Wednesday. It was not until the morning of the first fatality that the staff was aware of anything. According to employee Marla Moss, "All we knew was that a student at the elementary building had been sent home with a high fever." The decision to cancel school could be made only as soon as the confirmation from the health department was given. Some within the community tried to say that the school knew more about the contagious disease than they were letting on. Similar to Dr. Ballard's situation, Mr. Thomas' own children were students at Oologah in 2010, and Mr. Thomas' wife was a teacher's assistant. On the Wednesday before spring break, Mrs. Thomas stayed home with their youngest daughter who was diagnosed with Strep Throat. On Thursday when the news came out of the outbreak, rumors became rampant that the school and Mr. Thomas in particular, had "kept the public in the dark."

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Mr. Thomas was accused of having his family stay home for their protection, while he exposed others by not cancelling school. According to Mr. Thomas, “The rumor got out that Mr. Thomas didn't even send his wife and daughter to school that day. He had to know about it. But at that time, I didn't have a clue what was even going on.” The communication skills needed by Mr. Thomas to curtail these rumors, and lead the school effectively were vital. Communication was the very first thing needed in 2010. According to Sue Richards, an employee of Oologah Public Schools for both the tornado and the meningitis outbreak, The tornado was a catastrophe. [The meningitis outbreak] was much scarier than anything. Any time something happens to little bitty ones, I think it's worse. Everybody took it so personal(ly). [The tornado] was a general sadness, but this was so much more. We were dealing with parents' fears of: Is my child going to die? Are other family members contagious? Will the school be safe to return to? The meningitis outbreak caused other factors that had to be taken into account. Unlike the tornado, there were specific questions asked of the administration. How many students are infected? Who are the students? What are their symptoms? Much of this information is very valuable to the community, but the leader in many cases is at the mercy of other controlling factors. This was the case in Oologah. Due to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), a federal law protecting the privacy rights of patients, information was strictly regulated. Therefore, any medical information was regulated and could not be released without consent of the parents. Because of this, the communication was periodically one-sided from the health

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department, and according to Mr. Thomas, "The school simply had to act as the middle person." The communication came much quicker in 2010 than it did in 1991. In 1991, there were no cell phones and text messages. In 2010, there were plenty of both as well as plenty of social media websites. Mr. Thomas stated, "In the society we live in today, with Facebook, and with texting, it blew up quick(ly)." As soon as the confirmation was given from the health department and the district knew what it was facing, the communication process began. No longer did the school have to worry about downed power lines, town hall meetings, and evening news interviews. The information was distributed as fast, or sometimes faster, than it could be processed. The first group of people Mr. Thomas contacted was the Board of Education. In this modern age of cell phones and social media, it was imperative to let the board members know that they were about to be inundated. Mr. Thomas needed to tell the board, "Here is what's going on. Here's what we've been told. And, we don't have any details, but you are going to be hearing about this." The next communication was through automated calls and emails to parents. Once confirmation came that the school had multiple cases of meningitis; the decision to cancel school until after spring break occurred. In his first press conference during the meningitis outbreak, Mr. Thomas stated that the "most important thing that needed to occur now was to give as much information to parents as possible to try and ease their fears and anxiety" (www.newson6.com). Parents had to be notified, and care needed to be given to ensure that the outbreak was curtailed as soon as possible. In an effort to inform the public as much as possible, two full news conferences were conducted with the school administration and the public health department.

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However, many news stations wanted unlimited access to students and parents. This demand for access became quite burdensome, and some reporters had to be asked to leave the buildings. Mr. Thomas reached out for assistance to help work through this problem. Mr. Thomas utilized the local newspaper editor to act as the de facto Chief Information Officer for the school. This move allowed the scheduling and coordinating of news conferences to be more efficient and assisted in the dissemination of pertinent information, while also removing this burden from Mr. Thomas. According to Mr. Thomas, “He [newspaper editor] took care of everything. He set up the news conferences... and even made some comments during the conference of how this was going to go.” By allowing someone with more experience to deal with portions of the media, Mr. Thomas and the other administrators were able to work through the crisis more efficiently. "My administrators had to go back to their buildings, because it was chaos in the buildings." As mentioned earlier, 2010 was a new era in communications. This was a positive factor in the school's ability to disseminate information very quickly, but negative in regard to controlling misinformation and rumors. In 1991, if someone was displeased with the decisions of the school, they could attend the next monthly school board meeting, write a letter to the editor of the weekly newspaper, or stand up in church and ask for prayer regarding the situation. Any misinformation was spread similar to the phone call game where one person tells another individual a story and it is passed on and on and on. At the conclusion of the game, the original statement is rarely close to the original. In the year 2010, that scenario was like the phone game on steroids. The public did not have to wait to voice their displeasure. The complaint was easily posted to the

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wall of the individual's Facebook page, attached to a chat room, or commented on at the bottom of every news story posted online. According to Ms. Richards, “That's where the technology--I don't know necessarily was helpful." Teachers would hear just a piece of information, and then they would communicate to those they were close to. These "discussions" between teachers led to much misinformation being spread. Marla Moss, a teacher in another building, stated, "The teachers were getting bits and pieces from other teachers. We really needed to be told more quickly what was going on." In a follow up interview, Mr. Thomas admitted, "We definitely needed to inform the teachers more quickly." By informing the staff more quickly the misinformation spread, may have been reduced, Mr. Thomas utilized his experience in Oologah to help his current district. At a recent Administrative in-service, Mr. Thomas invited Jeremy Burton, former Public Information Officer with Oral Roberts University, to speak to the principals and directors. Mr. Burton explained the importance of communication, and stated that "You can never disseminate too much information" (Burton, 2015). During the meningitis crisis, Mr. Thomas utilized this theory by providing as much information in the most efficient manners possible. Efficiency was also needed in the focus and organization of the communication with the staff. As soon as school was dismissed for the rest of the week, a meeting was called for all school personnel. This meeting was initiated to communicate to the teachers everything the administration knew at that time. It was also used to plan for what was needed most at that time: help. As soon as the confirmation came down that there were multiple cases of meningitis in Oologah, there was little doubt who was really going to call the shots: The

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Oklahoma State Department of Health. School administrators are trained to take care of students; the health department is trained to curtail epidemics. Mr. Thomas stated, "We were relying on the experts. Many decisions were out of our hands as a district, and in the hands of the experts who handle these situations." Mr. Thomas was first called by the experts on Thursday morning by the Rogers County Health Department. He was informed of what they thought was happening, told that a medical team was en route from Oklahoma City (www.news9.com). According to Mr. Thomas, Rogers County [Health Department] called us that morning; so here's what we think we have. [The State Health Team] are coming in, they will be in your office in two hours. The media already has an idea of what's going on, and they are probably going to be showing up. And then it just hit. Before the normal school day would have ended, the gymnasium at the lower elementary in Oologah was converted to a vaccination clinic, and students, staff, and family members were receiving the help they needed to start the healing process. Leadership Characteristics John Maxwell once said the first thing one should look for in a leader is character (Maxwell, 1995). Former United States Congressman J.C. Watts of Oklahoma once stated, "Character is doing the right thing even when no one is looking." Throughout the discussion with Mr. Thomas, he continually referred to situations as "we." He emphasized the team, and the relationships. Mr. Thomas explained his communication process, “I kept the board members informed. I shouldn't say I, because it was a whole administrative team effort. Everyone pulled together.” The team concept kept coming to the forefront throughout the decision making process. After the decision to close school

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was made, the administrative team had the following week to make preparations for students. Due to the spring break holiday, there was ample time to prepare the facilities for the return of students. The administrative team took that week to formulate a plan. Mr. Thomas said, "We sat around a table that week and said here is our school statement right here. Here's the information we are going to put on the calling tree, and here's what we are going to do next." Ms. Richards indicated "We knew that everybody needed to be strong for the teachers and the parents. We had to put out that we wanted to do (everything) so this was a safe place to return to." One decision made over the break was to go through all facilities and buses and disinfect everything. This decision was made despite the fact that the State Health Department had advised that the bacteria could not live on hard surfaces and that disinfecting was not necessary. The perception by many was that the district did the disinfecting for show. However, Mr. Thomas said, "It was not done in an attempt to look good, but simply we wanted to make sure we had done everything possible." Mr. Thomas insisted that the actions which most people do not see were taken care of behind the scenes. Any loss of life is hard. With the loss of young people, it is even more tragic. Mr. Thomas took the loss extremely hard, as anyone in a leadership role would. According to Ms. Richards, "He took it just as personal[ly] as we all did. I think the community and the teachers saw that he was just in the same amount of pain that we all were." Despite the natural reaction to panic and be emotional, Mr. Thomas had to remain calm and collected. As soon as the news broke of the outbreak, the campus became frantic with panic. Deputy Sheriffs were needed in the offices to keep parents from

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walking into the buildings and removing their kids. In order to ensure that all students were accounted for, a normal check out procedure had to be followed. Mr. Thomas knew, "When it involves kids, people are not always objective. When it involves our kids we don't always think right. And, some people don't handle situations very well without screaming and hollering." He knew what the public needed most was a leader with compassion; they needed a leader who according to Ms. Richards, could say, " I am hurting right here with you, and these are the decisions that are best for our school." Most people who think of a school superintendent picture a business type CEO. Stuffy, snobbish, controlling, and aloof may be adjectives used to describe these managers of the district. Mr. Thomas is none of these. Mr. Thomas, similar to former General Electric CEO Jack Welch, is a leader who develops relationships with his staff. In his book Jack: Straight from the Gut, Welch (2001) stated that it is important for a leader to know when a colleague needs a hug as much as when they need a kick. Mr. Thomas knew that the relationships with the staff, students, and the community were vital to the success of any district. His ability to foster those relationships was even more necessary after the crisis. Teachers, educators, and human beings, in general, grieve at the loss of a child. It was no different at Oologah. After spring break, the administration was still hurting from the loss of life. Mr. Thomas felt the need to be strong for the teachers, parents, and students of the district. Most of the children who tested positive for meningitis were in the same classroom at the lower elementary, and the tragedy took its toll on the classroom teacher and the principal. The teacher took an extended leave of absence, and the principal resigned her position due to the devastation she felt. For the other teachers and

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administrators, it could not be business as usual. According to Sue Richards, "You can't just all of a sudden turn off grief." Mr. Thomas knew that the community was hurting. He knew that the school and the community were looking to him to provide the leadership needed to carry on. When asked to describe his leadership style, Mr. Thomas replied that he hoped he would be described as a servant leader. Mr. Thomas stated that his job as a leader was "To provide leadership that helps everybody else do their job. What do I need to do to help you do your job at the highest level?" It is also to provide the highest service in order for the district to succeed. In 2013, the Skiatook School District passed a bond issue to build security entrances at each of its campuses. The construction ran all the way into the first week of August. All of the maintenance and custodial staff were cleaning up from the construction and attempting to get floors waxed prior to the start of school. At the conclusion of one of the scheduled pick up days, we were preparing to leave the school when I saw someone driving one of the school mowers onto the property. It was not a maintenance worker getting in some overtime. It was Mr. Thomas. He had brought a change of clothes to work that day and assisted the maintenance crew by sweating alongside them in order to make our school ready for students. Mr. Thomas stated that it was not always easy, stating,

If you are in a leadership role you cannot be frantic. It is not always easy. There will be times when you are at home by yourself, and you want to break down. You wonder why is this happening? That is when people want to know you are in control, and you have a plan! 75

Trust and School Climate Decision making during the normal course of business may be met with resistance. During a crisis situation the possibility of resistance is even greater. However, Dr. Ballard stated, No one could say they didn't have my say. They had their say." The collaboration exercised prior to the crises may have assisted in the acceptance of leadership decisions during the rebuilding process of 1991 and the healing process of 2010. During the summer of 1991, Oologah Public Schools had a mass resignation of directors, maintenance and custodial and central office administration. The school was faced with the question of what to do with employees over the summer when there were no busses to be serviced or floors to wax. Dr. Ballard created a plan for these employees to resign their positions from the Oologah Schools and be employed by the Harwood Rice Construction Company. This plan would allow the school to have representatives from the school overseeing projects for the construction company as well as to ensure the school did not have to furlough employees for the summer. An added benefit for the school was that no salaries would need to be paid to these individuals because they would be paid by the construction company, who was being paid by the insurance covering the buildings. According to Dr. Ballard, "It gave us a huge financial cushion that we needed." However, this was not an easy endeavor to sell. It took a huge leap of faith by these employees and the trust in the superintendent to make this plan come to fruition. Dr. Ballard went to the State Department and worked out the details so that employee benefits would not lapse, health insurance would continue, retirement would not be affected, and in August the employees would return to the Oologah Public Schools payroll with no lapse of employment time. This plan may

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never have developed without the relationships developed by Dr. Ballard and the employees of the school. According to Dr. Ballard, it is all about the relationships. "Fortunately, I had built relationships. It is all about the relationships. You have to appeal to a greater good and you have to take into consideration their feelings." Relationships had to be cultivated with the community, government agencies, the city leadership, teachers, and staff. Dr. Ballard took the plan to the team with a heavy heart. He was asking his team to trust him. According to Dr. Ballard, the Maintenance Director, Joe Edwards, stood up with tears in his eyes and said, "You [have] never lied to me, I trust you totally." As stated in Chapter Two of this study, one of the traits of organizational trust is honesty. It was extremely important that decisions regarding the staff were handled in the manner outlined by Dr. Ballard. This was difficult due to the conflicting styles of leadership by Rice Construction owner, Harwood Rice, and that of Dr. Ballard. In his dissertation over the Oologah tornado, Dr. Ballard described Mr. Rice as a "no-nonsense employer." If something went wrong or an employee did not meet the expectations of Mr. Rice, they were either docked or fired (Ballard, 1993). Dr. Ballard had promised his employees that they would have their jobs waiting for them at the conclusion of the summer. This would be a problem if they had already been terminated by Mr. Rice. This issue did come to fruition in the case of an ineffective employee. However, instead of immediate termination by the construction company, the employee was put back on the school payroll and an effort was made to work with the individual. The employee was later dismissed, but "only after we had exhausted every effort, and the employee's due process hearings were exercised." I do not mean to imply that everything went smoothly

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during the rebuilding process. There were many issues that according to Dr. Ballard, "Had to be addressed such as purchasing items [for replacement]." Financial decisions leaders make are likely to be scrutinized. Due to the fact that the school district was so heavily damaged most of the items within the school were deemed unusable by the insurance company. Once a claim has been made to an insurance company and the claim is being processed, the contents become the property of the insurance company. The insurance company in this case took the items and held an auction, or simply discarded them. The school was extensively criticized by the community thinking that the administration was throwing away good desks just to buy new ones. According to Ms. Richards, "There were some things in the rebuild that were not what [the community] thought, but then that also happens with anything." In addition there was criticism over the way the contractor was selected. Ms. Richards stated, "The only negative I ever heard was who was selected as the contractor. It was such a rush." In his dissertation, Dr. Ballard (1993), described a conflict which arose in the fall of 1991 where, A small segment of the school district population, particularly those from the Talala area, who were critical of the reconstruction. Allegations were made against Rice, Boyd, Edwards, Pennington, Slayden, and the superintendent that the reconstruction had been too extravagant and the funds had not been managed wisely (p. 123). Dr. Ballard explained that he communicated as well as he could with the public about the fact that the insurance company was "calling the shots" and due to the time constraints, they needed to hire Harwood Rice, who had been the contractor for the

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previous building project. In a follow up interview with Dr. Ballard, he stated, "We utilized five separate audits and auditors to scrutinize the finances of the district. All five audits returned the same conclusion-- there was not one penny's worth of discrepancy in any of the audits. Not a penny." According to Forsyth, Adams, and Hoy (2011), "Trust is the keystone of successful interpersonal relationships, leadership, teamwork, and effective organizations" (p. 3). The lack of trust in a school is difficult to overcome. For example in 2000 and 2001, the community of Skiatook was rocked with scandal. A basketball coach had placed a video camera in the girls' locker room in the middle school gymnasium. Ten years later, the district was hit again when a grand jury indicted the superintendent of schools for misappropriating over half a million dollars. The continued scandals left the community divided and trust in the schools was at an all-time low. This was the atmosphere Mr. Thomas walked into when he accepted the superintendent's position in Skiatook in 2011. Mr. Thomas was prepared to rebuild the trust levels at Skiatook thanks to lessons learned in 2010 in Oologah. When Mr. Thomas arrived in Oologah, the only remnants of the tornado were a couple of buses left out back that were later labeled as surplus and sold for scrap. In Skiatook, the remnants of the scandals were still at the surface, and the community wanted a transparency that had not been available for quite a long time. Being open and transparent to others is one of the components of trust as defined by Hoy and TschannenMoran (1999). Ordinarily, openness and transparency is not a difficulty for Mr. Thomas; but, when dealing with hysteria and parental fears, 2010 was anything but normal. It is hard to be open and informative when dealing with sensitive medical issues. Mr. Thomas

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took the lead in being open by taking the email correspondence of the staff members involved in the crisis and making them public. The question had come up through the victims' family members and even by the staff of when the district learned about the outbreak. By releasing the emails, Mr. Thomas was able to show that there was nothing to hide. Some patrons questioned the decisions and actions taken by the school district. Mr. Thomas acknowledged that it was not a question of his abilities, but simply a search for answers. The district had nothing to hide, but these parents and staff members were scared. Despite the fact that the State Health Department stated that the school had done everything right (www.news9.com, 2010), some parents were still apprehensive. They were concerned for the health of their kids, and for their own health. According to Mr. Thomas, It came down to the trust deal. [Parents] have to believe and trust that we are giving you everything that we know: our best source of information. We are giving you everything we can give you, within the guidelines. We are being honest with you, upfront with you, and we are trying to look at for the best interest of the kids. Overlooked was the fact that the administration moved rapidly to protect the students, and many students who were infected recovered. According to Ms. Moss, "The loss of life could have been much greater. Our school did a great job to contain this outbreak." Without the quick response by the health officials and the school administration, the consequences may have been much worse. This was the time when the school and the community needed to come together to discuss solutions, and protect all students who attended Oologah Schools.

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Due to the efforts of the administrative team, there were multiple opportunities to discuss the issues. Some of these meetings started with heated debate. But according to both of the employees interviewed, Mr. Thomas was available for whatever was needed. Ms. Moss stated that he was there for the staff "to provide guidance and support in that emotional time." Ms. Richards stated, The crisis was hitting everyone hard, and being calm and leaning on each other within the school and community was the only way to survive. The compassion that was displayed left everyone feeling that any concern would be addressed immediately. During and after the crisis, the community stood with the school to take care of its own. This collaboration could be accomplished only with the development of positive working relationships. The editor of the local newspaper became the school's de facto Chief Information Officer; a local physician became a translator of sorts--a person Mr. Thomas could get to explain things in laymen's terms. All in all, because of many of the relationships continued or fostered by the administration, the community rallied together to assist. Volunteers showed up at the vaccination clinic at the school. They brought snacks and drinks for the medical workers, and basically did whatever they could to help. Standing right alongside them was Mr. Thomas. The openness and transparency of Mr. Thomas helped sustain the positive school climate exhibited prior to and after the crisis. School climate has been described as the quality and character of school life (www.schoolclimate.org). Based on this definition, the school climate at Oologah public schools was strong, both before and after each of the crisis situations. On April 26th, 1991, kindergarten and senior students were less than 30 days away from graduation.

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End of the year parties were being planned, and many of those senior students were making plans for college. After the tornado, these issues became the focus of the staff. Elementary classes met in the park to have their parties. Graduation ceremonies were scheduled and conducted at an alternative location, and students were given as much closure as they could be given. The experience given to these students was exceptional even with the destruction of their school. The impact on students was evident on Thursday, August 15, 1991 when the school doors reopened at Oologah. Students were in awe of their new school and were ready to get started. Credit was deserved by the administration at Oologah; however, when asked who deserved most of the credit in rebuilding the school Dr. Ballard simply stated the community and the contractor (www.newsok.com). In the 2010 crisis, the school day ended on Tuesday March 9th ended with a student being sent home because of a high fever. On Wednesday, the State Health Department received confirmation that the student had meningitis, and by Thursday afternoon the school was shut down and parents' worst fears were confirmed. There was an outbreak of a deadly bacteria in their child's classroom and several students had died. This was different from the tornado. These devastating events would seem to be a perfect scenario for the destruction of a positive school climate, and maintaining that positive climate was not easy at first. The first day back to school after spring break, the district wide absentee rate was close to 50%. Mr. Thomas knew, however, that the best thing to do was to continue to work toward normalcy. Ms. Moss stated, "We [the teachers] were ready to get back to the task at hand, and kids needed to be back in school; they wanted to

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be back in school." As the week progressed, the attendance rate came back to normal, and the students, staff, and community began to heal one day at a time. Summary Chapter four described the consolidated school district of the Oologah and Talala communities. The description of the crisis situations provided details of the two case reports of this study. The study focused on the leadership skills utilized by each superintendent during the crises encountered at the Oologah Talala School System. In addition, the study described the leadership characteristics making up the theoretical leadership framework utilized by the superintendents. The chapter also included data collected from the superintendents, employees, personal experiences, and artifacts relating to specific leadership skills utilized by each superintendent. Numerous sources were considered by the researcher. From these sources, a common leadership style and several important leadership skills became apparent which assisted in maintaining a high level of trust and a positive climate at the school. Chapter Five will present conclusions drawn from the study, and a recommendation for future research studies.

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CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to explore the leadership skills utilized by two rural Oklahoma superintendents during crisis situations at the Oologah Talala School District. The study focused on individual real world crises faced by the superintendents and the leadership skills used during the crises to return the school to normalcy. The study also examined the level of trust developed by the superintendent in the time preceding and following the crisis, and the school climate during the respective situations. In this chapter, conclusions derived from the findings are presented. The analysis and conclusions are organized by leadership skills needed during a crisis, the leadership charactersiics utilized by the superintendents and how those factors led to high levels of trust and a positive school climate throughout the crises. The relationship of the study to the literature is presented as well as recommendations from the researcher for possible areas of needed research. Primary Research Question What leadership skills were needed most in leading through the crisis? The skills necessary to successfully lead a district through crisis are numerous. Each superintendent readily described five or six skills he deemed important. Communication, 84

however, was mentioned by all participants of this study more times than all other factors combined. Being able to adequately communicate with staff, students, parents, and community members was essential for each of the leaders. While the crises were vastly different and the communication technologies available were worlds apart, the skills needed were very much the same. Three areas of communication were highlighted by the superintendents: (a) listen to input, (b) provide as much information as possible, and (c) curtail misinformation. In addition to communication, other skills deemed necessary by the superintendents were to develop relationships and prepare for crisis situations. Communication: Listen to Input One of the most often overlooked aspects of communication is listening. It is prudent for leaders to be willing to listen to others and gain as much information and insight prior to making important decisions. Throughout each crisis situation, each superintendent took the time to listen to others. Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas each listened first to his administrative team. In dealing with any crisis situation, there will be some level of confusion and potential for some negative feedback. No leader can be ready for every single issue or crisis. The positive school leader will rally with and around his or her leadership team. The round table administrative meeting Dr. Ballard held in 1991, where every administrator voiced concerns and problems until they were all exhausted set the stage for a whirlwind rebuilding project. Likewise, Mr. Thomas met with his administrative team in 2001 to discuss student needs and the next course of events for the district. This was especially important at Oologah where the entire district sits on the same campus. Both of these events were crucial to making sure that the

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administrative team was united and acted as a single entity representing the school at large. Each of the superintendents also listened to community leaders. It is always important to work with those in the community; it is imperative to do so during a crisis. The fact that Dr. Ballard worked with Ted Jones to coordinate a community day to help clean up the school was pivotal in gaining back the team atmosphere in Oologah. During the meningitis outbreak of 2001, it was important to ease the fears of parents as soon as possible. Mr. Thomas leaned on local physician, Dr. Kelly Stauffer. Dr. Stauffer provided Mr. Thomas with valuable feedback and information about a disease that prior to 2010, many knew nothing about. Both of the crises in Oologah were devastating. The tornado impacted the community severely because the damage was much more widespread than just at the school. The meningitis outbreak created widespread panic and fear throughout the school district and the surrounding areas. By both leaders taking time to listen, the community was able to work together to begin the much needed healing process. Lastly, each superintendent listened to the experts. No matter how well trained and how experienced a school leader is there will be some unknown issue cast into the spotlight. A school leader should never be afraid to say, "I do not know, but I will find the answer." Many times that answer is with those people surrounding the leader. Dr. Ballard, while very experienced at decision making, knew that the total rebuild of the school would be too much for one person. Assistant Superintendent Boyd had a background in construction, and became the perfect person to lead the rebuilding campaign. This allowed Dr. Ballard to concentrate on insurance, finance, and academic

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issues. In that same vein, Mr. Thomas relied on the expertise of the State Health Department and the local newspaper editor. An administrator cannot be the expert on everything. When dealing with a crisis beyond the scope of education, administrators must seek and adhere to the advice of the experts. When evaluating courses of action regarding a medical epidemic, it would have been ludicrous for the administration not to do exactly as the medical professionals in epidemiology suggested. The decision to seek the advice of others when it is a directive by a governmental agency is easy. It is sometimes not as easy to pass control to someone else even if that individual is more trained in public relations. Oologah is a small district and at that time did not, nor does it currently, have a Public Relations Director. That detail, therefore, fell to the superintendent. Mr. Thomas listened to the advice of his expert, the local editor to coordinate news conferences, briefings, and filings of news reports to various local, and state news organizations. Each of these superintendents was more than capable of handling the tasks at hand, but by utilizing the communication skill of listening, they were able to work more efficiently at solving the issues at hand. Communication: Provide as much Information as Possible. The next area of communication important to the leaders through the crisis situation was that of information dissemination. As previously noted, the technologies available to each superintendent were vastly different; nonetheless, each had many issues to work through. While the technologies may change, the need for information does not. Regardless whether the year is 1991, 2010, or 2020, all school patrons will want as much information as possible in a crisis. The effective leader will ensure that information is given in a timely manner, is accurate, and is relevant.

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Whether through news conferences, interviews, or social media, it is important for the effective school leader to communicate in a manner that is reassuring to the public. In both of the crises situations in this study, the leaders communicated to the public in a very cool and calm manner. Individuals may have "tunnel vision" when analyzing a situation regarding themselves or their children. An administrator does not have the luxury of making decisions based on what is best for individuals; decisions must be based on what is best for the whole school system. In the aftermath of the tornado and the entire time of the meningitis outbreak, each leader was steady in his resolve to maintain an aura of calm. Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas issued statements that were clear, concise, and forthright. Dr. Ballard utilized press conferences, interviews, and phone trees to disseminate the information. For Mr. Thomas, the avenue utilized was automated messages; several automated phone calls and emails were sent to the patrons of Oologah schools. In both situations, the information was given in short chunks for several reasons. First, information needs to be given as soon as it is available. An administrator should not wait for large segments of information to be available prior to a single large release. Second is in the state of panic and fear that many parents will be in; it is important to release information in amounts parents can consume and process. Last, it is essential for any and all information to be accurate. If one does not have the full story, release the information as it is made available and verified to be accurate. As previously stated, there was much speculation and conjecture during both of the crises. Both superintendents emphasized that to assist in maintaining trust within the district, the information had to be reliable before it was given to the public. Communication: Curtail Misinformation.

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Even with the effort to maintain information integrity, there was still misinformation during both crises situations. During the aftermath of the tornado, Dr. Ballard had to curtail the problem of misinformation regarding many factors. Due to the fact that the school needed to be rebuilt as soon as possible, it was important to utilize a construction and architecture company familiar with the campus. The selection of the construction contractor and the need to expedite the construction process led to much misinformation regarding costs and integrity of the building project. In addition, there was misinformation regarding the insurance process. As soon as the buildings and contents were deemed destroyed or damaged and the insurance company began the claims process, the contents then became the property of the insurance company. When the insurance company assumed ownership of the contents, they were free to dispose of said contents as they saw fit. This was a point of misinformation for many of the patrons within the school district. Many thought the school was being frivolous when desks and other items were disposed of instead of being salvaged and reused. Dr. Ballard and the administrative team utilized a string of audits from different companies to quell the rumors and set the record straight. The misinformation during the meningitis outbreak of 2010 took a nastier turn. As previously stated, when dealing with a crisis involving life and death, the fears, need for answers, and opportunities for misinformation exponentially increase. Some parents, patrons, and even staff members accused the district of not keeping kids safe, not informing the community fast enough, and conspiring to cover up any wrong doing. This phenomenon was not exclusive to Oologah. That spring similar accusations were made in Skiatook when a student was diagnosed with Viral Meningitis. Viral Meningitis is

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vastly different from the Bacterial Meningitis encountered in Oologah. However, I was accused of lying and not providing adequate information to parents. In the Oologah crisis, it was imperative to provide the correct information to parents and try to eliminate misinformation. Mr. Thomas combated the dissemination of misinformation two different ways. The first was by relying on the experts. The Oklahoma State Department of Health was in charge of the medical issues. Mr. Thomas allowed the experts to be the experts in the dissemination of the information regarding the disease, the patients, and the prophylactic clinics. Second, the school district released its emails regarding the crisis to show when the critical information was first acquired by the district. The release of the emails helped verify exactly when the district knew about the outbreak, as well as nullifying any indication of intent to cover up any wrongdoing. Develop Relationships The second most important skill necessary for leading through crisis actually occurs prior to the crisis. Both of the superintendents mentioned often how important it was for them to have developed relationships with those around them. Both Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas were involved in community, professional, and religious organizations. The relationships developed early by both superintendents allowed for the communication to be disseminated through various groups more efficiently and effectively. The first group needed was staff members. In any crisis situation involving a school, the first line of defense for eliminating misinformation and creating a united front is the development of a positive working relationship with staff members. Both Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas worked diligently to

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foster that relationship with staff members. The superintendents highlighted the need to work with staff to foster a positive relationship in order to achieve a united front. Preparation As an administrator, one can never be fully prepared to deal with every situation presented. According to the Statutes of Oklahoma, schools are required to have ten crisis drills each school year (two each of tornado, fire, intruder, lock down, and two discretionary drills). Many times administrators simply go through the motions of these drills, and do not emphasize the importance they hold. Both superintendents emphasized the need to have a plan. Dr. Ballard emphatically pointed out that they were not prepared for the tornado of 1991. He stated numerous times through both interviews "That was the last time I was unprepared." However, due to the devastation and total dollar amount of damage, whether anyone could be prepared for that level of disaster is questionable. No matter the type of crisis, it is important for administrators to have a basic plan for disaster preparations Secondary Question 1 What theoretical leadership framework explains the type of leadership used by the superintendents? Both administrators, while very different in their mannerisms, are highly regarded by their peers. Throughout the analysis of the superintendent interviews, employee interviews, and the numerous artifacts found on the crises, I continually looked for descriptors of leadership styles. Through all of the analysis, I found only two items which could be deemed characteristics of an autocratic or transactional leader. Both of those instances were indicated by Dr. Ballard in reference to the construction manager

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Harwood Rice. Dr. Ballard stated, "Harwood was very top-down in the rebuilding." In his dissertation, Dr. Ballard (1993) quoted Mr. Rice as stating, In order to produce at such a fast pace, there had to be one person in charge, who would keep the project moving, and that person had to be consistent and unyielding. (p. 126) I asked both superintendents about their leadership styles. Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas both mentioned servant leadership as the leadership that they felt best described their style. Servant leadership is the practice of serving others (Sergiovanni, 1992). While servant leadership may be applicable, the only time either superintendent mentioned the word servant or service was during the answer to the leadership style question. I feel that both of these leaders fall more in the authentic leadership category. Authentic leadership theory encompasses a leader's desire to serve and help others while building relationships within the organization (George, 2003). Authentic leadership follows the tenets of moral leadership such as focus on shared values and goals that raise the expectation of human behavior within the organization (Burns, 1978), and promotes a leader who is also genuine, self-aware, and vulnerable (Kruse, 2013). In addition, authentic leadership is based on the character and beliefs of the leader, the ethical values of the leader, and the relationships developed by the leader (Banks, & Mhunpiew, 2012). The superintendents mentioned the term collaboration, as a fundamental guide for their leadership style. This in encompassed within the definition of an authentic leader. The employees who participated in the study commented several times about the character and the values displayed by the superintendents. In addition, Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas mentioned numerous times that it was important to them to develop relationships

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with the staff members. Their abilities to focus and make hard decisions while maintaining a high level of compassion for individuals within the organization was key in helping their school district thrive after the tornado and meningitis outbreak.

Secondary Question 2 How did the leadership skills and leadership framework affect trust and school climate? There are five qualities generally associated with developing high levels of trust: Benevolence, openness, honesty, reliability, and competence (Forsyth, Adams, & Hoy, 2011). All of these characteristics were substantially filled by both Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas. The relationships they developed with their staff, fellow administrators, community members, parents, and students is a demonstration of how to maintain the trust within an organization and a positive school climate. Furthermore, the ability to develop relationships within the context of their leadership aided significantly in the development of trust within the school district. Trust in leadership has been shown to have a positive impact on an employees' civic virtues, job satisfaction and acceptance of decisions (Forsyth, Adams, & Hoy, 2011). Decisions made by both administrators, while possibly not well accepted at the time, were proven to be correct, and most importantly, in the best interest of all of the students within the Oologah Schools. It is important for administrators to put the needs of the students first. Decisions during a crisis may not be easy to make, and may not be well received, but the superintendent must make those decisions based on the best needs of the students. The authentic leadership exhibited by

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Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas contributed to the high levels of trust and the positive school climate in the Oologah school system. Both superintendents and the two employees stated that the school climate did not change from before the crisis to after the crisis. The employees attributed the positive climate to the trust they had in the superintendents and the leadership displayed by the superintendents. According to data accumulated by the Oklahoma State Department of Education, test scores and graduation rates were not influenced due to the crisis. Because of the diligence, dedication, and leadership provided by these two superintendents, the Oologah School System not only survived the crises, it thrived, and it continues to thrive today. Conclusions Primary Conclusion Communication is the most important strategy a leader must utilize during and after a crisis situation. This study pointed out 3 major communication skills that will benefit superintendents during a crisis situation. The first skill is to listen to others. Both of the superintendents listened to the experts providing them counsel. School administrators in Oklahoma are well trained. However, no superintendent can be an expert in every situation. Both of the superintendents made a point of emphasis that they had hired great individuals as assistant superintendents, directors, and site principals. Dr. Ballard stated "I definitely hired people to complement my style." Both leaders wanted people around them who could augment any weakness they each might have possessed. In addition, both superintendents listened to the experts within the community and governmental agencies. Both leaders made decisions, only after discussing all possible

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consequences with the experts. In today's society and dependence on technology it is important for the superintendent to either be up to date on communication avenues or have on staff a communication director to facilitate all district communications. The second communication skill was to provide as much information as possible. During both of the crisis situations, the public needed to know what was happening. During the tornado of 1991, the communication came much more slowly than in 2010; however, Dr. Ballard made every attempt to supply the necessary information to all parties. Dr. Ballard took the time to talk to as many reporters as possible; however, he did state, "A lesson learned was that I should have set up scheduled news conferences." With advances in technology, Mr. Thomas was able to utilize automated calling, emails, texts, and social media to spread the information needed for his patrons. Both administrators emphasized the need to be as clear and precise as possible with all facets of the school community. This will help limit any incorrect information being distributed. Anytime a school district is hit with a crisis, there will be the need to curtail misinformation. Many times misinformation is actually created when employees of the district spread pieces of information. It is important for a superintendent to start the information process with the faculty. Rumors gain momentum when they are spread between classrooms, and between buildings. The staff plays an important part of stopping misinformation, but only if they are given all of the necessary information. Curtailing misinformation is more difficult when one is dealing with confidentiality issues. An administrator cannot ignore HIPPA or FERPA confidentiality rights;

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explaining these rights to the public and providing the information in a pertinent and relevant manner and time period will be more effective in curtailing misinformation. Secondary Conclusions Secondary conclusions drawn from this study include the need for quality preparation and planning. No matter how great a communicator the superintendent is, nothing can prepare one for every crisis. However, it is vital for administrators to be as prepared as possible. Preparation prior to a disaster can alleviate many problems encountered during and after the crisis such as communication protocols, building security, and student accounting procedures. Dr. Ballard stated many times that they were unprepared for the disaster. However, he stated, "That was the last time Keith Ballard was unprepared." This was further evidenced by the tornado precaution letter Dr. Ballard distributed to the Tulsa Public School System in May of 2013. (See Appendix K) Prior to 1991 there was not much information available in the area of crisis planning. Dr. Ballard was in school working on his doctorate in 1991. His experience became the subject of his dissertation research, and the steps he took during his experience became the standard utilized by schools for disaster recovery (www.srh.noaa.gov). Meningitis became a household word in the Spring of 2010. Mr. Thomas searched for any school official who could provide any advice on how to deal with the crisis. There were none that he could find. Mr. Thomas stated, The plans we developed at Oologah and Skiatook were based on a crisis project I worked on at OSU while obtaining my specialist certificate. Without that we would not have been as prepared as we were.

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Since that crisis, Mr. Thomas has been asked to speak to numerous school and insurance personnel on the Oologah meningitis outbreak. The last conclusion drawn from this study is the need to develop relationships within the school and the community. Due to the background Mr. Thomas had in crisis planning and Dr. Ballard had in communication, they were able to lead their district effectively through the crises due to the relationships they had built within the district. Dr. Ballard pointed out that during crises situations in Oologah, Claremore, and Tulsa Public Schools, the relationships he helped to nurture were instrumental in having community support. Mr. Thomas, likewise felt that the relationships he had developed within the community were instrumental in being able to start the healing process. Without this level of relationship building, the outcry could have been more contentious and debilitating. Implications Implications for Future Practice This study revealed two areas of interest in regard to future practices. The first area is crisis preparation. Currently in Oklahoma, schools are required to conduct 10 crisis drills per year. These drills consist of 2 each of: Tornado, fire, lock down, intruder on campus, and 2 drills deemed necessary by the building principal. In addition, a bus evacuation drill for each bus must occur within the first ten days of each semester. Through my experience as an administrator and evidenced through this study, participating in "drills" is not enough. The crises in this study were above and beyond what any simulated drill can provide. Schools must make a concerted effort to train school staff in real world problems that may occur at the school. With the cooperation of

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governmental officials, public safety, local businesses, and the school district, a simulated crisis situation can be performed, studied, and evaluated. Only through this lens can an administrator truly know if their school is prepared. The second implication is to better prepare our administrators prior to employment. Both administrators stressed the need for further education for superintendents in crisis management and disaster preparation. According to documentation from both public universities in Oklahoma, until 2016, there has not been any substantial coursework that would prepare incoming superintendents in disaster planning and crisis recovery. Dr. Ballard and others are striving to correct this lack of crisis planning. According to Dr. Ballard, "As of now, no student will leave the University of Oklahoma Education Administration program without hearing about the Oologah tornado." In addition, university instructors utilize practicing administrators as guest lecturers in their courses. In 2015 I was able to guest lecture a doctoral level course at Oklahoma State University for Dr. Bernita Krumm. I was able to share about the financial scandal and crisis in Skiatook, and the toll it took on our students. It will take more higher education institutions implementing courses in crisis management and disaster preparation to better prepare our future superintendents. Implications for Leadership Theory One of the secondary research questions for this study was to determine which leadership theoretical framework best exemplified the skills utilized during the crises situations. Leadership can take the form of many different styles and theories. According to Northouse (2016), the transformational leadership as described by Burns has evolved into additional categories such as authentic and servant leadership. Having

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worked for one of the superintendents, and having been aware of the other superintendent for many years, I had a reasonable expectation that the superintendents would not fall into an autocratic or transactional leadership profile. Both of the superintendents characterized themselves as servant leaders. A case could be made that both of the leaders do employ the basic tenet of a servant leader, however, the case is also made for both superintendents showing the next progression of transformational leadership: authentic leadership. The traits most commonly described by the superintendents as being important to their ability to lead the district through the crisis situation were collaboration and relationship building. In addition the school employee who was employed by the district for both crises mentioned numerous times the fact that both superintendents were compassionate, caring and had a very strong belief system. As previously stated, authentic leadership is dependent on the character and beliefs of the leader, the ethical values of the leader, and the relationships developed by the leader (Banks, & Mhunpiew, 2012). Recommendations for Future Research The crises examined in this study were at a small rural school, with a very supportive community and superintendents who had experience prior to the crisis. Possible areas of future research include the following: 1. Is there a higher correlation between trust and authentic leaders than between trust and other leadership styles? 3. How does the type of crisis experienced by a school district affect the trust and school climate within a school?

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4. How does the level of experience impact the superintendents' perceptions' of their ability to lead through a crisis? 5. What actions can higher education institutions take to better prepare prospective superintendents for crisis management?

Personal Reflections A crisis at school is always an issue. When there is the potential for lives to be lost, it becomes even greater. Throughout the past few years, there have been numerous crises situations at schools. Recently, the communities of Joplin, Missouri, and Moore, Oklahoma, have had to endure loss of life and massive damage to school facilities. These schools were able to utilize the experiences of other administrators to prepare for these disaster experiences. In 1991, that book had not yet been written. The Oologah tornado of 1991, while a grave tragedy for that community, was instrumental to identifying the ways schools can prepare for disaster. The worst day I have experienced as an administrator occurred due to the suicide of one of my students, who was sent home from school on the last day. The hopelessness I felt as I waited with the family at the hospital was gut-wrenching. I watched a wonderful family have to make decisions about life support and organ donation, all while grieving for their son. There was no crisis manual that could prepare this young principal for that experience. For that matter, no college class could have either, but I would have appreciated a little insight into what roles administrators assume during a crisis. The meningitis crisis in Oologah, and the response by the district, has set a standard which other administrators can follow to be better prepared.

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Through my experience, I have learned first-hand how important trust is within a school and community. At one school board meeting, a fellow principal and I were casually discussing something with a television reporter. My colleague made a statement and said "trust me" afterwards. The reporter quipped, "Well Skiatook administrators have proven how trustworthy they are." This was a situation that had nothing to do with either of us, yet we were caught up in the scandal. After the financial scandal in Skiatook, trust in the school was at a very low point. Community members and parents used the scandal against our administrative team asking questions like, "Is that one of the $100 trash cans?" Parents talked about the scandal in front of their kids. I actually had a student come up to me and say, "Mr. Cantrell, I don't know why you did that, but I forgive you." Granted, the crises experienced in Oologah were not caused by a discretionary action of the superintendent, but the reason why Oologah was successful in maintaining trust and Skiatook was not, was because of the relationships sustained by Dr. Ballard and Mr. Thomas. I am very grateful to Dr. Keith Ballard and Mr. Rick Thomas for allowing me to learn from them, both near and from afar. Both gentlemen have had stellar careers in administration, and have helped to shape the future of administrative thought in regard to dealing with crises. The leadership they utilized within their districts is the basis for what every administrator should strive to emulate. As administrators, we must remember to communicate as much information as possible, develop quality relationships with our patrons and community, and prepare for a crisis with the hopes we will never need to implement the plan.

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APPENDIX A

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Appendix B Superintendent Interview Protocol Institution: Oklahoma State University Interviewee (Title and Name): ____________________________________ Interviewer: Steven Cantrell, Graduate Student in College of Education Date of Interview: _______________________________ Location of Interview: ____________________________ Time of Interview: _______________________________ A. INTRODUCTION: Thank you for meeting with me today. To help in the analysis of the data this conversation and all further interviews will be audio recorded. The records of this study will be kept private, and only researchers and individuals responsible for research oversight will have access to the records. As the events of the crises being studies have been well publicized anonymity will not be afforded. You will be identified individually; however, this study is focused on the positive leadership encountered during the crisis situation. Your participation is strictly voluntary, and there are no known risks for your participation. If you are in agreement please sign the consent form provided.

B. INTERVIEWEE BACKGROUND How long have you been a superintendent? When was your first year at the Oologah/Talala School District? What administrative experience did you have prior to becoming the superintendent? When did you leave the Oologah/Talala School District? C. CRISIS BACKGROUND Describe the crisis you experienced while superintendent at Oologah? What were your first actions after learning of the crisis? What was the most pressing need during the crisis? Who did the crisis affect the most? What was the reaction by your staff? What was the reaction of the community? D. LEADERSHIP BACKGROUND What is your definition of leadership? What type of leader do you think you are? 119

What skills were most important to you as you led the district? How did your leadership style change after the crisis? Has your leadership style changed as you have progressed through your career? E. TRUST BACKGROUND How were your decisions accepted by the staff? How were your decisions accepted by the school board? How were your decisions accepted by the community? What message was important to disseminate to the community? Who did you turn to, if any, for advice? F. SCHOOL CLIMATE BACKGROUND How would you describe the school climate before the crisis? How would you describe the school climate after the crisis? What would you do different today if you experienced a similar crisis?

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Appendix C Questionnaire for Employees

1. I worked in the district during the tornado crisis of 1991.

Agree

Disagree

This study will examine Superintendent Leadership during crises situations encountered by the Oologah / Talala Public Schools. This study will also examine trust levels developed by the superintendents and the overall school climate before, during, and after the crises. Directions: Please answer questions 1 and 2 regarding your employment at Oologah Public Schools. If you mark agree to question 3 and would be interested in being interviewed for this study, please include your name and email address at the bottom for further contact and a detailed consent form. If you mark disagree to both questions, OR you do not wish to be interviewed, you do not need to supply your name.

O

O

a. I worked as an administrator during this time period.

O

O

b. I worked as a teacher during this time period.

O

O

c. I worked in a support capacity during this time period.

O

O

O

O

a. I worked as an administrator during this time period.

O

O

b. I worked as a teacher during this time period.

O

O

c. I worked in a support capacity during this time period.

O

O

3. I am willing to be interviewed about my experience during the crisis.

O

O

2. I worked in the district during the medical crisis of 2010.

NAME: __________________________________

TITLE: __________________________________

EMAIL: _________________________________ 121

Appendix D Employee ADULT CONSENT FORM OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY PROJECT: Superintendent Leadership During Times of Crisis INVESTIGATOR: Steven D. Cantrell M.S. Oklahoma State University PURPOSE: This study will examine Superintendent Leadership during crises situations encountered by the Oologah / Talala Public Schools. This study will also examine trust levels developed by the superintendents and the overall school climate before, during, and after the crises. PROCEDURES You will be interviewed by the researcher for 45-60 minutes. The interview will be recorded for transcription and will encompass your experience Oologah Public Schools. The purpose of this interview is to ascertain what positive skills were used through crisis. In addition, the interview will look at trust levels in the district and the overall school climate. The researcher will provide a written transcript of the interview if desired. RISKS OF PARTICIPATION: There are no known risks associated with this project which are greater than those ordinarily encountered in daily life. BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATION: The expected benefit for participation in the study may lead to the expansion of applicable knowledge which will benefit superintendents in the future dealing with crises. CONFIDENTIALITY: The records of this study will be kept private. Research records will be stored on a password protected computer in a locked office and only researchers and individuals responsible for research oversight will have access to the records. Data, including audio files, will be destroyed one year after the study has been completed. 122

You will not be identified individually; information regarding the superintendent effectiveness surveys will be examined as a group. COMPENSATION: There will be no compensation for participation in the study. CONTACTS : You may contact any of the researchers at the following addresses and phone numbers, should you desire to discuss your participation in the study and/or request information about the results of the study: Steve Cantrell, M.S., PO Box 698, Collinsville, OK 74021, (918)760-7424. If you have questions about your rights as a research volunteer, you may contact the IRB Office at 223 Scott Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, 405-744-3377 or [email protected] PARTICIPANT RIGHTS: I understand that my participation is voluntary, that there is no penalty for refusal to participate, and that I am free to withdraw my consent and participation in this project at any time, without penalty. CONSENT DOCUMENTATION: I have been fully informed about the procedures listed here. I am aware of what I will be asked to do and of the benefits of my participation. I also understand the following statements: I affirm that I am 18 years of age or older. I have read and fully understand this consent form. I sign it freely and voluntarily. A copy of this form will be given to me. I hereby give permission for my participation in this study. _____________________________________________________________________ Signature of Participant

Date

I certify that I have personally explained this document before requesting that the participant sign it.

_____________________________________________________________________ Signature of Researcher

Date

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Appendix E School Employee Interview Protocol

Institution: Oklahoma State University Interviewee (Title and Name): ____________________________________ Interviewer: Steven Cantrell, Graduate Student in College of Education Date of Interview: _______________________________ Location of Interview: ____________________________ Time of Interview: _______________________________ A. INTRODUCTION: Thank you for meeting with me today. To help in the analysis of the data this conversation and all further interviews will be audio recorded. The records of this study will be kept private, and only researchers and individuals responsible for research oversight will have access to the records. Even though the events of the crises being studied have been well publicized you will be afforded anonymity. You will be assigned a pseudonym and your identity will be protected. Your participation is strictly voluntary, and there are no known risks for your participation. If you are in agreement please sign the consent form provided.

B. INTERVIEWEE BACKGROUND How long have you been an employee for the Oologah/Talala School District? When was your first year at the Oologah/Talala School District? What was your job assignment? (ie. Teacher, Administration, Support) C. CRISIS BACKGROUND Describe the crisis you experienced while employed at Oologah? What were the first actions of the school after the crisis? What was the most pressing need during the crisis? Who did the crisis affect the most? What was the reaction by the staff? What was the reaction of the community? D. LEADERSHIP BACKGROUND What is your definition of leadership? What type of leader do you think the superintendent was? What skills did the superintendent possess which were most important? 124

Did the crisis change the superintendent's leadership? Was the superintendent affective in communicating the needs of the district? E. TRUST BACKGROUND How were decisions accepted by the staff? How were decisions accepted by the school board? How were decisions accepted by the community? What message was important to disseminate to the community? F. SCHOOL CLIMATE BACKGROUND How would you describe the school climate before the crisis? How would you describe the school climate after the crisis?

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Appendix F Consent for Research Activity

Dissertation 2 messages

Steve Cantrell

Mon, Aug 18, 2014 at 10:06 AM

To: [email protected] Dr. Ballard,

I am in the proposal stage of my dissertation studying "The Effects of Superintendent Leadership on Trust and School Climate During Times of Crisis." One of the cases I would like to research is your leadership during the Tornado crisis at Oologah. If possible I would like to interview you for my research. I am hoping for interviews to occur in early 2015. If you agree to the interview, upon approval of my proposal I will forward you a consent form. Thank you for all you do for education.

-Steve Cantrell Principal Newman Middle School

"Everyone tries to define this thing called Character. It's not hard. Character is doing

what's right when nobody's looking." J. C. Watts

Currently Reading: "Transforming Leadership" by James MacGregor Burns

126

Ballard, Keith

Mon, Aug 18, 2014 at 12:15 PM

To: Steve Cantrell Cc: "Poindexter, Pat" , "Polonchek, Amy"

I would be pleased to participate. All scheduling should go through my assistant Pat Poindexter. Also, I can provide you some reading material prior to our meeting. It will help prepare you. Good luck with your dissertation and I look forward to meeting you. KB

Dissertation Inbox x Inbox/

x

Steve Cantrell

8/1 8/1 4

to Rick Mr. Thomas, I am in the proposal stage of my dissertation studying "The Effects of Superintendent Leadership on Trust and School Climate During Times of Crisis." One of the cases I would like to research is your leadership during the medical crisis at Oologah. If possible I would like to interview you for my research. I am hoping for interview to occur in early 2015. If you agree to the interview, upon approval of my proposal I will forward you a consent form. Thank you for all you do for our district.

Rick Thomas

to me I would be happy to help you in any way. Just let me know when and how. RT

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8/1 8/1 4

Appendix G Survey Approval

Dissertation 2 messages

Steve Cantrell

Mon, Mar 23, 2015 at 1:59 PM

To: [email protected] Mr. Tanner,

I am the middle school principal at Skiatook, and a doctoral student at Oklahoma State University. I am hoping to propose my study in the next few weeks and would like to ask your permission to survey your staff. My research is on "Superintendent Leadership During Times of Crisis." Dr. Keith Ballard and Mr. Rick Thomas have agreed to be interviewed regarding each of the crises situations they experienced in your district. This research is geared toward finding what superintendents need to be prepared for during a crisis and will not focus on what the district or superintendent should have done. If I may obtain your permission I will bring copies of the survey with consent forms upon the approval of my Committee. If you have further questions I can be reached at this email address or 918.760.7424.

-Steve Cantrell Principal Newman Middle School

"Everyone tries to define this thing called Character. It's not hard. Character is doing

what's right when nobody's looking." J. C. Watts

Currently Reading:"Geronimo: Leadership Strategies of an American Warrior" by: Mike Leach

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Max Tanner To: Steve Cantrell

Yes sir. That would be great.

Max Tanner

From: Steve Cantrell [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: Monday, March 23, 2015 2:00 PM To: Max Tanner Subject: Dissertation

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Fri, Mar 27, 2015 at 9:21 AM

Appendix H

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132

133

134

135

136

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Appendix I 1991 Oologah Tornado Pictures

Band Room

138

Bus Barn

Agriculture Building

139

Appendix J

2016 Oologah Schools Pictures

Agriculture Building

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Lower Elementary Gymnasium - Site of the Prophylactic Clinic

141

Appendix K

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Appendix L

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VITA Steven Duane Cantrell Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Education Thesis: LEADING THROUGH CRISIS: A CASE STUDY OF SUPERINTENDENT LEADERSHIP DURING CRISIS

Major Field: Educational Administration Biographical: Education: Anticipated completion of the requirements for the Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership at Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma in May/July, 2016. Completed the requirements for the Master of Science in Educational Leadership at Northeastern State University, Tahlequah, OK in 1996 Completed the requirements for the Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education at Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK in 1992 Experience: Teacher: Owasso Public Schools. Owasso 8th and 9th Grade Center, Science and Social Studies (1992-2003). Assistant Principal: Owasso Public Schools. Owasso High School (20032005). Principal: Skiatook Public Schools. Newman Middle School (2005-Present). Professional Memberships: Oklahoma Association of Secondary School Principals (2005-Present) District Representative (2007-2010) National Association of Secondary School Principals (2005-Present)

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