J. COLLEGE STUDENT RETENTION, Vol. 4(3) 207-226, 2002-2003
A MENTORING PROGRAM FOR REMEDIAL STUDENTS
RALPH PAGAN RUNAE EDWARDS-WILSON, PH.D. College of Staten Island, New York
ABSTRACT
The effectiveness of a mentoring program for 53 at-risk students was investigated. The investigation followed the similar research models as those previously implemented in higher education settings whereby undergraduate and graduate peers, in good academic standing, served as mentors to students in academic jeopardy. The grade point averages and attrition of a cohort of students on academic probation or warning was recorded during two consecutive semesters. A mentoring intervention was instituted during the second semester. The results indicated that the mentoring intervention had a positive impact on retention and grade point averages for this student cohort.
LITERATURE REVIEW The use of mentors to retain and support at-risk students has been documented by many researchers, including Donovan (1975), Fleming (1984), Fletcher (1997), Levin and Levin, (1991), Roueche and Roueche (1993). Mentoring has been described as an integral part of “an intensive care unit where students are not given choices, but are provided with an atmosphere best described as tough love” (Donovan, 1975). The work of these researchers maintain that successful mentoring programs help to establish a structured, yet nurturing relationship in many environments, including college support programs. Nancy Walters, in her study “Retaining Aspiring Scholars: Recruitment and Retention of Students of Color in Graduate and Professional Science Degree 207 Ó 2002, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.
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Programs,” notes that mentoring is an important factor in maintaining the enrollment of minority students. Mount Vernon Nazarene College in Ohio (Bolender, 1994) uses mentors in their College Experience Enhancement Program. The college has found that formally established mentor/mentee relationship have helped to improved the grades of the student participating in the programs. Noel and Levitz (2000), in the materials that are distributed during their “Power Strategies for Recruitment and Retention Workshop,” offer the outlines of 11 successful retention programs from colleges across the country that have implemented mentoring components. The mentors are viewed as important to the persistence of freshmen, at-risk students, and campus-wide retention efforts. The colleges that Noel and Levitz present are widely diverse (e.g., El Camino College, Kutztown University, Seton Hall University). Stephanie G. Adams and Howard G. Adams (1993) consider using engineering and science program faculty mentors as one important part of the undergraduate apprenticeship process. The City University of New York (1998) also believes that mentoring is worthwhile. In their publication Partners in Learning: A Guide for Faculty Mentors of CUNY Baccalaureate Program Students, they state: “The heart of the CUNY Baccalaureate learning partnership is the relationship between the students and their faculty mentors.” Others researchers have discussed diversifying the uses of mentors by varying the possible environments where mentors are present and the goals of successful mentoring programs. Freedman (1999) refers to social learning theory as it is defined in the work of scholars like Albert Bandura, Julian Rotter, Neal Miller, and John Dollard. His description of mentoring relationships attribute substantial importance to the ideas of passive learning, learning by imitation, and the interaction between environment and the individual. By using these theoretical models he ascribes worth to community mentors in normal development of young people. One of the outgrowths of community mentoring programs is noted as being increased enrollment in post-secondary education. In the book The Kindness of Strangers, Freedman explains how poverty can be overcome, to some extent, with help from mentors. Carolyn Duff carefully examines mentoring among women in her book Learning from Other Women: How to Benefit from the Knowledge, Wisdom, and Experience of Female Mentors. Duff focuses on mentor protégé relationships within a professional milieu. She encourages women to seek out both male and female mentors, highlighting the need for women to learn from other women things that only females experience in work environments. She stresses the importance of women having role models of one’s own gender. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY The following study discusses a pilot project conducted at an urban public college during Fall 1999 and Spring 2000 semesters where the effects of
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mentoring intervention on the academic performance and retention of 53 Search for Education, Elevation, and Knowledge (SEEK) students was investigated. The College’s Mentoring Project for opportunity program students was based on several models, including those at Marist College, New York; Nazarene College, Ohio; and The University of Houston, Texas. This is an ongoing intervention, having started in the Fall of 1999 and continuing to the present Spring 2001 semester. POPULATION SERVED AND GOALS OF PROJECT The goals of the project were to serve students on academic warning or probation and to help them improve their grades and increase the retention rates at the college. To achieve these goals, the project instituted elements that assisted the students in developing their academic and interpersonal skills. An instrumental programmatic element of the project was the pairing of undergraduate and graduate students in good academic standing with the mentees. The careful monitoring of both the mentors and mentees ensured that the quality of the mentoring project was maintained. To determine the effectiveness of the project interventions, the following question guided the study. Can a mentoring program help enhance the grades and retention of at-risk students who are on warning or probation? METHODOLOGY Participants Mentors
Mentors were recruited from a list of opportunity program students who had GPA’s of 3.00 and above and students at the college who had volunteered to be mentors. A recruiting letter (see Appendix A-1) was sent to a random selection of students from these two groups. The students were interviewed and eight mentors were hired. Of the eight, three were not able to persist in the program for the entire semester. One of the three mentors who resigned was replaced with a new mentor recruited from the volunteer list. The mentor program’s administrative personnel (see Appendix F-2), who had a caseload of mentees, serviced the caseloads of the other two mentors who had resigned. The initial pool of mentors consisted of eight female continuing students. All of the continuing students who applied for the position and were qualified were female. The final pool of mentors consisted of five females and two males. The mentors’ ages ranged from 21 to 50 years. Three were Black females, two were White females, one was a Hispanic female, one was an Asian female, one
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was a White male, and the administrator was a Hispanic male. The mentors were further distinguished as follows: two were graduate students, one freshman, one senior, one junior, and three sophomores (see Appendix E-1). Although freshman were not generally considered as mentors for the program, one was hired based on her having been at the institution for more than two semesters, her excellent grade point average, and her adding needed diversity to the project because of her ethnic (Asian) background. Mentees
A preliminary screening revealed that only 53 of the 87 students originally targeted for the mentoring program were eligible as determined by the probation or warning guidelines. These 53 composed the sample. Twenty-nine of the mentees, the majority, were female; 24 of the mentees were male. The mentee age range was as follows: (32.07 percent) were 19 years of age; 13 (24.52 percent) were 20 years of age; 11 (20.75 percent) were 21 years of age; 4 (7.54 percent) were 22 years of age; 5 (9.43 percent) were 23 years of age; and the three remaining mentees were 25 years of age, 26 years of age, and 31 years of age which composed 5.69 percent of the sample (see Appendices D-2, E-3). Of the 53 students who took part in the mentoring program, 19 (35.8 percent) were Black Non-Hispanic; 14 (26.4 percent) were White, Non-Hispanic; 9 (17 percent) Hispanic; 6 (11.3 percent) Asian or Pacific Islander; and 5 (9.4 percent) selected other (see Appendix D-1, E-3). The ethnicity of the mentees was determined by the information they had previously volunteered on their admissions application. Procedures Caseloads
Mentors were assigned caseloads of 5 to 8 mentees. A junior, a senior, and the graduate mentors were assigned mentees who were on probation. Students on probation have grade point averages that fall below the minimum grade point average for the number of credits attempted, and below 2.00. Freshmen and sophomore mentors were assigned mentees who were on warning. Students on warning have attempted 0 to 24 credits but failed to achieve a 2.00 grade point average. Mentors had caseloads consisting of a mixture of races and genders. Mentor Training
The mentors attended four staff meetings during which programmatic issues and training needs were focused upon. Weekly supervision sessions were also held. In these sessions mentee appointments, professional concerns, and study skills were discussed. Mentors also attended two required training sessions. The training sessions encompassed mentee outreach techniques, protocol
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implementation, and multicultural counseling approaches. A counselor conducted the training sessions. In the conceptualization of the program, the introduction of the mentors to Behavioral and Rational Emotive Therapy Theories was considered to provide cognitive tools that would help the mentors during their contacts with the mentees. Consequently, mentors received written materials and in the previously mentioned training sessions these two theories were taught. Teaching mentees study skills is of paramount importance to enhancing the ability of the target population in persisting at college (Bolender, 1994). To help mentors accomplish this aspect of the project’s goals, each mentor received a supply of study skills pamphlets and training in study skills pedagogy. The specific pamphlets given to the mentor and mentees were published by Classic Scriptography and titled How to Study, About Making the Grade, About College Stress, and What You Should Know About Self-Esteem. These materials were reviewed with the mentors during the supervision sessions. Activities Implemented
The mentoring program implemented several activities to accomplish programmatic goals. Students were invited to a mentee/mentor orientation meeting early in the Spring semester. During this meeting, applications, contracts, and/or the goals of the program were distributed and discussed (see Appendix B-4). Additionally, the responsibilities of the mentors and mentees were presented. The meeting ended with a question-and-answer period. Mentors, as a follow-up to the meeting, mailed mentees personal note cards that included information for arranging a face-to-face appointment (e.g., I am writing you to say hi and to set-up our first appointment). Letters regarding the mentoring project were also mailed to the mentees from their counselors (see Appendix A-2). Students who did not make an appointment after the first written contact or failed to attend the appointment had mentors contact them by phone to arrange an initial meeting. Twenty-three of the mentees had to be contacted by phone. Data Analysis The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. Additionally, both mentors and a representative sample of the mentees completed evaluation forms (see Appendices B-1, B-2). PROJECT OUTCOMES Of the students who took part in the project, all students: • Saw their mentors or another mentor face-to-face at least twice; • Had two telephone conversations with their mentors, or another mentor; and
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• Received three mailed correspondences from the mentors or mentoring project about appointments or as a greeting. During the mentor/mentee individual meetings, the mentees followed a specific protocol and/or discussed study skills, financial aid, or personal issues (see Appendix C-1). A review of the contact sheet that the mentors maintained regarding their interactions with the mentees revealed that approximately 68 percent of the contacts focused on academic concerns. Students were concerned about grades, tutoring, and discussions with faculty members. Personal discussions relating to household and family issues were the next largest topic of concern (24 percent). The results of the project evaluation showed that 32 of the 53 students involved in the project were retained at the college. Of those 32 students, 23 were in good academic standing, having an overall GPA of 2.00 or better; three were on warning status; and six were on probation (see Appendix E-2). The retention rate for the mentorinq project was approximately 60 percent. Mentors recommended: • Having mentees attend mandatory group meetings; • Sending mentees more letters; and • Having mentors meet with counselors in small groups to discuss the mentees’ issues. The mentees recommended: • Making contact with mentors easier; and • Having a set time and place for all mentor/mentee meetings. It seems that for both groups arranging initial and ongoing contacts was difficult. Making sure mentors have a telephone number where they can be contacted and an office where meetings can be held seems to be one remedy to this problem. Another possible remedy would be to assign mentees multiple mentors. This was one of the recommendations of Dunn and Moody (1995) in their study Mentoring in the Academy: A Survey of Existing Programs. Another causal factor in the retention of this group of students was tutoring. Twenty-two or 41 percent of the mentees also attended tutoring on an ongoing basis. Of the 22 who attended tutoring, four were dismissed. Thus, tutoring appears to be a contributing factor to the retention of this cohort of students. Instrumentation Statistical tests for the students mentored during the Spring 2000 semester reveal a mean GPA of 1.954885, a median GPA of 2.00, and a standard deviation of .901409. The range of GPA’s had been from 0.00 to 4.00 (see Appendix E-4). Statistical tests for the same group of students during the Fall semester of 1999, when they were not mentored, reveal a mean GPA of 1.648673, a median GPA of
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1.648 and a standard deviation of .73881. The range of GPA’s had been from 3.10 to 0.00 (see Appendix E-4). A two tailed t-test was performed using SPSS. It showed significance of p < .05 or p = .036 (see Appendix E-5). Apparently the mentoring intervention had an overall positive effect on the students’ grades (see Appendix E-4). A comparison of means shows that students who took part in the mentoring project had a higher semester grade point average (+.31) than the previous semester during which they did not take part in a mentoring relationship. The mentees’ cumulative grade point average was also higher for the Spring semester than the previous Fall (+.238). All of the mentors and a random sample of 30 percent, or 16, of the mentees completed evaluation forms. It was felt that 30 percent was a big enough sample to be representative of the mentee population. An analysis of the evaluation forms revealed that all of the mentors used the study skill materials distributed. Mentors gave the mentees copies of the study skill pamphlets and reviewed the contents of the pamphlets with the mentees. In some cases, mentors reported using role-plays to help the student understand how to implement better study habits. Most (n = 4) felt that having written information to give students was helpful. They used the study skills materials regularly in sessions. Concerning the goals of the program, the mentors commented: “This program helps students continue their college education.” “If we could save one student from being dismissed I believe it (the project) is valuable.” All but two of the mentees felt that the project was helpful to them and should be repeated (two of the mentees did not comment). Most of the mentees comments were similar to these: “It helps to have a peer to talk to, and give you advice.” “The mentor helped me decide about changing my major.” SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION The mentoring program’s components were designed to help retain students on probation and warning. Toward the attainment of that goal, mentors assisted in the success of their mentees. The characteristics Noller (1972) delineates as those for effective mentoring were sought in the mentors who worked with the program. They included interpersonal skills like a positive attitude, a willingness to help someone else succeed, self-confidence, respect, and tolerance for the points of view of others, and a positive attitude toward working with people from various cultural groups. As Freedman found and social learning theory dictates, many of the characteristics noted by Noller can be learned from ongoing exposure to individuals who demonstrate them. We were cognizant of this factor when choosing mentors. Our program tried to ensure that women who sought other females as mentors had them available. We did this by asking students if they had a preference, noting,
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as Duff states, that women can learn from both male and female mentors but that there are some gender specific aspects of role modeling. For similar reasons male students were also allowed to chose same sex mentors (Gurian, 1998). Our pedagogical methodology corresponded with those outlined by Dale (1992) and Demery (1987), concerning facilitating the learning experiences of students and retaining them. The approach we used focused upon discussing concrete observable or measurable issues. The issues included the teaching of study skills and displaying proper affective behavior toward instructors. To be effectual, mentors had to be aware of the services offered on campus and share that information with mentees. As the mentoring program progressed we noted that the first developmental stages described by Moore (1982) in his discussion of the mentoring-protégé relationship were being fulfilled. The protégés performed visible and important tasks while working with the mentors. We look forward to seeing if students who remain in the mentoring program realize the other stages of Moore’s model. It is our belief that the retention and evaluation data presented in this study supports the contention that mentoring programs assist students in being retained at the college and can lead to some improvement in GPAs. This contention concurs with the findings of Astin (1984), Tinto (1993), and Dale (1992). It is our hope that students who perform better academically and have connected with a mentor in the college environment will persist at the institution.
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APPENDIX A-1 Letters [COMPANY NAME] ———————————————————————————————— [Street Address] [City, State/Province Zip/Postal Code]
[Recipient Name] [Address] [City, State/Province Zip/Postal Code] Dear [Recipient]: The SEEK program is starting a new mentoring initiative. The program will provide additional support services to SEEK students who are at the greatest risk of not completing a degree, warning and probationary students. The SEEK office is in the process of recruiting mentors for this program. We are looking for upper class students, graduate students, and alumni who would be interested in working as mentors. A copy of the job description is enclosed. The program is scheduled to begin the 1st of March. Training and orientation for the program will begin at the end of February. There are five paid positions available. The positions last eight weeks during the spring 2000 semester. Mentors will be paid @5.50–$9.39 per hour, depending on their experience and education, for a ten hour work week. The deadline for applications is February 20, 2000. If you are interested in applying please complete the enclosed form and submit it in the postpaid envelope provided before the deadline. Once we have reviewed the applications we will be contacting the candidates to arrange interviews. Sincerely,
Runae Edwards-Wilson Mentor Program Coordinator Enclosure: 2 cc: Gloria Garcia, Program Director
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APPENDIX A-2
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APPENDIX B-1 Evaluation Forms Mentee Evaluation Form Name___________________________
Telephone Number _______________
Address ________________________
Mentors Name ___________________
1. Did a mentor contact you? _____ If yes, how? ________________________ How often did you meet? ___________________________________________ 2. Did someone from the mentoring program contact you (Dr. Wilson, or Mr. Pagan)? _____ If so, how? _____________________________ how many times? ___________ If the mentor contacted you and you did not meet, why not? ________________ ________________________________________________________________ 3. Did you ever take part in a mentoring program before? ___________________ ________________________________________________________________ 4. Would you take part in a mentoring program again? _____ If not, why not? ________________________________________________________________ 5. What suggestions would you make to improve the mentoring program? ______ ________________________________________________________________ 6. On a scale of one (1) to five (5) how would you assess the benefit of mentoring (1 = not beneficial, 5 = very beneficial) _______________.
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APPENDIX B-2 Mentor Evaluation Form 1. Did you have the opportunity to meet with all of your mentees? _____ If not, why not? ________________________________________________________ 2. Did you use the materials you were given to talk with the mentees? ________ If you used them were they helpful? ___________________________________ 3. If you didn’t use them are there other materials that you would have liked to use? ____________________________________________________________ 4. What was your most challenging experience as a mentor. ________________ ________________________________________________________________ 5. What suggestions would you make to improve the program? ______________ ________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX B-3 SEEK Mentor Application 1. Name _______________________________ 2. Date __________________ 3. Address _________________________ 4. Telephone Number __________ 5. E-Mail Address ____________________ Please check or fill-in appropriate responses. 6. Educational Level: Undergraduate ___ Graduate ___ Postgraduate ___ Other ___ 7. I have worked as a menter before: Yes _____ No _____ 8. My major training needs as a mentor are (i.e., Counseling Theory, Study Skills, other) ___________________________________________________________ 9. I am available to mentor on ___________________ ___________________ Day Time
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10. I could tutor a mentee in _________________________________________ Subject 11. One thing that I would like my mentees to know about me is ____________ ________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX B-4 Mentor/Mentee Contract
Mentor I will contact my mentee at least six times during the semester and have oneon-one meetings at least three times a semester. During these sessions I will tutor the student, review study skills, or discuss personal issues that pertain to their college life. The exact nature of our conversations are confidential but the general content of our conversations may be discussed with the Mentor Supervisor. Time sheets that highlight these meetings will be submitted to the Mentor Supervisor on a regular basis. Mentor’s Name ____________________ Signature _______________________ Office Telephone Number __________________ S.S. # ___________________ Mentee I will have a one-on-one meeting with my mentor at least three times a semester. I agree to discuss issues that have become pertinent to me while I have been a student at CSI. I understand that whatever information I discuss with my mentor will be confidential and that specific statements will not be shared with anyone unless I relate life threatening information. Between one-on-one meetings I will practice any self-help and/or study skills techniques discussed during our meetings. I pledge to make an active effort to utilize my mentor’s expertise in interpersonal skills, critical thinking skills, self-efficacy and other college success strategies to improve my grades. Mentee’s Name _____________________ Signature ______________________ Telephone Number _______________________
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APPENDIX C-1 Protocol Mentor Protocol All of the Mentees should complete a schedule with you or show you a schedule that delineates what they do daily including classes, studying, and meetings. Other inquiries you might make are: Have you been attending classes? Have you been attending tutoring? Have you been attending counseling? Have they passed all of their placement examinations? Do you have any courses that you are concerned about? Have you met with the professor(s) of courses that you are having difficulty with? If a student is having problems with a course find out if: They are attending the class regularly. Do they arrive at class on time? Have they been completing their assignments? Are they getting tutoring? Do they know how to study (review their study habits with them)? Do they have a place to study?
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APPENDIX D-1 Graphs
Ethnicity of Mentees
APPENDIX D-2
Age Ranges of Mentees
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APPENDIX E-1 Ethnicity and Educational Level of Mentors Ethnicity of Mentors
Educational Level
Black females
3
Graduate students
3
White females
2
Freshman
1
Hispanic females
1
Seniors
1
Asian females
1
Juniors
1
White males
1
Sophomores
3
Hispanic males
1
APPENDIX E-2 Acdemic Standing of Population Retained in good academic standing 23 students Retained on warning 3 students Retained on probation 6 students Academically dismissed 21 students
APPENDIX E-3 Ethnicity and Age of the Mentees Ethnicity of Mentees
Ages of the Mentees
Black non-Hispanic
19
Seventeen were 19 years old
White non-Hispanic
14
Thirteen were 20 years old
Hispanic
9
Eleven were 21 years old
Asian or Pacific Islander
6
Four were 22 years old
Other
5
Five were 23 years old One was 25 years old One was 26 years old One was 31 years old
Pair 1
SPRING 00 GPA - FALL 99 GPA
Pair 1
.306212
Mean .142022
Std. Error Mean
SPRING 00 GPA - FALL 99 GPA
51
df
APPENDIX E-5 Paired Samples Test
1.024137
Std. Deviation
Paired Differences
APPENDIX E-4 Paired Samples Test
.036
Sig. (2-tailed)
2.109E-02
Lower
.591333
Upper
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
2.156
t
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APPENDIX F-1 Job Descriptions
SEEK Mentoring Program Job Description Mentors SEEK Mentors are individuals who have displayed characteristics that reflect academic expertise, trustworthiness, caring, and reliability. They are skilled in the areas of effective time management, facilitative interpersonal communication, and good study habits. Mentors can also act as tutors in any subject area in which they have a 3.00 G.P.A. or better. The responsibilities for their position include contacting their mentees at least six times a semester (three contacts must be one-on-one meetings), completing time sheets, filing periodic progress reports, and attending two training supervision/sessions a semester. Training sessions have been planned to help mentors incorporate self-awareness, sensitivity to alternate values and belief systems, and organizational goal setting exercises, into their personal milieu. Intellectually, training will garner a greater understanding of the pedagogy associate with self-efficacy, locus of control, and learning styles, among the mentors. Mentor/mentee contacts can be social outings, phone calls, tutoring, and support sessions. Each mentor is assigned 6-12 mentees based on their courseload and availability. Some of the goals of the mentors will be to facilitate the mentees social skills to produce effective interaction with faculty and staff, improve critical thinking skills to enhance problem solving, and teach self and academic monitoring skills that will aid academic performance. APPENDIX F-2 SEEK Mentoring Program Coordinator Job Description The Coordinator’s responsibilities are to: • • • •
Meet with a caseload of mentees; Assist in the preparation of guidelines for the program; Hire, monitor, and supervise the mentors; And oversee staff meetings and other program activities.
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REFERENCES Academic Office of The CUNY Baccalaureate Program (1998). Partners in learning: A guide for faculty mentors of CUNY baccalaureate program students. Adams, S., & Adams, H. (1993). Techniques for effective undergraduate mentoring: A faculty/student guide. Notre Dame: National Center for Graduate Education for Minorities. Astin, A. W. (1994). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25, 297-308. Bolender, R. (1994). A comparison of the effect of academic peer mentors on grade point averages of under prepared freshmen at Mount Vernon Nazarene College. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 406 935). Dale, P. (1992). A successful college retention program. Indiana. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 238 017). Demery, M. (1987). Academic counseling: Content-guide-checklist for three interviews per semester. Louisiana. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 292 041). Donovan, R. A. (1975). National project! Alternatives to the revolving door. New York: Bronx Community College. Duff, C. (1999). Learning from other women: How to benefit from the knowledge, wisdom and experience of female mentors. New York: Amacom. Dunn, R. E., & Moody, J. (1995). Mentoring in the academy: A survey of existing programs. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 396 599). Fleming, J. (1984). Blacks in college: A comparative study of students’ success in black and in white institutions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fletcher, M. A. (1997, May 10). Xavier’s desk-side manner is prescription for me school: Small black college nurtures achievement. Washington, D.C.: The Washington Post. Freedman, M. (1999). The kindness of strangers: Adult mentors, urban youth, and the new voluntarism. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gardenhire, J. F. (1996). Laney’s success model for first year students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service ED 417 772). Gurian, M. (1998). A fine young man. New York: Jeremy Tarcher/Putnam. Levin, M., & Levin, J. (1991). A critical examination of academic retention programs for at-risk minority college students. Journal of College Student Development, 32(4), 323-334. Moore, K. (1982). The role of mentors in developing leaders for academe. Educational Record, 63(1), 22-28. Noel, L., & Levitz, R. (2000). Power strategies for recruitment & retention. Iowa City: Noel-Levitz. Noel, L., Levitz, R., & Saluri, D. (1987). Increasing student retention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Noller, R. (1972). Applied creativity: The creative studies project. Part III—The curriculum. Journal of Creative Behavior, 6(4), 275-294. Roueche, J. E., & Roueche, S. D. (1993). Between a rock and a hard place: The at-risk student in the open-door college. Washington, D.C.: The American Association of Community Colleges.
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Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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