A Study of Marginalisation, Civil Society and Modern Brazil [PDF]

A Study of Marginalisation, Civil Society and Modern Brazil

Jolana Hanusova On behalf of International Service

October 2013

International Service, Second floor, Rougier House, 5 Rougier Street, York, YO1 6HZ 01904 647799 www.internationalservice.org.uk United Nations Association International Service is a charitable company limited by guarantee. 1 Company No: 3467284 Charity No: 1069182 VAT registration No: 139 2134 25

Content

Executive Summary

Introduction (by Martin Keat, International Programmes Director)

1. General Information

2. Analysis of Inequality in Brazil

3. The Role of the Civil Society in Brazil

4. Racial discrimination

5. Gender-based discrimination

7. Children and young people

8. Drugs

9. LGBT (Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender)

10. People living with disabilities

11. Brazil’s International Cooperation

12. Volunteering in Brazil

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A Study of Marginalisation, Civil Society and Modern Brazil Executive Summary

International Service has a long history in Brazil, and we’ve been supporting the country’s most marginalised communities for 30 years. From the rainforests of the Amazon, the semi-arid regions of the interior, and the densely populated megacities; we have always sought to identify and work with those most in need. At 32 times the size of the United Kingdom and with three times the population, we’ve always worked hard to ensure our work in Brazil reflects the diverse nature of this huge country. Brazil has experienced massive change over these three decades, and is now the seventh largest economy in the world. Having survived the global financial crisis relatively unscathed, it now stands as a vital member of the ‘BRIC’ group of nations, and this economic success means other states around the world are vying to build trade links with Brazil. At the same time, it has moved from military dictatorship to modern democracy, and the last decade saw the election of the popular President Lula who introduced a raft of progressive social policies. These included ‘Bolsa Familia’; a system of state benefits designed to help draw the poorest people out of the crushing poverty that has plagued Brazil for centuries. Advances in health policy has also had a major impact - in 1990, the child mortality for infants under one stood at 49 per 1000 births, but by 2010, this had fallen to just 17. However, Brazil also sustains some of the highest levels of economic inequality in the world. The richest 10% of the population enjoy 75 times the income of the poorest 10%. Despite the economic success, and the significant levels of agricultural, mineral and industrial production, 60% of Brazilians live in poverty. An estimated 32 million people go hungry every day in Brazil. It was with these factors in mind that we commissioned research to better understand the role International Service has to play in Brazil, and how our energy can be focused in a way that complements the country’s significant achievements, whilst supporting those that continue to live in severe poverty. Our research has highlighted that Brazil is as diverse in terms of its social profile as it is in its geography. With 200 million people spread across 26 states, and with historical tensions continuing to cause significant divisions among the Brazilian population, this is hardly surprising. The stark truth emerging from our research is that there remains a lot of work to be done in supporting Brazil on its journey as a nation.

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Race Brazil has a unique ethnic mix within its population, combining indigenous peoples with the descendants of African slaves and white settlers from Europe. This is simultaneously a point of pride as well as a source of prejudice within Brazilian society, with people generally divided into white or dark (‘pardo’) sections of the population. Typically, members of the pardo community suffer discrimination and intolerance, affecting their access to education and employment; even their basic rights as citizens of Brazil. Gender Another alarming finding was the acute situation for women. Women in Brazil receive an income 30% lower than that of men, and women are one third less likely to be working outside the home - 77% of men are active in the labour market, compared to only 52% of women. This fell further to 41% amongst women who describe themselves as pardo. Women are also limited in their choice of employment, and are more likely than men to be in more menial and less secure positions of employment. In rural areas, the situation is worse with 31% of working women going unpaid, and 47% working for self-consumption only. The machismo nature of Brazilian society exacerbates this situation; as well as widespread issues around sexual exploitation, there are disturbing levels of domestic violence. Of the 5000 women murdered in Brazil each year, one third are killed in their own home and, significantly, 42% of women who are victims of domestic violence in Brazil are in a relationship of financial dependence with their aggressor. Children and Young People We were also able to highlight the difficulties facing children in Brazil and, at 29% of the population (or 57 million people), this represents a significant portion of Brazil, as well as the future of the country. Although we are able to report a decrease in malnutrition over the last 10 years, improvements in access to primary education and the aforementioned improvement in mortality rates, 32% of children live in households which survive on less than half the national minimum wage. Also, despite the legal minimum working age being 17 in Brazil, we found that around 3.4 million children aged 10-17 work every day, and we uncovered further statistics revealing that 700,000 children under the age of 13 work in manual industries. For young people aged 17-24, we discovered the troubling fact that 40% of deaths across their age group were considered violent. From 2008-11, there were 206,000 murders in Brazil. In comparison, violent mortalities in Iraq during the period 2004-7 only reached one third of this total. 80% of these violent deaths were young men, 75% described as being pardo.

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For young women, access to education and employment is demonstrably lower than young men, with 16% of women aged 15-17 having at least one child, and their ability to attend school or work outside the home is severely limited by a lack of available crèches. The situation is worsened by a system of child maintenance support that cannot be claimed if the father is absent. Disability Next we looked at the situation for people living with disability in Brazil, with almost 24% of the population defined as having at least one disability. People living with disability in Brazil are almost twice as likely to have received no education at primary, secondary or higher levels and 40% live on less than the minimum wage, with their access to employment limited by issues around access, transport and prejudice. Although a quota system was introduced by the Government, this is rarely observed and non-compliance is not pursued. A great deal of investment has been made by the Government in sports for people living with disability over recent years, but there’s great concern that this effort is focused solely on preparation for Rio’s Paralympic games in 2016, with no clear programme to maintain disabled inclusion in sports after the event. Sexuality Our research also highlighted the position of people within the LGBT community, and it is riddled with contradictions. Whilst Sao Paulo holds the record for the largest ever Gay Pride celebration, and whilst gay marriage is legal and the rights of partners enshrined in law, political pressure has hampered the passing of an important anti-homophobia law through government, and prejudice within society remains strong. Shockingly, 266 people were killed in homophobic attacks in 2011, ten times the equivalent number of murders in the USA, whose population is 35% bigger than Brazil’s.

Looking Forward Our research showed us that a quarter of the Brazilian population volunteer regularly - around 35 million people. Over the last two decades, 60 local centres have been established across the country to coordinate volunteering. Brazil is also looking outwards; investing £540m each year in overseas assistance focused on education, technology, humanitarianism and relief for refugees. This not only shows solidarity, but a drive to build trade links for the future. The situation in Brazil provides a fascinating contradiction; at once a modern, progressive nation enjoying incredible economic success, and a country struggling with a legacy of division and poverty. Through partnership and cooperation, it is International Service’s aim to empower Brazil’s most marginalised communities, in a vision of Brazil where every member of the population can thrive.

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Introduction (by Martin Keat) Brazil has experienced more than a decade of unprecedented change. For many years prior to this Brazil benefited from consistent international support for development programmes as a response to dire economic and social circumstances. Following the global financial crisis in 2008 this situation of global solidarity changed. Social development funding from governments in Western Europe and North America declined rapidly in Brazil. Decisions were taken which saw resources focused on sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and other nations which were not benefiting from the perceived success of Brazil. We at International Service did not believe that it was the right time for us to do this - our work in Brazil is not yet complete. The distribution of the benefit of economic success in Brazil is not uniform; there remain large areas of the country where human development indicators suggest standards of living more akin to sub-Saharan Africa than Western Europe. We remain committed to supporting the people of Brazil resolve this disparity. This year we have taken the opportunity to stand back, review the situation and assess how we may best focus our support in a way that will have a sustained and relevant impact on the lives of the poorest and most marginalised people in Brazil. This report represents the first step towards understanding the issues faced by those with the greatest need. It is designed to help us identify how and where International Service can make the most significant contribution to helping Brazil thrive and achieve its potential. I am sure that you will agree that the report provides us with a very helpful and fascinating picture of the complexity of modern Brazil. We’re very grateful to Jolana for the hard work and insight that went into producing this report for us. We will do all we can to assure that it inspires and informs the future of our work in Brazil. We welcome all who wish to join us on this journey.

Martin Keat International Programmes Director International Service 6

1. General information Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the biggest country in South America, occupying about one third of its territory. The population is about 200 million people, which is the 5th highest national population in the world. The official language is Portuguese. The capital is Brasília, but the biggest cities are São Paulo (approx. 11 million inhabitants) and Rio de Janeiro (approx. 6 million inhabitants). 1.1. History The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere, radiocarbon-dated 8,000 years old, has been excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil, near to modern day Santarem, providing evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture. The region was inhabited by hundreds of different native tribes, the earliest going back at least 10,000 years in the highlands of Minas Gerais. Modern Brazil remains home to around 2,000 tribes, who are mostly semi-nomadic and subsist on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived and proclaimed Brazil as Portuguese on April 22, 1500 they saw the natives as ‘noble savages,’ and miscegenation of the population commenced immediately. Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of Amazonian brazil wood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should civilize the indigenous population. The Portuguese had unknowingly brought diseases with them, against which many indigenous groups were helpless due to lack of immunity. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, and influenza killed tens of thousands. The diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans. In 1534, King Dom João III of Portugal divided the territory into the twelve private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies of Brazil. The decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil, a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America. In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and Europeans groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other. By the mid-16th century, sugar cane had become Brazil's most important export and slaves purchased in the slave markets of Western Africa had become its largest import. The slaves were imported to work in vast sugarcane plantations to enable them to capitalise on the increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar. By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline, and the discovery of gold in the 1690s, would become the new backbone of the colony's economy. This led to a Brazilian Gold Rush, attracting thousands of new settlers to Brazil, from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the World. Portugal fought against both the French and the Dutch to maintain their territories over the centuries, determined to maintain their monopoly and to extend their boundaries through exploration and mapping. Subterfuge continued in Europe too, when threatened by the 7

Spanish and Napoleonic forces Prince Regent Joao moved the royal court of Lisbon to Brazil, establishing some of Brazil’s first financial institutions, local stock exchanges and a National Bank. This ended the monopoly of the colonial trade with Portugal and opened Brazil up to business with other nations. At the end of the peninsula war in 1815 European powers demanded the Royal Court return to Portugal – it being seen as inappropriate for it to remain in a colony. They justified not doing this by declaring the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, creating the first pluri-continental transatlantic monarchic state. This lasted to 1821 where pressure from Lisbon and demands for independence in Brazil led the court to return, with Prince Joao leaving his son Prince Pedro de Alcantara as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil. Brazilians refused to yield to continuing colonial rule, declaring independence on 7th September 1822; Prince Pedro became Dom Pedro I, first Emperor of Brazil on 1st December 1822. A war of independence ensued, lasting until 1824, with Portugal recognising an independent Brazil by 1825. Dom Pedro I remained in place until 1831, unable to resist the opportunity he returned to Portugal to reclaim the vacant throne, handing over Brazil to his 5 year old son, who eventually became Dom Pedro II. Then followed internal revolt, regional infighting and a leadership vacuum which saw Brazil divided against itself. But Pedro II stayed in place for 58 years, winning regional wars against Uruguay and Paraguay, as well as other skirmishes internally. However, the monarchist era ended in November 1889 with a military coup. The next 100 years effectively saw military rule dominate Brazil. There was regular shift back and forth between civilian and military rule, with incompetent governance dominating in each case. The 30s saw the beginning of the first dictatorial regime Brazil would go through. It was led by Getúlio Vargas and it was noted for its brutality and censorship, up until his suicide in 1954. Vargas was succeeded by Juscelino Kubitschek, who led Brazil through a period of democracy and prosperity. The economic boom of the early 1960s saw Brazil construct a new capital, Brasilia. Located in the geographic centre of the country this modern city represented Kubitschek’s bold vision for the future of Brazil. But Kubitschek was deposed in 1964 and replaced by a military dictatorship which initiated the infamous ‘Operation Condor’ which, like other Latin American totalitarian contemporaries, saw military subjugation of opposition and opinion, from political opposition to artists, educationists and anybody who didn’t agree with them. Despite this in the 1970s there was an economic boom, which improved circumstances and led to a common consensus for progress and change. The Amnesty Law of 1979 started a slow transfer to civil rule in 1985. There was no grand revolution, more evolution which led to eventual change – the early preference being for more right wing governments, which regardless delivered slow change and improvement in Brazil. In 1994 President Fernando Henrique Cardoso came into power and instituted the ‘Plan Real’ which saw improvements in the Brazilian economy and civil society as part of this evolution.

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Cardoso was succeeded by President Luis Inácio Lula da Silva, known as Lula, who remained Brazil’s president between 2002 and 2011. Lula rapidly became one of the most significant President’s in the history of Brazil, leading a period of unprecedented growth and change, during which time he established the country as an economic superpower. He also led the introduction of systems of social security which are designed to lift people out of poverty and improve the knowledge economy of the country to better equip it to sustain the economic success in the future. During his Presidency Lula’s approval ratings actually improved, but in line with the constitution he stepped down in 2011 and was succeeded by his former Chief of Staff, Dilma Rousseff, the first female President of Brazil. Rousseff now holds the challenge of maintaining this progress and satisfying the increased expectations of the people of Brazil.

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1.2. Geography 1.2.1. Administrative division Brazil covers an area of 3.3million square miles, or 34 times the size of the United Kingdom. The country is divided in 5 Regions: North, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and South. Given the size of Brazil, every Region (and, in fact, every State) possesses their own individual identity and characteristics. The Regions are further divided into federal units: 26 States and 1 Federal District, the latter being a small area occupied by the capital city of Brasília and its surroundings. The States can differ considerably in size; the greatest area occupied by 2 Northern states, Amazonas and Pará, whereas the coastal North Eastern states tend to be smaller in size.

North AC- Acre AP- Amapá AM- Amazonas PA- Pará RO- Rondônia RR- Roraima TO- Tocantins

North East (Orange) AL- Alagoas BA- Bahia MA- Maranhão PB- Paraiba PE- Pernambuco PI- Piauí RN- Rio Grande do Norte SE- Sergipe

Central West DF- Federal District GO- Goiás MS- Mato Grosso do Sul MT- Mato Grosso

South East (Red) ES- Espirito Santo MG- Minas Gerais RJ-Rio de Janeiro SP- São Paulo

South (Blue) PR- Paraná RS- Rio Grande do Sul SC- Santa Catarina

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North: In the North we find Brazil’s biggest state – Amazonas. This region is mostly covered with the Amazon forest and has the lowest population density of all Brazilian regions. From the ethnical point of view, there is a high concentration of indigenous people. However, this region has also attracted greatest numbers of immigrants, especially from the Northeast, who move to work on rubber plantations. North East The North East is a region with very precarious weather conditions. The region has traditionally been affected by periods of drought, but in recent years floods have become a problem as well. Although in the past this was the most prosperous region, as it was here where the Portuguese initially settled, it is now the poorest of all regions. The North Eastern coast is heavily urbanized, with the concentration of the population in the coastal zone. The biggest city is Salvador, the capital of the state of Bahia. Salvador used to be a very important slave port and retains a large population of African descent, but the largest part of the population in the region is ‘parda’ (dark). Central West This region is in the heart of Brazil and has a relatively low population density. It is known mainly for agriculture and livestock, especially cattle. Given its geographical location it was in this region where Brazil’s new capital Brasília was constructed in 1960. This decision was made also in order to boost the economy of the region. South East The South East has the highest population density as it contains the two largest cities in Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. The high level of urbanization brings issues such as endless traffic jams and extensive slums (favelas). It is the richest region in the country, however it also suffers from shocking disparities between the rich and the poor, along with problems such as urban violence and drug trafficking. South The South is the smallest of the five regions. Given its borders with Uruguay and Argentina it is of great economic and cultural significance. In the past, there have been waves of European settlement (German, Italian), however its population and influences extend beyond Europe, as the city of Porto Alegre was an important port for receiving African slaves. The South is one of the most prosperous regions, with the lowest rates of criminality of all five regions.

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1.3. Population The distribution of the total population of 200 million inhabitants (in 2010) according to regions is represented by the following chart:1

Population (in millions) 90

80.36

80 70 60

53.09

50 40 27.38

30 15.85

20

14.05

10 0 Northeast

North

Southeast

South

Central-West

1.4. Economy As a result of successful economic reforms, Brazil now has the seventh largest economy in the world, with a volume comparable to that of the United Kingdom2. An important part in this process is played by BNDES, Brazil’s state owned development bank, which possesses an annual budget four times that of the World Bank3. Brazil is a member of the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) group of countries who have the fastest growing economies in the world. However, it also has a high Gini index, which is a measure of inequality, which is illustrated by the fact that the richest 10% of the population has 75% of the wealth.4 This is further supported by the regressive tax system, when the rich pay substantially smaller taxes than the poorer population.5

1

Based on Census 2010, http://basilio.fundaj.gov.br/pesquisaescolar/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=878&Itemid=1 2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal) 3 http://www.oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/?p=15802 4 http://expatbrazil.wordpress.com/2008/05/15/weath-distribution-in-brazil/ 5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_inequality_in_Brazil

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Charts: Distribution of total GDP and GDP per capita in the regions:

GDP per capita (in $R) 25000 21183 20000

18257 14604

15000

10000 7247

6749

North

Northeast

5000

0 Central-West

Southeast

South

6

6

Based on Wikipedia. Data for Northeast: estimate 2007, Central-West: estimate 2006, Southeast: estimate 2008, South: 2008, North: estimate 2005/2006.

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1.5. Religion The majority of Brazil’s population is Roman Catholic. There are also Evangelists (22.2%) and other religions, such as Umbanda and Candomblé, the traditional African religions, which are principally found in the state of Bahia. 8% of Brazilians do not have any religion.7

Percentage of Brazilian population according to religion from 2010 70

64.6

60 50 40 30

22.2

20 8

10

2

0.3

2.7

Spiritist

Umbanda and Candomblé

Other religions

0 Roman catholic

Evangelist

Without a religion

1.6. Current situation in Brazil Brazil has recently had a constant presence in international media for several reasons. In 2011 it was because Brazil elected its first female president, Dilma Rousseff. This fact caused some linguistic confusion, as Brazilians had to get used to using the up-to-then unused form “Presidenta”, as Dilma herself prefers to be called.8 Dilma comes from PT (Partido dos Trabalhadores, Workers’ Party). Lula da Silva, her predecessor, was from the same political party. Brazil is also hosting the 2014 FIFA World Cup from 12 June to 13 July, which will take place in 12 cities across the country. Two years later, in August 2016, the Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games will be held in Rio de Janeiro. Also, in June 2013, Brazil was dominated by a wave of demonstrations which started as a reaction to the rise of the cost of public transport fares in the city of São Paulo. However, stirred up by alleged police brutality, the manifestations spread to the rest of the country, involving more than 1 million people. The demonstrations became directed at a range of issues, from gay rights to corruption related to the organization of the World Cup and the Summer Olympics. It has been pointed out that the movement was not a successful one due to the lack of articulation and organization, but still was the most important social movement in the last 30 years.9

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http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/94/cd_2010_religiao_deficiencia.pdf http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,dilma-no-poder-novos-gostos-e-costumes,660699,0.htm 9 http://www.zcommunications.org/the-mass-protests-in-brazil-in-june-july-2013-by-alfredo-saad-filho.html 8

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2. Analysis of Inequality in Brazil 2.1. The nature of inequality in Brazil The development of Brazil’s economic situation is remarkable: it is the country with the 7 th largest purchasing power in the world10, and it still continues to expand whilst also enjoying democracy and political stability. Even though Brazil is often used as an example for other developing countries, the wealth is far from equally distributed – in fact, Brazil has one of the highest Gini indices11 in the whole world12. Only a few countries do worse than Brazil, such as Angola, Honduras, South Africa or Bolivia. Inequality is not just the difference between people’s incomes, but more importantly the difference in the personal, political and social power they can exercise in society. It leads to further marginalization of vulnerable groups on grounds such as HIV status, disability, gender or race. It is also increases violence and crime, arising from the marginalized groups’ perception of the privileges of the elite. 2.2. Brief history of social marginalization in Brazil For two decades Brazil experienced economic stagnation and a deep crisis, characterised by enormous inflation, which reached its height in the late 80s and early 90s. Salaries were cut and the business planning became unthinkable. This led to a massive concentration of the population in slums and areas with precarious housing conditions. Some positive changes arrived as a reaction to the change of the regime from dictatorship to democracy (the first democratic elections took place in 1985), however, both Fernando Collor de Mello (1990 – 1992) and his successor, Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1995 – 2002) focused on liberalising the Brazilian economy without any long-term planning or concerns for the workers responsible for the economic success. Although Cardoso’s policies managed to get inflation under control and boost the economy, his policies created a mass of poor people. Before this time the poorest people tended to be mostly illiterate economic migrants from the North East. In the 1990s, the newly excluded were mostly urban citizens who were unemployed or forced to accept informal jobs. The precarious employment situation created a gap between the actual earnings of those in work and profits from industry. This gap would become even more significant in the future. Lula’s government was a turning-point in many ways. The country enjoyed both democracy and economic growth. Social security programmes were introduced and new jobs created. The government also increased the minimum wage and purchasing power. As a result, the GDP went up sharply. Regardless of the undisputed positive impact these changes had, the country did not overcome the social problems that plagued it. Despite the positive statistics, the social 10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal) Gini index is used to measured economic inequality. OECD defines it as following: “The Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income (or, in some cases, consumption expenditure) among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=4842 12 http://www.christianaid.org.uk/images/real-brazil-full-report.pdf 11

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dichotomy still prevailed. This was because the newly created jobs were mostly poorly paid, therefore not helping to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor. In addition to that, despite the industrial growth, the difference between profits from industry and the actual earnings of those in work further increased, so that only a very small portion of the profit eventually reached the workers, while the companies were getting increasingly rich. Therefore, although the level of poverty went down, the level of inequality rose. The same can be said about the benefits introduced by Lula’s government, specifically Bolsa Família13 and Continuously Paid Benefits (BPC)14. Although these were of fundamental importance, especially for the poorest families, providing for basic items such as food, these alone could not be expected to have the power to transform the chronic situation of the poorest families. Still, the benefits improved the lives of a huge amount of people. Before Lula, the level of poverty was so high that relatively cheap measures helped to reduce it significantly. On the other hand, the privileges of the elite, such as the regressive indirect taxation, remained untouched, without any long-term policies to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor. However, unlike his predecessors, Lula’s administration did pay attention to the problem of eradicating the poverty. Dilma Rousseff shares Lula’s awareness of the fact that if Brasil wants to become a developed country it needs to address this central problem. She has continued this policy with the programme Brasil Sem Miséria15, launched in 2011. Her policy for fighting poverty involves various ministries, however, the fight against inequality remains mostly rhetorical and does not propose any concrete agrarian, urban or tax reforms. Social exclusion is a very complex issue that varies from country to country, and is influenced by the conventions and prejudices of each society. As one study points out16, in Brazil, the vulnerable groups are not excluded. In fact, they are perfectly integrated in an unequal system, where the elite are not willing to concede privilege, with any social reforms likely to prove inconvenient for them. There are strong tendencies to hide and understate the country’s problems, which are sometimes reflected in the Government’s rhetoric. Brazil is looking towards the developed countries in terms of economic wealth, but the tendency is to neglect issues that do not fit with their vision of economic development.

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Bolsa Família is a social benefit for poor families with children, who need to attend school and to be vaccinated in order to be eligible. It was introduced by the government of Lula da Silva as a part of the programme to fight hunger (Fome Zero). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolsa_Fam%C3%ADlia 14 BPC (Benefício de Prestação Continuada) is a social benefit paid to elderly people above 65 years of age with low income and to the disabled on low income. http://www.previdencia.gov.br/conteudoDinamico.php?id=23 15 The programme ‘Brazil sem Miséria’ (Brazil without poverty) consists in broadening the scope of Lula’s welfare programmes, such as Bolsa Família, with the aim of further reduction of the numbers of people affected by poverty. It consists of cash transfers as well as facilitating the access to employment (through trainings), education, public services etc. http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasil_sem_Mis%C3%A9ria 16 The study Real Brasil of Christian Aid, http://www.christianaid.org.uk/images/real-brazil-full-report.pdf, refering to the article “Posições de classe destituída no Brasil” by José A. Figueredo Santos

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3. The role of Civil Society in Brazil17 In the second half of the 20th Century, Brazilian society and the Brazilian government have undergone major political, economic, social and cultural changes. The democratic transition process and the elaboration of a new Constitution in 1988 have consolidated social rights, which are to be guaranteed my means of social and economic policies as well as by decentralized actions with social participation. The creation and management of public policies must be open and transparent, through the inclusion of the population in public policies elaboration and decision-making processes. As part of this process, a wide variety of entities became involved in supporting the development of civil society: i.e trade union groups, entities such as the Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil – OAB (Brazilian Bar Association) and the Associação Brasileira de Imprensa – ABI (Brazilian Press Association), universal demands movements, such as the feminist movement, LGBTs, the landless movement and the black movement. Between them they formed the struggle against social authoritarianism which exists in political, economic, social and cultural relations in Brazilian society and in the Brazilian government. Civil society organizations that work against the violation of human rights and demand the effective realization of political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights have formed a bloc for the defence of rights and common goods with which a large number of social actors have identified. In this context, to ensure participation of different segments in the policy-making process, several formal structures of dialogue were created, such as councils of thematic policies and conferences, places for proposing, developing and promoting public accountability on public policies. These places have been consolidating in Brazil in the past 20 years, as an important realm of political expression and of dialogue and interaction, allowing for a better interface between civil society experience and state practices. However, despite the formal inclusion of several social actors in the process of developing and monitoring public policies, these spaces have hardly contributed to guaranteeing the inclusion of civil society demands in public policies. This is partly due to the authoritarian heritage of the Brazilian state and to a strong State resistance to recognising results from the Councils in policy-making. Questions of representation and of a biased relationship between the State and civil society are also responsible for the relative lack of innovation in public policies. Presidential mandates from the last decade have sought to emphasize public participation policies through several different mechanisms in the federal and local government, but their impacts in policy-making are still complex and, many times, contradictory. The experience of participation, however, has strengthened Brazilian civil society in its search for an effectively participatory democracy, not only in Brazil but also internationally. In fact, Brazilian civil society movements and organizations have participated actively in international networks and on different subjects related to development since the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 1992 until the 2012 People’s Summit. The international agenda of Brazilian rights-based organizations has broadened significantly, searching for increased

17

http://www.abong.org.br/final/download/posen.pdf

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participation in international movements for human rights, trade, climate, environment, amongst others.

4. Racial discrimination 4.1. Ethnicity in Brazil In terms of race and ethnicity, Brazil is an extremely diverse country. This is due to its colonial history, characterized by the contacts between the native Indigenous population, the Portuguese colonizers and African slaves. Later, in the 19th and 20th century, Brazil was the destination of immigration from countries such as Italy, Germany or Japan (mostly to the South and the Southeast). Brazilians distinguish numerous ethnic types, based not only on what races are mixed, but also in which proportion. For the purpose of this report we will use a more general ethnic definition used in the Brazilian Census of 201018, elaborated by the IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics). The Census divides the population in 3 main ethnic groups – white, black and dark (‘pardo’). The Census does not always take into account other ethnicities such as Indigenous or Asian due to the relatively low representation. The ethnic distribution, according to the Census of 2010, is as follows: White: 47.7% (91 million) Dark: 43.1% (82 million) Black: 7.6% (15 million) East-Asian: 1.1% (2.46 million) Indigenous: 0.4% (896,000) In comparison to the Census from 2000, the numbers of the black and dark population rose, whereas the numbers of the people who declare themselves as white declined, representing less than a half of the whole population in 2010. 19

60 50 40 1991 30

2000 2010

20 10 0 White

Black

East-Asian

Dark

Indigenous

18

http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/arquivos/2012/07/02/censo-2010-mostra-as-diferencas-entre-caracteristicasgerais-da-populacao-brasileira 19 http://indigenas.ibge.gov.br/images/indigenas/estudos/indigena_censo2010.pdf

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In terms of geographical distribution, dark people are most common in the regions of North East and North (notably in the state of Pará, where 69.5% of the population are ‘pardos’), whereas black people are most numerous in the North East, principally in Bahia (17.1%). The Indigenous population is most numerous in the North (55.5% in Amazonas) and North East regions. The South has the highest numbers of the white population, given the German migration to the area, however, Rio Grande do Sul also has a significant black population and Indigenous population of the native tribe of Guarani.20 We can conclude that even in the South, Brazil is far from being homogeneous. 4.2. Relation between race and income The data of the IBGE show a disparity between the numbers of white and non-white households living in poverty. Although the white population represents about a half of Brazil’s population, only about a quarter of all households living in poverty are white. The Census also confirmed the widely acknowledged fact that the white population receives higher salaries and they study longer. This is even more pronounced in the South East, where the salaries received by the white population correspond to double those paid to the black population. The difference was the smallest in the South, where the salaries of the white population are 70% higher than those of the black population.21

Population in households with monthly income of less than R$ 70 (approx. £23) 326,386

White

4,250,418

Black Asian 10,054,586

1,456,915

Dark Indigenous

178,853

20

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/caracteristicas_raciais/pcerp_classificacoes_e_identidades.pd f 21 http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/ultimas-noticias/2012/06/29/brancos-ganham-duas-vezes-mais-que-negrose-dominam-ensino-superior-no-pais-mostra-censo-2010.htm

19

22

Population in households with monthly income of less than R$ 70 (approx. £23), in % 40

36.43

35 30 25 20 15 10

9.71

8.27 4.67

5

12.26 7.2

0 Brazil

White

Black

East-Asian

Dark

Indigenous

4.3. The nature of racial discrimination The situation of race-based discrimination in Brazil is very complex and quite unique. On the one hand, every child is taught to be proud of the fact that Brazilians are a mixture of three races – black, white and Indigenous. On the other hand, discrimination is happening and Brazilians do not deny the fact. In Brazil, race is closely linked to status. In the past, the white population have always had a better starting point: during the colonial times they were the slave-owning ‘fazendeiros’, and the situation did not change much after the abolition of slavery in 1888. The freed slaves had no land or property, so after freedom they often they had to work for the same people, with practically the same conditions.23 Therefore, the current situation, where white people have better education, income and cultural level, is a continuation of this centuries old tradition. Given this it is of little surprise that there is a stereotype of the rich and powerful being white and the poor and uneducated being black /dark. An example which demonstrates the link between discrimination, social status and stereotypes is the discrimination of the people of the North East, as well as in the urban areas of the South East, where they tend to migrate (typically São Paulo). The North East, Brazil’s poorest region, is often afflicted by natural disasters such as droughts or floods and is generally seen as backward. Any person from the North East, no matter his/her position on the social scale, is likely to be seen through this perspective. It was a small victory when Luis Inácio Lula da Silva, a son of a North Eastern working-class family, was elected as president. His election was actively opposed due to the fear that he would spend the biggest part of the budget on the North East.24 25

22

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/caracteristicas_raciais/PCERP2008.pdf http://www.cartamaior.com.br/templates/postMostrar.cfm?blog_id=1&post_id=704 24 http://www.pucsp.br/neils/downloads/v5_artigo_ilse.pdf 25 Lula was born in the town of Caetés, Pernambuco 23

20

Discrimination in Brazil, therefore, appears to be not purely ethnic in nature, but also statusrelated, influenced by deeply rooted stereotypes. 4.4. Race and education Although the statistics indicate an overall increase in the number of students of higher education, the situation is less positive if we take into account the criteria of race. We will base our comparison of levels of education according to ethnicity on the results of the Census 2010. The figures are represented by the following chart: Distribution of Brazilians between 15 and 24 years of age in education according to race and type of education (in %) 60 50

50.8

49.1

49

Primary education 36.6

40

34.6

31.1

Secondary education

30 20

19.1

Higher education 13.4

12.8

10 1.5

0.8

1.3

0 White

Black

Dark

Literacy courses for young and adult people

26

We can observe that in primary education, the proportions for the white, dark and black population are very similar. On this level, the challenges are not so much in increasing numbers of non-white students, but in implementing policies that will prevent the non-white students from leaving education, as well as ensuring that teaching materials do not contain any racially biased or stereotypical portrayals.27 It is worth noting that the statistics do not explain lower numbers of white people in secondary education. Given that a greater number then benefit from higher education this would appear to indicate an inaccuracy in the national statistics. In higher education, however, we can note some substantial differences. Although the number of the black students tripled between 2001 and 2011,28 the figures for the black and dark population are still much lower than those for the white population. The key factor in increasing the numbers of black students was the introduction of the law from 2003, requiring the state and federal universities to introduce quotas for students who are black, disabled or who come from the state schools. The quota and the conditions vary between universities. For example in the University of Brasília it is 20%.

26

http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/ultimas-noticias/2012/06/29/brancos-ganham-duas-vezes-mais-que-negrose-dominam-ensino-superior-no-pais-mostra-censo-2010.htm 27 http://www.scribd.com/doc/145045157/Discriminacao-racial-nas-escolas 28 http://noticias.terra.com.br/educacao/ibge-em-10-anos-triplica-percentual-de-negros-nauniversidade,4318febb0345b310VgnCLD200000bbcceb0aRCRD.html

21

The quota system is widely accepted and approved, however, there have also been cases of protests from students, who find them unfair. The students’ frustration is probably partially caused by the fact that the entrance exams to Brazilian universities are generally very difficult, especially to courses such as Law or Medicine. Surprisingly, it was not only the elite protesting against the law, but also musicians and anthropologists.29 4.5. Quilombolas Quilombolas are inhabitants of settlements called ‘quilombos.’ During the colonial times these were distant and isolated locations where runaway slaves would establish communities. The quilombos had their own laws and social structure and the inhabitants were not only black, but also native Indigenous inhabitants and marginalized whites. The main characteristic of the quilombos were autonomy and resistance. For most Brazilians, quilombos belong to the colonial past, ignoring completely the fact that they still exist. For most modern quilombos, the main problem is that they do not officially own the land they have been occupying for centuries. Although this has been legally addressed by the Law 4.887 from 2003 which says that the quilombolas have the right to own their territories, the process is a lengthy one. 30 The need to define a quilombo (in order to decide if they can claim the territory or not) has roused the interest of anthropologists, who found that unlike the quilombos from the colonial times, the modern ones are no longer isolated and they have developed their own traditions and methods of surviving, which vary from one settlement to another. For the legal recognition of a quilombo, the key factor is the condition that its inhabitants claim their ethnic origin to be quilombola, rather than being based on any external characteristics. 4.5.1. The concentration and number of quilombolos The number and concentration of quilombos in each region or state is very difficult to establish, as most have not been officially recognised. According to The Comission Pró-Índio from São Paulo (Comissão Pró-Índio de São Paulo, CPI SP), which has been monitoring the situation in 8 Brazilian states. There are an estimated total of 3000 quilombos across Brazil. The distribution of existing quilombo settlements in each State are shown in the following: 600 500

527 400

400

400 300

240

200 100

5

23

1

53

120

130

2

3

153

35 6

4

4

3

2

1

1

1

0

Number of quilombos estimated

29 30

Quilombos registered

http://www.cartamaior.com.br/templates/postMostrar.cfm?blog_id=1&post_id=704 http://pessoas.hsw.uol.com.br/quilombolas3.htm

22

Although these figures are only estimates, we can see a clear disparity between the number of the officially recognised quilombos (196), which would represent about 6% of the total estimated number of 3000 communities.31 32 From a geographical point of view, the chart shows us that the greatest concentration of quilombos is in the North and North East, with a significant number in the State of Pará. The distribution is conditioned by the historical development of the country, with the North East as a centre of a slaveholding economy. Despite the fact that the South is known mostly for its European immigration, it was also a port for slave traders, which results in a relatively high number of estimated quilombos in the area. The leader in the number of officially recognized quilombos is Pará (53), followed by Maranhão. This is due to the fact that the quilombola movement has traditionally been very active here, therefore the process of recognition is more effective.33 4.5.2. How to claim a territory? The right of the quilombolas to their land is guaranteed by Article 68 of the Federal Constitution of 1988. However, putting the Article 68 into practice is very difficult, which is illustrated by the fact that the first territory was recognized as late as 1995. The speed in recognizing territories has not improved much during the government of Dilma Rousseff.34 The procedure is determined by the federal and state legislation.35 At the federal level, the responsible organ is Incra (Instituto nacional de colonização e reforma agrária; the National Institute of Colonization and Land Reform).36 Incra’s procedures are not very popular amongst the quilombolas, as they are seen as excessively lengthy and inefficient. At the present moment, 88% of Incra’s cases have not been given any attention beyond being assigned a case-number. This is believed to be caused by Incra’s extremely inefficient use of their resources, rather than the lack of them. The slow pace of progress is caused by the volume of requests and a limited number of people working on them. Also, some of the bureaucratic norms introduced during Lula’s government did not contribute towards an expedited process, increasing the costs and length of each request. The Commission Pró-Índio has questioned this process, believing that the objective of these norms is to oppose the territorial rights of the quilombolas. In 2004 there was a reaction to these norms, with influential organizations and bodies supporting the case of the quilombolas. However, Incra still finds itself being in the centre of the conflicting interests of the quilombolas and the opposing forces.37 However, the official recognition (‘titulamento’) does not mean that the land passes into the ownership of the quilombolas. It is followed by evaluation of the property on the territory and

31

http://www.cpisp.org.br/terras/html/por_que_as_titulacoes_nao_acontecem.aspx For more detailed information on each official community, including the size and location go to http://www.cpisp.org.br/terras/asp/terras_tabela.aspx 33 According to Marcia Jusilene do Nascimento from AQCC, information obtained from the call made on 18/09/13. 34 http://www.cpisp.org.br/terras/html/por_que_as_titulacoes_nao_acontecem.aspx 35 For more information go to http://www.cpisp.org.br/htm/leis/conheca_quilombos_estadual.htm 36 Instituto Naciolal de Colonizacao e Reforma Agraria, http://www.incra.gov.br/ 37 http://www.cpisp.org.br/terras/html/por_que_as_titulacoes_nao_acontecem.aspx, based on the data of INESC 32

23

compensation of the owners. This process is also very time-consuming. To illustrate this fact, AQCC (Quilombola Association of Conceição das Crioulas) had their territory recognized in 2000, but the first farm was redeemed in 2012.38 4.5.3. Other problems faced by the quilombolas The communities whose territory has not been officially recognized are in a more vulnerable position in regard to abuse from the landowners. The land is crucial for the survival of the communities, who depend mostly on agriculture. However, even the officially recognised communities can struggle for self-sufficiency. A possible ways to increase the income of the quilombolas is the production of traditional hand-made goods or sustainable tourism. Due to the generally isolated location of quilombos, there can be problems with the school attendance of their children and young people. The government has recently launched a scholarship programme for quilombola and indigenous students who manage to pass the conditions defined by the quota system.39 4.5.4. Other observations AQCC,40 one of the partner organizations of International Service, is in a better situation than many other quilombola communities, given that their territory has been officially recognized. Despite this fact, the quilombolas have managed to redeem only a small part of the territory. Other communities are struggling for their basic rights. In Pernambuco, there is a program for direct funding of quilombolas – PróRural (www.prorural.pe.gov.br).41 4.5.5. Links - Pro-Indio Comission São Paulo, supporting both the quilombolas and indigenous people http://www.cpisp.org.br/ - Equip – Escola de Formação Quilombo dos Palmares. A Pernambuco-based NGO promoting education in quilombos http://equip.org.br/2009/. - Quilombos in the state of Minas Gerais http://www.mgquilombo.com.br/site/?task=view - AQCC (Quilombola Association of Conceição de Crioulas), one of the partner organizations of the International Service in Pernambucohttp://www.caatingacerrado.com.br/aqccassociacao-quilombola-de-conceicao-das-crioulas-pe/ - a project by the Comission Pró-Índio aimed at quilombolas in Pará, supporting them in their traditional occupation of collection of Brazil nuts http://www.quilombo.org.br/home.html 4.6. Indigenous population After more than five hundred years of exposure to diseases, violence and dispossession at the hands of the European colonizers, the vast majority of the Indigenous population has been annihilated. Currently there remain around 896.000 members of the Indigenous population in Brazil, distributed amongst 238 tribes, living all around the country. The sizes of the tribes vary: some, like Guaraní or Yanomani have tens of thousands members, others count just a 38

According to Marcia Jusilene do Nascimento from AQCC. http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/arquivos/2013/05/10/estudantes-universitarios-de-baixa-renda-indigenas-equilombolas-receberao-auxilio-financeiro 40 http://www.caatingacerrado.com.br/aqcc-associacao-quilombola-de-conceicao-das-crioulas-pe/ 41 Based on the conversation with Mássimo Montenero 39

24

few dozen.42 Although they are mostly associated with the Amazonian forest, indigenous people live all around Brazil in all its ecosystems, such as the cerrado,43 the semi-arid areas of the North East or the coastal areas. Also, their lifestyle can be quite varied. The modern Indigenous population does not live only in rural areas. Although the numbers of the rural population might be higher in some areas, such as in the North, in areas such as South East and North East, the situation is reverse – the vast majority of the indigenous population lives in cities.44 4.6.1. Numbers and distribution According to the Census of 2010, the self-declared indigenous population represents 0.4% of the Brazilian population (corresponding to about 816.000 people). The amount was practically the same in 2000, but in 1991 it was only 0.2%. The rise in 2000 is likely to be caused by the fact that some people who were included in the group ‘others’ in the previous censuses declared themselves as indigenous in 2000, possibly because of not being afraid of assuming their ethnicity for fear of discrimination and prejudice45. From the geographical point of view, the Census of 2010 shows that the biggest concentration is in the North (37.4%). A more precise division on the basis of ethnicity is not yet available. The following map will give us an idea about their distribution in Brazil:

46

42

http://www.survivalinternational.org/povos/indios-brasileiros A tropical savanna, typical for the states of Minas Gerais and Goiás 44 http://indigenas.ibge.gov.br/images/indigenas/estudos/indigena_censo2010.pdf 45 http://indigenas.ibge.gov.br/images/indigenas/estudos/indigena_censo2010.pdf 46 http://indigenas.ibge.gov.br/images/indigenas/mapas/pop_indigena_tot_2010.pdf 43

25

Here we can clearly see that the Indigenous population is most populous in the North, where it is concentrated along the rivers (which is supported by the fact that the collection of data on Amazonian Indians follows the rivers). The concentration is high in the state of Amazonas, but also in Pará, with settlements along the Xingu river. The numbers are also high in the Central-West region, particularly in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul (inset picture E). In the North East, the indigenous population is numerous, especially in the states of Pernambuco and Alagoas (inset pictures A and B). We can note a considerable Indigenous presence all along the coast of Brazil. The following map shows us the division according to tribe:

Orange – Tupi Yellow – Jê Blue – Karib Brown – Aruak Violet – Tukano

Light pink – Pano Light green – Bororo Dark yellow – Yanomani Dark pink – Tikuna group Dark green – other groups

The numbers in the inset boxes indicate the number of the members of each tribe.

26

4.6.2. What problems does the Indigenous population face? Since the arrival of Europeans in Brazil more than 500 years ago, the Indigenous population has been the target of a systematic genocide, with the aim of possessing their territories. Currently, their lands are being taken by farmers or industrial companies, or they are invaded by miners. They are still being killed, either by illnesses brought by those who invade their lands, or by famine, resulting from losing their land with eviction from their territories, or by gunmen hired by the farmers to keep them away. All this is possible due to a widespread prejudice against the Indigenous people, who are perceived as incompetent. This is present even in Brazil’s legal system, as the Indigenous population is practically treated as minors. For example, as the law requires that they have to be legally represented by FUNAI (the National Indigenous Foundation, part of the Ministry of Justice).47 It is essential that the Indigenous people have control over their territories – Brazil is one of only two countries that do not recognise their right to the collective ownership of land of the indigenous people. As a result, they cannot defend themselves against the farmers and invaders to their territory, as well as against large-scale government and commercial projects such as dams, roads or military bases. All this is happening despite two conventions of the UN which Brazil ratified in 1965 and 2002.48 Other issues effecting the indigenous population include:   

 

Slavery: In some areas, the indigenous population is still subjected to slavery, usually in the form of paying off an alleged debt by producing raw materials Prejudice: The idea that the indigenous people are ‘primitive’ and cannot make choices regarding their future is based on a colonial and racist ideology, still used for evicting the indigenous people from their land Theft of their territories: The indigenous people are generally self-sufficient and depend on the land, which is also the source of their identity. The land is ‘stolen’ by companies or the proper government for the purposes of mining, construction of water power-stations etc. Stealing of resources: In some cases, the land is not taken away from them, but resources (wood, minerals, fertile soil) are. In these cases, the people are forced into dependency on the help of the government or NGOs. Forced ‘progress:’ In the case of the indigenous people, the change forced on them is often not their choice. The consequences of this have included higher rates of addiction to alcohol or other substances, which produces higher rates of illness, suicide, prison detention and malnutrition.49

47

According to the Article 22 of the Indian statute, the lands occupied by Indians are the ownership of the Union (articles 4º, IV, and 198 of the Federal Constitution (http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l6001.htm). Although the legislation does not explicitly state that Indians are 'minors', it treats them as such and say they must be 'tutored', which amounts to the same. See one explanation here: http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/1995/7/02/cotidiano/19.html 48 http://www.survivalinternational.org/povos/indios-brasileiros 49 Source: http://www.survivalinternational.org/sobrenos

27

 

Alcoholism and drugs: Despite the law banning the selling of alcohol to the indigenous people they present higher rates of alcoholism in comparison with the rest of the population; 22.9% as opposed to 12.3%.50 Education of indigenous children and young people: According to UNICEF, indigenous children and young people are more vulnerable. Their access to education is problematic, as Indigenous villages do not usually offer higher than primary education. Their survey shows that 30.9% of indigenous children between 7 and 14 are illiterate (as opposed to the national average of 12.4%). The average years of school attendance is 2.4 for Indigenous children between 10 and 14 and 4.2 for white children of the same age. The rates of children who do not attend a school were also higher for Indigenous children.51

4.6.3. Games for the Indigenous People The Games for the Indigenous People (Jogos dos povos Indígenas, JPI) are organized by the Intertribal Committee (Comitê Intertribal, ITC52), with the support of the Brazilian Ministry of Sports. The first Games were organized in 1996, when the minister of sports was Adson Arantes do Nascimento, also known as Pelé. The organization took only two months, during which the organizers visited Indigenous villages to discuss the idea of the Games. After overcoming the initial obstacles, the first Games took place in the city of Goiânia, in the state of Goiás. The most recent games took place between 5 and 12 November 2011 in the State of Tocantins. It was the eleventh such Games and consisted of seven days of competitions and cultural presentations, with the participation of around 1400 indigenous people from 38 ethnic groups from all over the country. The participants stayed in an Indigenous Olympic Village, and the venue had a capacity of 8,000 people. The disciplines included archery, football (both male and female), javelin throwing, canoeing, swimming (both male and female) and running over 100 metres, 4 x 100 metre relay and 5,000 metres. There were also demonstrations of sports practiced by the individual tribes. The Games contribute to a better interaction between the tribes, as well as dissemination of Indigenous culture. Winning the Games can play an important role in a person’s life, as in case of Creuza Assoripa Umutina, a woman from the tribe of Umutina. Creuza is an excellent archer, and won her first archery competition in 1988. Archery is a traditional male sport, and Creuza competed against men, both Indigenous and non-indigenous. Her victory brought great respect to her tribe and in 2004 she was elected the first female chief of her tribe. In the last Games, Creuza led a group of 35 athletes from her tribe. The eleventh Indigenous Games also included discussions of topics such as exchange of sports and cultures between tribes, as well as the role of the indigenous people in the upcoming 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games.

50

http://www.obid.senad.gov.br/portais/OBID/biblioteca/documentos/Relatorios/328379.pdf, p.95. The conclusions of this study should be approached cautiously due to a limited number of interviewed communities/ subjects. 51 http://www.unicef.org/brazil/pt/media_9847.htm 52 http://www.intertribal.or.br

28

The twelfth Games will take place between 11 and 19th October 2013 in Cuiabá, the capital of the state of Mato Grosso. 4.6.4. Links - FUNAI – National Indigenous Foundation, part of the Ministry of Justice http://www.funai.gov.br/ - Intertribal - the organizers of the Games for Indigenous People http://www.intertribal.org.br/ - The Indigenous question http://www.questaoindigena.org/ - The NGO Survival International http://www.survivalinternational.org/povos/indiosbrasileiros - Pro-Indigenous Committee São Paulo http://www.cpisp.org.br/html/historia.html - List of NGOs focusing on the racial discrimination http://www.abong.org.br/associadas.php - Palmares – a cultural foundation focusing on African heritage http://www.palmares.gov.br/ - MEIAM - Movimento de Estudantes Indígenas do Amazonas (Indigenous Students of Amazonia Movement) http://blogmeiam.blogspot.co.uk/ - Coordenação das Organizações Indígenas da Amazônia Brasileira (Office of Organizations of the Indigenous Population of Brazilian Amazonia, COIAB) http://coiab.org/site/ - Conselho Nacional dos Seringueiros (National Council of Rubber Tappers, CNS) http://cnsbelem.wordpress.com/about/ - Grupo de Trabalho Amazônico (Group of Amazonian Workers, GTA) http://www.gta.org.br/

5. Gender-based discrimination Statistics confirm that women are affected by social problems more than the male population, a series of facts which identifies them as a vulnerable group. Women tend to be discriminated against at work by not being given the same opportunities as men, which results in financial dependence, which leaves them in a disadvantaged situation in their personal life. Women usually do more than a fair share of the household chores and of parental responsibilities, which is influenced by the stereotypical image of male and female duties in Brazilian society. 5.1. Employment The 80s saw a considerable increase in participation of women in the job market, as a result of changes in social and gender structures achieved through efforts of feminist movements in the 70s. The economic crisis at the beginning of the 80s also required women to contribute to the family budget. There has, however, always been a disparity between the roles of men and women in the job market, which is reflected in their financial remuneration.53 For those in

53

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/populacao_jovem_brasil/comentario2.pdf

29

formal employment,54 the average monthly salary in 2010 was R$ 1,392 (approx. £464) for men, but only R$ 983 (approx. £327) for women, or around 30% less.55 The employment rates are lower for women as well. According to the International Workers’ Organization, in 2012, 77.1% of men of working age were in employment, but for women the proportion was 51.7%, a difference of over 25%. Also, the IWO expects that the economic crisis will only contribute towards an increase in the gap between the male and female unemployment rates, as well as affecting the jobs more traditionally occupied by women.56 Employment and employability are, however, complex issues, in which the following factors contribute to the unequal opportunities for women:    

Lower levels of qualifications Social prejudice, either limiting the woman to the household or determining the jobs suitable for women The unequal division between men and women in household chores and looking after the children. This situation often limits women to part-time employment and continues even after the women start working Insufficient number of state crèches

These negative impacts could be minimized through the following steps:    

Provision of an accessible network of crèches Changing the perception of women performing only certain jobs Building women’s economic independence. In rural areas, this can mean facilitating their access to land and credit and their concentration in producer groups. In this case, one of the obstacles is finding a market for their products, especially in cities. Encouraging ratification or implementation of key conventions of the International Work Organization, esp. Convention nº 100 pertaining to equality of remuneration (1951)57 and Convention nº 111 regarding discrimination at work (1958)58.

5.1.1. Maids A maid (‘empregada doméstica’, a domestic worker) is one of the most common forms of employment for women, as well as one of the most precarious ones. IBGE provides a detailed survey about the situation of domestic workers in the years 1992-1997.59 Although the most

54

Formal workers are in Brazil refered to as ‘trabalhadores com carteira assinada’ – workers with a signed Employment Record Book (Carteira de trabalho). This document is a proof of a person’s work history, which determines entitlement to some social benefits, such as pension. 55 Data from 2012 from the government website brasil.gov.br., http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/arquivos/2012/10/18/diferenca-salarial-entre-homens-e-mulheres-esta-em-tornode-13-75 56 Article of Globo, quoting data of the Internatinal Workers’ Organization http://oglobo.globo.com/economia/taxa-de-desemprego-das-mulheres-sobe-mais-que-dos-homens-com-crise-dizoit-7005724#ixzz2efJ78Ezq 57 http://www.gddc.pt/direitos-humanos/textos-internacionais-dh/tidhuniversais/pd-conv-oit-100.html 58 http://www.lgdh.org/Convencao%20n%20111%20da%20oit%20sobre%20a%20discriminacao%20em%20mater ia%20de%20emprego%20e%20profissao.htm 59 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/mapa_mercado_trabalho/mapa_mercado_trabalho.pdf, p.115

30

numbers are not up-to-date,60 they are the most recent available and we are able to use them to get a general idea about the numbers and conditions of the maids. In 1997, there were a total of about 5,200,000 people working as maids, out of which 93% were women. From the total amount, only 22.7% were formally employed (this number was even slightly lower for women). This would correspond to about 3,800,000 women working informally, therefore without any entitlement to social security. According to the International Work Organization (OIT), the majority of people working as domestic workers face conditions such as low salaries, long hours of work, insufficient or nonexistent social protection and a general failure to comply with the labour norms.61 The OIT also observes that it is in this year (2013) that Convention 189, which protects the rights of domestic workers, has taken affect. This convention has already been ratified by 4 Latin-American countries – but not by Brazil. The Convention establishes the same basic rights for the domestic workers as to other workers, such as the right to reasonable working hours, the right of a break of at least 24 consecutive hours as well as basic social security services.62 5.2. Domestic Violence The economic dependence of women on men can result in domestic violence. An estimated 42% of women who are victims of domestic violence are in a relationship of financial dependence with the aggressor. In this context a law known as Maria da Penha Law was passed in 2006, defining domestic violence within law and providing services and protection to the victims and their families. 5.2.1. Murders of Women and the Maria da Penha Law Between 2001 and 2011, it is estimated that more than 50,000 women were murdered, which corresponds to about 5,000 murders per year. It is believed that a great part of these murders resulted from domestic violence, given the fact that about one third of all cases the women were murdered in their homes.63 The map below shows us the rates per 100,000 women in the Federative states:64

60

IBGE also published a domestic survey for 2011, which, however, does not go into much detail on the conditions of the domestic workers. It points out that the falling tendency in employing maids. In 2011, there was 7.1 million women women working as maids. 61 http://www.oit.org.br/content/entra-em-vigor-convencao-sobre-trabalho-domestico-da-oit 62 http://www.oit.org.br/content/entra-em-vigor-convencao-sobre-trabalho-domestico-da-oit 63 http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/130925_sum_estudo_feminicidio_leilagarcia.pdf 64 http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/130925_sum_estudo_feminicidio_leilagarcia.pdf

31

Numbers of murders of women per 100,000 women Piauí Santa Catarina São Paulo Maranhão Rio Grande do Sul Amazonas Ceará Acre Sergipe Distrito Federal Brazil Amapá Rio de Janeiro Rio Grande do Norte Mato Grosso do Sul Paraná Minas Gerais Tocantins Pará Mato Grosso Paraíba Rondônia Goiás Pernambuco Roraima Alagoas Bahia Espírito Santo

2.71 3.28 3.74 4.63 4.64 5.07 5.26 5.33 5.4 5.53 5.82 5.99 6.03 6.31 6.44 6.49 6.49 6.75 6.81 6.95 6.99 7.42 7.57 7.81 8.51 8.84 9.08 11.24 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

For the regions, the average rates are as follows:   

North East 6.90 Central West 6.86 North 6.42

 

South East 5.14 South 5.08

The Maria da Penha Law got its name after a domestic violence activist, herself a victim of everyday domestic abuse during 6 years of married life. One murder attempt by her husband left her paraplegic. The Law No. 11.340 was sanctioned during Lula’s government, in August 2007. It altered the Brazilian Penal Code and made it possible for the aggressors to be arrested immediately, along with the possibility of imprisonment, as well as other preventative and alternative penalties. The law also increased the time the aggressors could spend in prison from 1 to 3 years, as well as obliging them to leave the household and defining the distance from which 32

they are allowed to approach the victim.65 In 2009, as a response to the need to raise awareness of the law, a social network Law Maria da Penha (Rede Social Lei Maria da Penha) was created by a group of volunteers with the objective of sharing information about the Law and its application.66 In 2013, a controversy arose as the result of a study by Ipea67 (Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, Institute of Applied Economic Survey) arguing that the law has not contributed to reducing the number of murders of women. Female activists, however, have agreed unanimously that the fact that the numbers have not decreased illustrates the need for the law and its better application, as well as questioning the method of data collection used by Ipea. In response to claims of a low demand for legal help from victims of domestic violence activists point to the fact that since special legal centres (Juizados Especiais de Violência Doméstica) were installed in São Paulo, the demand for their services has only increased.68 Several studies have pointed out the necessity of working not only with the victims of domestic violence, but also with the aggressors, given that the physical aggression towards a woman is a model they often grew up in themselves. The approach focusing on the aggressor’s needs for psychological support and education on non-violent ways of dealing with people.69 5.3. Black women The combination of racism and sexism places black women in an especially vulnerable position. The precariousness of the employment status of non-white women in relation to non-white men is illustrated by the associated statistics: 41% are employed, as opposed to 55.6% of men; 19.2% are domestic workers, as opposed to 0.8% of men; 10.5% unpaid, as opposed to 5.9% of men.70

Comparison of employment situation of non-white men and women 55.6

60 50

41

40 non-white women

30 19.2

20

non-white men 10.5

10

0.8

5.9

0 Employed (%)

Domestic workers (%)

Unpaid (%)

65

http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_Maria_da_Penha http://leimariadapenha.com.br/ 67 http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/130925_sum_estudo_feminicidio_leilagarcia.pdf 68 http://www.abong.org.br/noticias.php?id=6691 69 http://www.scielo.br/pdf/pe/v7n2/v7n2a03.pdf 70 http://www.ufgd.edu.br/reitoria/neab/downloads/situacao-das-mulheres-negras-no-mercado-de-trabalho-umaanalise-dos-indicadores-sociais-giselle-pinto, quoting data by IBGE from 2002 66

33

Further data in the same study also shows the distinction between white and non-white women, revealing that non-white women start to work earlier (for the age group 10-14 years, it is 8.8% of non-whites and 4.9 % of whites). A big proportion of black women (about 19%) are employed as maids, one of the most insecure jobs in Brazil, whereas only about 4% of black women from the São Paulo state work on managerial positions. Also, the figures for unemployment are always higher for black women than white women or black men. To sum up, the factors causing the disadvantageous situation black women find themselves in include the early start of employment (which does not favour education), and a greater participation in badly paid, unpaid or precarious jobs. The authors of the study acknowledge the work done by NGOs and women’s movements in raising the awareness amongst black women of this injustice and supporting the fight against prejudice is beginning to change the situation.71 5.4. Women living in rural areas Women from rural areas face specific challenges, including limited access to resources and gender based discrimination. Their two traditional duties (work and responsibility for the household) limit the time that could be dedicated to education, training or other economic activities. There is a striking difference between the employment pattern of men and women: in cattle-rearing, for example, most men are permanent employees, temporary employees or self-employed (22%, 17% and 32.2%, respectively), whereas most women do unpaid work (30.7%) or work for self-consumption (46.7%). Gender roles can be limiting both in rural and urban areas. Some communities, especially the more traditional ones, restrict women’s mobility outside their households. Female entrepreneurs are not widely accepted in some societies and they face great obstacles in setting up, consolidating and developing sustainable business. Also, rural women are more likely to experience discriminatory practices in relation to property, family law and inheritance. The low numbers of female landowners is a major impediment to the potential for them to create a rural business. Between 2003 and 2007, for example, only 31% of the beneficiaries of the land reform in Brazil were women. The limited access to resources, low levels of education and social norms of what jobs are suitable for women predetermine their allocation of badly paid jobs with low social status. Apart from that, vocational training for women is often aimed at areas traditionally occupied by women, further consolidating the existing model and prejudices. Although these are beneficial in terms of providing women with some income, they do not prepare them for managerial or well-paid jobs, or challenge the limitations women face. Cooperatives are a prominent way of employing women in rural areas. With the right policies, they can contribute to the empowerment of women, increased representation and involvement in decision-making, as well as creating a network of businesses and facilitating access to the market and to services.

71

http://www.ufgd.edu.br/reitoria/neab/downloads/situacao-das-mulheres-negras-no-mercado-de-trabalho-umaanalise-dos-indicadores-sociais-giselle-pinto, p.14

34

Areas for potential improvement:     

Increasing productivity, particularly in sectors traditionally occupied by women through access to trainings and new technologies Increasing the participation of women in the process of decision-making Promoting equal access to land for women, revision of discriminatory policies Improving access to technology (machines, computers, etc.) and provision of training Good protection by the labour rights and regulations and their implementation in practice (relevant to all rural workers).

5.5. What has Brazil been doing to change the situation of women? 5.5.1. Quota system for women in the government In 1996, Brazil joined other Latin American countries in adopting mandatory quotas for lists of representation candidacies. The law requires that 30% of the political parties’ candidates for elections on a municipal, state and federal level are women. These requirements are not met, as in 2002 the representation of women was just around 10%. The reason often given for this fact is how recent the law is. The fact that Brazil elected its first female president in 2010 can be perceived as a partial victory in the field of female representation in politics. According to Sonia Coelho from Sempreviva Organização Feminista (Sempreviva Feminist Organization, SOF), the quota system is not too helpful, as it is often disobeyed. Also, the quota of 30% is for candidates, but does not guarantee that this proportion of women will actually be represented in the government. Despite the fact that the president is a woman, the representation of women in the government of Brazil is only about 12% in the senate and 8% in the congress.72 5.5.2. Office for Women’s Policies The foundation of the Office for Women’s Policies (Secretaria de Políticas para as Mulheres, SPM) by Lula’s government was an important milestone in the defence of women’s rights, demonstrating the government’s awareness of gender inequalities. However, according to more recent news, this ministry might be united with the Office for Adolescents and Office for Promotion of Racial Equality, which some fear could result in limiting its activities. On the level of states and municipalities, proposals to strengthen structures that promote the rights of women have been approved. However, if significant improvement was to be achieved, the changes need to be structural in nature, such as policies to guarantee a woman’s economic independence through promotion of capacitation and education of women. According to SOF, the implementation of policies to support gender equality has improved in the past years, but the policies need to be more radical and broader. Any alteration in the status of SPM that would imply its limited power would be a step back.

72

Based on the call made on 30/08/2013.

35

5.5.3. Child Maintenance Following a separation from a father of her children, a woman is entitled to Child Maintenance (‘pensão alimentícia). If there are doubts about paternity, the woman can ask for a DNA test. Where the partner refuses this paternity is presumed and he has to pay the Child Maintenance. According to Sirley Vieira da Silva from Instituto Papai, most women do apply for and receive Child maintenance. Given the financial necessity, women chase things up in order to receive what they are entitled to.73 As Fiona Mee Alvares has observed, this is possible only in cases where the woman knows where the father of her children is, which is often not the case in the low social levels. This results in a situation when the most needy women are not entitled to the Child Maintenance.74 5.6. Links - ABONG lists 31 NGOs that focus on the relations between the two genders, with the vast majority of them being based in the Northeast (14) and the Southeast (12): http://www.abong.org.br/associadas.php - SOF – Sempreviva Organização Feminista, the organizer of Marcha Mundial das Mulheres (World March of Women) in Brazil http://www.sof.org.br/ - Secretaria de políticas para as mulheres (Office for Women’s Policies) http://www.spm.gov.br/ - http://www.mds.gov.br/brasilsemmiseria/brasil-carinhoso Brazil carinhoso (a social benefit) - http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/maternidade/gestacao/rede-cegonha Rede cegonha (a social benefit)

7. Children and young people 7.1 Demographic data The Brazilian legal system defines children as younger than 12 years and adolescents as people between 12 and 18 years. The law that defines the rights of the children is the Law 8.069,75 which includes the Status of Children and Adolescents (Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente, ESA). In Brazil policies to secure the well-being of children and adolescents are crucial, given the size of the young population. According to IBGE the number of children between 0 and 17 years in the whole country is around 57 million,76 corresponding to 28.7% of the whole population. The table below shows us the absolute numbers of children and young people in each if the five regions:

73

Based on the call with Sirley Vieira da Silva from Instituto Papai Based on the conversation with Fiona Mee Alvares from 03/10/2013. 75 http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/L8069.htm 76 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/criancas_adolescentes/defaulttab.shtm 74

36

30000000 25000000 20000000 0 - 6 yrs 15000000

7 - 14 yrs 15 - 17 yrs

10000000

18 yrs 19 yrs

5000000

20 - 24 yrs 0

The data in the following table adds the perspective of income, showing the percentage of people living in households with an income of less than ½ minimum salary77 in the 5 regions (in millions). It is worth noting that the rural population from the Northern region is not included in this study.78

The percentage of people living in households with an income of less than ½ minimum salary (approx. £ 37) 70 60 50 0 - 6 yrs

40

7 - 14 yrs 30

15 - 17 yrs

20

18 - 24 yrs

10 0 Brazil

77 78

North

Northeast

Southeast

South

Central-West

Minimal salary considered in this study is R$ 112, 00 (approx. £ 37), the amount from September 1996. http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/criancas_adolescentes/defaulttab.shtm

37

Population in households with the income of less than ½ minimum salary (approx. £ 37), in millions 10 9 8 7 6

0 - 6 yrs

5

7 - 14 yrs

4

15 - 17 yrs

3

18 - 24 yrs

2 1 0 Brazil

North

Northeast

Southeast

South

Central-West

From the chart we can see that the highest proportion is in the North East, with almost one half of the total amount. The North East also has the highest in all categories according to age. The next region in the ranking is the North, followed by the Central West. The South East and South obtained the best results. This trend appears to reflect the overall income levels in the regions. 7.2 Education The following chart explains the system of education in Brazil. Schools can be either private or public and attendance is obligatory from 6 to 15 years of age. The 9 years obligatory school attendance was introduced by Lula’s government in 2005.79 0 – 6 yrs

6 – 15 yrs

15 – 18 yrs

18 – 23 yrs

Pre-school education (not obligatory)

Primary education (obligatory)

Secondary education

Higher education

1º

Nursery

2º 3º 4º 5º 6º 7º 8º 9º 1º

Primary education

2º

3º

Secondary education - normal - technical

1º

2º

3º

4º

5º

University education (minimal duration: 4 yrs) Short courses (technical, 2 yrs)

80

79

http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/educacao/sistema-educacional/ensino-fundamental The information in this chart is based on wikipedia, http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_no_Brasil 80

38

The Census from 2010 shows some positive changes between 2000 and 2010. The level of education increased for people older than 10 years. The levels of those without any education or with primary education decreased from 65.1% to 50.2%. At the same time, the amount of people with at least secondary education went up from 4.4% to 7.9%. Between 2000 and 2010, the percentage of young people between 7 and 14 who were not attending school went down from 5.5% to 3.1%. The numbers went down most dramatically in the North (from 11.2% to 5.6%, which is still the highest proportion amongst the regions) and in the North East (from 7.1% to 3.2%).81 The following chart is based on the data by IBGE from 2010.82 It gives us the percentage of the population above 10 years according to their level of education in Brazil and within the regions.

Population above 10 years according to their level of education (in%) 70 59

56.5

50

47.6

47.8

44.8

50.2

60

no education/ unfinished primary education

40

9.7

5

4.9

9.3

10.5

24.3 17.7

23.7 18.8

25.7 18.3

20.2 15.3

8.3

10

21 16.8

20

23.4 17.4

30

primary completed, secondary incompleted secondary completed, higher incompleted higher ed. completed

0

On average across Brazil’s 50.2% of people are without education or did not complete primary education. The North East and the North are well above this average (59% and 56.5%, respectively). At the same time, these two regions also present the lowest rates of completed primary, secondary and higher education. 7.3 Illiteracy The government’s efforts to reduce illiteracy have proved efficient. In 2011, the illiteracy level for the population older than 15 years was 8.6%, as opposed to 11.4% in 2004. Illiteracy does not affect children to the same extent as adults. There is a significant increase in illiteracy for people above 50. The highest numbers for all age groups were detected in the

81

http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/arquivos/2012/04/27/taxas-escolaridade-e-rendimento-aumentam-em-dezanos-revela-censo-2010 82 http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/99/cd_2010_resultados_gerais_amostra.pdf, p.132

39

North East, where more than 35% of people above 50 are illiterate. The figures for the South and South East are traditionally the lowest.83

Levels of illiteracy in 2011 (in %) 40 35 30

Brazil

25

North

20

Northeast

15

Southeast

10

South

5

Central-West

0 15 - 17 yrs

18 - 24 yrs

25 - 29 yrs

30 - 39 yrs

40 - 49 yrs

50 yrs and more

Illiteracy rate for population aged 15 and more (%) 12

11.4

11.1

10

10.4

10.1

10

9.7 8.6

8 6 4 2 0 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2011

7.4 Young people In every society, young people have a great importance in terms of politics, culture and social activity. Young people are the dynamic element, often concentrating through social movements to express their views. In Brazil, the first major movement was the opposition to the military dictatorship (1964 – 1985), when University students played a key role. More recently, Brazilians took to the streets in June 2013 to protest against the current government. In Brazil, people can vote from the age of 16, but they are not considered adults until the age of 18. Before the court, 18 is also the age of full legal responsibility, however, partial legal responsibility begins at the age of 12. Sexual relations are legal from the age of 14.84

83 84

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/imprensa/ppts/00000010135709212012572220530659.pdf http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maioridade, http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maioridade_penal#Brasil

40

7.4.1. Demographic evolution of the young population The information in this section is based on the most recent relevant data from the demographic survey of IBGE (Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics) published in 1999,85 focusing mostly on the period between 1980 and 1996, but which gives us indications of the long term trends. The study is aimed at the group between 15 and 24 years of age, therefore when we refer to ‘young people’ in this chapter, it is this age group we have in mind. The numbers for the young population are graphically represented by the following chart:

Population between 15 and 24 years of age, according to the censuses 1940/1996 35000000 31,088,484 28,582,350

30000000 25000000

25,089,191

20000000

18,539,088

15000000 10000000

13,413,413 8,246,733

10,489,368

5000000 0 1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1991

1996

There are two main characteristics that can be observed from this chart: the first one is the constant rising tendency and the second is that the speed of growth started to decrease from the 80s onwards. This was caused by increasingly lower birth rates from the 60s linked to the introduction of oral contraception. In 1996, the population between 15 and 24 years represented 19.8% of the country’s population (31,088,484 people). At the time IBGE projected that the numbers of young people would continue rising, although with lower indices, between 2000 and 2005, and around 2010 the numbers are expected to start to decline.

85

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/populacao_jovem_brasil/populacaojovem.pdf

41

7.4.2. Proportion of young people in the regions The annual growth rate of the young population in the 5 regions is summarised in the table below: Region

Average indices of annual growth of the population of young people between 15 and 24 years of age (in %) 1980/1991 1991/1996 Brazil 1.2 1.7 North 4.0 3.3 North East 1.9 1.6 South East 0.5 1.8 South 0.0 0.8 Central West 2.6 2.2 (orange fields – rising numbers, blue fields – falling numbers) The numbers of young people in the South and South East increased to such an extent that it affects the overall national tendency. The decline was most pronounced in the North region, followed by the Central-West and the North East. This can be explained by the migration from these regions towards the more prosperous South and South East during the periods observed. 7.4.3. The criteria of race In this section, we will consider the composition of young people from the perspective of race, based on the censuses from 1980 and 1991. We can observe a pronounced decline of the birth rate of black and dark population in the 80s to such an extent that it influenced the overall decline of young population in this period. As a result, the average age for black and dark population rose from 15.76 years in 1980 to 20.13 in 1991, whereas the figures for the white population remained unchanged in both these periods, around 20 years. Still, the black population was growing faster than the white one. In 1991, as a result of the speed of the growth of the young black population in 1980-1991, young black people eventually represented more than 50% of the population, exceeding the size of the young white population. The numbers of young black people increased in all regions (with the exception of the North) and in all metropolitan areas. 7.4.4. Representation in urban and rural areas Increasing urbanisation is a national tendency. Whereas in 1980, 67.6% of Brazil’s population lived in urban areas, in 1996 it was 78.4% - an increase of over 10%. For the population aged between 15 and 24 years, the value was slightly higher than the national average – 78.7%, and even higher for young women – 79.6%. The South East traditionally represents a higher proportion of young people living in cities, followed by the Central West, but the increase in the urban proportion is a general trend in all regions. Eight of the ten cities included in the study show rising numbers (except for Fortaleza and Recife), with the highest numbers for Curitiba (Paraná). 42

The drift of the young population to cities highlights the need for policies to increase employment in rural areas. The situation when the urban population rises more than the number of new jobs favours concentration of people in deprived areas. The rural areas, on the other hand, would be left inhabited largely by people who from age groups not usually active in the labour market. 7.4.5. Youth Violence The patterns of violent deaths are the subject of investigation by the Brazilian Centre for Latin-American studies. Their findings are available at their site ‘Mapa da Violência’ (The map of violence).86 Their findings are quite shocking: amongst young people (15 – 24 years), only 26.9% of death cases are attributed to natural deaths, as opposed to 90.1% of the non-young population. In the non-young population, only 3% of deaths were murders, whereas for the young population the proportion was 39.3%.87 100 90 80 70 60 50

Young

40

Non-young

30 20 10 0 Natural deaths

External causes

Violent deaths

Traffic accidents

Suicides

Murders

‘Natural deaths’ are those caused by diseases or ageing, whereas ‘external causes’ are those that are independent of the human organism, such as injuries leading to a death of an individual. ‘Violent deaths’ is the total of traffic accidents, suicides and murders.

These are figures for the whole Brazil, however, in states such as Alagoas, Bahia, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte (all Northeast), Espírito Santo (Southeast) or Federal District, these numbers constitute more than a half of all deaths. To illustrate the scale of the murder rate in Brazil, between 2008 and 2011 there were 206,000 victims of homicide, which is about triple the amount of the number of victims of the war in Iraq between 2004 and 2007.88 86

http://mapadaviolencia.org.br/ http://mapadaviolencia.org.br/pdf2013/mapa2013_homicidios_juventude.pdf p.20 88 http://mapadaviolencia.org.br/pdf2013/mapa2013_homicidios_juventude.pdf,p.21 87

43

Mortality rates are consistently higher for the young male population than for young women – between the 20th and 24th year of age, for example, mortality rates are 21,842 for men and 4,866 for women.89 If we take into account the criteria of race, we find that there is a strong prevalence of young black and pardo victims over whites: 75.1% and 24.6%, respectively, in 2010.90 The number of suicides amongst the whole population are also increasing: whereas in the 80s, the increase was very slow (2.7%), in the 90s it was higher by 18.8% and in 2011 by 28.3%. This last figure corresponds to 5.1 deaths per 1000 inhabitants.91 7.4.6. Young women Young women share the problems of their male counterparts (e.g. drug abuse) or of other women (e.g. domestic violence), but they also face issues specific to their age and sex. Generally speaking, these are related to having children and employment. Statistics say that in 1995, the number of young women between 15 and 24 years was around 14.3 million. A vast majority of young women, around 11.6 million, were living in cities and more than half of them (52%) were already working.92 7.4.6.1. Education The access to education is generally better in urban areas than in rural areas. In 1995, there were still a considerable amount of illiterate young women in rural areas, whereas in cities this problem had practically been resolved. In 1995, there were two worrying tendencies in the education of young women. The first one was a low representation of women in higher education (only 10.5% of young female students). The second was a discrepancy between the school year attended and the school year the young women should have been attending according to the national system. In the group of women between 20 and 24, there remained a significant proportion of secondary education students. 93 7.4.6.2. Employment Young women have additional difficulties in relation to employment due to the fact that about one quarter of them have small children94 to care for. The insufficient number of state crèches in Brazil is a fact women quote as a major difficulty in finding employment. The difficulties with reconciling childcare, the child’s education and work have a negative impact on their professional life. The situation is particularly difficult with young women with low levels of education and insufficient work experience. These should be supported through implementation of

89

ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Tabuas_Abreviadas_de_Mortalidade/2010/tabuas_abreviadas_publicacao_2010.pdf, p.10 http://mapadaviolencia.org.br/pdf2012/mapa2012_cor.pdf, p.10 91 http://mapadaviolencia.org.br/pdf2013/mapa2013_homicidios_juventude.pdf, p.14 92 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/populacao_jovem_brasil/comentario2.pdf 93 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/populacao_jovem_brasil/comentario2.pdf, p.7 94 94 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/populacao_jovem_brasil/comentario2.pdf 90

44

governmental and employment policies to support the most disadvantaged groups, for example through training and skills development. Another factor which would positively influence the availability of young women to work would be the availability of full-time crèches. 7.4.6.3.Teenage mothers The following chart gives us an overview of the numbers of teenage mothers and the number of their children in the 5 Brazilian regions in 1995: 95 As we have mentioned earlier, sex is legal in Brazil from the age of 14.

Proportion of mothers amongst girls between 15 and 17 (in %) 25 20 15

1 child 2 children

10

3 children 5 0 Brazil

North

Northeast

Southeast

South

Central-West

It is quite surprising to see that the number of young mothers with one child is the highest in the South, the most developed region. However, it might be more relevant to look at the situation of mothers with more children: the numbers of those with 3 children were the highest in the North and the North East, the two of Brazil’s most underdeveloped regions. According to Rosana Maria da França from the organization Coletivo Mulher Vida96, focusing on young people, teenage pregnancy is linked to the fact that some young women do not have access to quality education or healthcare. Due to the prejudice of the society (and the doctors) against teenage mothers, the young woman might be refused medical assistance. Paradoxically, the teenage mother has a priority over other patients, as according to the law the needs of children and adolescents are prioritized. In that situation, it is important that the mother knows what her rights are, so that she can insist on them being observed in practice. According to Mrs França, a considerable improvement in the access of pregnant women to the healthcare has been achieved over the past few years. 7.4.6.4. Sexual exploitation Although sexual exploitation does not affect only young women, we will include it in this section, as it has been detected that the most vulnerable groups are black or pardo (dark) girls, girls from low social classes, girls with low education and those living in urban

95 96

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/populacao_jovem_brasil/comentario2.pdf, p.4 The following information was obtained during a telephonic call on 06/08/2013..

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peripheries. The most trafficked girls are those between 16 and 17. The factors aggravating the situation are Brazil’s permeable borders, facilitating trafficking outside the country, as well as a high number of tourists.97 Recently, prostitution of underage people has been detected in areas surrounding the construction of the football stadiums for the 2014 World Cup.98 Unlike in the case of child labour, the government’s programmes aimed at sexual exploitation are relatively new. According to the International Work Organization, the only governmental programme to help the victims of sexual exploitation is currently Programa Sentinela,99 under the Ministry of Social Development (Ministério do desenvolvimento social). At the moment, the government is in the process of implementing a new action plan to tackle the issue. 7.4.6.5. Observations - In some cases, the problems of young women under 18 need to be approached from a different angle, given that they are minors. In cases of domestic violence, for example, the Maria da Penha Law100 to protect the victim cannot be applied. In those cases, other means need to be sought to ensure protection for the victims, which underlines the importance of NGOs and other organizations in the process of mediation.101 - Another widely spread issue in relation to young women is clandestine abortion. Abortion is currently illegal in Brazil, however, there are very high numbers of women seeking clandestine abortion, which can result in death.102 7.5 Children The above mentioned issues do not affect only adolescents, to some extent they also effect children. In this section, we will discuss issues related exclusively to children. 7.5.1. Child Mortality The decline in child mortality was very pronounced between 1980 and 2010, when the index fell from 69.1 per 1000 children younger than 1 year in 1980 to 16.8 in 2010 – meaning that 50 more children out of 1000 survived after a period of 30 years. Child mortality for the period between 1930 and 1990, according to region, is represented in the following chart103:

97

http://www.oit.org.br/sites/all/ipec/progr/explsex.php http://ultimosegundo.ig.com.br/brasil/sp/2013-09-12/obras-no-itaquerao-viram-endereco-de-exploracao-sexualinfantil-em-sao-paulo.html 99 http://www.mds.gov.br/acesso-a-informacao/legislacao/assistenciasocial/portarias/2001/Portaria%20no%20878%20de%2003%20de%20dezembro%20de%202001.pdf 100 Law increasing the punishment for offenders of domestic violence, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_Maria_da_Penha 101 According to Rosana França from Coletivo Mulher Vida, the information was obtained during the telephonic call on 06/09/2013. 102 According to Rosana França from Coletivo Mulher Vida, the information was obtained during the telephonic call on 06/09/2013. 103 Based on the data of IBGE, http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/evolucao_perspectivas_mortalidade/evolucao_mortalidade.pdf p.20 98

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250

200 Brazil 150

North Northeast Southeast

100

South Central-West 50

0 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

The increase of the rate of decline of child mortality from the 70s onwards was a result of the implementation of health policies aimed at the prevention of diseases and improved sanitation. More recently, the focus on programmes aimed at pre-natal care, birth and earlyage care has had a strong influence. It is also linked to the increase in the number of hospitals in the country, as well as vaccination and breastfeeding campaigns. Another factor was the drop of fertility rates, especially from the 80s onwards.104 7.5.2. Malnutrition Malnutrition is linked to child mortality. According to the world index, the percentage of undernourished population was 11% in 1991 – meaning that 1 person in 10 was undernourished. There has been a significant drop to 6% by 2006105 – a success achieved for the most part thanks to Lula’s programme Fome Zero from 2003.106 Index mundi does not provide more recent information on malnutrition in Brazil, but according to the WHO the death rate for Brazil was 6.9 people out of 100,000 in 2011.107

104

http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/evolucao_perspectivas_mortalidade/evolucao_mortalidade.p df, p.21 105 http://www.indexmundi.com/brazil/malnutrition.html 106 ‘Fome Zero’ (Zero Hunger) was the social programme implemented by Lula’s government to eradicate hunger and extreme poverty in Brazil. It had various forms – from direct cash transfers to food distribution. Fome Zero was realized through programmes such as O programa de aquisição de alimentos (programme for acquiring food), O programa nacional de alimentação escolar (National programme for alimentation in schools, which consists in providing one or two free meals in public schools) and Bolsa Família (Family benefits). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fome_Zero 107 http://www.worldlifeexpectancy.com/cause-of-death/malnutrition/by-country/

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7.5.3. Child labour In Brazil, work is illegal for children under 13. For adolescents between 14 and 17, work is permitted under certain conditions.108 Still, illegal child labour is used all over the country. The survey of IBGE109 revealed that in 2010, about 3.4 million children and adolescents between 10 and 17 years were working. In the past, the numbers were even higher – in 2000, it was 530,000 children more. The IBGE has developed an interactive map showing the occurrence of child labour in each state and municipality, which can be accessed at the following link: http://censo2010.ibge.gov.br/trabalhoinfantil/. Through their surveys regarding child labour IBGE collects data regarding children and young people between 5 and 17 years of age. In considering this information it may be argued that someone aged 17 who works should not be considered as ‘child labour.’ Therefore, in this section we will focus on children, as we believe that the negative impacts of child labour are more serious for this group. The good news is that in the group of children between 5 and 13 years, the percentage of those who work dropped by 23.5% between 2009 and 2011. Still, there remain 704,000 children from this age group working across Brazil. The majority of them (63.5%) work in agriculture and do not get paid.110 The numbers are generally higher in rural areas due to the fact that inspection is more vigorous in cities than in rural areas, where the higher amount of time and travel costs for the officers deters inspection. This situation favours development of child labour in agriculture. Other than that, child labour can be most often found in ceramics factories, recycling stations, metal factories, rubber factories and garages. Some children are also involved in high-risk activities such as distribution of drugs and prostitution. For adolescents between 14 and 17, there has been a fall in the numbers of workers as well: from 3.35 million in 2009 to 2.97 million in 2011.111 7.5.3.1. IPEC IPEC (International Programme for Elimination of Child Labour) is a part of the International Work Organization. They focus on implementing policies to protect children in order to combat child labour all over the country. They have launched more than 100 projects and campaigns, with the help of international donators.112 IPEC is present at a national level in Brazil, with direct actions taking place mostly in the South, the North East and the South East, through cooperation with a number of civil society and governmental bodies. The full list can be accessed at their website.113

108

According to the leftist movement “Causa Operária”, the courts support the exploration of children by authorizing the child labour for the children under 16 years of age. In 2011, more than 7,500 permissions were granted. http://www.pco.org.br/movimento-operario/trabalho-infantil-atinge-1-milhao-de-criancas-/eaae,e.html 109 http://censo2010.ibge.gov.br/trabalhoinfantil/outros/graficos.html 110 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/imprensa/ppts/00000010135709212012572220530659.pdf, p.39 111 http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/imprensa/ppts/00000010135709212012572220530659.pdf 112 http://www.oit.org.br/sites/all/ipec/apresentacao.php 113 http://www.oit.org.br/sites/all/ipec/parceiros.php

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8. Drugs In this section, we will consider the patterns of alcohol and drug abuse in Brazil, with the focus on children and young population. We will concentrate on the substances that are most prevalent in Brazil: crack and solvents. We will rely mostly on the data from the Brazil’s Drug Report from 2010.114 According to this report, the most widely spread drugs in 2010 were alcohol, tobacco, marihuana and solvents. According to the statistics, 4.5% of the population has used any illicit drug (excepting alcohol or tobacco) during the last month. For people between 18 and 24 years, the most widely used drugs were marihuana (17%) and solvents (10.8%). The following map shows us the percentage of primary-education students that have used an illicit drug at any point of their lives. The highest levels were in the states of Roraima (North), Goiás (Central-West), Espírito Santo (South East), Piauí, Pernambuco and Paraíba (all North East).

Scale (from the lightest colour to the darkest): 16 - 18%, 18 - 20%, 20 - 22%, 22 24%, 24% and more. 115

8.1. Alcohol Alcohol is one of the few drugs whose consumption is tolerated in law, taxed by the state and encouraged by society. Excessive consumption of alcohol can be the cause of violent behaviour, suicides, traffic accidents, addiction and a whole range of health problems. Comparing the rates of alcohol consumption in Brazil to those in Europe, they are no different on average and they are comparable to alcohol use in other Latin-American countries. But general figures do not reveal the use in specific social groups.116

114

Relatorio brasileiro sobre drogas 2010, available at http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/dependencia-quimica Relatorio brasileiro sobre drogas 2010, available at http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/dependencia-quimica 116 http://www.inca.gov.br/inquerito/docs/consumoalcool.pdf 115

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The Alcohol and Drug Survey from 2010117 shows significantly higher levels of drinking for men than women: 14% of men are frequent drinkers, but only 3% of women. There is also a much higher percentage of women who do not drink at all – 59%, as opposed to 35% of men. The highest proportion of heavy drinkers were for the age group between 18 and 24 years, for frequent drinkers it was between 25 and 34. We can, therefore, conclude that in Brazil, men drink more than women and that the young drink more heavily than older people. The following map sums up the results of the survey, presenting the percentage of people with a frequent consumption of alcohol in the 5 regions. As we can see, the highest occurrence was in the South, followed by the Northeast, and the lowest occurrence was detected in the Northern region.

Map: Percentage of individuals who drink frequently or very frequently (from 2007). North (16%), Central-West (21%), South East (23%), North East (24%), South (28%). Very frequent drinking was defined as 5 or more drinks of alcohol at least once per week; frequent drinking was defined as drinking once per week and consuming 5 or more doses of alcohol at least once per year.

A possible explanation of the high level of alcohol consumption in the South may be the higher income per capita and European cultural influence. Regarding the type of alcohol consumed, wine consumption is the highest in the South, whereas cachaça (a sugarcane spirit) is typical for the regions of North and North East. Beer is consumed all over the country. Since 2002, the Ministry of Health has been offering assistance to drug users through a network of CAPSad (Centros de Atenção Psicossocial para Álcool e Outras Drogas – Centres for Psychological Assistance to Users of Alcohol and Other Drugs), as well as launching a National Programme for Integrated Community Assistance to Users of Drugs and Alcohol (Programa Nacional de Atenção Comunitária Integral a Usuários de Álcool e outras Drogas) to provide assistance to people with an addiction to alcohol and drugs, supporting their families, as well as promoting social rehabilitation and reintegration.118 8.2. Marihuana According to the Drug Report of 2010, 6.9% of Brazilians have tried marihuana at some point in their lives. Although the numbers may seem low, we need to bear in mind the size of Brazil’s population. The numbers are higher for the young population – 9.9% for people

117 118

Relatorio brasileiro sobre drogas 2010, http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/dependencia-quimica, p. 77 http://www.inca.gov.br/inquerito/docs/consumoalcool.pdf

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between 18 and 24. According to the research of the Federal University of São Paulo from 2012, more than 1.5 million Brazilians smoke marihuana every day.119 The study further shows an increase in the use of the drug amongst adolescents. In 2006, the proportion between an adult and an adolescent user was about 1:1, in 2012 it was about 1:1.4. 8.3. Cocaine Cocaine is not as accessible as crack, given its higher price. This is probably the reason why it is most used by people between 25 and 34 years (4.4%), 120 rather than teenagers. In general, the habit of using cocaine is most widely spread in the regions of South East and South (3.7% and 3.1%, respectively), whereas in the North and North East the figures are around 1.3%.121 This might be linked again to the high economic development of these areas, as well as the high urbanization of the South East region. 8.4. Solvents A great number of commercial products, such as varnishes, glues, paints, gasoline etc. contain solvents with psychotropic effects. These can be used either voluntarily or involuntarily (e.g. by professionals working with paint). The abuse of solvents is in Portuguese referred to as ‘cheirar cola‘ – glue sniffing. In Brazil, the use of this drug first appeared between 1965 and 1970. The effect, similar to crack, is very fast – it takes from seconds up to a couple of minutes – and disappears very quickly, after 15 – 40 minutes, therefore repeated inhalation is needed to maintain the effect of the drug. Depending on the dose, the user can even fall unconscious, which is very dangerous when a plastic bag is used in order to prevent losses of the vapours, as it can lead to suffocation.122 The overall level of solvent abuse is around 5.8% of the population. The rates are above this average in the regions of North East (8.4%), Central West (7%) and South East (5.9%). The numbers increase considerably for certain social groups. This drug is typical for children and adolescents – the average age of experimentation is between 14 and 15 years, but the age is much lower amongst vulnerable users, in which case they tend to try the drug even earlier, between 7-9 years of age.123 The use is more common for people with low levels of education, with low social and economic levels or socially marginalized, from dysfunctional families, lacking parental supervision, already using drugs and alcohol and with a history of sexual abuse. The numbers are particularly high for the street children – 44.4% have tried sniffing some kind of a solvent.124

119

http://www.uniad.org.br/desenvolvimento/index.php/noticias/15140-cerca-de-15-milhao-de-pessoasconsomem-maconha-diariamente-aponta-estudo 120 Relatorio Brasileiro sobre drogas 2010, available at http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/dependencia-quimica, p.26 121 Relatorio Brasileiro sobre drogas 2010, available at http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/dependencia-quimica 122 http://www.obid.senad.gov.br/portais/OBID/conteudo/index.php?id_conteudo=11289&rastro=INFORMA%C3 %87%C3%95ES+SOBRE+DROGAS%2FTipos+de+drogas/Solventes+ou+Inalantes#definicao 123 http://www.projetodiretrizes.org.br/diretrizes12/abuso_e_dependencia_de_inalantes.pdf 124 Article http://www.projetodiretrizes.org.br/diretrizes12/abuso_e_dependencia_de_inalantes.pdf quoting the data of Cebrid – Centro Brasileiro de informações sobre drogas psicotrópicas. The article does not specify the year of the survey.

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8.5. Crack Crack is a drug produced from the same base as cocaine, but through different chemical processes. Unlike cocaine, the resulting material is used for smoking. When a drug is smoked, the effect is much quicker and more intense than when it is sniffed. It is also more quickly eliminated by the body and is followed by unpleasant sensations, including depression, leading to an urge to take another dose. Crack, therefore, has a higher addictive potential than cocaine and is much cheaper. Taking into account the percentage of crack use in the whole population of Brazil, the levels are quite low (0.7% in 2005).125 However, the numbers go up steeply for certain groups. The highest percentage of crack use was amongst men aged between 25 and 34 years – 3.2% of the adult population. Although crack is typical for the regions of South and South East, it is used all over Brazil, with the highest numbers for the cities of São Paulo (SP), Recife (PE), Curitiba (PR) and Vitória (ES), varying between 15 and 26%. A study focused on children living on the street revealed even higher numbers: in the month preceding the study, 45% of street children smoked crack in Rio de Janeiro, 31 % in São Paulo and 20% in Recife.126 There can also be a difference in the type of the drug used in the regions – while crack is popular in São Paulo, in Brasília the most frequently used variety is ‘merla’, produced from the same base as crack and also smoked.127 The consumption of crack is directly associated to HIV infections and other sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhoea and syphilis. The high-risk behaviour observed includes elevated number of sexual partners, lack of protection against STDs (no use of condoms) and exchange of sex for drugs or money to buy them. There is also the possibility of transmission of HIV during the process of smoking, through lip and mouth injuries caused by the hot pipes. The same can be said about tuberculosis, which also has a high epidemic potential amongst crack users. In São Paulo, a study aimed at sex workers who use crack revealed that most of them were young women, mothers with low levels of schooling. Most of them were exchanging sex for drugs daily (1 to 5 partners a day), did not choose their partners or the type of sex and did not require the use of a condom. The annual level of mortality for crack users is 2.5%, which is 7 times higher than for the mainstream population. The majority of those who died were men under 30, single and with low levels of education. External causes were responsible for 69% of all cases (murder – 56.6%, overdose – 8.7%, drowning – 4.3%). Amongst the natural deaths, 26.1% were caused by AIDS and 4.3% by Hepatitis B. The direct relation between crack and violence is related not

125

Relatorio Brasileiro sobre drogas 2010, available at http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/saude/dependencia-quimica, p.22 126 The information in this chapter is based on the article “Crack: uma abordagem multidisciplinar” (crack: a complex approach) from the government website http://www.brasil.gov.br/crackepossivelvencer/publicacoes/artigos/crack.-uma-abordagem-multidisciplinar/view 127 http://www.cebrid.epm.br/folhetos/cocaina_.htm

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only to the fact that an addicted person is more likely to commit crime in order to obtain money, but also by the nature of the chain of distribution. At the moment, there is no medication that can be used for the treatment of the addiction. However, medications can be prescribed to treat symptoms such as depression. In this way, a crack user who takes antidepressants has a higher chance of beating the addiction. The treatment does not include only medical or biological intervention, but more importantly support to improve the socio-emotional context of the user. There are many services that the users can access without prior booking, such as Centros de Atenção Psicossocial Álcool e Drogas (Centres for psychosocial support – alcohol and drugs, CAPS AD),128 Narcóticos Anônimos (Anonymous drug users, NA)129 and telephone lines such as Vivavoz.130 These institutions are highly important, as it is very common for issues such as alcohol abuse or family problems to be associated with the use of crack. 8.5.1. Crack, é possível vencer (Crack, winning is possible) The federal government has launched the programme Crack, é possível vencer (Crack, winning is possible) to work in partnership with the States, municipalities and civil society in the areas of prevention, care and safety. It is estimated that up to 2014, R$ 4 billion (approx. £1.3 billion) will be invested to provide training of professionals and to increase the number of centres for crack users, as well as to combat drug traffic. The training courses will be available in 52 centres connected to public institutions and institutions of higher education all over the country. The aim is to qualify 15,000 new professionals in the areas of healthcare and social assistance.131 8.6. Drug-related crime The numbers of cases of drug trafficking were the highest in the region of the South East, especially in the states of São Paulo and Espírito Santo. Other states with very high levels were Acre (North, bordering with Peru/Bolivia), Mato Grosso do Sul (Central-West, at the border with Paraguay) and Pernambuco.

Map of the concentration of cases of drug trafficking, per 100,000 inhabitants (scale – from the lightest blue to the darkest: 0 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30, 30 – 40, 40 – 50. White – no data available).

128

http://www.brasil.gov.br/observatoriocrack/index.html/cuidado/centro-atencao-psicossocial.html www.na.org.br 130 http://www.brasil.gov.br/enfrentandoocrack/cuidado/onde-encontrar-ajuda/vivavoz 131 http://www.brasil.gov.br/enfrentandoocrack/plano-integrado 129

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In terms of the possession of drugs, the numbers were the highest again in the region of South East – especially in the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais (1.4% of all crimes in both states). The highest number of drug-related crimes were committed by the population between 25 and 29 years of age. 8.7.

Links

- Embaixada da Liberdade – an centre in Rio de Janeiro helping crack users http://pref-r-janeiro.jusbrasil.com.br/politica/4326399/prefeitura-inaugura-embaixadada-liberdade-para-atender-jovens-vitimas-do-crack The governmental programme Crack, winning is possible http://www.brasil.gov.br/enfrentandoocrack/publicacoes/crack-e-possivel-vencer-1/view , http://www.brasil.gov.br/enfrentandoocrack/plano-integrado An article of The Economist on Brazil’s fight against crack http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21575810-worlds-biggest-crack-marketseeks-better-way-deal-addicts-cracking-up - A study by the World Bank on crime, violence and economic development in Brazil http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Security/citizensecurity/brazil/documents/docworldbank.pd f - a state programme to reduce migration of young farmers to cities http://www.fetaemg.org.br/destaque/pronatec-campo-visa-reduzir-migracao-de-jovensagricultores-de-minas-gerais/

9. LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender) 9.1. LGBT in Brazil: social and political context In relation to the LGBT community, Brazil is a country of contradictions. On the one hand, Brazil has a solid body of law defining the civil rights of LGBT people, including civil marriage of people of the same sex. There are Gay Pride Parades in around 30 Brazilian cities, the one in São Paulo being one of the biggest in the world132 and enjoying the support of the local government and the presence of the Governor of the state of São Paulo and other politicians. On the other hand, the country is the leader in the occurrence of gay homicides, 133 and LGBT are not protected against discrimination by any law, the law for criminalization of homophobia still being under discussion. LGBT (especially the transgender population) suffer verbal and physical attacks and they also struggle to find employment. The situation of a 132

In 2006, the Gay Pride in São Paulo entered the Guinness Book of Records as the biggest one in the history. The second biggest one is the Rio de Janeiro Gay Pride Parade, taking place in the affluent Zona Sul and concentrating about 2 million people. Other Gay Parades take place in the following cities: - Southeast: Cabo Frio, Campinas, Vitória, Belo Horizonte, Uberaba - South: Curitiba, Florianópolis, Porto Alegre, Pelotas - Central-West: Campo Grande, Cuiabá, Goiânia, Brasília - Northeast: Salvador, Aracaju, Maceió, Recife, João Pessoa, Natal, Fortaleza, Teresina, São Luís, Juazeiro do Norte. - North: Belém, Macapá, Boa Vista, Manaus. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_parade#Brazil 133 According to the NGO Grupo Gay Bahia, familia/noticias/detalhe/42/brasil+e+campeao+mundial+em++assassinatos+de+homossexuais.htm

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member of the LGBT community is aggravated by further factors – such as gender, race, rural vs urban, etc. The political situation is unbalanced. Although some very important laws such as Gay marriage have been passed, at the same time there have been some very controversial proposals such as ‘Cura Gay’ – a ‘Gay Cure’ - a law allowing psychologists to treat homosexuality as a disease. This law has not been passed thanks to the pressure of civil society and the Council of Psychologists. The authors of these proposals are the ultra-religious politicians who hold considerable power in the Brazilian Congress. Some accuse President Dilma Rousseff of trying to ‘please’ this segment of government and civil society before the approaching elections by avoiding controversial topics such as gay rights or abortion. Public opinion also seems dividedl. On the one hand, many of Brazil’s most adored musicians are openly gay – Caetano Veloso, Ney Matogrosso, Maria Bethânia, to name a few – but for common people, assumption of a minority sexual orientation is not easy. Artists already have some financial background, unlike many LGBT, so that the impact of their coming-out is not the same.134 Despite the massive presence at the Gay parades, gay people are often looked at through the perspective of their sexual orientation, in many cases stereotypically so. 9.2. Evolution of the Gay Rights in Brazil The first substantial victory of LGBT movements was the approval of Civil Partnerships for gay people in 2011. At the moment, the biggest challenge is the completion and approval of the law for criminalization of homophobia.135 Without this law, Brazil might have a perfectly equalitarian body of laws, but LGBT community will still suffer verbal and physical discrimination with the offenders going unpunished. - Inclusive churches In September 2009, Igreja Cristã Conteporânea (Contemporary Christian Church) was founded in Rio de Janeiro. This church is open to everybody regardless of their sexual orientation. At the moment it has around 1.200 followers and 6 branches all over Brazil. Recently, other inclusive churches have been founded, mostly in the Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo area. - Sex reassignment surgeries In August 2008 a new policy permitting the realization of sex reassignment surgeries in public hospitals was approved and included such surgery in Brazil’s Health System (SUS). The surgery can be requested in a public health centre, then the request is followed by a preparatory phase of at least 2 years, during which the patient will also receive psychological assistance. - The right to use a ‘social name’ Since 2010, the transgender officers working for the federal government can choose the name they want to use for work-related purposes.

134 135

Based on the telephonic conversation with Wladimir Cardoso Reis from GTP+ made on 25/09/2013. http://www.terra.com.br/noticias/infograficos/direitos-homossexuais/

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- Inclusion of a same-sex partner on the Tax Return In 2010, the Ministry of the Interior granted homosexual couples the right to include the partner as a dependent on their Tax Return form. - Widow’s/ widower’s pension Later in 2010, the INSS (Instituto Nacional do Seguro Social, the National Institute for Social Security) granted homosexuals the right to receive a widow’s/ widower’s pension in the event of the death of their partner. - Recognition of Civil partnership (‘União estável’) On 5th May 2011, the Supreme Federal Court (STF) passed unanimously the law on civil partnership for homosexual couples. The decision was based on the universality of human rights to liberty and dignity and prohibition of discriminatory acts. The STF, however, did not clearly define the rights of these couples in areas such as inclusion of the names of both partners on adoption certificates. In terms of inheritance and social benefits, however, gay couples have the same rights as heterosexuals. - Draft of the law on criminalization of homophobia In April 2013, the Ministry for Human Rights (SDH) proposed a draft of a new law on criminalization of acts of homophobia against people within the LGBT community. This topic has been in discussion since 2006 and the proposed text still may suffer some alterations, as it has not been approved by all bodies concerned. - Civil gay marriage Since 14 May 2013, as a result of a resolution of the National Council for Justice (Conselho Nacional de Justiça, CNJ), all registering offices in the country have the obligation to perform civil marriages of homosexual couples, as well as to convert existing civil partnerships into civil marriages. The CNJ sent this request to registering offices in 12 states prior to this date, but the request was not legally binding, therefore it was up to those offices whether to follow it or not. In practice, a registering office can still refuse to perform a gay marriage – in which case it will be sanctioned and the couples are advised by the CNJ to communicate the matter to Judges at the state level. With this resolution, Brazil has become the 15th country in the world and the 4th country on the American continent136 to legally recognize the legal rights of homosexual couples. It also means that homosexual couples can enjoy the same rights as heterosexual couples, and are considered a family in the same way as traditional families.137 9.3. Demographic information on same-sex households Although the Brazilian Government has not done any systematic survey of the LGBT population, for the first time the Census of 2010 included information on same-sex households.

136 137

after Canada, Argentina and Uruguay http://www.pstu.org.br/node/19385

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The results revealed that in 2010, there were 60,002 people living in same-sex households, corresponding to 0.1% of all households. 138 Women were the majority (53%). The vast majority (99.6%) lived in an informal relationship (i.e. they were not married or in civil partnership). From the geographical point of view, more than a half of those living in a same-sex household (52%) were concentrated in the South East (32,202 people). Within this region, most lived in São Paulo (16,872), followed by Rio de Janeiro (10,170), Minas Gerais (4,098) and Espírito Santo (1,062).139 The second highest concentration was in the North East, followed by the South, Central West and North.140

Distribution of same-sex households within the regions 35000 30000 25000 Total in region 20000

Sao Paulo Rio de Janeiro

15000

Minas Gerais Espirito Santo

10000 5000 0 Southeast

Northeast

South

Central-West

North

The next chart represents the distribution in relation to age groups. We can observe that most people living with a same-sex partner are from the age group between 20 and 34 years, with numbers being high particularly between the 25th and 29th year of age. The numbers go up steeply after the 19th year of age, which is when the majority of people start living with a partner.

138

http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/93/cd_2010_caracteristicas_populacao_domicilios.pdf, p.99 139 http://diversidadesimhomofobianao.blogspot.co.uk/2011/05/censo-2010-pesquisa-mostra-que-o-brasil.html 140 http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/noticia/2012-10-17/ibge-identifica-60-mil-casais-gays-no-pais

57

Distribution of people living as a partner in a same-sex household according to age 14000

12380

12000

11074 9783

10000

8029 8000

6703

6000

4608

4000

2372

1964

2000 0

0

172

1079 861

755

255

0 0 - 4 5 - 9. 10 14.

15 17

18 19

20 24

25 29

30 34

35 39

40 44

45 49

50 54

55 59

60 69

70+

141

9.4. Income of people living in same-sex households The next two charts give us an insight in the economic situation of men and women living in same-sex households and how they stand in comparison with the general population. We can see that that the numbers of gay men and women are lower for the low income levels and higher for the higher income levels. This would mean that gay people (especially men) are doing better than the rest of the population. At this point, we need to remember that the sample on which these figures are based is most probably not a representative one. As we have mentioned before, it is easier to assume one’s sexuality for those with some financial background, and it is probably this section of population that are recorded as living in a same-sex household in the Census 2010.

141

http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/93/cd_2010_caracteristicas_populacao_domicilios.pdf, pgs. 124 - 125

58

Distribution of income (in %, m.w. = minimal wage) 16000 14000 less than 1/2 m.w. 12000

1/2 - 1 m.w.

10000

1 - 2 m.w.

8000

2 - 5 m.w. 5 - 10 m.w.

6000

10 - 20 m.w. 4000

20+ m.w.

2000

no income

0 gay people

gay men

gay women

142 143

Levels of income for gay and general population 40 35 30 25 All population

20 15

Gay men

10

Gay women

5 0 no less than 1/2 - 1 income 1/2 m.w. m.w.

1-2 m.w.

2-5 m.w.

5 - 10 m.w.

10 - 20 20+ m.w. m.w.

9.5. Discrimination in urban and rural areas The following chart represents the percentage of men and women amongst those who declared that they were living in a same-sex household, but also the proportion of those living in urban and rural areas.144 We can see a massive prevalence in urban areas. Only 1,749 people from rural areas declared that they are living in same-sex households (761 men and 988 women) – a number which we can hardly expect to correspond to reality. This leads to a conclusion that assuming one’s sexuality is far easier in cities than in the countryside.

142

In 2010, the monthly minimal wage was R$ 510 (approx.. £170) http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/93/cd_2010_caracteristicas_populacao_domicilios.pdf, p.229 - 231 144 http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/93/cd_2010_caracteristicas_populacao_domicilios.pdf, p.123 143

59

140000 120000 100000 80000

33503

32515

26532

25771

Women Men

60000

Total 40000 60035

58286

Brazil

Urban

20000 0 Rural

According to Wladimir Cardoso Reis from GTP+, discrimination occurs in both urban and rural areas of the North East (and especially with those who are HIV positive), but LGBT people are more vulnerable in the rural areas. This is influenced by the lack of opportunities in rural areas – given the higher unemployment rates, the competition for jobs is tougher, therefore a member of LGBT community hardly ever succeeds in getting a job, and if so, it is usually a very precarious one, such as employment as a domestic worker. Society also shares the belief that LGBT are not suitable for decent jobs. For this reason, the LGBT often migrate to cities (many times in the South East), which offer more opportunities.145 9.6. LGBT and Religion Roman Catholicism is the prevalent religion in Brazil, with 64.4% of the total population. Another 22.2% of the population are Evangelist.146 The Catholic Church believes that the complementarity of the sexes is part of God’s plan. Homosexuality is incompatible with this framework – as well as masturbation, contraception or pornography. Although homosexual desires are not sinful in themselves they are seen as temptations that can, but do not have to, lead to a sin. Whereas homosexual acts are seen as sinful.147 In this context, we should mention the recent visit of the Pope to Brazil between 22 and 28 July 2013 – in the interview he gave to the media, the Pope expressed the conviction that if a person is gay and looking for God, they should not be judged, as the Bible preaches tolerance. Although the Pope’s conciliatory tone was appreciated by the President of the Italian homosexual movement, he also pointed out that the reference to the Bible means that the Pope still denies the right to a sexual and emotional life to gay people.148 The following chart shows us the percentage of Catholics for each state:

145

Based on the telephonic conversation with Wladimir Cardoso Reis from GTP+ made on 25/09/2013. According to the Census 2010, there are 64.4% Roman Catholics, 22.2% Evangelists, 2% Spiritists, 0.3% Candomblé and Umbanda (African religions), 2.7% other religions, 8% are without a religion. http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/94/cd_2010_religiao_deficiencia.pdf p. 91 147 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality_and_Roman_Catholicism#Decriminalization_of_homosexuality 148 http://g1.globo.com/mundo/noticia/2013/07/declaracao-do-papa-francisco-sobre-gays-gera-reacoes.html 146

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Percentage of Catholics in the states and regions (orange – Northeast, blue – South, violet – Southeast, green – North, red – Central-West) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

149

We can observe that the highest level of Catholic population are in the North Eastern and Southern states. In the Southeast, Catholicism is strong in Minas Gerais, but at the same time Rio declares the lowest rates. The North also reports levels below the average. Although we might assume the gay population would migrate into less Catholic (and presumably more liberal) States, it is difficult to draw any clear conclusions, as there are other important factors such as the level of urbanization and economic development. A further fact to consider is that the state of Minas Gerais (with a population of about 21 million people) has about 2.5 times lower number of gay people than the state of Rio de Janeiro (with the population of about 16 million people). The reservations of Catholics towards LGBT are reflected by lower numbers of Catholics within this community: amongst gay people, Catholics represented 47.5% and 28.5% declared not having any religion (as opposed to 64% of Catholics and 8% without religion in the general population).150 Just as in the case of race, religion is very diverse in Brazil, and within Catholicism it is necessary to differentiate between fundamentalists opposing LGBT rights and more liberal Catholics. Márcio Marins from the NGO Dom da Terra argues that there are many religious

149

Based on Census 2010, http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/94/cd_2010_religiao_deficiencia.pdf 150 Based on Census 2010, http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/94/cd_2010_religiao_deficiencia.pdf

61

Rio de Janeiro

Rondônia

Roraima

Acre

Espírito Santo

Distrito Federal

Goiás

Mato Grosso do Sul

Amazonas

São Paulo

Mato Grosso

Amapá

Pará

Bahia

Pernambuco

Tocantins

Rio Grande do Sul

Paraná

Minas Gerais

Alagoas

Santa Catarina

Maranhão

Rio Grande do Norte

Sergipe

Paraíba

Ceará

Piauí

0

groups who work with LGBT in a sensitive and respectful way.151 Wladimir Cardoso Reis from GTP+ has a different experience: the Catholics remain distant from the issues of the LGBT community, whereas the Evangelists have traditionally been more responsive. However, they offer help (through their contacts in the Government) in exchange for influence, proposing their own strategies which do not always respect the wishes of the LGBT community. 152 9.7. HIV, AIDS, STDs Since the outbreak of HIV/AIDS in 1980 through until June 2012, Brazil registered a total of 656,701 cases of AIDS. In 2011, there were 18,776 new contractions, corresponding to a total of 20.2 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. In the period between 2001 and 2011, the tendency in the regions was mostly rising. The only region where the numbers decreased was the South East – from 22.9 to 21 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. In other regions, the numbers went up: from 27.1 to 30.9 in the South; from 9.1 to 20.8 in the North; from 14.3 to 17.5 in the Central-West; and from 7.5 to 13.9 in the Northeast. The positive fact is that the Southeast, where the numbers have gone down, is the region where most cases are concentrated (56%). Cases of infection with AIDS in the regions (per 100,000 inhabitants) 35

30.9

30 25

27.1 22.9

21

20.8 17.5

20 14.3

15

2001 2011

9.1

10

13.9 7.5

5 0 Southeast

South

North

Central-West

Northeast

The incidence of HIV/AIDS is more prevalent amongst men than women – 1.7 cases amongst men for every 1 amongst women. In 1989, however, there were 6 cases in men for every 1 case amongst women, which means that the number of infected women has increased dramatically during that period. For both sexes, the age group with the highest concentration of AIDS was that between 25 and 49. The results show that despite the fact that young people have a decent knowledge about HIV/AIDS, the number of HIV infections are rising within this group. In relation to the form of transmission, for men, 43.3% of infections resulted from heterosexual intercourse, 24.5% from homosexual intercourse and 7.7% were bisexuals. This means that the number of cases of infections resulting from heterosexual relations was higher 151

http://www.dw.de/brasil-tem-maior-parada-gay-mas-lidera-em-viol%C3%AAncia-contra-homossexuais/a15336560 152 Based on the telephonic conversation with Wladimir Cardoso Reis from GTP+ made on 25/09/2013.

62

than the number of infections from homosexual or bisexual relations. For women, the proportion is much higher – 86.6% of infections resulted from a heterosexual intercourse. Across the whole population, the percentage of those infected by HIV is 0.5% for men and 0.3% for women, but certain groups show much higher numbers. It is 10.5%, for gay men, for sex workers it is 4.9% and for injecting drug users it is 5.9%.153 Although special attention needs to be dedicated to these groups, we still need to bear in mind the highest proportion of infections originate from heterosexual relations. Percentage of HIV infection 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Men

Women

Gay men

Sex workers

Injectable drug users

Being aware of this reality, the Brazilian government has developed actions on prevention for young people. The distribution of free condoms through health services in the country increased by more than 45% between 2010 and 2011. In terms of vertical transmission (i.e. from the mother to the child), Brazil managed to reduce the number of cases of infected children under 5 by 25% between 2002 and 2011. There has also been a reduction in the cases of AIDS related mortality – from 6.3 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002 to 5.6 in 2011.154 9.7.1. Young people and Aids Despite the fact that young people have good knowledge on how to protect themselves and use condoms more frequently than other age groups, the percentage of the infected male population between 17 and 20 years increased from 0.09% to 0.12% in the last 5 years. The risks are higher for young people because this group has the highest number of sexual partners, with increasing numbers of those reporting having homosexual relations. The numbers are higher for those with lower levels of education and male homosexuals. Young people within the LGBT community have a 13 times higher chance of getting infected than the young population in general. 155

153

http://www.aids.gov.br/sites/default/files/anexos/page/2010/36364/aids_no_brasil_2012_17137.pdf http://www.aids.gov.br/pagina/aids-no-brasil 155 http://www.aids.gov.br/pagina/aids-no-brasil 154

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9.7.2. Governmental activities The governmental body responsible for implementation of actions and policies in the area of STD is the Department for STD, AIDS and viral hepatitis, which is a part of the Ministry of Health.156 The Department has developed materials for several campaigns on prevention of STD/AIDS. In 2012 they led a campaign aimed at HIV/STD positive women. With the slogan “Life can be positive – with or without AIDS”, the campaign included videos, banners and postcards shared on social networks.157 Prevention campaigns are launched especially around the time of Carnival. Practical projects are realized through partnerships with established organizations. In cooperation with the Association of Transgender of Ceará (Associação de Travestis do Ceará, Atrac), the Ministry of Health launched a project aimed at transgender sex workers in the streets of Fortaleza (CE), disseminating information on prevention and distributing condoms. According to Atrac, one of the major obstacles in effective prevention is the fact that when the sex-workers are under the effect of crack, they are likely not to use a condom. 158 In Natal (RN), the Ministry cooperates with representatives of the African religions to distribute condoms within the community.159 Another project was aimed at disseminating knowledge on prevention in the brothels of Belém (PA).160 The projects of the Ministry of Health in partnership with local NGOs are effective in the sense of working with long-established organizations, however, they are quite scattered, especially if we take into consideration the size of the country. The two initiatives with the highest practical impact seem to be the free distribution of condoms in health centres (since 1994) and free HIV tests (which can be done anonymously). The list of the Government’s activities to prevent HIV infection in each state is available at the following link: http://www.aids.gov.br/publicacao/plano-de-enfrentamento-da-epidemia-deaids-e-das-dst-entre-gays-hsh-e-travestis The first campaign of the Ministry of Health aimed at the transgender public was launched in 2010. With the slogan ‘I am transgender, I have the right to be who I am,’ the campaign included videos, ringtones, screensavers, posters and folders. The transgender people were not only the subject, but also the authors of this campaign.161162 In 2012, the pre-Carnival campaign on HIV prevention also included posters aimed at homosexuals and the transgender public. After the Carnival, actions are directed at early diagnosis of HIV infection.163

156

http://www.aids.gov.br/ http://www.aids.gov.br/noticia/2013/saude-lanca-campanha-de-prevencao-dst-aids-e-hepatites-virais-nas-redessociais 158 http://www.aids.gov.br/noticia/2013/maos-dadas-pela-prevencao 159 http://www.aids.gov.br/noticia/2013/barracoes-abrem-portas-para-prevencao 160 http://www.aids.gov.br/noticia/2013/prevencao-nos-bordeis-de-belem 161 http://www.aids.gov.br/noticia/2013/maos-dadas-pela-prevencao 162 The materials of this campaign are available at the following link: http://www.aids.gov.br/travestis 163 http://portal.saude.gov.br/portal/saude/area.cfm?id_area=137&pagina=dspDetalheCampanha&co_seq_campanh a=4664 157

64

One of the posters of the 2012 campaign on prevention of AIDS. The text says: ‘This is amazing, but what is not so amazing is waiting for a condom. When you are excited, everything is possible, but not without a condom. Have yours always handy.’

Given sensitivities around the issue of LGBT and AIDS, the more radical proposals are not passed by the conservative members of the Government, or the Government backs away from them (especially bearing in mind the forthcoming elections). An example of this is the case of the kit “School without Homophobia,“ which included educative posters, leaflets and videos. In 2011, after a reaction from conservative politicians and members of society, President Dilma Rousseff decided to suspend the production and distribution of the kit, shortly before its planned launch in thousands of public schools. The kit is now being revised – despite the fact that that it was carefully developed with participation of bodies such as UNESCO and the Council of Psychology.164 9.8. LGBT Homicides According to the survey of Grupo Gay Bahia,165 Brazil is the world leader in terms of homicides of LGBT, with 266 murders in 2011. The second most violent country was Mexico, with about 35 murders per year and the third was the United States, with 25. Brazil’s primacy is even more striking when we compare its murder rates with those of the USA – even with 100 million people less than the USA, Brazil has had a 10 times higher level of murders of LGBT every year. Only 10% of these cases are investigated by the Police and go to Court. The virtual impunity stimulates new aggression, which makes life very dangerous for LGBT in Brazil.166 Grupo Gay Bahia registers every case of LGBT homicide, including the location, occupation of the victim and how they were murdered – as for this last point, there are cases of extreme violence, including mutilation, torture, stoning to death or burning to death. The following chart represents the number of murders in each state. We can observe that the numbers are particularly high in the North East and in the South East.

164

http://www.dw.de/brasil-tem-maior-parada-gay-mas-lidera-em-viol%C3%AAncia-contra-homossexuais/a15336560 165 http://www.ggb.org.br/assassinatos%20de%20homossexuais%20no%20brasil%202011%20GGB.html 166 http://www.dw.de/brasil-tem-maior-parada-gay-mas-lidera-em-viol%C3%AAncia-contra-homossexuais/a15336560

65

Number of homicides 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

North East Bahia Pernambuco Alagoas Paraíba Ceará Maranhão Rio Grande Norte Piauí Sergipe

28 25 21 20 10 5 do 5 5 4

North Rondônia Pará Amazonas Tocantins Amapá

South East 9 São Paulo 24 8 Minas Gerais 21 5 Rio de Janeiro 20 4 Espírito Santo 4 1

South Paraná 12 Santa Catarina 3 Rio Grande do Sul 7

Central West Goiás 12 Mato Grosso 8 Mato Grosso do Sul 4 Distrito Federal 1

The occupation of the victim is in many cases unknown (105 cases out of 266). It might be surprising that amongst those who were working, sex workers were a minority (about one third). There is also a high number of teachers and priests/pais de santo,167 i.e. people playing an important role in public life.

167

Pai de santo is a priest in afro-brazilian religions.

66

Occupation of the victims Sex worker Teacher

57 105

13

Hairdresser Student/University student Officer

8 58

Priest/ pai de santo

11 3

4

5

chef Other Unknown

From the point of view of the gender of the victim, the majority were male and transgender. The number of women was very low – 6 out of 266. According to Sirley Vieira da Silva from Instituto Papai, this is because of the nature of the violence used against each of the genders. Physical aggression is performed generally by men towards other men, aggression towards women tends to be verbal – but the consequences can be equally harmful.

Division according to the gender of the victim

97 Male 161

Female Transgender

6

9.9. NGOs, other organizations and observations: -

Abong lists 5 NGOs dealing with LGBT community. 4 of them are in the Southeast, 1 in the Northeast. http://abong.org.br/associadas.php Instituto Papai focuses on questions of gender (esp. masculinity), and also works with gay people. http://institutopapai.blogspot.co.uk/ Dom da Terra – an NGO who works with black gays and followers of traditional African religions. They are based in Curitiba (Paraná). https://www.facebook.com/DomDaTerra AB GLT (Brazilian Association of LGBT) http://www.abglt.org.br/port/resolucao.php 67

-

-

Grupo Gay da Bahia: http://www.ggb.org.br/ GGB is the oldest Gay Group in Brazil. There are about 200 regional groups all over the country. ATRAC – Associação de Travestis do Ceará (Association of Transgender of Ceará). The Association organizes projects and events for dissemination of knowledge on prevention of STD/Aids, as well as capacitation courses for the transgender public in areas such as hairdressing, make-up or IT skills. https://www.facebook.com/pages/ATRACAssocia%C3%A7%C3%A3o-de-Travestis-do-Cear%C3%A1/584385151589292 Brasil sem homofobia (Brazil without Homophobia): the proposal from 2004 http://portal.mj.gov.br/sedh/documentos/004_1_3.pdf Observation: many LGBT suffer from low self-esteem, as a result of which many do not have an ID card, as they do not really consider themselves as citizens.168

10. People living with disabilities 10.1. Statistics and the concept of disability According to the WHO (World Health Organization), about 15% of the world’s population lives with a disability.169 In Brazil, it is 23.9%, according to the Demographical Census from 2010,170 which would correspond to approximately 45.5 million people.171 There are two commonly recognised models or ways of viewing disability – the Medical and Social models. 1) The Medical Model, which has been traditionally used by medical specialists and scientists to define disability in primarily medical terms 2), The Social Model , which concentrates on the person as a valued member of society and having the same rights as anyone else, and as being disabled by the obstacles, regulations and attitudes of society. The Brazilian censuses reflect these changes in definition; therefore a direct comparison across them is not possible. In the Demographic census from 2010, the questions were formed to identify visual and hearing impairments and motor disabilities and their degree, as well as learning difficulties. Definition of disability according to Census 2010 - Visual impairment: a permanent difficulty seeing (evaluated with glasses or contact lenses, if used). The four grades are: unable to see; great difficulty seeing; some difficulty seeing; no difficulty seeing. - Hearing impairment: a permanent difficulty hearing, even with a hearing-aid, if used. The four grades are: unable to hear; great difficulty hearing; some difficulty hearing; no difficulty hearing. - Motor disability: a permanent difficulty walking or walking up the stairs, evaluated with the use of a crutch, walking frame, prosthesis etc., if used. The four grades are: unable to 168

Based on the telephonic conversation with Wladimir Cardoso Reis from GTP+ made on 25/09/2013. http://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/report/en/ 170 It is not advised to make direct comparisons between these two figures as the methodologies might differ. Although the Census 2010 mentions the standards of the WHO, it does not explicitely say it uses them. 171 ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/caracteristi cas_religiao_deficiencia.pdf, p.73 169

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walk without assistance of another person; great difficulty walking; some difficulty walking; no difficulty walking. Learning difficulty: a learning difficulty is an obstacle in performing everyday activities such as working, going to school, playing etc. Autism, neurosis, psychosis and schizophrenia were not considered as learning difficulties in this survey.172

-

10.2. Regional distribution The biggest concentration of people living with disabilities is in the North East, where the numbers were especially high in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, where 12% of municipalities reported more than 35% of people with at least one disability. The States that presented the lowest rates were São Paulo, Roraima, Amapá, the Federal District and Paraná.173 The lowest concentration of people with disabilities in the North is quite surprising, as the levels of disability are generally inversely related to those of income. 10.3. Distribution according to age and sex It is normal to see disability rates rise with age, as hearing, visual and motor skills deteriorate with time. The proportion of children between 0 and 14 with at least 1 disability was 7.5%, for the population between 15 and 64 it was 24.9%, and for those above 65 it was 67.7%.174 The rates were higher for women than for men, which reflects the fact that women live longer and the higher concentration of people with disabilities in an advanced age.

80

Distribution of people living with disability according to age (%) 67.7

70

49.8

60 50

38.3

40 25.6

2.9

1.4 5.7 4.2

0.9 1 1.3 5.3 7.5

1.4 7 5.1

10

20.1 24.9

20

18.8 23.9

30

At least 1 disability Visual impairment Hearing impairment Motor impairment Learning difficulty

0 Total

0 - 14 yrs

15 - 64 yrs

64 yrs and more

172

ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/caracteristi cas_religiao_deficiencia.pdf, p.28 173 ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/caracteristi cas_religiao_deficiencia.pdf, p.73 174 ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/caracteristi cas_religiao_deficiencia.pdf, p.74

69

There are two points at which the numbers rise dramatically. The first one is around 10 years of age, which can be related to the beginning of school attendance, when difficulties in completing tasks can start to be perceived. The second one is around the 39 th year of age, when the first signs of diminishing hearing, visual and motor abilities are detected. 10.4. Distribution according to ethnicity In relation to ethnicity, the highest percentage of people with at least one disability was in the population who declared themselves as black (3,884,965 people) or East-Asian (569,838 people), both with 27.1%, while the lowest figures were for the indigenous population – 20.1%, corresponding to 165,148 people.175 The following chart also takes into account gender distribution.

Proportion of men and women with at least 1 disability according to their ethnicity (%) 35

30.9

30 25

25.7 21

23.5

29.4 26.6

24.3

21.8

21 18.4

20

Men

15

Women

10 5 0 White

Black

East-Asian

Dark

Indigenous

10.5. Causes of disability The causes of disability vary, but they can be divided between congenital and acquired – these represent more than three quarters of all physical disabilities. Brazil has one of the highest rates of traffic accidents and work-related injuries, to which we would need to add the injuries caused by urban violence, mostly by firearms. Visual and hearing impairments are often caused by diseases.176 This means that a large proportion of disability is preventable through the implementation of effective policies to minimize these factors.177 10.6. What problems do people living with disability face? Due to the long history of marginalization, a person living with a disability often experiences a situation of personal and social disadvantage. This includes issues such as low self-esteem, family and group rejection, lack of information (e.g. in the area of sexual reproductive health), low levels of schooling and unemployment. It has been proved that there is a clear link

175

ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/caracteristi cas_religiao_deficiencia.pdf, p.74 176 The diseases causing visual impairment are for example glaucoma and cataract, for more information see http://www.who.int/blindness/causes/en/. The diseases causing hearing impairment include meningitis, rubella and CMV. See more at http://deafness.about.com/od/diseasesandsyndromes/. 177 http://www.febraban.org.br/Arquivo/Cartilha/Livro_Popula%E7ao_Deficiencia_Brasil.pdf, p.12

70

between disability and poverty. The prejudice of society is linked to the phenomena of social invisibility – leading to higher vulnerability to rape and sexual violence, for example. The inclusion of people living with disability in society is a complex task. The key aspect in this process is accessibility, the barriers being varied, often physical (e.g. buildings and transport) or barriers in communication. Apart from equal conditions in everyday life (work, education), people living with disability should also have access to cultural events, as well as being able to participate actively in civil society and public affairs. Full integration will be possible only when accompanied by the change in society’s perception of a person living with disability. 10.6.1. School attendance and level of education Law No. 11.274 from 2006 pertaining to the national system of education determines obligatory school attendance from the age of 6 until 15. For this reason, the calculations of school attendance rates are based on the age group from 6 to 14. The percentage was 95.1% for children living with disability, which is 2% lower than for non-disabled children (96.9%). Across the regions, the percentage was the lowest in the North, most probably due to difficulties with transport linked to the low concentration of the population. 178 The results of the Census of 2010 revealed significant differences amongst the levels of education of the non-disabled population and those living with at least one disability. Whereas 61.1% of the population above 15 who declared themselves as living with a disability did not have any education or had incomplete primary education; for the non-disabled population in the same age group it was 38.2%. The levels of illiteracy were also around 10% higher for the population living with disability, in the North East the difference was around 12%. Another significant difference was between those who completed secondary education and incomplete higher education – 17.7% for those living with disability as opposed to 29.7% for the non-disabled. In terms of completed higher education, the proportions were 6.7% for people living with disability and 10.4% for the non-disabled. The difficulties and obstacles in studying are numerous, from the transportation system, uneven or damaged pavements to schools – private or public - which do not reflect the needs for universal access or where the teachers do not know how to work with students who live with a disability. In addition to this, there are no adequate teaching materials or technology and students feel uneasy in relating to fellow students who live with disability, which results in a scarcity of contact and interaction.

178

ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/caracteristi cas_religiao_deficiencia.pdf, p.81

71

Distribution of population above 15 years according to disability status and level of education (in %) 70

61.1

60 50

38.2

40

29.7

30

21

At least 1 disability

17.7

14.2

20

6.7

10

10.4

No disability

0 No education/ Complete primary Complete incomplete primary ed., incomplete secondary ed., education secondary incomplete higher education education

Complete higher education

Literacy rates for population above 15, with and without a disability (in %) 100 90

95

94.6

90.6

88.2 81.7

80

88.1

81.4

92.9 84.6

69.7

70 60 50

Total

40

At least 1 disability

30 20 10 0 North

Northeast

Southeast

South

Central-West

10.6.2. Access to transport In transport, the challenges are numerous: non-existent pavements or pavements full of holes, traffic lights without audio signals, non-existent of ramps, or the ones that do exist are too steep. Many elevators in the underground are out of service or taxi drivers refuse to stop for people living with disability. Although more than half of all buses in Rio de Janeiro are equipped for the transportation of people living with disability, the mechanism is often broken, the driver can’t find the key to it and often doesn’t even know how it works.179

179

From the interview with the paralympic athlete Viviane Macedo, living in Rio de Janeiro. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ibUJNxP6SjVKZi3G5sSOYl8kC70w?docId=CNG.b5110 ff8ede8bda9878c4d0395cf170b.5f1&hl=pt_PT

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10.6.3. Access to health services In the Brazilian health services the challenges do not arise only from the disability itself, but from the lack of attention, legal protection, understanding and support provided for people living with disability. Physical access to the buildings is also often a problem. 10.6.4. Access to employment Employability affects marginalized groups more than the rest of society and employment of people living with disability may require additional support and facilities, which can represent an additional expense to the company. A great deal of improvement in this area was achieved after the introduction of a quota for representation of people living with disability in businesses in 1999. According to this law companies with 100 employees and more have the obligation to employ a certain percentage of people with disabilities. The percentage rises progressively with the size of the company.180 Catarina Amaral from the NGO IBDD confirms that this policy has increased considerably the number of posts available to people living with disability. According to the Regional Office for Work of the São Paulo State (Delegacia Regional do Trabalho do Estado de São Paulo), in 2001 there were only 601 people living with disability hired formally in the state of São Paulo. In 2005, they were more than 36,000. As Ms Amaral observes, it was not so difficult to reach such an improvement, as in the past practically no people living with disability were working. The São Paulo state is an example for others in the efficiency of penalizing the companies that do not comply with the law. Between 2008 and 2009 the numbers actually dropped, for which no explanation has been found so far (possibly due to the economic situation or no replacement of people living with disability once they left the job). The mechanism of penalisation is being introduced slowly by the government. No matter how optimistic these figures appear, the context is still not sufficient to change the situation of people living with disability. More than 40% of people living with disability receive less than a minimal wage. Despite the positive fact that many of these people have been able to access the labour market, most work in badly paid positions. Also, these figures do not mean that the problem of unemployment has been resolved, as around 10% of unemployed people live with disability and about 8% work in informal employment, receiving no social securities at all. These numbers may appear low, but we need to consider that half of all people living with disability are past working age. It is also apparent that it is only the companies with 100-200 employees that tend to meet the legal requirements. The bigger companies are far from reaching the quotas required by the law, the gap being most significant in the biggest companies of 1000 employees or more. This means that the implementation of this law is only partially successful, given the above mentioned ineffective systems of monitoring and inspection. There exists great potential for the Government, NGOs and other organizations to pursue a more consistent penalisation of those businesses which fail to meet the quota rates. It would also be very effective to offer incentives for the companies to employ more people living with

180

Companies with 100-200 employees have to employ 2% of PwD, for those with 201-500 employees it’s 3%, for companies with 501-1000 it’s 4% and for companies with more than 1000 employees it’s 5%.

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disability than is required as a minimum. Some people with disabilities have stated that they feel they have been hired only to fulfil the legal requirements, without being offered the opportunity for professional development. The solution lies in developing fully their potential through facilitating their access to education and training. It is also desirable to look for alternative means of employing the people with learning difficulties, such as sheltered workshops, etc. 10.6.5. Prejudice One of the most serious problems that people living with disability face is general ignorance and prejudice. This phenomena is called ‘social invisibility’181 and is linked to most of the issues people living with disability face. For example, the fact that these people are generally ignored leads to insufficient information about sexually transmitted diseases, which leads to higher rates of HIV-positive status amongst people living with disability. People living with disability themselves express discontent over the fact that people are more likely to see their disability rather than their capabilities. It is essential to persuade society that the inclusion of people living with disability is beneficial for everyone and that overlooking them as a minority is unacceptable. This will mean changing the overall image of a person living with disability as someone who needs help into someone who can be beneficial for society. A great example is inclusion through sports, with athletes participating at events such as the Paralympics. 10.6.6. Recognition of the sexuality of people living with disability By ‘sexuality’ we understand issues related to marriage, family, sex and reproduction, as well as the emotional life of a person. Each person, living with disability or not, has their sexual and reproductive rights, which include deciding freely whether they wish to have children or not, the right to the information on sexual health and reproduction and the right to access health services. Sexuality of people living with disability has for a long time been taboo in society, which led to an assumption that the disabled do not have sexual needs and a right to a sexual life. This view persists and is shared by the parents of some people living with disability, which highlights the necessity of working with the families as well. People living with disability have more recently enjoyed more opportunities to socialise, resulting in more emotional and sexual contacts. This fact underlines the need for preventive education, which has often been aimed only at the general population, not taking into account specific communication and content requirements some people living with disability may have. Access to information on sex and reproductive health can have a decisive impact on an individual’s life, the lack of it can lead to the transmission of HIV/STDs, unwanted pregnancy or future difficulties getting pregnant. The disability itself, in combination with the ‘social invisibility’ of people living with disability makes them more vulnerable to violence in general, including sexual violence. The aggressor feels safe, believing that the crime will not be denounced, discovered or punished. Victims of

181

http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/direitos_sexuais_integralidade_pessoas_deficiencia.pdf

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sexual violence are not only women, as is often believed. Men living with disability also run a higher risk of sexual abuse than the non-disabled, the aggressors being both men and women. Lack of information on sexual violence and its prevention, resulting from the inexistence of informative programmes aimed at this issue, is an important factor which contributes to the vulnerability of people living with disability. It is also important that these programmes are aimed at both genders. An especially vulnerable group are disabled children. Sexual abuse of children is taboo in society, even more so when it relates to children with a disability. It is of extreme importance that children, disabled or not, should be informed regarding sexual abuse and how to prevent it. There is a need for creating didactical and pedagogical materials for the training of medical and teaching staff. The above mentioned lack of information is linked also to a higher risk of infection with HIV/STD. The recent focus on the issue of HIV/STD has also raised the question of the situation amongst people living with disability. Although no official research has been done (a fact that aggravates the situation considerably, as it is difficult to apply for funding without any concrete figures), it is estimated that the risk of being infected by HIV is twice as high for a person living with disability than for the rest of the population, with women being particularly vulnerable. Many people also develop a disability as a result of HIV/STD infection. 10.7.

Analysis of the stakeholders: NGOs and governmental organizations

10.7.1. Governmental organisations and policies 10.7.1.1 CORDE (Secretaria Nacional de Promoção dos Direitos da Pessoa com Deficiência, General Office for the Promotion of the Rights of the Disabled)182 and the Law No. 7853 Until the late 80s, the activities of the Brazilian government to support people living with disability were sporadic and lacking continuity and articulation. The milestone was the foundation of CORDE in 1986. Soon after its foundation, CORDE realized that it could not promote the interests of people living with disability without legal support. It was necessary to create new laws to make it possible for the Office to work effectively. This came with Law No. 7853183 in 1989, which is focussed on social integration of people living with disability, also defining specific aspects, such as the right to education, health, leisure, social security and paternity. In 2010, CORDE was promoted to the level of a General Office (‘Secretaria’), therefore achieving a higher status in the governmental hierarchy. It is currently part of the Special Office for Human Rights (SEDH/PR). 10.7.1.2 CONADE (National Council for the Rights of a Disabled Person) In the nineties, several councils uniting representatives of the government and civil society were created. One of them was the council for the defence of the disabled. In 1999, after some structural changes, this council became known as CONADE (Conselho Nacional dos

182 183

http://www.pessoacomdeficiencia.gov.br http://www.pge.sp.gov.br/centrodeestudos/bibliotecavirtual/dh/volume%20i/deflei7853.htm

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Direitos da Pessoa com Deficiência, National Council for the Rights of a Disabled Person) 184. Its focus is the implementation of national integration policies for people living with disability. One of its recent activities is a campaign promoting accessibility (‘Acessibilidade – Siga essa Idéia’). 10.7.1.3 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Despite the fact that people with disabilities have the same rights as the rest of the population, additional policies have been established to guarantee their rights, such as the Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities by the United Nations, ratified by Brazil on 30 March 2007. The 50 articles of the Convention define the civil, political, economic and cultural rights of people living with disability. In Brazil, however, the challenge lies in the actual implementation. 10.7.1.4 Observations Brazil is the country with the best body of laws protecting people living with disability in both Americas. The problem is that these laws are often not put into practice, and the system of penalisation is insufficient. One example is the law on accessibility, which is not even observed in the buildings of government.185 10.7.2. NGOs focusing on people with disabilities 10.7.2.1 IBDD (Instituto Brasileiro dos direitos de pessoa com deficiência, The Brazilian Institute of Rights of a Person with Disability) IBDD promotes the inclusion of people living with disability in the labour market, acting as a facilitator between people living with disability and the companies. It manages a database of CVs and goes through the process of recruitment to ensure that the companies will choose a suitable candidate. They also offer training courses in improving ethics, attitude and technical skills of people living with disability, as well as courses for companies on how to work with a disabled person. As many companies are based in buildings that are not architecturally suitable for receiving people with disabilities, IBDD helps them to find the best solutions to make access easier. More detail on the activities of IBDD can be found on their website. http://www.ibdd.org.br/ 10.7.2.2 SADEF (A sociedade amigos do deficiente físico do Rio Grande do Norte – Friends of the Physically Disabled of Rio Grande do Norte) SADEF was founded with the objective of training paralympic athletes to compete nationally and internationally. Since 1994, the year of its foundation, the number of athletes and events covered has steadily increased. SADEF currently offers training in practically all paralympic events. The first big success was SADEF’s participation at the 2004 Paralympics in Athens, where their athletes won 10 medals, of which 7 were gold. SADEF is based in Natal, the capital of the North Eastern state of Rio Grande do Norte. It also participates in the project ‘Clube Escolar’, promoting sports among students. More detail on SADEF can be found on their website. http://www.sadefrn.org.br/

184 185

http://www.pessoacomdeficiencia.gov.br/app/conade-0 Based on the interview with Catarina Amaral from IBDD

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10.7.2.3 APAE (Associação dos pais e amigos dos excepcionais, Association of Parents and Friends of the Exceptional Ones) People with learning difficulties are supported by APAEs (Associação dos pais e amigos dos excepcionais, Association of Parents and Friends of the Exceptional). APAE was founded in 1954 by an American diplomat. In the first 8 years of the existence of APAE, 16 new branches were founded all over Brazil, as well as the Federation of APAEs, based in Brasília. Today, almost 60 years after its foundation, APAE has more than 2000 regional branches all over the country. These organise congresses, courses, talks etc. for the general society, as well as activities to guarantee the civil rights of people living with disabilities. However, the Association is currently struggling due to insufficient financial resources.186 http://www.apaebrasil.org.br/ 10.7.2.4 Associações Pestalozzi (Pestalozzi Associations) Pestalozzi Associations (PA) are civil, non-profit associations, whose objective is the promotion of education, assistance and social integration of people with special needs, as well as training of staff specialising in this area.187 PA currently operates in 21 of the 27 Brazilian states188 and are aiming for a national coverage. The Federation of the Pestalozzi Associations (FENASP)189 provides the administrative, technical and financial support to the Pestalozzi Associations. It is based in Brasília. 10.7.2.5 Other NGOs - Abong lists four NGOs which focus on people living with disability. The list can be accessed at the following link: http://abong.org.br/associadas.php - Vida Brasil: NGO promoting accessibility and the rights of people with disabilities http://www.vidabrasil.org.br/oktiva.net/1355/secao/4081 - Projeto Incluir: therapies, integration in the work market. http://www.projetoincluir.org.br/index.php - Tampopo: International Service’s partner organization in Pernambuco, who focus on the education of deaf people. http://projecttampopo.blogspot.co.uk/ - AACD: Association of assistance for children living with disability. http://www.aacd.org.br/ - FENEIS (Federação Nacional de Educação e Integração dos Surdos, National Federation for Education and Integration of the Deaf): their main objective is the promotion of Brazilian sign language (LIBRAS). http://www.feneis.com.br 10.7.3. Other links and sources UN report on people living with disability: http://www.onu.org.br/a-onu-em-acao/a-onu-e-as-pessoas-com-deficiencia/ Report of the Institute Getúlio Vargas and Banco do Brasil: http://www.cps.fgv.br/cps/deficiencia_br/PDF/PPD_Sumario_Executivo.pdf

186

https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&ved=0CDUQFjAB&url=htt p%3A%2F%2Fwww.apaebrasil.org.br%2Farquivo.phtml%3Fa%3D12468&ei=IbA-UrLGKvy0gXzqYC4Cw&usg=AFQjCNHdSJ5p35G4NoqNIqfcoXgJhpc4jw&bvm=bv.52434380,d.d2k 187 http://sociedadepestalozzidobrasil.blogspot.co.uk/ 188 http://www.fenasp.org.br/ 189 http://www.fenasp.org.br/

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Associação do Banco do Brasil (Association on the Bank of Brazil): http://www.apabb.org.br/ A study of the Ministry of Health on the sexuality of people living with disability: http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/direitos_sexuais_integralidade_pessoas_deficien cia.pdf A study of Febrapan (Brazilian Bank Federation): http://www.febraban.org.br/Arquivo/Cartilha/Livro_Popula%E7ao_Deficiencia_Brasil.pdf 10.8. Inclusion through sports In this section, we will have a look at the structures and organisations that facilitate access to sports for people living with disability. Given that Brazil is the host of the 2016 Olympic Games, the Brazilian Paralympic Committee has a prominent role. We will explore the geographical and social scope of the Committee. 10.8.1. Brazilian Paralympic Committee (Comitê paralímpico brasileiro, CPB) The Brazilian Paralympic Committee acts as the representative of the country to the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). CPB manages and organises the national representation in paralympic modalities and has responsibility for the strategic planning. The mission of the CPB is190: - To promote development of paralympic sports in Brazil, in articulation with the respective national organizations; - To promote universal access for people with disabilities to sports at various levels; - To organize Brazil’s participation in competition at a continental and world level and in the Paralympic Games, always seeking excellence in performance.191 Contact details: Tel.: +55 61 3031 3030, Fax: +55 61 3031 3023 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] http://www.cpb.org.br/ Address: SBN Qd. 2, Lote 12, Bloco F - Edifício Via Capital, 14º andar Brasília/ DF - CEP: 70.040020 10.8.1.1. History CPB was founded in 1995 as part of the global movement to establish national paralympic committees to act as country representatives to the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). CPB was initially based in the city of Niterói (in the state of Rio de Janeiro), but in 2002 it was transferred to Brasilia, the centre of the political power as well as the country’s geographical centre. Within a few years of its foundation, CPB started organising sporting competitions for people living with disability at a national level. It achieved financial security with the passing of the

190 191

http://www.cpb.org.br/wp-content/uploads/Planejamento-Estrategico-2010-2016.pdf From CPB’s official website, http://www.cpb.org.br.

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law Agnelo Piva from 2011, obliging lotteries to donate 2% of their gross profit to the National Olympic Committee and the National Paralympic Committee. The efforts of the CPB started to bear fruit in 2000 at the Paralympic Games in Sydney, when Brazil occupied the 24th position in the medals table. Since then, Brazil has been rising steadily in the rankings: in 2004, it was in 14th position, in Peking (2008), it was 9th and in London (2012) Brazil was ranked 7th. 10.8.1.2. CPB and the Ministry of Sports The Ministry of Sports and the Federal Government as a whole are the fundamental supporters of paralympic sports.192 On 4th April 2012193, CPB was granted a total amount of more than R$8,500,000 (approx. £2,700,000) for the preparation of athletes and teams for the Paralympic Games in London (2012) and Rio (2016). The money was allocated to offer better training conditions and interchange between teams and athletes, as well as travel costs, accommodation, etc. Also, of this amount R$1 million will be used to buy equipment for fourteen events. 10.8.1.3. Events and classification The Paralympic Games in 2016 covers 16 events: athletics, wheelchair basketball, boccia, cycling, wheelchair fencing, 5-a-side football for the visually impaired, 7-a-side football for people with cerebral palsy, goalball, powerlifting, equestrian, judo, swimming, rowing, wheelchair rugby, table-tennis, wheelchair tennis, archery, shooting, sailing and volleyball. The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) recognises six categories for participation in the competition: cerebral palsy, visual impairment, wheelchair users, amputees, learning difficulties and ‘les autres’ (others). In Brazil, this system has been in use since 1984. 10.8.1.4. Structure The Committee is based in Brasília and the current President is Andrew Parsons, a Rio de Janeiro-born journalist. Parsons will remain in this post until 2017. At the beginning of 2010, CPB launched the Brazilian Paralympic Academy (Acedemia Paralímpica Brasileira, APB), whose purpose is to provide scientific knowledge of the paralympic sport. Currently, the activities of APB are divided in two areas: Education and Training; Science and Technology. The aim of the first area, Education and Training, is to provide instruction to professionals in areas such as sports management, communication or marketing. The area of Science and Technology is responsible for coordination and execution of projects and programmes. The Council of Athletes (Conselho de Atletas, CA), founded in 2009, represents athletes within CPB. It consists of 7 members, elected in the year of the Paralympic Games. CPB administers some sports directly, some through a chain of affiliated and partner organizations.194

192

http://www.cpb.org.br/noticias/ministerio-paga-convenio-de-r-85-milhoes-para-preparacao-de-atletasparalimpicos/ 193 The webpage does not specify the year, our assumption is 2012 194 http://www.cpb.org.br/wp-content/uploads/Planejamento-Estrategico-2010-2016.pdf for more detail see pages 10 and 11

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10.8.1.5. Social inclusion programmes In their mission statement, CPB declares the access of people living with disability to sports to be one of their priorities. CPB finances a range of projects aimed primarily at students, with the objective of increasing access to sports for young people living with disability and consequentially increasing the quality of Brazil’s paralympic athletes. CPB divides its programmes into 3 main groups according to the following areas of focus: 195

195

http://www.cpb.org.br/wp-content/uploads/Planejamento-Estrategico-2010-2016.pdf, p.36

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a. Paralympic programme for students (Programa Estudantil Paraolímpico, ProEsP) These projects are developed with resources from the Agnelo Piva law and are aimed at students of primary, secondary and higher education. They include the promotion of access of young people living with disability to sports, as well as the training of staff. i. Paralympic School Project (Projeto escolar paraolímpico) The aim of this project is to encourage interaction and social inclusion through national and international exchanges amongst children living with disability and young people participating in sports. The project runs at all levels of education and the participants need to be aged between 12 and 28 years. Concrete information on the nature of the exchanges is still to be announced by the CPB. ii. Paralympic Training Project for Universities (Projeto Universitário de Capacitação Paraolímpica) This project was designed to promote the training of qualified human resources staff with up-to-date technical and scientific knowledge, who will provide further training to university students and professionals working in the area of development of children, young people and adults through sports. Concrete information is still to be announced by the CPB. iii. School paralympics project (Projeto Paraolimpíadas Escolares) This project will be aimed at organization of sports events in order to select athletes at state level. The participants need to be aged between 12 and 19 years. iv. Paralympic School Club Project (Projeto Clube Escolar Paraolímpico, CEP) Launched in 2009, the Paralympic School Club is a programme designed to promote sports to children and young people living with disability aged 6 to 21 years who are enrolled in formal education in order to find new talents to participate at the 2016 Games. Public or private schools, as well as other institutions working with young disabled people can apply to participate in Clube Escolar. CPB releases the annual amount of up to R$60,000 (approx. £20,000) per institution, which covers expenses for staff, materials, transport etc. In 2010, the first year of the realization of the School Club, 19 institutions took part in the project, with the participation of 687 students from 8 different states. In 2011, there were 21 projects in 9 states. For the year 2013, CPB will release R$ 1,200,000 (approx. £400,000) for 20 projects, in which every institution can receive up to R$60,000 (approx. £20,000). There are several conditions that the applying institutions need to meet – for example they need to be linked to one of the affiliated organisations (the list is available below). The applying institutions can rank from those who already participate in the project (in

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which case the maximum amount they can receive is R$45,000, approx. £15,000), or they can be new to it. The full conditions are available on the official site of CPB.196 197 The project Clube Escolar is expected to last until 2016. b. ‘Renewing Paralympics’ Programme The projects from this scheme will aim at dissemination of paralympic values, as well as increasing the number of paralympic athletes. Concrete information is still to be announced by CPB. c. Programme for Paralympic Classification (Programa de classificação Paraolímpica) This objective of this project is to train staff from affiliated associations and federations on the system of paralympic classification. Observations Although an impressive framework of support, there are some limitations within the above mentioned programmes: -

-

-

The limited period of duration of Clube Escolar. From the information available it is apparent that this project was designed with the purpose of discovering talents for the 2016 paralympics, but it is not likely to be continued when the Games are over. The limited scope of Clube Escolar. Although the programme is by all means generous, it is limited only to 20 institutions in 2013. In 2011, Clube Escolar was running in 21 institutions – 7 in São Paulo (SP), 4 in Rio de Janeiro (RJ), 2 in Minas Gerais (MG), 2 in Santa Catarina (SC), 2 in Paraná (PR), 1 in Rondônia (RO), 1 in Espírito Santo (ES), 1 in Rio Grande do Norte (RN) and 1 in Distrito Federal (DF). It should be noted that the presence in Northern and North Eastern states is disproportionately low – only 1 project in each region, which raises concerns in regard to the social scope. Such was the situation in 2011, the information about the projects from 2012 is not available on the website. The sustainability of the Paralympic values will depend mostly on the activities from point b, which are yet to be specified. 10.8.1.6. Scholarships for athletes (‘Bolsa-Atleta’) ‘Bolsa Atleta’ is defined by Law No. 10.891 from 2004198 and is paid by the Ministry of Sports to athletes practicing sports in any Olympic or Paralympic event. The eligible athletes get monthly payments in the amount defined by Law. There are several categories – students, national athletes and international athletes. The applicants need to obtain results from national or international competitions. The amounts currently paid are following: -

Students: R$ 300 per month (approx. £100) Top national athletes: R$ 750 per month (approx. £250) Top international athletes: R$ 1,500 per month (approx. £500)

196

http://www.cpb.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Edital-Clube-Escolar-20131.pdf http://www.cpb.org.br/clube-escolar/ 198 http://www.cpb.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Lei-10891.pdf 197

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-

Athletes members of the Brazilian Olympic/ Paralympic delegation: R$ 2,500 per month (approx. £830).

According to Marília Brito from SADEF, there is a tough competition in obtaining Bolsa Atleta, as it is restricted only to athletes who rank amongst the first 3 positions in regional or national competitions. Excessive training to obtain these results can also lead to additional health problems. 10.8.1.7. Affiliated and partner organisations CPB works with a network of affiliated or partner organisations who take responsibility for the area they focus on. Some of these organisations focus on individual events (for example the Brazilian Confederation of Volleyball for the Disabled – CBVD), others approach the athletes with respect to the form of disability (for example Brazilian Association of Sports for the Mentally Disabled – ABDEM). a. Affiliated organizations i. Associação Brasileira de Desportos para Deficientes Intelectuais - ABDEM (Brazilian Association of Sports for the Intellectually Disabled – ABDEM) ABDEM was founded in 1989 as a Brasília-based non-profit organization, with the aim of supporting athletes with learning difficulties. The association works with more than 10,000 people living with disability across Brazil. The focus is on athletics and gymnastics. Their mission is the “organisation and development of sports for those with learning difficulties, with the objective of healthy competition and integration amongst the athletes, promoting the improvement of their physical and intellectual abilities, team spirit and social inclusion through sports.” The athletes participate at ABDEM’s competitions through ARDEMs, regional associations present in 12 Brazilian states. The athletes from ARDEMs come from entities such as APAEs (Associations of Parents and Friends of the Exceptional Ones), Pestalozzi societies, partner organizations, specialized classes in schools (both private and public), and many other social initiatives. In this way, ABDEM reaches thousands of Brazilian municipalities. ABDEM organises annual competitions (dependent on resource availability) to select athletes to represent Brazil in international competitions. ARDEMs, on the other hand, organize regional competitions, for example at State level (for qualification of athletes at the national level), but also initiatives to promote leisure and social inclusion – festivals and open competitions aimed at increasing participation rather than improving results. More information on ABDEM may be found on their website. States served: There are 12 ARDEMs in total, and ABDEM aims for a national coverage. The ARDEMs are concentrated mostly in the South and in the South East. There is some presence in the North East, but none in the North.199 The list is not available online.

199

Based on telephonic conversation with Roberto Carlos Conde from Abdem

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Contact: http://www.abdem.com.br/, tel.: (61) 3322 8161, (11) 2341 0521, [email protected]. More on social inclusion can be found at http://tvclicbrasil.com.br/eventos/abdem/paginas/tvabdem.aspx?idVideo=24 (in Portuguese). ii. Associação Nacional de Desporto para Deficientes - ANDE (The National Association of Sports for the Disabled) ANDE is a Rio-based organisation focusing specifically on the development of sports for people living with cerebral palsy. ANDE has a network of affiliated clubs in many states. The sport they focus on is boccia. Although the Association seems potentially socially inclusive, no definitive proof has been found on their site. States served: Affiliated clubs present at ES, MG, PR, RJ, PA, SP, MS, SC, PE, RN, DF, RO Contact: http://www.ande.org.br/ [email protected], tel: (21) 2220 1314 iii. Confederação Brasileira de Voleibol para Deficientes - CBVD (Brazilian Confederation of Volleyball for the Disabled) CBVD does not have its own webpage and their Facebook profile does not contain any information. The information found at the site of CPB includes their contact details, but does not say anything about their activities. They are based in São Paulo. States served: the information is not available. Contact: [email protected], (11) 2275 0302 or (11) 2275 4049 http://gestaorecursos.cpb.org.br/info_confederacao.php/?id=14 http://www.cpb.org.br/noticias/brasil-fatura-o-ouro-no-i-torneio-internacional-de-voleisentado/ iv. Confederação Brasileira de Basquetebol em Cadeira de Rodas - CBBC (Brazilian Confederation of Basketball on Wheelchairs) Brazilian basketball enjoys immense popularity as well a good reputation globally. CBBC was founded in 1997 and has clubs in practically every Brazilian state, with both male and female divisions. The club seems results-oriented, with no references to social inclusion found at their site. States served: 24 out of 27 Brazilian states: DF, GO, MS, AL, BA, CE, MA, PB, PE, PI, RN, SE, AC, AP, AM, PA, RO, ES, MG, RJ, SP, PR, RS, SC. Contact: Tel (81) 3031 3892, 9751 5551, [email protected] http://www.cbbc.org.br/ v. Confederação Brasileira de Tênis - CBT (Brazilian Tennis Confederation) CBT is based in São Paulo. They organise an annual championship for wheelchair tennis, Copa Butija, which takes place in Belo Horizonte (MG). However, it is not clear whether it also serves to select players to participate at the Paralympics. From the contents of their webpage, CBT seems focused on competitions, but there is no mention of social inclusion. States served: the information is not available online, but given the size of the Federation it is probable that they are present across Brazil. Contact: http://www.cbtenis.com.br/, Tel.: (11) 5093 6631

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vi. Confederação Brasileira de Tênis de Mesa - CBTM (Brazilian Table-Tennis Confederation) The CBTM headquarters are in Rio de Janeiro, but it has a network of clubs in almost all Brazilian states. From the contents of the webpage, the activities of the CBTM appear to be competition-focused. States served: CBTM is present in 26 out of 27 states: AC, AL, AP, AM, BA, CE, DF, ES, GO, MA, MT, MS, MG, PA, PB, PR, PE, RJ, RN, RS, RO, RR, SC, SP, SE, TO. Contact: http://www.cbtm.org.br/ [email protected], tel.: (21) 2579 0650 vii. Confederação Brasileira de Desportos de Deficientes Visuais - CBDV (Brazilian Confederation of Sports for the Visually Impaired) At present, CBDV administers five sports in Brazil, three of them paralympic: football 5-aside (male and female), goalball and judo. The two non-paralympic sports are football B2/B3 and powerlifting. CPB directly administers athletics and swimming. From the material found on the official webpage (photos etc.), there appears to be an inclusive potential, but no concrete proof has been identified. States served: The organization is based in Rio de Janeiro, and the information about their coverage is not available online. Contact: http://www.cbdv.org.br, Tel / Fax: +55 21 22245775 – 22245888, E-mail: [email protected] viii. Confederação Brasileira de Vela Adaptada - CBVA (Brazilian Confederation of Adapted Sailing) CBVA does not have its own webpage, but some information about them can be found on the pages of CPB and Ministry of Sports. This sport is suitable for people with visual or motor disabilities. From the contents of the webpage, CBVA seems heavily supported by CPB, and it is still developing, therefore it does not have national representation. There are no references to social inclusion. States served: CBVA is based in Rio de Janeiro (RJ), but they are present also in SP, RS, DF, SC. Contact: Tel.: (21) 2421 8626, (21) 9638 7566, [email protected] More information at: http://turismoadaptado.wordpress.com/2011/02/13/vela-adaptada-ventos-a-favor-dainclusao-no-esporte/ http://www.esporte.gov.br/cen/detalhesEntidades.do;jsessionid=053D0728C6B61DB7FA2 558338CFD8801?idEntidade=72 http://www.cpb.org.br/gestao-financeira/ii-informacoes-dasconfederacoes/confederacao-brasileira-de-vela-adaptada-cbva/ B. Partner organizations i. Confederação Brasileira de Hipismo - CBH (Brazilian Equestrian Confederation) CBH is based in the city of Rio de Janeiro and its activities are restricted mostly to the South East region. CBH has a division for people living with disability, the origins of which date back to the 1970s, when horse riding started being recommended to people living with disability for therapeutic reasons. The sports element has been present since about 2000. The qualification for the Paralympics seems to be done through international 85

competitions – in 2006, for example, the team participated at the Open Championship in Belgium, and based on the results they qualified for the Paralympics in Peking. There are no references to social inclusion on the official webpage. States served: SP, RJ, MG Contact: http://www.cbh.org.br/, http://www.cbh.org.br/2012-01-15-14-30-36/modparaequestre.html Tel: (21) 2277-9150 ii. Confederação Brasileira de Ciclismo - CBC (Brazilian Cycling Confederation) Apart from classical cycling, CBC is responsible for paracycling as well. The information on paracycling is only related to competitions, there are no references to social inclusion. States served: All states. Contact: www.cbc.esp.br/ http://www.cbc.esp.br/default/conteudo.php?m=paraciclismo Tel.: (43) 3327-3232 iii. Confederação Brasileira de Remo - CBR (Brazilian Rowing Confederation) CBR was founded in 1977 and is based in Rio de Janeiro. Aside from classic rowing, CBR also covers adapted rowing, but there is no further information available on their site. The Confederation focuses on the promotion of rowing as well as the organisation of championships, but does not mention social integration of people living with disability. States served: All states. Contact: http://www.cbr-remo.com.br, Tel: + 55 21 2294-3342 / 2294-0225 iv. Confederação Brasileira de Tiro com Arco - CBTARCO (Brazilian Archery Confederation) CBTARCO is based in the town of Maricá, near Rio de Janeiro, and is represented in 14 Brazilian states through a network of federations. It participates in paralympic competition, but the only available information on the website is the calendar of events in 2012. Due to the lack of information available, it is difficult to establish whether they are competition-oriented or socially inclusive. There is a link to the inclusion of the indigenous population, as one of the events is ‘tiro nativo’, which is of indigenous origin. It has specific rules and uses a traditional indigenous bow and arrow. The first competition took place in 1999 in Minas Gerais. States served: AM, DF, ES, GO, MG, MS, MT, PE, PR, RJ, RN, RS, SC Contact: http://www.cbtarco.org.br/, Tel.: (21)2634-8984 or 2634-0310, [email protected], [email protected] Observations: The above list of partner organizations is from the official webpage of the Committee. However, Wikipedia also lists Confederação Brasileira de Desportos dos Surdos (Brazilian Confederation of Sports for the Deaf, CBDS http://www.cbds.org.br/). In fact, CBDS has been representing Brazil at the International Committee of Sports for the Deaf since 1997, but the sports for the deaf are not included in the programme of the Paralympic Games, as they have their own event, the Deaflympics.200

200

http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comit%C3%AA_Paral%C3%ADmpico_Brasileiro

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Other organizations that declare partnership with the CPB are:   

Associação Brasileira de Rugby em Cadeira de Rodas (Brazilian Association of Rugby on wheelchairs, http://rugbiabrc.org.br/) Confederação Brasileira de Triathlon - CBTRI (Brazilian Triathlon Confederation, http://www.cbtri.org.br/paratriathlon.asp) Confederação Brasileira de Canoagem - CBC (Brazilian Canoeing Confederation, http://www.canoagem.org.br/pagina/index/nome/paracanoagem/id/51).

Another organization which promotes sports for people living with disability is ADD Associação Desportiva para Deficientes (Sport Association for the Disabled, http://www.add.org.br/). They have cooperated with CPB in the past and trained the National team of basketball on wheelchairs. 10.9. Other links and sources - UN report on people living with disability: http://www.onu.org.br/a-onu-em-acao/a-onu-e-as-pessoas-com-deficiencia/ - Report of the Institute Getúlio Vargas and Banco do Brasil: http://www.cps.fgv.br/cps/deficiencia_br/PDF/PPD_Sumario_Executivo.pdf - Associação do Banco do Brasil (Association on the Bank of Brazil): http://www.apabb.org.br/ - A study of the Ministry of Health on the sexuality of people living with disability: http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/direitos_sexuais_integralidade_pessoas_deficien cia.pdf - A study of people living with disability by Febrapan (Brazilian Bank Federation): http://www.febraban.org.br/Arquivo/Cartilha/Livro_Popula%E7ao_Deficiencia_Brasil.pdf

11. Brazil’s International Cooperation 11.1. Structure and context The Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministério de Relações Exteriores, MRE, also known as Itamaraty after the building in which it is based) manages issues related to international development through the Brazilian Agency for Cooperation (Agência Brasileira de Cooperação, ABC). ABC is responsible for the coordination, implementation and the monitoring of projects between Brazil and other countries or foreign institutions. The Brazilian international cooperation is marked by an increasing tendency for South-South cooperation (Latin America, Africa and BRIC nations). ABONG (Brazilian Association of NGOs) praises this tendency, but also points to the fact that this is motivated mostly by economic interests of the State and the private sector. ABONG has raised awareness in cases where the interests and needs of the populations benefiting from ABC interventions were not sufficiently considered, or subordinate to Brazil’s commercial profit.201 The Association also sees the

201

FASE, an organization linked to ABONG (Brazilian Association of NGOs) has done a survey on the impacts of the state programme Prosavana, implementer in the Northern Mozambique. The survey revealed that Prosavana ignores the real necessities of the people living and working in the area, focusing on implementation of monoculture, rather than small-scale agriculture, which is a traditional means of support for the locals. It has also

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transparency in Brazilian foreign cooperation as insufficient. Moreover, the Government cooperates with the countries of the South through scattered and isolated initiatives, rather than coherent politics based on a compromise.202 In Brazil, international relations are a field that does not typically look to the participation of the civil society, but civil organizations have been developing great effort to achieve a dialogue and participation in external politics. An important achievement was the conference “New External Politics” in June 2013, in which the then-minister promised to create a consulting office which would participate in the decision-making process. With the recent changes in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, however, the establishment of this office is uncertain. 11.2. Cobradi 2010 In the reports of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Brazilian cooperation for the international development is often referred to by the Portuguese acronym ‘Cobradi’. The expenditure on international cooperation in 2010 has been presented in the study Cobradi 2010,203 produced by ABC and IPEA204 (Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, Institute of Applied Economic Survey). The study was published in 2012, after a delay of 2 years, but in the future the objective is to publish annual studies in a more timely manner. Cobradi 2010 gives us an overview of expenditure by the Brazilian government on international projects and activities in areas such as technical, humanitarian or educational cooperation. The publication of this data is a step towards greater accessibility of international development policy to the public. The study has, however, been criticised by ABONG for being too descriptive and being inclusive of civil society in the elaboration or analysis of the data and for not including non-governmental cooperation. Although NGOs are an important stakeholder and unlike the Government or the private sector, they are not necessarily motivated by financial gain. The costs for international cooperation include staff remuneration; costs of training of foreign subjects, institutions and organizations; as well as costs linked to management of projects and missions. In 2010, the total expenditures amounted to R$ 1.6 billion (approx. £540 mil), which represents an increase of 91.2% in comparison to 2009.

turned out that some of the subjects involved are banks and corporations. More at http://abong.org.br/informes.php?id=6616&it=6622, http://issuu.com/ongfase/docs/caderno_prosavana_fase 202 http://abong.org.br/informes.php?id=6616 203 http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/livros/livros/livro_cooperacao_brasileira02.pdf 204 http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/livros/livros/livro_cooperacao_brasileira02.pdf

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Expenses with International Cooperation (in 2012, in R$) 700000000 585063470 (approx. £195 mil)

600000000

548361950 (approx. £183 mil)

500000000 400000000 284186759 (approx. £93 mil.)

300000000 101676174 200000000 (approx. £34 mil.)

62557615 (approx. £21 mil.)

42255987 (approx. £14 mil.)

100000000

1039225 (approx. £0.3 mil)

0 Technical coop.

Scientific and technological coop.

Coop. in education

Humanitarian coop.

Support to Refugees

Peace Expenses with Maintenace int. organizations

From the chart below we can see that 68% of overall expenditure was invested in Latin America and the Caribbean (R$ 195 million, approx. £65 million). For Africa, it was R$ 65 million (approx. £22 million), corresponding to 22.58% of the total amount. In Asia and the Middle East it was R$ 11 million (approx. £3.7 million, 4.02% of the total amount) and R$ 3 million in North America (approx. £1 million, 1.05% of the total amount).

International expenditure per region (in %) 4.3

4 1.1 Latin America and the Caribbean Africa

22.6

Asia and the Middle East Europe 68.1

North America

11.2.1. Technical Cooperation Technical cooperation includes training of foreign subjects, institutions and organizations. It is based on the transfer of knowledge and technologies to generate positive impact in other countries. An essential condition for Brazilian involvement is the foreign demand – for SouthSouth cooperation, the Brazilian government acts upon demands presented by foreign governments or international organizations, such as Embassies. ABC is responsible for dispatching the missions and monitoring their progress. 89

Today, there is ongoing cooperation in areas including agriculture, education, professional courses, health, environment, public administration, transport, energy, sanitation, construction of community centres, culture and justice.

Technical cooperation per region (in %) 7

0.2

Latin America and the Caribbean Africa 39.5

53.3

Asia Europe

In the area of Human Rights, Brazil is participating in projects supporting people living with disability, education and human rights. The oldest project is the cooperation between Brazil and Guinea-Bissau on the right to basic documentation and birth certificates. Brazil is also cooperating with Columbia on the promotion and defence of the rights of the LGBT community and defence of children and adolescents against sexual violence. In Africa, the projects are often linked to agriculture – such as the project Cotton 4 to support and develop the cotton industry in 4 cotton-exporting countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad and Mali). 11.2.2. Cooperation in education Cooperation in education consists of scholarships granted to foreign students in order to create human capital to strengthen foreign institutions. The scholarships can be academic or technical. In 2010, the costs of the cooperation in education were about R$63 million (approx. £21 million). There were in total 1,643 foreign students who received a scholarship from the Brazilian government, out of which 1,211 were from Portuguese-speaking African countries (PALOP),205 261 from South America, 118 from other African countries and 53 from Central America and the Caribbean.

205

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese-speaking_African_countries

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International students receiving scholarships from the Brazilian Government according to the region of origin (in %) 3.2 15.9

Caribbean and Central America 7.2

South America Other Africans Palop

73.7

11.2.3. Scientific and technological cooperation Scientific and technological cooperation involves two or more institutions from different countries which together develop programmes and projects of common interest. In 2010, the Brazilian government spent R$42 million (approx. £14 million) on cooperation in areas such as physics, mineral technology, astrophysics, biotechnology or alternative energies. The cooperation was mostly with countries from Latin America and the Caribbean (43.6%), followed by Europe (38.6%). 11.2.4. Humanitarian cooperation Humanitarian cooperation serves to assist countries in situations of crisis or emergency. The cooperation is initiated by the request of the government or civil society of the affected country. Humanitarian help includes financial transfers and supply of food, medication or rescue teams, amongst others. In 2007, for example, Brazil sent to Palestine the regular payment of R$ 3 million (approx. £1 million), as well as an extra payment to the value of R$19 million (approx. £6.3 million) for emergency support. The budget for humanitarian assistance is steadily increasing: from R$ 29.7 million (approx. £9.9 million) in 2008 to R$ 87.4 million (approx. £29.1 million) in 2009 to R$ 284.2 million (approx. £94.7 million) in 2010, an amount which includes R$ 130 million (approx. £43.3 million) for help in Haiti after a severe earthquake. In 2010, the Brazilian government supported more than 70 humanitarian projects. In 2009 the expenditure was also directed to food supply and the construction of homes as a result of the war in Israel (in the amount of R$ 74,900, approx. £25,000). In 2010, most of the funds were used to help Haiti after the earthquake.

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11.2.5. Support and protection of refugees In Brazil, policies related to refugees are the responsibility of the National Committee for Refugees (Conare), a section of the Ministry of Justice. In 2010, Conare received R$ 600,000 (approx. £200,000) for the support of refugees, a value which was transferred to NGOs working in this area. Conare itself sends out field workers to conduct interviews with the refugees and also cooperates with the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). Most refugees concentrate in urban areas, principally São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, as well as in Brasília and Manaus. In 2010, the total amount of refugees in Brazil was 3,952, out of which 64.53% were of African origin; 22.44% from the Americas; 10.67% from Asia; 2,25% Europeans; and 0,11% stateless people.

Origin of Refugees to Brazil in 2010 (in %) 10.67

0.11 22.44

2.25

Americas Africa Europe Asia Stateless

64.53

11.2.6. Peace maintenance operations Brazil has been participating in UN peace missions since 1948. In 2010, Brazil was in 13th position in terms of contribution of troops – 2,267 people participated in 9 missions in that year. The operations do not include only maintenance of security, but also organisation and monitoring of elections; disarmament and re-integration of combatants; strengthening of the police, prisons and legal institutions; creating favourable conditions for socioeconomic development, amongst others. 11.2.7. Cooperation Brazil – Africa As mentioned above, the cooperation of the Brazilian government in Africa is mostly technical, consisting of the export of Brazilian know-how to African countries. This is beneficial for both sides – African countries increase their productivity, which opens a space for trade with Brazil. Apart from the Government, there are also Brazilian NGOs and religious organizations operating in Africa, often in Mozambique or other Portuguese-speaking countries.

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11.2.7.1. PALOP206 The PALOP countries include Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau and the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe. Given the fact that Brazil shares the official language and the historic and cultural context of a Portuguese ex-colony with these countries, it is natural that the cooperation with them will be more intense. PALOP are all developing countries although at different rates(Angola’s economy, for example, is experiencing rapid growth), therefore Brazil’s projects are generally from the area of technical cooperation, aiming at the reduction of the impact of social and economic exclusion. The projects developed in these countries are numerous, mostly from the area of health (on behalf of the Brazilian Ministry of Health) or agriculture (on behalf of the Ministry of Agrarian Development or Embrapa207). One of the projects running in all PALOP countries is on the use and conservation of maternal milk in hospitals. Apart from that, the initiatives depend on the needs of each country. In Mozambique, one of the current projects deals with the reform of the social system, implementing both short-term emergency policies and long-term modernization. In Cape Verde, there are initiatives aimed at the training of professionals (e.g. from the area of tourism), but there has also been a project on improvement of access of children living with disability to public schools.208 11.3. Cooperation Brazil – Burkina Faso Brazil has signed 8 protocols regarding the intentions of cooperation with Burkina Faso in the areas of health, sport, soya production, cotton, sugar cane, cattle rearing and football.209 Brazil has an embassy in Burkina Faso and Burkina Faso inaugurated theirs in Brasilia in 2009. 11.3.1 Technical cooperation: Technical cooperation between the two countries dates back to 2009, when the agreement was passed by the Senate in a symbolic vote. The objective of the agreement is to exchange information in the fields of science and technology. This agreement permits continuation of past actions from the area of health and will allow cooperation in areas of common interest such as agriculture, cattle-rearing, irrigation of the semi-arid and sports. In 11 articles, the agreement sets general rules of the cooperation. There will also be complementary adjustments that will specify the stakeholders and their roles.210

206

Países Africanos de língua oficial portuguesa, African countries with Portuguese as an official language Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Brazilian Enterprise for Agricultural Research) , a state-owned company affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture. 207

208

http://www.abc.gov.br/Projetos/CooperacaoSulSul Please note that these are protocols of intention of cooperation. The information is from 2010. http://www.camara.gov.br/proposicoesWeb/prop_mostrarintegra;jsessionid=1090CE2A7441920B9CE0294A8F49 2CBC.node2?codteor=786978&filename=Tramitacao-MSC+165/2010 210 http://www12.senado.gov.br/noticias/materias/2009/11/18/aprovado-acordo-de-cooperacao-tecnica-entrebrasil-e-burkina-faso 209

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11.3.2 Agriculture: Embrapa211 is implementing a project Cotton-4 focussing on the production of cotton in the states of Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin and Chad. In Mali, Embrapa will open a centre to test the adaptability of Brazilian cotton to African conditions, where they will also provide training for specialists from Burkina Faso, Chad and Benin, as well as transferring technologies needed for the production of seeds.212 11.3.3 Cultural cooperation: In August 2010, the Government approved an agreement on cultural cooperation between Brazil and Burkina Faso, the aim being to increase the mutual knowledge and promotion of the cultures of both countries. Each country should encourage the study of the other country’s culture at school, as well as improving general knowledge. The agreement also anticipates exchange between museums, exchange of experiences with the preservation of cultural heritage and cooperation between libraries and archives. The countries should also support circulation of literary works through participation of writers in literary fairs etc. There should also be cultural exchange of performing arts (dance, cinema), including joint projects. To reach these objectives, the countries will establish a commission with the participation of representatives from both countries, which will meet alternatively in Brazil and Burkina Faso.213 11.4. Brazilian NGOs active internationally As we have previously mentioned, international cooperation does not include only activities of the Government, but also of the third sector. The following list includes NGOs active beyond the borders of Brazil. a. Centro de Relações Internacionais em Saúde (Centre for Health and International Relations, CRIS) CRIS was founded in 2009 with the aim to support and coordinate the international exchange of the Foundation Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz). These two organizations jointly develop actions and projects in partnership with the countries of the Southern hemisphere, especially Mozambique, where Fiocruz has a factory producing antiretroviral drugs and other medications. Fiocruz also supports the Mozambican National Health Service. http://www.castelo.fiocruz.br/Pres2006/aci/

211

Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Brazilian Enterprise for Agricultural Research) , a state-owned company affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture. 212 http://www.ipea.gov.br/desafios/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2491:catid=28&Itemid=23 213 http://www2.camara.leg.br/camaranoticias/noticias/EDUCACAO-E-CULTURA/149956-RELACOESEXTERIORES-APROVA-ACORDO-DE-COOPERACAO-CULTURAL-COM-BURKINA-FASO.html

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b. Fraternidade sem fronteiras (Fraternity without Borders, FSF) FSF is an apolitical, non-profit and non-religious NGO based in Campo Grande (MS) and Maputo (Mozambique). FSF develops activities to help those living in extreme poverty, with a focus on children. http://www.off.org.br/ c. Mirim Brasil Mirim Brasil is an NGO focusing on children and adolescents. In partnership with the Swedish organization Unga Ornar they have developed a project for the dissemination of knowledge on HIV/AIDS amongst young people in 15 African countries (further details on these projects are not available at their website). They are based in Recife. http://www.mirimbrasil.org.br/ d. Cren (Centro de reabilitação e educação nutricional – Centre for Nutritional Education and Rehabilitation) Cren’s objective is to combat malnutrition of children and adolescents through activities such as the training of staff in crèches and technical support to national and international programmes. Cren works in Peru (with the Spanish NGO Cesal) and in Haiti (in partnership with the Italian NGO Avsi). They have also developed projects in Mozambique. http://cren.org.br/ e. Instituto das Apóstolas do Sagrado Coração de Jesus (Institute of Apostles of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, IASCJ) IASCJ is a religious organization with missions in Mexico, Philippines, Haiti and Mozambique. Their projects are aimed at education. http://www.apostolas.org.br/2012/ f. Pastoral da Criança (Child’s Pastoral) This religious organization works towards the promotion and development of children up to the 6 years of age. They develop preventive actions and actions on health, nutrition, education and citizenship. They are present all over Brazil, as well as in 21 other countries, mostly in Africa and South America. http://www.pastoraldacrianca.org.br/ g. Conferência dos Religiosos do Brasil (Conference of Religious Brazilians, CRB) The Church started sending out volunteers through CRB and other organizations after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. The missionaries are developing community gardens in order to avoid starvation. They also work with young people, who they teach how to produce handcrafted goods. http://www.crbsp.org.br/crbsp/ 11.5. Brazil-Palestine relations 11.5.1. Palestinian diaspora and Arab population in Brazil The estimated population of Palestinians in Brazil is around 55,000, with the majority living in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, where there is a population of around 20,000 Palestinians.

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Another 1,000 Palestinians live in Manaus. Some of the Palestinians living in Brazil are third-, fourth-, and even fifth-generation Brazilians.214 Other than Palestinians, there are around 12 million people of Arab descent in Brazil, who have become an integral part of Brazilian society.215 The Arab migration started in the 19th century, as a result of an unstable situation in the Ottoman Empire. Those who emigrated in reaction to this conflict were mostly Lebanese, but also Syrians, Palestinians and Egyptians, amongst others. Many settled in São Paulo and started working as merchants.216 Also, there are around 10,000 Brazilians living in Israel and Palestine.217 Half of them live in Ramallah.218 11.5.2. The evolution of Brazil-Palestine diplomatic relationship Brazil recognized Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as a legitimate representative of Palestine for the first time in 1975. The recognition was followed by establishment of official relations between Brazil and the Palestinian authority, such as implementation of Palestinian representation in Brasília through the Central Office of the Arab League (Escritório Central da Liga Árabe). In 1993, the representation of the Arab League formally became the Special Delegation for Palestine (Delegação Especial Palestina), with all the diplomatic privileges of an Embassy, such as issuing of passports and diplomatic immunity. The former president Luis Inácio Lula da Silva was alerted to the necessity of international political organisation in relation to the situation in the Middle East during the Summit of South-American and Arab countries in Doha, Qatar, saying that the international community cannot “remain insensitive to the suffering of the Palestine people. It is unbelievable that after so many years of negotiations, frequently interrupted by military actions, we still do not have a cohesive and economically viable Palestinian state.”219 The next important step came in December 2010, when the Brazilian Ministry of Exterior officially recognised the Palestinian state, with borders prior to the Six-Day War. Other LatinAmerican countries to support the newly created state were Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile. The recognition followed a request by Mahmoud Abbas, the president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). With this decision, the Palestinian diplomatic mission in Brasília received the official status of an Embassy. One year later, in 2011, the recently elected president Dilma Rousseff expressed her regret of Palestine’s absence in her speech at the opening of the 66th of the United Nations General Assembly in September 2011. Dilma also reminded the Assembly that Brazil, like the majority of the countries participating at the Assembly, officially recognises the Palestinian state with the borders from 1967.220

214

http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=3423&ed=195&edid=195 http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=3423&ed=195&edid=195 216 http://jus.com.br/artigos/19092/a-atuacao-do-brasil-para-a-paz-no-oriente-medio 217 http://www.anba.com.br/noticia/19296543/diplomacia/brasileiros-terao-apoio-para-deixar-gaza/ 218 http://arealidadedoesporte.blogspot.co.uk/2009/07/amistoso-de-futebol-na-palestina.html 219 http://veja.abril.com.br/blog/reinaldo/geral/ideias-praticas-fora-lugar/ 220 http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/noticia/2011-09-21/dilma-defende-ingresso-pleno-da-palestina-na-onu 215

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Brazil also has a great potential in receiving Palestinian immigrants, an action seen positively by the large Arab population living in Brazil. The position of mediator assumed by Lula seems to be an important factor in the process of looking for solutions in relation to Palestine. Brazil also has an interest in solidifying its political bonds with Israel, as a solid political base is essential for the dialogue about the preservation of peace in Palestine to be respected by both sides. 11.5.2.1. Some recent diplomatic events Between 28 November 2012 and 1 December 2012, the city of Porto Alegre was hosting a National Social Forum Free Palestine (Fórum Social Mundial Palestina Livre, FSMPL). The preparative committee consisted of 36 social movements, syndicates and NGOs, and also counted on the support of the Palestinian community. One of the speakers was the Palestinian deputy Haneen Zoabi, who expressed a critical opinion regarding the agreement of free trade between Mercosur and Israel.221 On 26th April 2013, the Governor of the state Rio Grande do Sul visited Palestine, where he met President Mahmoud Abbas to sign an agreement on cooperation in the area of agriculture. In May, Palestine was visited by the Minister of Health Alexandre Padilha, who inaugurated a health centre in Hebron, constructed with Brazilian resources. 11.5.2.2.Palestinian and Brazilian diplomatic representation According to the official website, the Palestinian Embassy uses the title Palestinian Special Delegation in Brazil.222 According to the information available, in 2010 the Ambassador was Ibrahim al-Zeben. The contact details of the Embassy are the following: SHIS QI 9, conj. 6, casa 2, Brasília, 71625-060, Distrito Federal Tel.: 05561 3248-4760 or 3248-4482, Fax:05561 3248-5879, [email protected] Open Monday – Friday 08:00 – 16:00 Brazil is represented in Palestine by the Office for Brazilian Representation in Palestine, based in Ramallah.223 The contact details are as follows: Paulo Roberto Franca Representative of Brazil to the State of Palestine, Ramallah Tel: 00 970 2 241 3753, Fax: 00 970 2 241 3756, Email: [email protected] 11.5.2.3. Comitê Brasileiro de Interesse Nacional Palestino (Brazilian Palestinian National Interest Committee, CBINP) CBINP is a grassroots movement founded by the Palestinian diaspora representing the interests of Palestinian nationals in Brazil, working on strengthening the relations between the two countries through cooperation with the legislative body.

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http://www.sul21.com.br/jornal/destaques/forum-pela-palestina-livre-pedira-que-brasil-corte-relacoescomerciais-com-israel/ 222 http://www.consulados.com.br/palestina/#embaixadas 223 http://www.ccab.org.br/arabe-brasil/br/home/links/representacoes-diplomaticas-brasileiras-nos-paisesarabes.fss

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It operates through agreements with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), while continuing to gain support from members of the Palestinian Central Council and the Palestinian National Council. CBINP is based in Brasilia. The above information was found on Wikipedia.224 The Committee’s webpage (http://www.cbinp.org/) is not working, therefore it wasn’t possible to obtain their contact details or any further information on their activities, or whether CBINP is still active or it has ceased to exist. According to the information available, the founder and the executive director is the Palestinian-American Husam Bajis. The story of his arrival and how CBINP was founded can be accessed at the following link: http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=3423&ed=195&edid=195. 11.5.3. Commercial Relations: Brazil – Palestine and Brazil – Israel Despite the fact that Brazil supports Palestine diplomatically and with technical support, it also maintains active commercial relations with Israel. Brazil is a signatory to the agreement of free trade between Israel and Mercosur (Acordo de Livre Comércio Mercosul-Israel). This agreement, created in 2007, includes trade of goods, cooperation on technical and sanitation and customs cooperation, amongst others.225 Brazil has also signed contracts to the value of hundreds of thousands of dollars with the Israeli weapon industry. Israel, for its part, has strengthened its presence in Brazil’s weapon industry through acquisitions, joint ventures and strategic partnerships.226 11.5.4. Brazil receiving 108 refugees in 2007 In 2007, Brazil agreed to receive 108 Palestinian refugees, who had lived for 5 years in the Ruwesheid camp in the desert between Iraq and Jordan. The refugees were received through the Programme of Solidary Settlement (Programa de Reassentamento Solidário), following a request by UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). Given the fact that the Ruwesheid camp was about to be closed, Brazil agreed to receive the last 108 refugees without any preliminary interviews or selection, a fact which demonstrates Brazil’s humanitarian intentions. In Brazil, the process of settlement was coordinated by Conare and UNHCR, as well as civil organizations, in this case religious. The idea was that each of these entities will take responsibility over a certain aspect of the integration of the refugees. Conare immediately provided them with identification documents and promised the possibility of access to education and health service. UNHCR agreed to provide the refugees regular payments over the first two years. The religious organizations took the initiative of helping them with finding houses and furniture, as well as contracting language teachers and translators. After a few months it appears that not all promises were kept and the refugees were growingly unsatisfied. The complaints were related to complicated access to health services,

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http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rela%C3%A7%C3%B5es_entre_Brasil_e_Palestina

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http://jus.com.br/artigos/19092/a-atuacao-do-brasil-para-a-paz-no-oriente-medio http://somostodospalestinos.blogspot.co.uk/2011_03_01_archive.html

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difficulties in finding employment and insufficient Portuguese language classes. Some requested a transfer to Europe or USA. The problems experienced by the Palestinians were basically the same as those of other groups of refugees. Although it is apparent that Brazil makes an effort to facilitate the process of integration, the settlement programme needs to be defined more clearly. The Palestinian refugees were left in the situation when transferring to other countries was difficult. Given the fact that obtaining Brazilian citizenship can also take 10 years many found themselves frustrated, comparing life in Brazil to the camp in Iraq.227 11.5.5. Links between Brazilian and Palestinian football 11.5.5.1 Palestinian National Women’s Football Team in Brazil (2010) From 20 June 2010 to 5 July 2010, 24 players from the Palestinian Women’s National Football Team joined a capacity-building programme at ‘Meninos da Vila’ training centre in Santos (SP). The initiative, sponsored by the Brazilian Government and Santos Football Club, aimed at offering theoretical and practical training. The Palestinian team also played friendly matches against Brazilian teams. This was the first activity held under the Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation in Sports, signed during the visit of Lula’s visit to the Occupied Palestinian Territory in March 2010. The initiative is part of Brazil’s sports cooperation policy with developing countries, and also a gesture of solidarity towards the Palestinian people. The Palestinians played against the team Sereias da Vila Belmiro, from Santos. The Palestinian team was formed only 2 years before the match and it was composed of girls and women between 13 and 25 years. According to the Brazilian trainer, the Palestinian football is very technical, as opposed to the Brazilian one which is very improvised and spontaneous – skills the Palestinian team wanted to learn and take back home. http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/sala-de-imprensa/notas-a-imprensa/vinda-ao-brasil-da-selecaode-futebol-feminino-da-palestina http://www.uae.org.br/Portugues/noticia.php?id=14 11.5.5.2 A friendly match between Corinthians and Flamengo in Palestine in 2009 On September 15 2009, a friendly match between the teams of Corinthians and Flamengo took place in the city of Al-Ram in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The match benefited from the presence of Ronaldo and was be followed by another one in December 2009 on Israeli territory. The last time the teams were asked to play a friendly match was in Haiti in 2004. The match in Palestine was an initiative of the General Interchange Office (Coordenação geral de intercâmbio) and the Sports cooperation, which is part of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://arealidadedoesporte.blogspot.co.uk/2009/07/amistoso-de-futebol-na-palestina.html

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http://www.hojaderuta.org/ver_articulos.php?id_texto=468&id_revista=35

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11.5.5.3 Partnership between UNHCR and Brazsat Football Club The UNHCR and the Brazsat Football Club (a Brasília-based club that works in partnership with the UN - according to Wikipedia it has been suspended228) announced in March 2009 their intention of promoting football as a tool of social inclusion and development for refugees and asylum seekers in Brasil. Brazsat has a Palestinian player in their team, Ali Abu Taha, who came to Brasil in 2007 from a camp in Iraq through the programme Reassentamento solidário (Solidary Settlement). http://cogitamundo.wordpress.com/2009/03/26/refugiado-da-palestina-no-futebolbrasileiro/ 11.5.5.4 A Brazilian documentary on football and Palestinian/ Israeli national identity A group of 4 Brazilian directors made a documentary Sobre Futebol e Barreiras (About Football and Barriers), showing through football the complexities of national identities of Palestinians and Israelis. http://esporte.uol.com.br/futebol/ultimas-noticias/2013/01/18/documentario-que-retrataconflito-israel-palestina-pelo-futebol-entra-em-cartaz-em-sp.htm 11.5.5.5 Campo da Paz – a film about Palestinian football by a Brazilian director At the last World Cup, Palestinians could not participate in the qualifying matches, as Israel would not allow them to travel. In 2014, they will not be present either – they lost the eliminatory matches as a consequence of the everyday difficulties in training, constructing stadiums and other restrictions of a country living in a conflict. This reality is the subject of the short film Campo da Paz (Peace Camp) by Gilmar Rodrigues from 2012. Rodrigues is also planning to produce a feature film on this topic. The director also intends to bring the Palestinian national team to the World Cup in 2014 for friendly matches or for a festive participation at the competition. The team might actually go to Brazil even earlier than that, as they train with the support of the Corinthians. In Palestine, the film has the support of the Palestine Football Federation and the Ministry of Sports, in Brazil it is supported by the Institute of Arabic culture (Instituto da Cultura Árabe, Icarabe) and by the local Arab community. http://www.icarabe.org/noticias/brasileiro-faz-filme-sobre-futebol-palestino http://www.vermelho.org.br/tvvermelho/noticia.php?id_secao=29&id_noticia=169764 11.5.6. NGOs and useful links - Palestine Football Association http://www.the-afc.com/en/member-associations/west/palestinian-football-assoc.html, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_Football_Association - Institute of Arab culture http://www.icarabe.org/ - Agência de Notícias Brasil-Árabe (Brazilian-Arabic News Agency) http://www.anba.com.br/ - Sandra Guimarães, [email protected]: A Brazilian living in Palestine who has created a social project to help mothers of disabled children to generate income through teaching foreigners about Palestinian cuisine and culture. More at

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http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazsat_Futebol_Clube

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http://www.anba.com.br/noticia/19984658/desenvolvimento-sustentavel/brasileira-temprojeto-social-na-palestina/ Bidna Capoeira (a British NGO teaching Capoeira to Palestinian children) http://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2013/06/130622_capoeira_palestinos_bg.sht ml

Brazilian NGOs operating football programmes in favelas: - Futebol Social http://www.futebolsocial.org.br/ - Favela é isso aí http://www.favelaeissoai.com.br/oprojeto.php - Homeless World Cup: a cup not only for people homeless in the strict meaning of the word, but also from favelas: www.homelessworldcup.org

12. Volunteering in Brazil 12.1. Brief history of volunteering in Brazil The origins of volunteering in Brazil date back to the 19th century, when volunteering was based on benevolence. Social problems were seen as a deviation from order and attributed to individuals who needed organised help and so wealthier families would distribute their surplus to the needy. In this context, volunteering was paternalistic and based on rigorous moral values. At the beginning of the 20th century, various philanthropic organisations emerged. In the 30s, the state developed policies of social assistance, taking responsibility for the conditions of the lives of the population. However, the culture was individualistic and therefore not too favourable to volunteering. The 60s saw a transformation of behaviour patterns. After the fall of the Social welfare state of Getúlio Vargas, the volunteer movement was scattered and without any clear direction. Volunteering was often spontaneous, informal and done mostly by young people. It often came in the form of a protest. In the mid-80s, with the democratisation of Latin-American countries and implementation of neoliberal policies, volunteering was filling the gaps where the state’s help was not present. Wellbeing, therefore, stopped being only the state’s responsibility and was now contributed to by civil society and various NGOs. Since the beginning of the 90s, a volunteer is primarily a citizen, motivated by values of participation and solidarity, who donates their time and skills for the benefit of the community and the society.229 12.2.National volunteering According to a survey230 by Rede Brasil Voluntário, one in every four Brazilians older than 16 (corresponding to approx. 35 million people) is doing or has at some point done voluntary

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http://www.facaparte.org.br/?page_id=583 http://www.voluntariado.org.br/sms/files/Voluntariado%20Brasil%20resumo.pdf

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work. The survey also shows the development of national volunteering – whereas a few years ago, it was seen as an action undertaken only by people with some financial background, nowadays volunteering is seen as a part of one’s citizenship. According to the survey, 53% of those who were volunteering in 2011 were women. Most of these people were from the economic class C (43%), followed by class A (40%) and classes D and E (17%).231 About 38% had a completed Secondary education and 20% had completed higher education. Religious institutions were the most frequent place for volunteering (49%), followed by institutions of social assistance (25%). The survey also revealed the role of media and communication – 62% of those who volunteered were using the internet and 53% were using social networks. Like any paid employment, voluntary work is also protected by law, specifically by Law No. 9.608 from 1998.232

Place of volunteering (in %) Religious institutions Social assistence Community centres Educational institutions Health institutions Volunteering centres Public spaces - parks, squares Volunteering programmes organized by firms Governmental body Others 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

An important milestone in the history of volunteering in Brazil was the creation of Volunteer Programmes in 1996. This motivated the establishment of a national network of volunteer centres. Today, there are about 60 centres all over the country. These are autonomous and financially independent organizations supporting the given region. The official website of the Volunteer centres is http://www.voluntariado.org.br/?p=voluntariado_brasil/busca.htm. Volunteers can also find a placement through social networks such as V2V, which also helps organisations look for volunteers. https://portaldovoluntario.v2v.net/posts/47

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Class A is the most affluent, E is the poorest. The division is based on the monthly income. The approximate figures are following (in $R): A: 6500 and more, B: 2000 – 6500, C: 730 – 2000, D: 480 – 730, E: 280 – 480. 232 http://www.rio2013.com/pt/canal-voluntarios/detalhes/1717/perfil-do-trabalho-voluntario-brasileiro

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12.3.International volunteering Volunteering placements to foreign countries are generally organized either by local branches of established international organizations (such as Serviço Voluntário Internacional – SVI or Médecins Sans Frontières), or by commercial agencies who offer volunteer placements as a complement to language courses or year abroad programmes (such as Expo Mundi or Experimento). The costs are around USD$ 1,500 – 2000 per month. This type of volunteering is relatively recent, but the demand is increasing – a fact that is very likely linked to Brazil’s economic progress. The offer of scholarships or paid placements is almost non-existent, which makes volunteering abroad accessible only to upper classes. The only organization to offer paid placements is the UN, with the scholarship Sérgio Vieira de Mello.233 It is designed to finance a one-year placement for young qualified Brazilians who have just finished their degree. However, the number of recipients is very low – in 2013, only 2 Brazilian volunteers are expected to be selected.234 12.3.1. Organizations offering volunteering abroad a. Serviço Voluntário Internacional – SVI SVI Brasil is a non-profit and non-religious association created in 2008 to represent SCI (Service Civil International) in Brasil. SCI is a peace movement which has existed since 1920 and is represented all over the world, promoting volunteer exchanges amongst people from diverse nationalities, cultures and social backgrounds. Today, SCI organizes volunteer exchanges in about 80 countries and every year places about 4000 volunteers in several international humanitarian projects – from building schools in Kenya to helping tsunami victims in Sri Lanka. SCI cooperates with UNESCO and the Council of Europe. Although it is still not well established in Brazil, SCI hopes to change the situation through the regional office in Minas Gerais. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], Skype name: SVI Brasil, Tel.: +55 (0)11 9493-1794 Address: Rua Ribeiro Junqueira, 161, Sl 3, Mangabeiras. Belo Horizonte (MG), Brasil b. Instituto Voluntários em Ação (IVA, Institute Volunteers in Action), Portal Voluntários Online (Portal Volunteers Online) IVA works both with people interested in volunteering and organizations interested in receiving volunteers. They also organize educational courses for volunteers. IVA operates in all Brazilian states. Their partners include Electrobrás, Fundação Telefónica and Instituto C&A. One of the initiatives by IVA is the portal Voluntários Online, where volunteers can find offers of placements.

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More information is available at the site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://cooperacaohumanitaria.itamaraty.gov.br/pt/ 234 http://www.onu.org.br/no-dia-mundial-da-acao-humanitaria-brasil-anuncia-bolsa-em-homenagem-a-sergiovieira-de-mello/

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http://www.voluntariosemacao.org.br, http://www.voluntariosonline.org.br/publica/index.jsf c. Rede Brasil Voluntário (RBV, Brazil Volunteer Network) RBV is a network of volunteer centres from the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul and São Paulo. RBV promotes events, discussions and exchange of information amongst volunteers. It also identifies projects and initiatives that could be performed jointly, in a way to reduce their costs and achieve results at a national level. Since 2008, RBV has been organizing the Week of Volunteer Action, in partnership with the Volunteer Programme of the UN (Programa de Voluntários das Nações Unidas). During this week, RBV promotes volunteering as a way of reaching the Millenium Development Goals and contributing to the solution of social problems. http://www.redebrasilvoluntario.org.br/sobre-a-rbv/ List of volunteer centres (all over Brazil): http://www.redebrasilvoluntario.org.br/como-ser-voluntario/ d. AFS AFS is an international voluntary NGO, linked to AFS Intercultural Programs (previously American Field Service), one of the biggest exchange organizations in the world. It has branches in many Brazilian cities. AFS Brazil offers short or long duration placements for students or volunteers to work in NGOs chosen by the AFS. AFS Brazil offers placements in Belgium, France, Denmark, Colombia, Thailand and Australia. It also offers years abroad in foreign high schools. http://www.afs.org.br/ e. Experimento – intercâmbio cultural (Experimento – cultural interchange) Experimento offers volunteer placements to more than 15 countries, including South Africa, Guatemala, Ghana, India, Nepal or Nigeria. The type of work done depends on the country of destination, but there are projects on rural communities, health centres, poor children, environment or animals. The profile of the company is commercial, and in addition to volunteer placements it also offers language courses or years abroad at foreign universities or high schools. http://www.experimento.org.br/trabalhe-no-exterior/trabalho-voluntario-pelo-mundo f. Expo mundi Expo mundi is a commercial agency that offers exchange courses, high school programmes, work abroad programs and volunteer work placements, however, they do not specify the type of projects they do and where. http://www.expomundi.com.br/trabalho-no-exterior.php#ancoraWorkTravel g. United Nations Every year, thousands of people from all over the world work as volunteers for the UN. The projects are diverse (but often from the area of social well-being) and the volunteers do not get paid. UN has a department for voluntary work – UNV, which is responsible for the strategic planning and assistance to the volunteer. UNV is based in Germany and operates in other countries through regional offices – PNUDs.

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The Brazilian PNUD develops projects in 4 key areas: working towards reaching the Millennium Development Goals; sustainable development and productive inclusion; civil safety and reduction of vulnerability; and South-South cooperation, which consists of transferring knowledge and technologies to other countries. http://www.onu.org.br/onu-no-brasil/pnud/vnu/, http://www.onu.org.br/faca-parte-daonu/voluntariado/, http://www.pnud.org.br/NossosProjetos.aspx

h. Engenheiros sem fronteiras Brasil (ESF, Engineers without Borders Brazil) ESF is a third-sector organisation which exists in many developed countries. In Brazil, ESF works through a network of centres, which are managed at a national level. The centres develop engineering projects in areas such as infrastructure, sanitation, education or environment. One of the recent projects was implementing solar heating in crèches or instalment of vegetable gardens in schools. ESF is supported by businesses, Brazilian government and the local community. Most centres are located in the South East, but there is also one in Rio Grande do Norte and in Goiás. http://www.esf-brasil.org/ i. Médicos sem Fronteiras Brasil (MSF, Médecins Sans Frontières) MSF is an international humanitarian organization established in 1971 in France by young journalists and doctors. Today, it is present in 70 countries, and it combines medical attention with informing the public about the difficult situation in the places where MSF operates. In 1999, MSF received the Nobel Prize. MSF helps in contexts that include natural disasters, conflicts, epidemics, malnutrition and exclusion from access to health service. In Brazil, one of the recent projects was helping the victims of the massive floods in the North Eastern state of Alagoas. http://www.msf.org.br/ j. IAVE – International Association for Volunteer Effort IAVE was founded in 1970 by a group of volunteers and it has grown into a global network of volunteers, volunteer organisations, national representatives and volunteer centres, with representation in over 70 countries, majority of them in developing countries. IAVE has a special consultative status with the UN ECOSOC Committee and an associate status with the UN Department of Public Information. It is a member of the UN Confederation of NGOs, and has a strong working relationship with UN Volunteers, underpinned by a Memorandum of Understanding. IAVE is best known for its biennial World Volunteer Conferences and affiliated Youth Volunteer Conferences. These are major events in the world of volunteering, attracting a global audience, distinguished speakers and skilled and experienced workshop presenters. IAVE has representatives in Brazil, Palestine and Burkina Faso. Their contact details are available at the following link http://iave.org/content/national-representatives. http://iave.org/

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