Annotated bibliography on education and conflict - GiZ [PDF]

2008/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/77

Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008

Education for All by 2015: will we make it?

Annotated bibliography on education and conflict Rüdiger Blumör, Nora v. Buttlar 2007

This paper was commissioned by the Education for All Global Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2008 report. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the EFA Global Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008, Education for All by 2015: will we make it? For further information, please contact [email protected]

Contents 1.

Overview

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2.

A Historical Overview of Education and Conflict

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3. The impact of conflict on education and more broadly learning opportunities, especially for children and youth, and with special attention to gender 7

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3.1

General Literature

3.2

Child Soldiers

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3.3

Refugee Education

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Profiles and location of children and youth affected by conflict, estimated numbers

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4.1

GLOBALLY

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4.2

AFRICA

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4.3

MIDDLE EAST

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4.4

AMERICA

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4.5

ASIA

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4.6

EUROPE

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5. The impact of education on conflict: both positive (education as prevention, protection and for peace-building) and negative (preparing and perpetuating conflict through stereotyping curricula, exclusion, etc.) 57 5.1 Peace Education 6.

Country strategies to deal with education in situations of conflict

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6.1

AFRICA

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6.2

ASIA

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7. Research of effectiveness of education programmes in conflict, including the role of curriculum and pedagogy in conflict, conflict prevention, the role of teachers, as victims, as participants in conflict, management, planning monitoring strategies of delivery mechanisms 82 8. The role of international agencies and non-governmental organizations. Global policy, including the INEE network

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Guidelines, Kits, Tools, Source Books

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Bibliographies

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Internet Sites

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1. Overview Preliminary remarks This bibliography contains a selection of publications that deal with the topic of education and conflict, in the form of political and/or violent/ armed conflict. Publications looking at conflict/conflict management in education (e.g. in schools) have not been included. The limited time available and the sheer volume of literature on the subject have forced us to make a random selection. Many of the publications identified deal with a variety of issues, and as such could be cross-listed under various sections of this bibliography. Each reference has, however, been listed only once in line with the primary focus of the publication. Introduction Since the end of the Cold War, the number of ongoing conflicts, most of which affect developing countries, has increased considerably, with a very negative impact on education as a whole both in the conflict-ridden countries themselves and in neighbouring states. According to UNICEF, 80 percent of the world’s wars are fought in Africa and Asia, leaving more than 27 million children and youth in countries affected by conflict without access to formal education. 1 These developments are a major obstacle to achieving the Dakar Goal of ‘Primary Education for All’ by 2015, and make it vital for us to deal with education in emergency situations. This in turn has awakened interest in the topic of education and conflict in general. The International Network on Emergency Education (INEE) and the Global Information Network in Education (GINIE) have organised electronic networks to facilitate communication about common concerns and to advocate education as part of every humanitarian response and relief effort. UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) has taken the lead in communicating, documenting, and fostering ideas and deliberations on emergency education practice. This bibliography aims to contribute to the exchange of knowledge and information on conflict and education. Although education and conflict, and in particular education in emergencies, is still a fairly young field of research, the number of publications on these topics has increased considerably over the past few years. Most publications reviewed for this bibliography seem to have been commissioned by international agencies and, as far as can be established, the authors do not themselves come from countries in the throes of violent conflicts. As has been pointed out by Thomlinson/Benefield (2005), existing publications on education and conflict can be broken down into three basic types: advocacy publications and programme documents published by international and national non-governmental organisations providing education services in conflict-affected areas; policy case studies and series of papers published 1

http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=38521&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

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by development institutes; and academic publications that have no direct link to educational programmes being implemented by practitioners. The latter category accounts for the smallest numbers of publications. Most of the publications of international organisations reviewed are freely available on the internet, whereas scholarly publications (in the narrower sense) tend to be published either in journals (accessible to subscribers on the internet) or as hardbacks. According to Thomlinson and Benefield (2005) “there is a wealth of evidence that is unpublished”. Thus, any statement which singles out those areas that receive most attention and those which attract less attention can be made only with reservations. Although the body of available publications has expanded in recent years, it still seems fair to describe the topic of education and conflict as a fairly large blank spot on the map of educational research. Several attempts have already been made to identify gaps in research (Sommers: 2006; Burde: 2006; Thomlinson/Bennfield: 2005); these are taken into consideration here. We found only one publication, giving a historical overview of education and conflict. Also, little research has been carried out on the topic of education and historical conflicts, e.g. the role of education in World Wars I and II and other violent conflicts prior to 1989. By contrast, a vast quantity of materials are available that deal with education in ongoing conflicts and post-conflict situations. Although a large number of poor countries are involved in conflicts, there are cases of high-income countries with sophisticated education systems becoming involved in violent conflicts. Awareness about the complex relationship between education and conflict, which is highlighted by the fact that there are no direct causal links between high income, a state-of-theart education system and conflict, has increased noticeably. Most publications deal with the impact of conflict on education, advocating the provision of education to war-affected children as a fundamental right and also as a way of protecting them. The underlying assumption of the publications reviewed is that violent conflicts have a negative impact on education and learning opportunities. Particular attention is given to the phenomenon of child soldiers and to the topic of refugee education, while much less has been written about the education of IDPs. The idea that children and youth are mainly passive victims of war or a risk to security is increasingly being challenged and appears to be giving way to a more differentiated picture, which sees resilience as the most prominent shared characteristic (Sommers: 2006). Although gender aspects are taken into account when looking at child soldiers, gender does not generally play an important role in publications on conflict and education, although it is known that girls account for a disproportionately high percentage of out-of-school children in conflict and post-conflict situations and that conflict affects them in specific ways. The lack of information about children with disabilities and about the impact of conflict on teachers and their role in conflicts is also striking. The material reviewed provides little specific information regarding formal/non formal education, on any education beyond primary level and on vocational training. 4

In general the material reviewed shows a distinct lack of statistical data (disaggregated not only by numbers, gender, health location, but also by all factors relevant to the conflict, which vary from country to country and even within individual countries). Of all regions in the world, most attention is focused on Africa, followed by Asia. In Europe the focus is on Northern Ireland and the Balkans. For understandable reasons, very little material is available at present on Iraq and Chechnya. There is also a lack on information on the impact of the conflicts in Haiti, in Turkey and in Cyprus on the respective education systems. The prevalent belief about the impact of education on conflict is still that education is inherently a driving force in conflict prevention – although there is no evidence to back up proof for this assumption. Peace education (and civic education) has been introduced in many developed and developing countries, as it seen as an important contribution to creating a more peaceful world. As a result, impossibly vast quantities of material have been published on peace education. The predominance of this view – that education can help prevent conflict - explains why fairly little research has been conducted on the negative impact education can have on conflict. Only recently have the two sides of education been taken into consideration (e.g. Seitz: 2004; Davis: 2004; Smith, Vaux: 2003; Coulby, Crispin: 2001; Bush, Saltarelli: 2000). Examples quoted of education fuelling conflicts include education being used as a weapon to repress cultural minorities; unequal access to education or use of education to suppress language, traditions, art forms, religious practices and cultural values; segregated education used to maintain inequality between groups within society; denial of education; manipulation of history and textbooks for political purposes; and inculcation of attitudes of superiority. After September 11 there seems to be a growing concern about the role of (religious) education in Muslim countries (International Crisis Group: 2005; Singer: 2001; Stern: 2000) in fostering militancy. As has been pointed out by Smith (2005) no systemic analysis of education systems from a conflict perspective has yet been performed. Due to the potentially destructive impact of education, Seitz (2004) as well as Smith and Vaux (2003) see an urgent need to develop indicators for conflict-sensitive education systems. In light of the fact that higher education produces the political elite of the future, it seems advisable to include the tertiary sector in research on the impact of education on conflict. Although most publications on conflict and education deal with the situation in specific countries, no publications were identified which provide a strategy to deal with the whole education sector of a country in conflict, that could reasonably be deemed a country strategy. Most education programmes in conflict or post-conflict situations are run by international agencies, and cover only a small part of the educational needs of the country as a whole. Thus, their publications focus only on the aspects of the education system relevant to their own programmes.

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As Smith (2005) has pointed out, more attention needs to be given to evaluating the efficacy claimed for preventive education and to monitoring results over a longer period of time. As regards peace education (which for many years was part of the curricula in a number countries living in peace), researchers have only recently begun to evaluate the results of programmes of this sort (e.g. Maxwell: 2004; Nevo; Brem: 2002; Obura: 2002). Smith’s statement about the lack of evaluative evidence regarding peace education, which tallies with Sommers’ (2006) observation regarding literature on youth and conflict, can be extended to embrace all literature on education and conflict. Hardly any literature was identified which identifies the effectiveness of education programmes in conflict, including the role of curriculum and pedagogy in conflict. It seems fair to assume that evaluation reports do exist, but that these are not freely available to the public. The debate about the role of international development agencies and non- governmental organisations in emergency education was also launched only a few years ago (e.g. Coleman: 2005; Kemper: 2005). No research seems to have been performed on the role of ministries of education and education authorities in conflict- affected countries, nor on cooperation between them and international agencies. The obvious gaps in research into education and conflict have led to the development of a more explicit research agenda (Tawil: 1997; Sommers: 2006; Tomlinson/Benefield: 2005). Tawil calls for a documentation of the magnitude of violence within a society. This would involve analysing the root causes of violence, designing a conceptual framework, devising a typology of situations, exploring the psychological dimensions, developing early warning systems, drawing conclusions as to education systems as areas of conflict, documenting international commitment to the provision of education in emergencies and assessing the impact of intervention strategies. Based on a review of literature on programming for youth in conflict and post-conflict settings, Sommers strongly recommends pressing ahead with qualitative evaluations of programmes, and with the development of strategic planning, coordination and networking, and investigations into the mobility and location of war-affected youth. On the basis of a search of educational databases to identify material published between 1997 and 2005, Tomlinson and Benefield, see a gap in research, and note that the results of research are frequently not accessible to practitioners, either because of its location or in terms of style. The result is a limited amount of evidence on the basis of which further interventions can be planned by practitioners and policymakers. They recommend further research on the role of education as a tool for protection, on the links between citizenship education and peace education and on the ways in which governments and NGOs can support schooling initiated by parents. They go on to say that when examining the impact of educational interventions in post-conflict areas the wider societal approach to discussion of conflict-related issues should be taken into account.

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2. A Historical Overview of Education and Conflict Sharrow, Victoria (2000): Encyclopaedia of Youth and War: Young People as Participants and Victims. Phoenix, Az: Oryx Press (348 pages). This encyclopaedia provides comprehensive information on youth and war. Beginning with the 30 Years' War in the 17th century and ending with the conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo, the encyclopaedia covers children and youth from birth to age 18, with additional materials on young adults from 18 to 24 years of age. The encyclopaedia includes over 300 crossreferenced entries on nearly all aspects of youth and war, including information about: (1) how young people were affected by or took part in a particular war; (2) types of wartime services rendered by children, including espionage, resistance movements, child soldiers, and victory gardens; (3) how youth have worked to prevent or end war; (4) organizations and individuals who have taken on the plight of children in war zones; and (5) physical, spiritual, emotional, social, and economic effects of war on children and youth. On the subject of how war and post-war conditions impede children's education, the encyclopaedia discusses World War II in detail, paying attention to how textbooks and teaching materials that reflected Nazi ideals gave children constant messages that Jews were to blame for Germany's problems, and how school routines and rituals reinforced Nazism. The encyclopaedia contains a preface, an extensive bibliography, an index, an annotated listing of films about children and youth in war, and numerous print and Internet references. Hardcopy: Bookstore

3. The impact of conflict on education and more broadly learning opportunities, especially for children and youth, and with special attention to gender

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3.1 General Literature AED and Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2003): The Education Imperative: Supporting Education in Emergencies. Washington D.C., New York: Academy for Educational Development, Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (27 pages). This publication gives a general overview on education in emergencies, providing a definition of education in emergencies, size of the problem, rationale for education in emergencies etc. Electronically: http://www.aed.org/ToolsandPublications/upload/EducationImperative.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Arnhold, N.; J. Bekker; N. Kersh; E. McLeish and D. Phillips (1998): Education for Reconstruction: The Regeneration of Educational Capacity Following National Upheaval. Oxford Studies in Comparative Education, Oxford: Symposium Books (78 pages).

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This report examines the main questions that need to be addressed by agencies concerned with processes of reconstruction in countries that have experienced crisis (e.g., war, natural disaster, and extreme political and economic upheaval). The report focuses on educational reconstruction in its various manifestations. Within each heading, the report examines a number of issues exemplified by particular countries. After explaining educational reconstruction and the organizational framework of reconstruction (at the national, local, and institutional levels), the report discusses (1) physical reconstruction (buildings, supply of electricity and water, and environmental safety and security); (2) ideological reconstruction (education for democratization and retraining of teachers); (3) psychological reconstruction (demoralization, lack of confidence, and nostalgia; stress, anxiety, and depression; and trauma); (4) provision of materials and curricular reconstruction (provision of basic equipment, teacher emergency packages, textbooks and other educational materials, and curriculum development); (5) human resources (use of additional human resources, development of new management strategies to strengthen and advance capacity-building among teachers, and inter-university teacher training programs for capacity building); and (6) population and demography (basic needs for survival, development of life and educational skills, provision of basic educational materials, development of human resources, and development of new perspectives and longer-term life skills). Two appendixes present case studies of Bosnia and Rwanda. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Ayssi, Anatole (2002): Protecting children in armed conflict: from commitment to compliance, in: disarmament forum, Children and Security, 3, 2002.

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A significant part of this paper is an analysis of the international community’s last decade of mixed discourse on the protection of children in armed conflict. The paper juxtaposes the international community’s rhetoric in favour of the protection of children in armed conflict with the (counter) discourse on the lack of concrete commitment from world leaders.

Electronically: www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art1727.pdf

Bensalah, Kacem; Bokhari, Saba, et al. (2001): Education in Situations of Emergency and Crisis: Challenges for the New Century. Reissue of Thematic Study prepared in coordination with the Swedish International Development Agency and UNESCO for The International Consultative Forum on Education for All. Paris: SIDA, UNESCO-EFA (57 pages). This thematic study examines some of the new directions in education policy for emergency and postemergency situations. After presenting “achievements and challenges”; it provides “analysis of strategies and practices”, gives “lessons for the future” and makes “recommendations”. In its conclusion it states: “The widespread outbreaks of civil conflict above all have made EFA a distant prospect for many populations, contrary to the hopes of Jomtien. […] EFA policy for the next decade must therefore focus more strongly on the prevention of conflict and on restoration of the right to education to children affected by conflict and disaster.

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Electronically: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001234/123484e.pdf

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Bernard von Leer Foundation (2005): Early childhood matters. Responses to young people in post-emergency situations. The Hague: Bernard van Leer Foundation, Number 104, June 2005 (68 pages). Articles on topics including early childhood development in emergency situations, addressing the rights and needs of tsunami-affected children, rapid child protection assessments in emergency contexts, the impact of conflict on children and care for separated children. Joint production with the International Catholic Child Bureau Electronically: http://www.bernardvanleer.org/publication_store/publication_store_publications/early_childhood_ matters_104/file

Buckland, Peter (2005): Reshaping the future: education and post-conflict reconstruction. Washington D.C.: World Bank (114 pages). This study offers an overview of the main findings of a study of education and post-conflict reconstruction, drawing on a review of literature, a database of indicators for 52 conflict affected countries and a review of 12 country studies. Electronically: www1.worldbank.org/education/pdf/Reshaping_the_Future.pdf

Burde, Dana (2005): Education in Emergencies and Post-Conflict Situations: Problems, Responses and Possibilities. New York: Society for International Education, Teachers College, Columbia University (128 pages). This volume, which is a collection of papers written by graduate students of Columbia University, is divided in four sections Section one deals with policies and politics of education for refugees and IDPs, section two with education for protection and prevention: approaches from international actors. Electronically: http://www.columbia.edu/~dsb33/Assests/TC%20EE%20Journal%20Vol%202%202005.pdf

Burde, Dana (2006): Education in Crisis Situations: Mapping the field. Washington DC: Creative Associates Incorporated and Care (74 pages). The first section of this publication presents the state of the field: definitions of terms, an overview of the problems facing populations affected by crisis, and the actors involved. The second section describes institutions and their mandates, focusing heavily on USAID, and highlights sample programs. The third section surveys gaps in program implementation and suggestions for future research. The last section summarizes the survey’s findings and recommends future research areas.

Electronically: http://www.ineesite.org/uploads/documents/store/doc_1_48_Education_in_Crisis_SituationsBurde.pdf Carlson, Cindy, de Lamalle, Jean Piere et al. (2005): Improving the delivery of health and education services in difficult environments: lessons from case studies. London: HSRC (25 pages). 9

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This report summarises the findings of research carried out by IHSD into the question of how service delivery interventions can be improved in difficult environments. Evidence was obtained from a series of desk-based case studies (Afghanistan, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo Sri Lanka, Sudan and Uganda).

Electronically: http://www.dfidhealthrc.org/publications/health_service_delivery/SDDE%20summary_revised %2021feb.pdf

Davies, Lynn (2004): Education and conflict: Complexity and chaos. New York: Routledge, (249 pages). Davies investigates the role and nature of domestic and international conflicts, peace education movements, and how they apply to relevant aspects of complexity theory. Davies ground her analysis in developing educational responses to war, conflict and conflict resolution as enmeshed aspects of gender and masculinity. Davies also develops the complexity informed thesis that teachers need to better understand their roles as citizen educators. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Flores, Joaquín E. (1999): Schooling, family, and individual factors mitigating psychological effects of war on children, in: Current Issues in Comparative Education 2(1), 1999: 21.

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The purpose of the study is to provide quantitative information on the psychological effects of war on the children of El Salvador, and the factors that mitigate those effects.

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Electronically: www.tc.columbia.edu/cice/Archives/2.1/21flores.pdf

id21 (2005): Educating young people in emergencies. id21 insights education # 4, August 2005, (6 pages).

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Advocacy article which gives a short overview on education in emergencies.

Electronically: http://www.id21.org/insights/insights-ed04/insights_edn_4.pdf

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The report summarizes the discussion on standards for education in emergencies, makes suggestions for moving forward with a process to define standards, describes risks and opportunities in defining standards for education in emergencies and commonalities in education in emergencies programming, proposes a chapter outline and drafts standards and indicators. Further more it contains the meeting’s agenda and a participants’ list. Electronically:http://www.ineesite.org/minimum_standards/ExpertsReport160402.pdf

INEE; IRC; Women’s Commission (undated): Ensuring a Gender Perspective in Education in Emergencies. INEE; IRC; Women’s Commission (7 pages). This paper is the education chapter from a forthcoming handbook on gender mainstreaming in humanitarian action developed by the UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee and partner organizations. It is meant to serve as a resource for policy-makers and practitioners on how to ensure that gender concerns are integrated into all protection and assistance programs in humanitarian emergencies.

Electronically: http://www.campaignforeducation.org/resources/Feb2006/Gender%20Perspective% 20in%20Education%20in%20Emergencies.pdf

Ichilov, Orit (2004): Political learning and citizenship education under conflict: the political socialization of Israeli and Palestinian youngsters. New York: Routledge (224 pages). The central objective of this book is to analyze the characteristics of the social contexts and environments in conflict situations, and the impact that these socializing environments may have on the political learning and emerging citizenship orientations of youngsters. Special attention is given to the socializing environments of Palestinian and Israeli youngsters, drawing on material recently collected in Israel.

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INEE (2002): Report: Education in Emergencies: Experts’ Workshop on Appropriate Humanitarian Response. Paris 20th -22nd March 2002. Paris: INEE (23 pages).

Kirk, Jackie: (2003) Women in contexts of crisis: Gender and conflict. Commissioned paper for the EFA. Monitoring Report (28 pages). This paper investigates the linkages between gender, education and conflict as it is an important EFA issue.

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Lexow, Jane (2006): Emergency education, Phase 2 Report (Draft). Norway, LINS/DECO. n.a.

Marchel, Garca (2001): The impact of war on children: a review of progress since the 1996 United Nations Report on the Impact of armed conflict on children; photographs by Sebastiao Saldgado. UNICEF; UN, London: Hurst and Company (230 pages). The outgrowth of a 1996 report on the impact of armed conflict on the well-being of children, and preparation for the 2000 International Conference on War-affected Children, this book examines progress made and obstacles encountered since 1996 in relieving the trauma of armed conflict. The stories recount family displacement, the rise of HIV/AIDS in areas of armed conflict, and the way the proliferation of small arms and light weapons ignites and sustains the wars that victimize children. The book also showcases programs that have been in place since 1996 that have made a real difference in the lives of children caught in desperate circumstances. The chapters are: (1) "Wars against Children"; (2) "Child Soldiers"; (3) "Children Forced to Flee"; (4) "Children under Siege from HIV/AIDS"; (5) "Ending Sexual Violence and Exploitation"; (6) "The Toll on Children's Health"; (7) "Promoting Psychosocial Recovery"; (8) "Education for Survival and Development"; (9) "Threats to Life and Limb: Landmines and Unexploded Ordnance"; (10) "Small Arms, Light Weapons: Mass Destruction"; (11) "Protecting Children from Sanctions"; (12) "Raising Standards for Child Protection"; (13) "Women and the Peace Process"; (14) "Media and Communications"; and (15) "A Children's Agenda for Peace and Security." A photographic essay on children and war is embedded in the book.

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Electronically: http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/file_download.php/5a4d022ff7d20aaa539c844566a718a7 Women+in+contexts+of+crisis.+Gender+and+conflict..doc

Machel, Garca ([1996] 2002): Impact of armed conflict on children. New York: UNICEF (248 pages). Using examples from around the world, this book analyses the special vulnerabilities of children when families and communities are torn apart, schools are destroyed and stability shattered. It demonstrates how war's legacy of horror continues to affect children long after hostilities cease, especially through landmines and unexploded ordnance, the proliferation of small arms, the instability of refugee existence and the spread of HIV/AIDS. Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/graca/a51-306_en.pdf

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Machel, Graca (2001): Machel Review 1996-2000: A Critical Analysis of Progress Made and Obstacles Encountered in Increasing Protection for War-Affected Children. Winnipeg, Canada: UNICEF; UNIFEM.

McIntyre, Angela; Weiss, Taya (2003): Exploring Small Arms Demand - A Youth Perspective. (ISS Paper Nr. 67), Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. The purpose of this paper is to begin exploring the complex relationships between arms proliferation, youth and security in the African context. While all three elements in the relationship stand alone as research, policy and advocacy issues, all can benefit from cross cutting analysis. The aim here is to lend a youth-centred perspective to small arms demand, taking into account enabling social, economic and political factors in arms proliferation, specifically on the demand side. There is a profound need for youth and child centred perspectives on human security issues if the term “human security” is to have any real meaning. Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Papers/67/Paper67.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Miller, Vachel W., Affolter, Friedrich W. (2002): Helping Children Outgrow War. (Technical Paper no. 116), Washington D.C.: Agency for International Development. Bureau for Africa/ USAID (139 pages). “This guidebook offers seven examples of successful interventions in post-conflict settings internationally, situating them within a framework that emphasizes the ecology of children's well-being and learning. To facilitate navigation of the guidebook, cases are organized according to post-conflict phases, including emergency, recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. These phases indicate the stability of government and the health of civil society, important parameters for guiding programmatic choices. The cases illustrate many of the key dimensions of a comprehensive approach to helping children overcome violence and rebuild their lives. Following each case study is a discussion of critical theoretical issues and a set of questions regarding practical considerations for project design. While not intended to serve as a training manual per se, the guidebook contains elements that can be extracted for use in training workshops or policy discussions. Following the Teacher Emergency Packages (kits which enable teachers to begin instructional activities in a war-ravaged context), cases are as follows: (1) Child Soldiers (exploitation of child fighters in Africa); (2) Butterfly Garden (Batticaloa, Sri Lanka, has a garden dedicated to creative play for war-affected children); (3) Children's Participation (illustrates challenges of children's participation in a conflict setting in Sri Lanka); (4) Peace Education (insights from a project in a Kenyan refugee camp); (5) Project DiaCom (in Bosnia, the project allows Serb and Bosniak teachers to enter into a dialogue process); (6) Community Leadership (builds capacity for community in internally displaced people in Azerbaijan); and (7) Human Rights Training (in Peru, a human rights organization conducts workshops that bring together diverse participants to learn about their rights and share experiences).” [abstract]

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Retamal, Gonzalo, Aedo-Richmond, Ruth (1998): Education as a Humanitarian Response. London: Cassell (317 pages)

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Electronically: http://www.ginie.org/children Hardcopy: Africa Bureau Information Center, 1331 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 1425, Washington, DC 20004-1703. E-mail: [email protected]

Roger, Isabell (2002): Education for Children during armed conflicts and post-conflict reconstruction, in: Disarmament forum 3/2002.

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Advocacy article

Electronically: www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art1731.pdf

Rose, Pauline; Greely, Martin (2006): Delivering education services in fragile states: capturing lessons and identifying good practices. Prepared for the DAC Fragile States Group Service Delivery Workstream SubTeam for Education Services. [no location] (41 pages). This paper examines how development assistance in these four environments can enhance access to quality basic education for the poor and vulnerable, at the same time improving governance and thereby mitigating the risks of fragility, and increasing the effectiveness of future aid. Section two introduces the concept of turnaround how a state’s fragility may be sufficiently reduced to allow sustainable pro-poor growth – as well as the ‘rights’ and ‘risks’ considerations that impact donor decision making and effectiveness. Section three examines will and capacity in the education sector; section four explores political economy implications for sequencing and planning; and section five considers how education can support statebuilding from the bottom up. Section six focuses on aid effectiveness in fragile states, where donor coordination instruments may be needed to sustain transitions to post-emergency support in environments still likely to be fragile. The paper concludes with recommendations in section seven. Electronically: http://www.ineesite.org/core_references/Education_in_Fragile_States.pdf

Save the Children (2006): Rewrite the Future. Education for Children in Conflict affected Countries. London: Save the Children (48 pages).

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The report is part of Save the Children’s five-year Rewrite the Future education initiative, which seeks to help millions of children in conflict-affected areas gain access to and reap the current and future benefits of a quality education. The report reveals: In 2003, more than half of armed conflicts had children under 15 as combatants; more than 5 million primary-schoolage children (6 – 11 years) are out of school in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and more than 6 million 12- to 17-year-olds have never been to school; in Nepal, between January and August 2005, more than 11,800 students were abducted from rural schools for indoctrination or forced recruitment into the militia; in Afghanistan, most qualified teachers fled the conflict. Now fewer than 15 percent of teachers have professional qualifications.

Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org/publications/reports/RewritetheFuture-PolicyReport.pdf

Sinclair, Margaret (2002): Education in Emergencies, in: Learning for a Future: Refugee Education in Developing Countries, ed. Jeff Crisp, Christopher Talbot, and Daiana B. Cipollone. Geneva: Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit, Health and Community Development Series, UN High Commissioner for Refugees. The author reviews the rationale for education in situations of emergency and crisis, noting elements of education in response to several recent disasters.

Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/23/3e/a5.pdf

Sommers, Marc (2006): Youth and Conflict. A Brief Overview of Available Literature. Washington, D.C.: USAID (50 pages). Youth engulfed by conflict and post-conflict situations face circumstances that substantially alter their lives and prospects. This makes effective programming for them challenging yet vital. Drawing on extensive archival and internet research, this short analytical literature review aims to illuminate key themes, trends, and promising prospects for war-affected youth and the programs that aim to assist them. The review introduces debates over how the youth category has been defined and whether youth should be seen primarily as passive victims of warfare, active threats to peace, or as resilient survivors. Analysis suggests that while war’s effects on youth are complex, resilience is their most prominent shared characteristic. The implication of this analysis on programming is seen as significant because it casts youth as central formulators of youth programming. Analysis in the subsequent discussion of programmatic responses reveals several widely shared program themes related to class, gender, advocacy, participation, work, and holism. It also reviews the six main program areas emerging from the literature: vocational training, reproductive health, basic skills, peace education, empowerment, and psycho-social programming.

Electronically: http://www.equip123.net/docs/e3-YouthandConflictLitReview.pdf

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Gives an introduction to education in emergencies and overview of ten challenges education in emergencies faces.

Electronically: http://www.beps.net/publications/Challenges8.5x11ChangesFINAL.pdf

Sommers, Marc (2002): Children, Education and War. Reaching Education for All (EFA) Objectives in Countries affected by Conflict. CPR Working Paper, 1, (June 2002), Washington, D.C.: The World Bank (48 pages). “This paper sketches the situation confronting children, their families and governments in conflict countries and describes the challenges of reaching universal primary education. War makes education's power to provide psychosocial recovery, stability, normalcy, hope, and the inculcation of values and skills for building and maintaining a peaceful future at least as essential as it is during peacetime. It is thus disappointing and unfortunate that support for education in advance of, during, and immediately after emergencies remains so under supported. Education during wartime emergencies and post-war transitions remains a small field, even though the potential benefits of supporting education for children and youth during emergencies are compelling and the negative impacts of not doing so create a multitude of opportunities for destructive and violent tendencies to thrive.” Electronically: www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/10/12/ 000094946_02091704130527/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf

Standing, K. & Dhital, L.(2004): The impact of conflict on schooling in Nepal: reflections from the Gender Experiences in Schools project. Liverpool John Moores University and Tribhuvan University, Paper presented at the Baice Conference, University of Sussex, 3 - 5 September 2004.

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Sommers, Marc (2004): Education in Emergencies: Critical Questions and Challenges. Washington, D.C.: Creative Associates International (4 pages).

Electronically: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/baice/papers.html

Sobhi; Harley, Alexandra (eds.) (2004): Education, Conflict and Social Cohesion. Paris: UNESCO (438 pages).

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Nelles, Wayne (ed.) (2003): Comparative Education, Terrorism, and Human Security: From Critical Pedagogy to Peace building. New York: Palgrave Macmillan (278 pages). Education has been acknowledged as the key discourse to prevent and subvert violence. Wayne Nelles's edited collection of essays is a theoretical and pragmatic contribution, which illustrates how education can potentially contribute toward undermining terrorism and building a critical pedagogy of peace.

Tawil, Sobil (ed.) (1997): Final Report and Case Studies of the Workshop on Educational Destruction and Reconstruction in Disrupted Societies 15-16 May 1997. Paris: IBE UNESCO (64 pages).

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This book argues that the subtle and complex relationships between schooling and conflict need to be explicitly recognised and examined if the processes of educational reform are to be meaningful contributions to reconciliation and peace building. Drawing on studies from societies as diverse as Bosnia and Herzegovina and Guatemala, Lebanon and Mozambique, Northern Ireland, Rwanda and Sri Lanka, the studies assess the way changing conceptualizations of social cohesion are reflected in the shifting curriculum paradigms and rationales that have governed educational policy reform. The book contains the following articles: Sobhi Tawil; Alexandra Harley: Education and identity-based conflict; Philip Stabback: Curriculum development, diversity and division in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Manuel de Jesús Salazar Tetazgüic and Katherine Grigsby: Curriculum change and social cohesion in multicultural Guatemala; Nemer Frayha: Developing curriculum as a means to bridging national divisions in Lebanon; Juvenal Bazilashe Balegamire, Adelaide Dhorsan and Cristina Tembe: Curriculum reform, political change, and reinforcement of national identity in Mozambique; Michael Arlow: Citizenship education in a divided society: the case of Northern Ireland; John Rutayisire, John Kabano and Jolly Rubagiza: Redefining Rwanda’s future; Lal Perera, Swarna Wijetunge and A.S. Balasooriy: Education reform and political violence in Sri Lanka. The studies presented in this volume examine the role of educational policy change in social and civic reconstruction and the redefinition of national citizenship within the context of identity-based conflicts. The underlying assumption is that if educational change is to be a meaningful contribution to processes of national reconciliation and peace building in the context of civil strife, the complex linkages between schooling and conflict need to be explicitly recognised and explored." [Preface]

Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/25/4f/bf.pdf

UNESCO (2005): Gender, education and conflict, in: Insight, UNESCO, Issue 2, August 2005 (3 pages).

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This short report highlights the linkages between gender, education and conflict.

Electronically: http://www.ulster.ac.uk/faculty/shse/unesco/pubs/insight/Aug05_2.pdf

UN Security Council Resolution 1539: On Children and Armed Conflict. New York (2004). UN Security Council Resolution 1460: On Children and Armed Conflict / Immediate Halt to the use of child soldiers. New York (2003). UN Security Council Resolution 1379: On Children and Armed Conflict. New York (2001). UN Security Council Resolution 1314: On Children and Armed Conflict. New York (2000). UN Security Council Resolution 1296: On the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict. New York (2000). UN Security Council Resolution 1265: On the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict. New York (1999). UN Security Council Resolution 1261: On Children and Armed Conflict. New York (1999). Resolutions Nr. 1261, 1265, 1296, 1314, 1379, 1460 und 1539 of the Security Council of the United Nations with relevance fort he topic of child soldiers.

Electronically: Resolution 1539: http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/318/63/pdf/N0431863.pdf?OpenElement Resolution 1460: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/sc7649.doc.htm Resolution 1379: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N01/651/10/PDF/N0165110.pdf?OpenElement Resolution 1314: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/604/03/PDF/N0060403.pdf?OpenElement Resolution 1296: http://www.un.int/usa/sres1296.htm Resolution 1265: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/267/94/PDF/N9926794.pdf?OpenElement Resolution 1261: http://www.un.int/usa/sres1261.htm

3.2 Child Soldiers

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Publications on child soldiers in single countries are listed under section “Profiles and location of children and youth affected by conflict”.

Biel, Melha Rout (2004): African Kids: Between Warlords, Child Soldiers, And Living On The Street The cases of Sudan, Uganda, Zambia and Kenya. New York: Peter Lang (95 pages). The main aim of this book is to highlight the worsening situation of children on the African continent, where the number of street children is increasing from day to day. Besides, this book discusses the issue of HIV/AIDS and how it affects the lives of African children. It offers useful suggestions and valuable proposals on how to deal with these problems. Based on the research the author made, he decided on Sudan, Kenya, Uganda as well as Zambia as countries of case studies. About 70 percent of the adults are living with HIV/AIDS disease. 80 percent of the children in Africa live with HIV/AIDS. In recent years, 2.2 million Africans died as a result of HIV/AIDS infections. This indicates that the disease is one of the major threats to the economic and social development in Africa. This book investigates the causes and recommends possible solutions to the problem of children and child soldiers in the world and in Africa in particular.

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Brett, Rachel; Specht, Irma (2004) Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight. Geneva: International Labour Organization, Boulder, Colo.: Lynn Rienner (192 pages). Whether fighting on behalf of an armed gang in Sierra Leone or the United Kingdom’s government force in Northern Ireland, young adults the world over are impelled for similar reasons to “join up. The authors debunk the myth that child soldiers are strictly products of conscription. Their findings suggest that the more young adults are saddled with various forms of insecurity the more attractive participation in combat appears. This work reveals how environmental constraints compromise young peoples’ capacities. The book’s publication is the result of a global, collaborative research project sponsored, in part, by the International Labor Organization, with the aim of better informing demobilization and reintegration programs for young adults. Hardcopy: ILO Publications, 4 route des Morillons, 1211 Genf 22, Switzerland, e-mail: [email protected], www.ilo.org./publns

Brett, Rachel; McCallin, Margaret (1996): Children: The Invisible Soldiers, Stockholm: Rädda Barnen (=Swedish Save the Children) (257 pages). The original research for: Children: The invisible soldiers was commissioned as part of the United Nations Study on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children (also known as the Machel Study), which was presented at the fifty-first session of the UN General Assembly in November 1996. The present book is an expanded and updated edition of the Machel Study.

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Chitalia, Ami; Odeh, Michael (2004): Children in Armed Conflict. How Girl Soldiers are Punished by Their Past. Washington: Youth Advocate Program International (10 pages). The purpose of this paper is to educate the public about the prevalence of girl soldiers in armed conflicts throughout the world and the consideration of uniquely female issues concerning disarmament and social reintegration.

Electronically: http://www.yapi.org/rpgirlsoldiers.pdf Hardcopy: Youth Advocate Program International, 4545 42nd Street, NW, Suite 209, Washington, DC 20016, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2004): Child Soldiers Global Report 2004. London: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (360 pages). A global analysis of the situation and magnitude of the use of children in armed forces around the world covering the period from April 2001 through March 2004.

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Electronically: http://www.child-soldiers.org/document_get.php?id=966 Hardcopy: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, International Secretariat, 2-12 Pentonville Road, 2nd Floor, London N1 9HF, United Kingdom, e-mail: [email protected] Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2004): Child Soldier Use 2003. A Briefing for the 4th UN Security Council Open Debate on Children and Armed Conflict. London: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (47 pages). Throughout 2003 thousands of children were deployed as combatants, to commit abuses against civilians, as sex slaves, forced labourers, messengers, informants and servants in continuing and newly erupting conflicts. Children were usually used to perform multiple roles, and girls in particular often acted as combatants as well as being sexually exploited. Featured Countries: Afghanistan, Angola, Burundi, Congo (DR), Ivory Coast, Israel/Palestine, Liberia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Uganda. Electronically: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/childsoldiers0104/childsoldiers.pdf Hardcopy: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, International Secretariat, 2-12 Pentonville Road, 2nd Floor, London N1 9HF, United Kingdom, e-mail: [email protected] Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR) (2003): Child soldiers. Geneva: Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (15 pages). This brochure provides detailed information about the problem of child soldiers and outlines what should be done to prevent their recruitment, protect them and help them rebuild their lives after their demobilization. It is an ideal introduction to the provisions of international law that apply specifically to the participation of children in hostilities. Electronically: http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/p0824/$File/ICRC_002_0824.PDF!Open Hardcopy: Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR), Département de la Communication, unité 'Production, Marketing, Distribution', 19 avenue de la Paix, 1202 Genf, Switzerland, e-mail: [email protected] Commission on the Status of Women (2004) The Voice of Girl Child Soldiers. Report no. 8. Dublin: Mercy International Association (11 pages). Why listen to the voices of the girl soldier? Many documents have been and are being developed to address the concern of violence against children. These are necessary actions to gain understanding and agreement among international parties to prevent the use of children as soldiers and for rehabilitation. The characteristics of many of these actions are to call for “providing resources” or “establishing mechanisms to facilitate activities for children” or “ensuring provisions for demobilization and reintegration are spelled out.” To accomplish these objectives, we must understand what resources to provide, what activities will meet the child’s need or what provisions need to be spelled out. We can rely on theories, typically Western concepts of treatment, and we can also listen to the child and try to gain an understanding of what may be most effective in meeting their needs. Electronically: http://www.mercyworld.org/projects/mgc/2004/pdfs/report8.pdf Hardcopy: Mercy International Association, 71 Senior House, All Hallows College, Grace Park Road, Drumcondra, Dublin 9, Irland, e-mail: [email protected] Focus on Arms in Africa, (2002): Banning the Use of child soldiers, in: Focus on Arms in Africa, no. 4.

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Electronically: http://www.iss.org.za/pubs/Newsletters/Focus/Vol3No2_04/Vol3No2.pdf Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Hobson, M. (2005): Forgotten casualties of war. Girls in armed conflict. London: Save the Children (30 pages). This report addresses the protection issues for children associated with armed groups and, more specifically, to the largely unrecognised protection requirements of girls. It draws on recent research conducted in the DRC, Rwanda and west Africa, as well as programme experience from Sri Lanka and many of the other countries where Save the Children works. Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/scuk_cache/scuk/cache/cmsattach/2800_ Forgottencasualties33395.pdf

Institute for Security Studies (ISS); UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2002): Report on OCHA/ISS Humanitarian Policy Workshop: The Protection Of Civilians In Armed Conflict: Humanitarian Challenges In Southern Africa. Report of the conference held 15 – 17 October 2002 in Pretoria, South Africa. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. The workshop brought together 65 representatives from government ministries of foreign affairs, defence, interior or home affairs, and refugee affairs, academic institutions and key non-governmental organisations within the Southern Africa region, as well as a cross-section of UN agencies working on these issues. It was the first of six regional workshops coordinated by OCHA, arising from its mandate to develop a policy framework on the protection of civilians in armed conflict in close collaboration with its humanitarian partner agencies and interested Member States. The workshop had three primary objectives: To familiarize participants with humanitarian challenges that arise during armed conflicts; to provide an opportunity for participants to work through a regionally-tailored crisis scenario exercise and apply potential protection measures; and to identify strategies for mainstreaming acquired knowledge within domestic decision-making structures, set priorities for follow-up action, and develop regional recommendations to feed into the SecretaryGeneral’s third report to the Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict (presented on December 10, 2002). Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/CReports/OchaReport.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]

Institute for Security Studies (ISS); UNICEF (2002): Disarming Children and Youth: Raising Awareness and Addressing the Impact of Small Arms. Workshop held for UNICEF offices in Africa from 8-12 September 2002 in Accra, Ghana. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Three background presentations related to children, youth and small arms were given at the workshop, addressing the involvement of youth in violence, the technical and legal aspects of small arms and light weapons and the impact of war on children.

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Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/CReports/DisarmChildSep02/Index.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Keairns, Yvonne E. (2002/2003): The voices of girl child soldiers. Geneva: Quaker United Nations Office (30 pages). This study is an effort in listening to the voice of girl soldiers from four conflict areas around the world. Electronically: http://www.quno.org/newyork/Resources/QUNOchildsoldiers.pdf Hardcopy: Quaker United Nations Office, Quaker House, 13 Avenue du Mervelet, 1209 Geneva, Switzerland, e-mail: [email protected] Kuper, Jenny: Military Training and Children in Armed Conflict. Law, Policy and Practice. Leiden, Boston (i.E.): Martinus Nijhoff Publishers (330 pages). During recent armed conflicts – such as those in Iraq, the former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda – public attention was repeatedly caught by images of children, both as civilians and as soldiers. Those conflicts, like so many others, were vivid reminders that where there is armed conflict there are also, almost always, children. Soldiers and officers fulfil many roles in relation to such children – sometimes as combatants, sometimes as humanitarian workers, sometimes as protectors, and/or sometimes as enemies and abusers. This book aims to address three main questions: what are the obligations of officers of national armed forces in relation to children, either civilians or combatants, whom they or those under their command may encounter while participating in situations of armed conflict? How realistic and achievable are these obligations? How can compliance with them be encouraged, monitored, and/or enforced? The book examines these questions in the context of military training. In doing so, it has another inextricably linked aim: to see if there are ways in which the training of officers can improve the protection of children in armed conflict situations, in accordance with international law and policy. It is intended for use particularly by those involved in training of national armed forces, including officers themselves, and members of governments, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) and inter-governmental organisations. It is hoped that it will also be of interest to lawyers, academics and others concerned with ‘child rights’ and related law and policy. It contains examples of actual training materials that can be modified for use in different countries and contexts. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Lakhdar-Hamina, Mounia (2003): Forgotten children of war, in: Courier ACP-EU, 196, p. 24-25.

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The article calls for specific needs of girls to be taken into account in DDR programmes.

Electronically: http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/body/publications/courier/courier196/en/en_024.pdf Hardcopy: http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/development/organisation/contact_form_en.cfm or via e-mail: [email protected]

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Lowicki, Jane (1999): Missing out - adolescents affected by armed conflict face few education opportunities and increased protection risks, in: Current Issues in Comparative Education, vol. 2, no. 1 (8 pages). The article concludes, that “while there is growing recognition of education as a key tool for promoting adolescents' livelihood, psychological and social well-being, health and protection, education in emergencies is not prioritized by donors or humanitarian assistance organizations. […] Educational programming for adolescents is urgently needed. Increased efforts on the part of practitioners are also needed both to document, qualitatively and quantitatively, the lessons learned in the provision of education to war-affected adolescents, as well as to share information, identifying what successful "adolescent specific" educational programming entails.” Electronically: http://www.tc.columbia.edu/cice/Archives/2.1/21lowicki.pdf

Norwegian Refugee Council (1999): Protection of Children and Adolescents in Complex Emergencies. Conference Report, Oslo/Hadeland 9.-11. November 1998. Oslo: Norwegian Refugee Council. In November 1998, the Norwegian Refugee Council and Redd Barna (Save the Children Norway) hosted a conference on protection of children and adolescents in complex emergencies, in co-operation with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The conference was supported financially by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The aim of the event was to increase the common understanding of the meaning of international protection of children and adolescents, and to address the main problems and principles and give some recommendations to concrete action. Electronically: http://www.nrc.no/pub/protection/index.htm

Odeh, Michael; Sullivan, Colin (2004): Children in Armed Conflict. Recent Developments in International Rehabilitation of Child Soldiers. Washington: Youth Advocate Program International (7 pages). This paper is designed to give a brief overview of recent Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration programs for child soldiers.

Electronically: http://www.yapi.org/rpchildsoldierrehab.pdf Hardcopy: Youth Advocate Program International, 4545 42nd Street, NW, Suite 209, Washington, DC 20016, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Rosen, David M. (2005): Armies Of The Young: Child Soldiers In War And Terrorism (The Rutgers Series in Childhood Studies). Piscataway: Rutgers University Press (199 pages). Drawing on three dramatic examples-from Sierra Leone, Palestine, and Eastern Europe during the Holocaust-Rosen shows that children are not always passive victims, but often make the rational decision that not fighting is worse than fighting. With a critical eye to international law, Armies of the Young urges readers to reconsider the situation of child combatants in light of circumstance and history before adopting uninformed child protectionist views.

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Save the Children (2005): Forgotten Casualties of War: Girls in Armed Conflict. United Kingdom: Save the Children (30 pages). Latest estimates suggest that of the approximately 300,000 children involved in conflicts around the world today, up to 40 per cent (120,000) are girls. This report shows how girls are being overlooked in current efforts to release children from armed groups and support their return home. It challenges existing systems and argues that the international community must fund programmes designed to meet girls’ needs. This means focusing on strengthening communities.

Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.net/alliance/resources/reports/forgotten_casualties.pdf

Twum-Danso, Afua (2003): Africa’s young soldiers. The Co-option of Childhood. (ISS Monograph Nr. 82). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.

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An Overview of Child Soldiering; Child Combatants and Adult Wars in Africa; Girl Soldiers.

Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No82/Content.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] UNICEF (2006): The State of the World's Children 2007. New York: UNICEF (160 pages). The State of the World's Children 2007 examines the discrimination and disempowerment women face throughout their lives - and outlines what must be done to eliminate gender discrimination and empower women and girls. It looks at the status of women today, discusses how gender equality will move all the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) forward, and shows how investment in women's rights will ultimately produce a double dividend: advancing the rights of both women and children. This issue of education and conflict is being dealt with in different contexts. Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/The_State_of_the_Worlds__Children__2007_e.pdf Hardcopy: UNICEF House, 3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, United States, email: [email protected] UNICEF (1997): Cape Town principles and best practices. Adopted at the symposium on the prevention of recruitment of children into the armed forces and on demobilization and social reintegration of child soldiers in Africa. 27. bis 30. April 1997, Kapstadt/South Africa. New York: UNICEF (8 pages).

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3.3 Refugee Education

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Publications on refugee education in specific countries are listed under section “Profiles and location of children and youth affected by conflict”. Ahearn, Frederick L., and Jean L. Athey, eds. (1991): Refugee Children: Theory, Research and Services. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (230 pages). The volume is aimed at describing how children react to a variety of refugee experiences; what developmental, health, and mental health problems potentially derive from refugee status; how children attempt to adapt and cope in the face of such circumstances; and what intervention strategies might . Hardcopy: Bookstore

Crisp, Jeff; Talbot, Christopher; Cipollone, Daiana B. (eds.) (2001): Learning for a Future: Refugee Education in Developing Countries. Geneva: UNHCR (270 pages). This collection of papers is the product of research conducted by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The papers are: "Education in Emergencies" (Margaret Sinclair), which reviews the rationale for education in situations of emergency and crisis, noting elements of education in response to several recent disasters; "On School Quality and Attainment" (James H. Williams), which examines research on education in developing countries to see what lessons can be learned for refugee education in care and maintenance situations; "Improving the Quality and Attainment in Refugee Schools: The Case of the Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal" (Timothy Brown), which highlights the lack of consistent donor funding to maintain even the low-cost models of refugee education supported by UNHCR; "Peace Education and Refugee Youth" (Marc Sommers), which examines the conceptual framework underlying education for peace; and "Vocational Training for Refugees: A Case Study from Tanzania" (Erik Lyby), which evaluates the ongoing formal and informal vocational training programs for Burundian refugees in Tanzania. Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/23/3e/a5.pdf

Drechsler, Helmut (2005): Basic education for refugees and displaced populations. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (84 pages) This publication gives in its first part an overview of refugee education (international response, policies, strategies and programmes) followed by two case studies: Basic education for Afghan refugees (1990-2004) and Basic education for children and young people in Rwanda and Tanzania (1984-2001)

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Electronically: http://www.ineesite.org/uploads/documents/store/doc_1_48_Basic_Education_for_Refugees_ and_Displaced_Populations-GTZ.pdf Jones, Crispin: Rutter, Jill (1998): Refugee Education: Mapping the Field, Staffordshire, UK: Trentham (194 pages) With over 35,000 asylum-seeking and refugee children in British schools, British policy has become increasingly restrictive toward refugees. Some of the successful initiatives for the proper integration of these children, along with effective provisions, are detailed in this collection of articles. This book, which is intended for teachers, academics, and policymakers, examines the psychological adaptation of refugee children and young people. It discusses current issues in refugee education and the plight of refugees throughout the world, focusing on the fact that most refugees are women and children. The book examines strategies for supporting refugee children in the early years and what specific programs have been enacted in East London primary schools. Various chapters focus on working with refugee children, the experiences of these students in the United Kingdom's education system, and the educational needs of these children. Suggestions regarding induction practices, positive strategies to combat racism and xenophobia, and the home/school liaison are offered. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Foster, Annie (1995): From Emergency to Empowerment: The Role of Education in Refugee Communities. Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development.

Kaprielian-Churchill, Isabel; Churchill, Stacy (1994): The Pulse of the World: Refugees in Our Schools. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Press (?? pages).

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Preston, Rosemary (1991): The Provision of Education to Refugees in Places of Temporary Asylum: Some Implications for Development, in: Comparative Education 27 (1991) pages 61 81.

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Waters, Tony; Leblanc, Kim (2005): Refugees and Education: Mass Public Schooling without a Nation-State, in: Comparative Education Review, vol. 49, no. 2.

4. Profiles and location of children and youth affected by conflict, estimated numbers This part lists articles on the topic of conflict and education (including the topic of child soldiers and refugee children) with geographical relevance.

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4.1 GLOBALLY Bethke, L., Brauschweig, S. (2004): Global Survey on Education in Emergencies. New York: Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (156 pages). The publication, which is an attempt to gather information on how many refugee, displaced and returnee children have access to education and the nature of education they receive, explores in I part it explores issues related to students, teachers, educational materials, curriculum, schools, facilities and funding, part II provides country reports on Burma, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Pakistan, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand and Uganda. And part III lists projects in the area of education in emergencies by organisation and country, providing the latest enrolment data available at the time of the preparation of the publication. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/Ed_Emerg.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

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► Various African Countries McKay, Susan; Mazurana, Dyan (2004): Where Are The Girls? Girls in fighting forces in Northern Uganda, Sierra Leone and Mozambique: Their lives during and after war. Montréal: International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development. Dyan Mazurana and Susan McKay's study, Where are the Girls?, raises our awareness of the militarization of the lives of girls in fighting forces and the role they play. The authors use data gleaned from their research in Northern Uganda, Mozambique and Sierra Leone to reveal that girls in fighting forces are not, and never have been, simply "camp followers." This study is addressed to all those who work in countries that are in conflict or ravaged by war, whether they are community groups or multilateral, governmental, or non-governmental organizations. Where are the girls, if they are not counted as part of the military when the time comes for disarmament, demobilization and rebuilding of societies? Hardcopy: International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development (ICHRDD), 1001 de Maisonneuve Blvd. East, Suite 1100, Montréal, QC H2L 4P9, Kanada, e-mail: [email protected] bzw. http://www.ichrdd.ca

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► Angola Gomes Porto, João; Parsons, Imogen (2003): Sustaining the Peace in Angola: An Overview of Current Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration (BICC paper 27). Bonn: Internationales Konversionszentrum Bonn (91 pages). Beyond ‘Normalization’: the Momentous Challenges of Resettlement and Return; Angola’s Institutional Capabilities for DD&R: Experiences and Lessons Learned from Previous Processes; DD&R in Angola, Current State of Play; A Moving Target in 2002? Initial DD&R Policies and Practice; Final DD&R Programs and What’s To Come – contains information on child soldiers. Electronically: http://www.bicc.de/publications/papers/paper27/paper27.pdf

Human Rights Watch (2003): Short Report – Angola: Forgotten Fighters: Child Soldiers in Angola. New York: Human Rights Watch (26 pages). No official figures exist for how many children fought with UNITA and the government in the last resumption of the war from the period 1998 to 2002. The Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers estimates that 7,000 children served with UNITA and government forces, Angola Armed Forces (Forças Armadas Angolanas, FAA).2 Child protection workers in Angola have suggested that as many as 11,000 from the two sides may have lived and worked in combat conditions. Some children received weapons and arms training and were active in the fighting. Many others acted as porters, cooks, spies, and wives to UNITA soldiers. Whatever their duties, the work they performed was hazardous and has had an emotional impact on many of them. Electronically: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/angola0403/Angola0403.pdf Hardcopy: Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Avenue, 34th floor, New York, NY 10118-3299, United States, e-mail: [email protected] http://www.hrw.org/portuguese/reports/angola2003/angolaport0503.pdf 28

Alusala, Nelson (2005): Disarmament and the Transition in Burundi: How Soon? (ISS Paper Nr. 97). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. This paper assesses the situation in Burundi with the focus on disarmament initiatives in the period to the end of 2004. In order to elucidate the complexities involved in the disarmament process, which mirror those of the entire peace process, it first reviews the current situation in Burundi. Contains also information on the involvement of child soldiers. Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/97/Paper97.htm Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2002): Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict: Burundi. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (21 pages). This study describes the situation of children and youth in Burundi under the impact of armed conflict, with a special focus on refugees and internally displaced person. In 2000, over 70 percent of school age children in the camps reportedly attended primary school. However, secondary school and formal vocational training reach only a few refugees, mostly those who have been in Tanzania, for a long time, and who have English-language capacity. Moreover, there are few options for school-leavers and dropouts, which increases the risk of widespread youth delinquency in the camps.

Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/wl_bi.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] George, Rose (2001): Burundi Plans for Peace, in: The Times Higher Education Supplement. (1503): p. 10.

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► Democratic Republic of Congo Verhey, Beth (2005): Reaching the girls: study on girls associated with armed forces and groups in the Democratic Republic of Congo. London: Save the Children and the NGO Group.

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Verhey, Beth (2003): Going Home. Demobilising and reintegrating child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo. London: Save The Children (83 pages). More than 1,200 child soldiers have been demobilised in the North and South Kivu Provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) since 1999. The process has been gradual but consistent. Save the Children UK has led the majority of the work; the number of operational actors increasing during 2002. The programme in North and South Kivu does not claim to be completely successful. The myriad groups in the region continue to recruit and use children in the conflict. However, the experience demonstrates that, with many remaining constraints, the demobilisation and reintegration of children during ongoing conflict can be achieved. Lessons learned in this experience are especially important for working with child soldiers in situations of ongoing conflict and with non-state actors. Indeed one of the lessons is the importance of engaging non-state actors in tandem to work with the community. Save the Children has found its child protection training project with military officers and ‘community child protection networks’ to have an important impact. Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/temp/scuk/cache/cmsattach/932_GoingHome.pdf Hardcopy: Save the Children, 17 Grove Lane, London SE5 8RD, United Kingdom, e-mail: [email protected] Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict (2003): The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). (38 pages).

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“This report is a call to all parties to conflict in DRC to immediately halt abuses against children and uphold all international obligations to protect children’s security and rights.” “DRC is on the World Bank’s list of five countries around the world with the largest number of children out of school. In total, 66 percent of boys of primary school age and 51 percent of girls of primary school age were enrolled in 2001, according to UNICEF; the attendance rate is likely to be much lower. UNICEF also estimated that 3 to 3.5 million children between ages 6 and 11 in DRC did not have access to basic education in 2000-2001; 2 million of these were estimated to be girls. This means that approximately 50 percent of children of primary school age are completely outside the educational system.”

Electronically: http://www.watchlist.org/reports/dr_congo.report.pdf

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► Ethiopia Veale, Angela (2003): From child soldiers to ex-fighter. Female Fighters, Demobilisation and Reintegration in Ethiopia (ISS Monograph Nr. 85). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.

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Content: Introduction; Background and context; Methodology; Ethiopian female excombatants: Recruitment, demobilisation and reintegration.

Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No85/Contents.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]

Lange, Ellen (1998): The International Rescue Committee Education Programme for Refugees in Guinea, 1991-98: A Best Practice Study. Full Version (Draft). Geneva: UNHCR PTSS. n.a.

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► Kenya Sinclair, Margaret (2002): Education for a peaceful future: a community-based initiative in Kenyan refugee camps, in: Miller, Vachel W. and Affolter, Friedrich W.: Helping Children Outgrow War (Technical Paper no. 116). Washington D.C.: Agency for International Development. Bureau for Africa/ USAID, p. 71-76. This paper describes a peace education programme in Kenyan refugee camps. It is excerpted from “Refugee Education in Kenya: Education for a Peaceful and Sustainable Future.” Case study posted in 2001 on the website of the UNESCO Emergency Education Assistance Unit. Available at www.unesco.org/education/emergency/casestudy/kenya.shtml. Electronically: http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACP892.pdf

Focus on Arms in Africa (2004): Youth in Organised Armed Violence; Liberia's DDR Programme. An unfinished story, in: Focus on Arms in Africa, vol. 3, no. 2, 2004.

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► Liberia

Electronically: http://www.smallarmsnet.org/pubs/focus4.pdf Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]

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Human Rights Watch (2004): How to Fight, How to Kill. Child Soldiers in Liberia. New York: Human Rights Watch (44 pages). This 43-page report documents how more than 15,000 child soldiers fought on all sides of the Liberian civil war, and that many units were composed primarily of children. The report argues that establishing a firm peace in the West African nation will depend on the successful reintegration of child soldiers into civil society. Electronically: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/liberia0204/liberia0204.pdf Hardcopy: Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Avenue, 34th floor, New York, NY 10118-3299, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Utas, Mats (2003): Sweet Battlefields: Youth and the Liberian Civil War. Ph.D. Dissertation. Stockholm: Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, Uppsala University (292 pages). This dissertation presents an ethnography of youth in Liberia and of how their lives became affected by a civil war which raged in the country between 1990 and 1997. The focus is on the experiences, motivations, and reflections of young combatants who fought for a variety of rebel factions. For these young people, the daily prospect of poverty, joblessness and marginalisation effectively blocked the paths to a normal adulthood; drawing them instead into a subculture of liminality, characterised by abjection, resentment and rootlessness. As opportunity came, their voluntary enlistment into one of the several rebel armies of the civil war therefore became an attractive option for many. Based upon one year of fieldwork during 1998, conducted among groups of ex-combatant youths in both the capital Monrovia and in a provincial town in the rural hinterland, I describe and analyse the young people’s own accounts of their involvement in the civil war; their complicity in atrocities, their coping strategies in the context of armed conflict, their position as ex-combatants in a post-war environment, and their outlook on their past, present and future. Electronically: http://www.antro.uu.se/forskning/antropologi/Hela%20boken.pdf Hardcopy: Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, Cultural Anthropology, Box 631, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden, e-mail: [email protected] Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2006): Help Us Help Ourselves: Education in the Conflict to Post-Conflict Transition in Liberia. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (54 pages). This document is the first of three case studies by the Women's Commission to determine the categories and questions that should be asked when planning education during the time of transition from conflict to post-conflict. The data was collected through interviews based upon the MSEE during the Women's Commission delegation visit to Liberia in December 2005. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/lr_ed.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2004): Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict: Nothing Left to Lose: the Legacy of Armed Conflict and Liberia's Children. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (50 pages).

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Liberia has been in a nearly constant state of civil war for 14 years. This has taken an enormous toll on the lives of Liberian children, adolescents and all civilians. Throughout the years of civil war and especially during the 2003 War, thousands of Liberian children have been victims of killings, rape and sexual assault, abduction, torture, forced labour, forced recruitment into fighting forces and displacement and other violations by warring factions, including the government of Liberia under Charles Taylor, Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL). A complex web of cross-border activities helped to fuel war in Liberia and to feed instability and fragility throughout the region. Since the National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL) assumed power and the United Nations (UN) deployed the UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), post-conflict in Liberia has seen slight improvements in the humanitarian, human rights and political situations. Yet, widespread human rights violations, including abuses against children, continue to be committed with impunity, particularly in areas where peacekeepers have been late to deploy. This report compiles information from a variety of sources to document ongoing violations of Liberian children’s security and rights. It also makes urgent recommendations to all parties that participated in armed conflict, the UN Security Council, UNMIL, international donors, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and others to take immediate action to protect Liberian children from further abuse and devastation as reconstruction in Liberia moves forward. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/wl_li.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

Englund, Harri (1998): Death, Trauma and Ritual: Mozambican Refugees in Malawi, in: Social Science Medicine. 46(9): pp.1165-1174.

Malawi Goverment, Planning Division, Ministry of Education and Culture, Education statistics (1992): Mozambican refugee camp schools, Lilongwe, Malawi, (63 pages).

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► Malawi

Smawfield, David (1998): Refugee Education in an International Perspective: The Education of Mozambican Children in Malawi, 1987 93, in: Retamal and Aedo-Richmond, Ruth: Education as a Humanitarian Response, London: Cassell, p. 27 44.

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Tolfee, D. (1991): Refugee Children in Malawi. A Study for the Implementation of the UNHCR-Guidelines on Refugee Children. London: International Save the Children Alliance/UNHCR.

Boothby, N.; Sultan, A.; Upton, P. (1991): Children of Mozambique: The cost of Survival. U.S. Committee for Refugees Issue Paper, Washington DC.

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Aird, Sarah; Efraime Junior, Boia; Errante, Antoinette (2001): Case Study on the Impact of Small Arms on War-affected Children Mozambique: The Battle Continues for Former Child Soldiers. Washington: Youth Advocate Program International (11 pages). The negative impacts caused by the pervasive availability of small arms and light weapons and the consequent participation of children in the Mozambican war did not end with the 1992 peace agreement. Former child soldiers in Mozambique not only continue to experience severe physical and emotional trauma as a result of their combat experiences, but also are negatively impacted by the instability that continues to hamper the country’s development. These children’s experiences have devastating, long-term implications for Mozambican society, as their experiences inform their choices, opinions and perspectives as they grow into adulthood. Electronically: http://www.yapi.org/old/publications/resourcepapers/MozCS.pdf Hardcopy: Youth Advocate Program International, 4545 42nd Street, NW, Suite 209, Washington, DC 20016, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

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Faltas, Sami; Paes, Wolf-Christian (2004): Exchanging Guns for Tools. The TAE Approach to Practical Disarmament—An Assessment of the TAE Project in Mozambique (BICC brief 29). Bonn: Internationales Konversionszentrum Bonn (40 pages). History; Assessing the Scope of the Problem; Aims and Objectives of the TAE Project; Output and Impact (Weapons Collection and destruction; Provision of Tools and Other Incentives; Civic Education; Guns into Art); Resources Available to the Project; Mode of Operation (Information Retrieval; Provision of Incentives; Storage and Destruction); Government and Civil Society; Costs and Benefits; Lessons Learned and Replication (Motivation of Gun-Holders; Program Goals; Government Relations; Provision of Incentives). Electronically: http://www.bicc.de/publications/briefs/brief29/brief29.pdf

Aguilar, Pilar; Richmond, Gonzalo (1998): Emergency Educational Response in Rwandan Crisis, in: Retamal, Gonzalo, Richmond, Ruth Aedo: Education as a Humanitarian Response, London: Casell.

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► Rwanda

Save The Children (2004): Crossing the Border. London: Save the Children (89 pages). This report looks at the Disarmament, Demobilisation, Repatriation, Rehabilitation and Reintegration process (DDRRR) of Rwandan boys and girls formerly associated with armed groups in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It investigates their experiences are investigated, in the armed groups and during the complex process of cross-border DDRRR. The study will contribute not only in raising wider advocacy and policy issues related to DDRRR in the context of Rwanda but also for programmes that focus on a cross-border demobilisation and reintegration of child ex-combatants. Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/temp/scuk/cache/cmsattach/1964_DDRRR_RwandaDRC_SC UK_Jul04.pdf Taouti-Cherif, Ratiba; Sewonet, Abraham (2005): Crossing the border. The Demobilisation and Re-integration of Rwandan Boys and Girls associated with armed Groups in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Kigali/London: Save the Children (89 pages). This study assesses the current situation of children, both boys and girls, who have been associated with armed groups in Rwanda and DRC, to identify the challenges they face along the DDRRR process, to identify the reasons for joining armed forces and provide recommendations for child-friendly DDRRR programmes.

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Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/scuk_cache/scuk/cache/cmsattach/1964_DDRRR_RwandaD RC_SCUK_Jul04.pdf

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► Sierra Leone Ginifer, Jeremy (2003): Reintegration of ex-combatants, in: Malan, Mark et al. (eds.): Sierra Leone: Building the Road to Recovery (Monograph No 80). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Reintegrating ex-combatants (also former child soldiers) into society is one of the major challenges confronting Sierra Leone. During the war, combatants committed widespread atrocities against civilians, including those in their own communities. These acts of violence created suspicion and fear about the prospect of ex-combatants returning to their communities in Sierra Leone. Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No80/Chap2.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]

Mahone, Djanabou (2005): Demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants – Experiences from Sierra Leone, in: Gleichmann, Colin; Rosenbrock, Christine (eds.): Brothers in Arms – Sisters of Mercy? Gender Perspectives on Small Arms Control. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, p. 59-69. Report about demobilization and re-integration of former female soldiers in Sierra Leone, among them child soldiers.

Hardcopy: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Postfach 5180, 65726 Eschborn, e-mail: [email protected] Save The Children (2004): No Place Like Home? New research by Save the Children into children’s experiences of reintegration, in the Kailahun District of Sierra Leone. London: Save the Children (29 pages). In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the particular needs of child soldiers and other girls and boys separated as a result of conflict. This has led to significant progress in agreeing good practice on children’s protection during, and immediately after, conflict. Much work has also been done to determine effective strategies for ensuring children’s safe return to families and communities. However, less attention has been paid to children’s well-being once back in their villages or towns of origin. To help fill this knowledge gap, Save the Children UK conducted group discussions and in-depth interviews on the reintegration process with 211 girls and boys from the Kailahun district of Sierra Leone. Both ex-child soldiers and other separated children were included in the research, which suggests ten principles for good practice that could be used in a range of contexts. Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/temp/scuk/cache/cmsattach/1958_ No%20Place%20Like%20Home_Oct04.pdf

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Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2003): Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration, and Gender-based Violence in Sierra Leone. Excerpts from precious resources: Adolescents in the Reconstruction of Sierra Leone. Participatory Research Study with Adolescents and Youth in Sierra Leone. April – July 2002. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (23 pages). The DDR program in Sierra Leone is touted as one of the most successful demobilization efforts in history — it accomplished its principal goals of disarming and demobilizing thousands of ex-combatants on all sides of the conflict, including children. It quickly increased security in Sierra Leone, an essential prerequisite for peace. In the face of limited resources, a fluctuating security situation and destroyed infrastructure, UNICEF, Child Protection Agencies (CPAs) and the government of Sierra Leone provided demobilization services, including reunification, to approximately 6,900 children and adolescents. These are just first steps, however, toward significantly raising the bar of success in such efforts. Interviews with more than 300 adolescents, youth, women and men formerly associated with fighting groups in Sierra Leone reveal very serious gaps in the program and provide strong lessons learned. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/sl_ddr03.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

Focus on Arms in Africa (2003): Southern Sudan: Child Soldiers or Armed Civilians?, in: Focus on Arms in Africa, no. 5, 2003

Electronically: http://www.smallarmsnet.org/pubs/focus5.pdf Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Gezelius, Helen: The Somali Refugee Primary School in the Republic of Yemen, in: Retamal, Gonzalo; Aedo-Richmond, Ruth: Education as a Humanitarian Response, London: Cassell, p.106 17.

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Heniger, H. and Mc Kennan, M. (2005): Don’t forget us”: the education and gender-based violence protection needs of adolescent girls from Darfur in Chad. New York: Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (48 pages).

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Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/Td_ed.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

Moreno-Torres, M. (2005): Service delivery in a difficult environment: The childfriendly community initiative in Sudan. London: DFID.

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“At the time of the Women's Commission's visit, all 11 refugee camps had education programs. In most camps this included primary grades 1-6, some adult literacy classes, and some preschool. In more than half of the camps, refugees who had education experience as teachers and administrators in Darfur started schools in the camps prior to the arrival of the humanitarian community. While education is widespread, a significant number of the refugees face numerous challenges. UNICEF took the lead on education, but their presence at the time of the Women's Commission visit was sorely lacking in the camps, as was acknowledged by UNICEF's sub-office in Abeche. At that time, UNICEF had not provided adequate shelters for schools, school supplies or guidance to teachers or camp management. A number of contingencies, including a lack of funding and the difficulty of the conditions in Chad, many of them out of UNICEF's control, seem to be to blame. Another major problem are the "incentives" given to teachers by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which were seen as inadequate by the large majority of teachers. School headmasters reported losing teachers who left their jobs to make more money in other ways, such as selling firewood. The few women teachers in the camps teach only the lowest grades. Young people who have completed grade eight have no opportunities for education or skills training.” Excerpt from the executive summary.

Robertson, Chris; McCauley, Una (2004): The Return and Reintegration of ‘Child Soldiers’ in Sudan: The Challenges Ahead, in: Forced Migration Review (Home for good? Challenges of return and integration), 21, pp. 3032. An evaluation of recent UNICEF support to child disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) in southern Sudan analyses the impact of different ways of addressing demobilisation, care, return and reintegration of “children formerly associated with the fighting forces’ (CAFF). Electronically: http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR21/FMR21full.pdf Hardcopy: Subscriptions Assistant, Forced Migration Review, RSP, QEH, 21 St Giles, Oxford, OX1 3LA, United Kingdom, e-mail: [email protected] Sommers, Marc (2005): Islands of education: schooling, civil war and the Southern Sudanese (19832004).UNESCO IIEP: Paris, (309 pages).

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This study analyzes and describes the educational reality for Southern Sudanese. Among its major findings are: the disastrous consequences of underinvesting in education during conflict; serious deficiencies in the co-ordination of education; a direct connection between quality education and compensating teachers; alarmingly low levels of representation of girls in schools; the dangers involving military personnel in the management of education; and the invasive effects of state dominance on learning for the internally displaced. Electronically: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/sudan.pdf?class=IIEP_PDF_recent&page=Emerg_suda n&estat_url= http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/sudan.pdf

Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2003): Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict: Sudan. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (34 pages). This report is a call for the security and rights of young people to be included as a high priority in the ongoing peace process. The UN Security Council consistently highlights the harmful impact of armed conflict on children and the long-term consequences this has for durable peace, security and development. Priority attention to young people’s security, rights and place in society as future leaders is essential to the sustainability of Sudan’s encouraging peace process. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/wl_sd.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

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► Uganda Dolan, Chris (2002): Which children count? The politics of children’s rights in northern Uganda, in: Accord (2002), 11. In international eyes the forcible abduction of children and adults by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) is probably the defining characteristic of the war in northern Uganda, and there is little doubt that it has done much to draw international attention and intervention to the area. According to the Abducted Child Registration and Information System (ACRIS) set up by UNICEF and the government of Uganda, some 9,818 children under the age of 18 have been abducted since the LRA war began, or about one third of the total of 28,217 recorded abductions. Of these 9,818 about one third, or 3,300, were under the age of 12 when abducted. Electronically: http://www.c-r.org/accord/uganda/accord11/children.shtml Hardcopy: Accord Marketing, Conciliation Resources, 173 Upper Street, London N1 1RG, United Kingdom, e-mail: [email protected] Human Rights Watch (2003): Abducted and Abused. Renewed War in Northern Uganda. New York: Human Rights Watch (73 pages).

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Electronically: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/uganda0703/uganda0703.pdf Hardcopy: Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Avenue, 34th floor, New York, NY 10118-3299, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Lowicki, Jane (2001): Against All Odds: Surviving the War on Adolescents; Participatory Research Study with Adolescents in Northern Uganda. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children.

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Abductions, torture, recruitment of child soldiers, and other abuses have sharply increased in the past year in northern Uganda due to renewed fighting between Ugandan government forces and rebels, a coalition of national and international organizations. This 73-page report details how a slew of human rights abuses have resulted in a humanitarian crisis. Since June 2002, the rebel Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) has abducted nearly 8,400 children and thousands more adults, a sharp rise from 2001. The LRA has also escalated the seventeen year war against northern Uganda's civilians by targeting religious leaders, aid providers, and those living in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps. The report draws on interviews with recently abducted children who escaped from the LRA. It gives voice to internally displaced persons living in the IDP camps that have been attacked by the LRA, and the aid workers attempting to reach these victims despite frequent LRA ambushes on relief convoys.

Electronically: Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Lomo, Zachary; Hovil, Lucy (2004): Behind the violence. The War in Northern Uganda. (ISS Monograph Nr. 99). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Content: Background to the war; Root causes of the conflict; Anatomy of the Lord’s Resistance Army; Consequences as causes: the impact of the LRA; The spread of the war; Beyond conflict; Conclusion and recommendations – also contains information on the involvement of child soldiers. Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/Monographs/No99/Contents.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Veale, Angela; Stavrou, Aki (2003): Violence, Reconciliation and Identity. The Reintegration of the Lord's Resistance Army Child Abductees in Northern Uganda. (ISS Monograph Nr. 92). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Involvement of Children in Conflict in Africa; Child soldiers in Northern Uganda: Experience and Identity; Reintegration, and Reconciliation; A politico-economic analysis. Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/Monographs/No92/Contents.html Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]

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Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2001): Against all Odds: Surviving the war on adolescents. Promoting the Protection of Ugandan and Sudanese Adolescents in Northern Uganda. Participatory research study with Adolescents in Northern Uganda, May – July 2001. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (85 pages). Dozens of Ugandan and Sudanese adolescents interviewed more than 2,000 adolescents and adults in a Women’s Commission-sponsored project in the Acholi Districts of Gulu, Kitgum and Pader in northern Uganda from May to July 2001. They reveal that the insecurity of armed conflict, where adolescents are principal targets for murder, abduction, forced recruitment and sexual enslavement, is their top concern. Adolescents say that a combination of war, massive displacement, HIV/AIDS, lack of development and poverty has created a world of unimaginable misery for young people. Without protection from violence and with little support from adults who do not recognize or respect their rapidly changing role in society, adolescents are shouldering enormous responsibilities for themselves, their families and the community as a whole. Thousands are orphaned and heading households, and few – especially girls – are able to attend school or find sufficient means to support or protect themselves, as humanitarian assistance falls well short of their needs, and they suffer ongoing abduction and increased domestic and sexual violence. Adolescents are struggling to survive against all odds and too often without even recognizing their own strengths and abilities. They are urgently calling on the international community – especially the Governments of Uganda and Sudan – to act swiftly to lift their burdens and for all combatants to commit to peace. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/ug.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2004): No Safe Place to Call Home: Children and Adolescent Night Commuters in Northern Uganda. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (33 pages). Amongst the growing number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in northern Uganda are an estimated 50,000 people known as “night commuters” – most of them children, adolescents and women – who flee their homes or IDP camps each night for town centers seeking safety from attack by the rebel Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). IDPs say the government of Uganda (GOU) and its military, the Uganda People’s Defense Forces (UPDF) could and should be doing more to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian assistance and provide IDPs basic physical security. Additionally, many members of Ugandan civil society believe the GOU and the LRA should be taking stronger measures to facilitate a peaceful end to the conflict. In the absence of adequate protection by the government of Uganda, IDPs have increasingly turned to the use of government-supported local defense units (LDUs) to protect their communities. However, the GOU is doing too little to monitor its LDU recruitment, training and activity. Despite the GOU’s claims that it does not use child soldiers, IDP camp leaders and humanitarian agencies report the active recruitment of children and adolescents into LDUs. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/ug_nightcom.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

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4.3 MIDDLE EAST

Chatty, D. (2002): Disseminating Findings from Research with Palestinian Children and Adolescents’, in: Forced Migration Review, 15.

Defence for Children – Palestine Section, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2005): Dealing with Alleged Child Collaborators in the Occupied Palestinian Territories in the Spirit of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Ramallah: Deference for Children – Palestine Section, Coalition to Stop the use of Child Soldiers (20 pages). This paper, which is a report of the workshop “Dealing with alleged child collaborators in the Occupied Palestinian Territory in the spirit of the Convention on the Rights of the Child”, highlights the most important and sensitive issues regarding child protection in the occupied territories, including figures and profiles of recruited children, and makes recommendations on how to deal with the issue.

Electronically: http://www.ineesite.org/uploads/documents/store/doc_1_59_child_soldier_report-2005-0706.pdf

Helsing, Jeffrey (2005): Palestinian-Israeli Education Efforts: Opportunities and Challenges, in: Common Ground News Service (May 2005).

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4.4 AMERICA

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► Various Countries World Vision International (2001): Faces of Violence in Latin America and the Carribean. San José: World Vision International (87 pages). 42

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The report brings together research done by World Vision and others across 12 countries in the Latin American region on different forms of violence. From violence inflicted on street children, to domestic violence, violence against children in the juvenile justice system and armed conflict. The report is the result of many interviews with children and their communities. Hardcopy: World Vision International, 800 West Chestnut Avenue, Monrovia, CA 910163198, United States. Electronically: http://www.visionmundial.org/archivos-de-usuario/File/Faces%20of%20violence.pdf

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► Columbia Briggs, Jimmie; Smyth, Frank; Barnitz, Laura; Stohl, Rachel (2001): Case Study on the Impact of Small Arms on War-affected Children Colombia: No Safe Haven from War. Washington: Youth Advocate Program International (9 pages). Small arms are devastating the lives of children in Colombia. Throughout the country, children find themselves at both ends of the weapon – some as perpetrators of conflict, crime and violence, and many more as the victims of constant brutality. Raging conflict between government forces, paramilitary groups, leftist guerrillas, and ordinary civilians have created an environment where no child is safe. Conditions of conflict and violence have perpetuated the use of children in conflict, and the perception that any child could be an actor in the armed violence. Electronically: http://www.yapi.org/old/publications/resourcepapers/ColHaven.pdf Hardcopy: Youth Advocate Program International, 4545 42nd Street, NW, Suite 209, Washington, DC 20016, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

► Guatemala

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Graham-Brown, Sarah (1991): Education in the Developing World: conflict and crisis. London: World University Service (332 pages).

Hardcopy: Bookstore

Salazar Tetzagüic, Manuel de Jesús; Grigsby, Katherine (2004): Curriculum change and social cohesion in multicultural Guatemala, in: Education, conflict and social cohesion, Tawil, Sobhi; Harley, Alexandra (eds.), Geneva: UNESCO IBE, p.85-157.

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This publication focuses mainly on the situation in Guatemala.

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Hardcopy: http://publishing.unesco.org/details.aspx?Code_Livre=4249#

Colak, Alice and Fantino, Ana Marie (2001): Refugee Children in Canada: Searching for Identity, in: Child Welfare, 80(5): pp.587-596.

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►Canada

Boyden, Jo; de Berry, Joanna; Feeny T; Hart, J. (2002): Children affected by armed conflict in South Asia: a review of trends and issues identifies through secondary research, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford University, February 2002.

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4.5 ASIA

UNICEF (2002): Adult Wars, Child Soldiers. Voices of Youth Involved in Armed Conflict in the East Asia and Pacific Region. New York: UNICEF (82 pages). This report is an effort to draw attention to the reality of child soldiers in this region, to demonstrate the need for our urgent response. In these pages, current and former child soldiers express their ideas, thoughts, feelings and fears. It is a record of their voices, rather than a search for numbers. With this report, UNICEF, seeks to raise awareness and shed light on the specific nature of child soldiering in the East Asia and Pacific region. By placing the issue on the agenda, the report will ultimately identify ways to reduce and end the involvement of children in these conflicts. Above all, it attempts to let the child soldiers "talk" to decision makers, child rights advocates, the media, youth leaders, military personnel and the general public. Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/AdultWarsChildSoldiers.pdf http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/pub_adultwars_en.pdf Hardcopy: UNICEF House, 3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, United States, email: [email protected] 44

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Mathieu, Alexandra (2006): Reaching the Girls in South Asia: Differentiated Needs and Responses in Emergencies. [Kathmandu]. UNICEF, UNGEI (132 pages).

Electronically: http://www.ungei.org/resources/index_714.html

Wallis, Sarah (2002): Inclusion for the Excluded – a Pipe Dream or Practical Necessity? Including Children with Learning Difficulties in Refugee Camp Schools on the Thai/Burma Border. [no location] Enabling Education Network. The report that follows describes an Early Intervention programme piloted in a large, wellestablished refugee camp on the Thai/Burma border. The camp is home for one of the ethnic groups forced to flee from Burma as a result of military oppression. The programme, funded by Consortium (a US-based NGO) and Voluntary Service Overseas (partly funded by DFID in the UK) is in its infancy but seems to be an excellent model for inclusion practice. Electronically: http://www.eenet.org.uk/key_issues/refugees/burma_refugee.shtml [24 January, 2007]

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►Cambodia World Bank (2002): Education for All in a Post-Conflict Cambodia. Washington: World Bank (24 pages).

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The education system of Cambodia still ranked among the weakest in the world in 2000, more than 20 years after the end of the worst years of the conflict. The net enrolment rate was 84 percent in primary school, 17 percent in lower secondary school and 8 percent in upper secondary school. By one estimate the repetition and dropout rates were so high that it took 19 student years to produce a primary school graduate. UNESCO estimated functional literacy in the adult population to be 36 percent. Government spending on education was 1.3 percent of GDP, while donors, NGOs and households provided more than 70 percent of total financing for education. Cambodia’s recovery has been particularly slow and painful. This is due in part to the depth of the crisis in the 1970s and the many years of isolation and instability that followed. A decade of gradually increasing Government budget for education and significant foreign investment in the sector appears to be on the verge of paying off. Many of the recent gains can be attributed at least in part to programs which have energized and resourced schools, communities and local administrators. Sustained efforts to build capacity and strengthen institutions are essential. However, faster progress is hampered by continued Government under-spending in the sector, the heavy burden on families and communities for financing education, and the lack of meaningful civil service reform. Electronically: siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/Education-Notes/EduNoCambodia.pdf

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Altai Consulting (2003): Girls’ education in Afghanistan. A Formative research. Altai Consulting, December 2003.

de Berry, Joanna (2001): Children affected by armed conflict in Afghanistan. Refugee Studies Center, Oxford University, June 2001.

Electronically: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/RSC_Oxford/data/RSC%20Reports/ CAAC%20Afghanistan%20final%20report.pdf Hardcopy:

Kirk, J. & Winthrop, R. (2004): Home-based teachers and schooling for girls in Afghanistan, in: Id21 Insights, September 2004.

Electronically: www.id21.org/insights/insights-ed03/insights-issed03-art04.html

Ministry of Education Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (2004): National Report on the Development of Education in Afghanistan, Kabul (22 pages).

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► Afghanistan

Electronically: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/English/Natreps/reports/afghanistan.pdf

United Nations (2000): Report of the Secretary General on the Situation of Women and Girls in Afghanistan, United Nations Economic and Social Research Council: New York.

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Electronically: http://www.pcpafg.org/organizations/Human_rights/hrweb/Class2/HR_Reports_Afghanistan/ SG_Rep_on_the_situation_grils_in_territory_occupied_afg_war_factions_2_August_2001.htm Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2001): Rights, Reconstruction and Enduring Peace: Afghan Women & Children after the Taliban. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (21 pages). The Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children has monitored the situation of Afghan refugee and displaced women and children for the past decade. The purpose of this paper is to identify issues of concern for Afghan women and children in the return and reconstruction phases, and to make recommendations to the international community on how it can and should respond to these new challenges. Child soldiers are in need of demobilization and reintegration assistance. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/af.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2001): Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict: Afghanistan. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (10 pages). Through two decades of violence and war in Afghanistan all parties to the conflict have violated children’s rights. Today Afghan children and adolescents face dire circumstances. Approximately 1 in 4 Afghan children die of preventable causes before the age of five. Approximately 1 in 2 children suffer from malnutrition. The maternal mortality rate is the second highest in the world at 1,700/100,000. Approximately 2 million Afghan children are refugees or internally displaced. Approximately half of all landmine victims in Afghanistan are children (an estimated 5-10 people died everyday in 1999 from landmine injuries). Children and adolescents are reported to be forcibly recruited as soldiers. Many have no access to education or basic healthcare. Afghan girls suffer from institutionalized discrimination, sexual and gender-based violence, and trafficking for sexual purposes. Severe physical, emotional and mental repercussions have taken an enormous toll on several generations of Afghan children, who continue to suffer from the ongoing violence. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/wl_af.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2001): Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict: Afghanistan Update. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (5 pages). Recent UN Security Council resolutions on the situation in Afghanistan have not addressed the critical concerns of Afghan children and adolescents. The protection of these children, which transcends ethnic and political divides, should be used as a unifying force in broad social reconstruction efforts. Now that the UN Security Council has unanimously adopted a resolution affirming the central role it will play in setting up a new transitional authority in Afghanistan, we urge the Security Council to call for any UN mandated authority to include the following provisions to protect Afghan children’s rights.

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World Bank (2004): In Afghanistan. Out of Conflict and Into School, World Bank, 11 November 2004.

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Electronically: http://www.watchlist.org/reports/afghanistan.report_update.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

Electronically: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20279607~menuPK:34457~pa gePK:64003015~piPK:64003012~theSitePK:4607,00.html

Al-Khazraji, Kazem Ghaiden, Hassani, Assemah Majeed and Touma, Fuad (eds.) (no year): The Republic of Iraq-Ministry of Education Education for All Assessment for Year 2000. Education for All Forum. (www.unesco.org).

De Santisteban, Agustin Velloso (2005): Sanctions, War, Occupation and the De-Development of Education in Iraq, in: International Review of Education, vol. 51 no. 1 p. 59-71.

In August 1990, the United Nations Security Council imposed economic sanctions on Iraq. These ended in May 2003. In that same month, in which the war launched by Coalition Forces against Iraq ended, the country has been under occupation. The education system, one of the best in the Arab world 15 years ago, has been seriously affected by both the sanctions and the war. The present study explores how these factors have reversed previous educational achievements and rendered the education system unable to fulfil its missions. It also shows how continued instability and widespread violence gravely impede the reconstruction of the education system. In sum, while the Iraqis themselves are now responsible, under international law, for deciding on and implementing reconstruction policies, this has still not been taking place under occupation

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► Myanmar Human Rights Watch (2002): “My Gun Was as Tall as Me”: Child Soldiers in Burma. New York: Human Rights Watch (225 pages). Myanmar is believed to have more child soldiers than any other country in the world. The overwhelming majority of Myanmar’s child soldiers are found in Myanmar’s national army, the Tatmadaw Kyi, which forcibly recruits children as young as eleven. These children are subject to beatings and systematic humiliation during training. Once deployed, they must engage in combat, participate in human rights abuses against civilians, and are frequently beaten and abused by their commanders and cheated of their wages. Refused contact with their families and facing severe reprisals if they try to escape, these children endure a harsh and isolated existence. Electronically: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/burma/Burma0902.pdf Hardcopy: Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Avenue, 34th floor, New York, NY 10118-3299, United States, e-mail: [email protected] or Bookstore.

Hart, J.; Khatiwada,C (2003): Participation of conflict-affected children in humanitarian action: learning from Nepal. Center for Refugees Studies, October 2003.

Electronically: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/RSC_Oxford/data/RSC%20Reports%5CChildrens%20Particip ation%20Nepal.pdf

Tuladhar, B. R., (2005): Educational needs of IDPs living in Western Kathmandu. Joint undertaking of UNICEF and Community Learning Center, 25 August 2005.

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► Nepal

Vaux, Tony., A. Smith, S. Subba (2006): Education for All – Nepal. Review from a Conflict Perspective. London: International Alert (52 pages).

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“The intention is to examine the EFA programme in relation to conflict and the current political crisis. Over a period of a month the team reviewed the relevant literature, visited the MidWest and East, and engaged in consultation with stakeholders in Nepal. Using a methodology based on the Strategic Conflict Assessment of DFID, factors relating to conflict have been addressed in three main categories- social, economic and political exclusion. A fourth category relates to security factors, or the immediate effects of violence. In accordance with the Terms of Reference the team has focused more on the impact of education on conflict rather than the impact of conflict on education.” From the executive summary. Electronically: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2006/ia-nep-31mar.pdf

Khamis, A. (2004): Education, teachers, and conflict: towards reconciliation and reconstruction - lessons from education programmes for Afghans in Pakistan 1994-2004. Paper presented at the Baice Conference, University of Sussex, 3 - 5 September 2004.

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► Pakistan

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Electronically: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/usie/baice/documents/Anil_Khamis_Paper.pdf

Buwalda, Hans (1996): Children of war in the Philippines, in: Eade, Deborah (ed): Development in States of War. Oxfam: Oxford, p.61-68. The article describes some of the emotional problems of children in the Philippines, traumatised by political violence, and relates her introduction of Creative Process Therapy at the Children’s Rehabilitation Center in Davao City. It raises interesting issues concerning the modification and application of a Western therapeutic model to a South-East Asian country experiencing long-term conflict. Electronically: http://www.developmentinpractice.org/readers/DSW/DiP%20Reader%20StatWar%20text.pdf

Milligan, Jeffrey Ayala (2005): Islamic Identity, Postcoloniality, and Educational Policy: Schooling and EthnoReligious Conflict in the Southern Philippines. New York: Palgrave Macmillan (225 pages).

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► Philippines

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Cagoco-Guiam, Rufa (2002): Philippines. Child Soldiers in Central and Western Mindanao: A Rapid Assessment. Geneva: International Labour Organisation (128 pages). Three major insurgent groups have waged armed struggle against the forces of the Philippine military since the 1960s. These are the Communist-oriented New People’s Army, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and its breakaway faction, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). The latter two groups were organized by Muslim revolutionary leaders, convinced that armed struggle is the only way to express the right to self-determination for the Bangsamoro Muslims in Mindanao. In 1996, the Philippine government signed a Peace Agreement with the MNLF leadership, thus ending more than two decades of armed struggle. But the Philippine government is still engaged in armed conflict with the MNLF’s breakaway faction, the MILF. The fertile river valleys of Central Mindanao are acknowledged to be the location of major MILF camps where children as young as 11 years old receive training in how to handle both long and short firearms in battle. Late in the 1980s, a group of ragtag armed youth, mostly from the Yakan and Sama ethnic groups based on the island province of Basilan emerged to become the country’s foremost bandit and kidnap-for-ransom group. The group, known as the Abu Sayyaf (“Bearer of the Sword”) has lately been reported to have recruited several minors into their fold. This first ever Rapid Assessment on the phenomenon of child soldiers in some parts of South, Central and Western Mindanao attempted to scratch the surface, so to speak, of the magnitude, causes. Electronically: http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/ipec/simpoc/philippines/ra/soldiers.pdf Hardcopy: ILO Publications, 4 route des Morillons, 1211 Genf 22, Schweiz, e-mail: [email protected], www.ilo.org./publns

Becker, J. (2004); Living in fear. Child soldiers and the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka. Human Rights Watch, vol. 16, no. 13, November 2004.

Title

Electronically: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/srilanka1104/srilanka1104.pdf Hardcopy:

Hart, J. (2001): Children and armed conflict in Sri Lanka. Center for Refugee Studies, June 2001.

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Electronically: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/RSC_Oxford/data/theme-conflict-01.htm

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Human Rights Watch (2004): Living in Fear. Child Soldiers and the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka. New York: Human Rights Watch (84 pages). This 80 page report includes firsthand testimonies from dozens of children from north-eastern Sri Lanka who have been recruited by the Tamil Tigers since the ceasefire came into effect. Children described rigorous and sometimes brutal military training, including training with heavy weapons, bombs and landmines. Children who try to escape are typically beaten in front of their entire unit as a warning to others. Electronically: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/srilanka1104/srilanka1104.pdf Hardcopy: Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Avenue, 34th floor, New York, NY 10118-3299, United States, e-mail: [email protected] Somasunderam, D.(2003): Child Mental Health Rapid Needs Assessment Survey: Education of Children in Conflict Affected Areas in Sri Lanka. Jaffna: GTZ/BECAre, Vavunia and Shanthiham, 2003.

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n.a.

SSRC (Social Science Research Council) (2006): Children and Armed Conflict: Sri Lanka. Data Collection on Displacement and Recruitment. New York: SSRC (247 pages).

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This country study examines issues of concern and vulnerabilities under the following topics: (1) difficulties in schooling during an ongoing war, (2) disruptions in education due to repeated displacement, (3) interruptions in education due to participation in the armed conflict, (4) structural damage to educational facilities as well as infrastructural damages, (5) discriminatory treatment of displaced children, (6) increased army presence in the locality and enforcement of the “pass system,” (7) continuing systemic flaws in the educational policy in place and (8) high levels of poverty.

Electronically: http://www.ssrc.org/programs/children/

UNICEF (2003): Sri Lanka: Action plan for children affected by war: Progress Report 2003. New York: UNICEF (10 pages). Progress report about the situation of child soldiers in Sri Lanka.

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Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/Progress_Report_2003.pdf

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► Timor Leste Nicolai, Susan (2004): Learning Independence: Education in Emergency and Transition in Timor-Leste since 1999. Paris: UNESCO IIEP (189 pages). The study looks at how schooling in East Timor was affected by the political violence and large-scale human displacement that followed the popular consultation held in September 1999 to decide its constitutional future. The author explores how political disputes and general governance issues slowed down the educational reform process, and how a declared focus on system reconstruction in reality emphasized physical infrastructure to the detriment of policy. She highlights the role of donors, noting that geopolitical considerations influenced the support provided. Electronically: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/East_timor.pdf?class=IIEP_PDF&page=East_timor& estat_url=http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/East_timor.pdf

4.6 EUROPE ►Bosnia-Hercegovina

This study gives an historical overview of the education system in Bosnia Herzegovina starting from 1878 until the end of the war in 1995 and provides a subsector analysis of early childhood care, pre-school education, primary and secondary education, excluding the higher education sector, including a description of the impact of the war on each sector and recommendations for action. http://www.pitt.edu/~ginie/bosnia/pdf/analysis.pdf

Garrod, A.; Beal, C.; Jaeger, W.; Thomas, J.; Davis, J.; Leisner, N.; Hodicz, A.. (2003): Culture, ethnic conflict and moral orientation in Bosnian children, in: Journal of Moral Education, 32, 2, 131–50.

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Dizdar, Srebren (1996): Analysis of Educational Services for Children in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Study commissioned by UNICEF Office in Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, Sarajevo: UNICEF.

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World Bank (1999): Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Governance, Finance and Administration. Washington, D.C.: World Bank (95 pages).

Electronically: http://www.seerecon.org/bosnia/documents/education_report.pdf

Cairns, Ed (1987): Caught in Crossfire: Children and the Northern Ireland Conflict. Belfast: Appletree Press (179 pages).

Connolly, P. and Healy, J. (2004): Children and the Conflict in Northern Ireland: the Experiences and Perspectives of 3–11 Year Olds. [no location]: Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister (127 pages) This report presents the findings of a detailed study of the experiences and perspectives of children aged 3-11 years in Belfast. Based upon in-depth interviews it outlines and explains the differing ways in which the conflict impacts upon their lives and comes to influence and shape their attitudes and identities. The implications of the findings of this study are considered in relation to the development of future community relations work with children of this age range. Electronically: http://www.paulconnolly.net/publications/children_and_conflict_report.pdf

Connolly, P. (2002): Researching young children’s perspectives on “the troubles” in Northern Ireland, Child Care in Practice, 8, 1, 58–64.

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Lovell, E.L. and Cummings, E.M. (2001): Conflict, Conflict Resolution and the Children of Northern Ireland: Towards Understanding the Impact on Children and Families (Kroc Institute Occasional Paper Series no. 21).

Electronically: http://www.nd.edu/~krocinst/ocpapers/op_21_1.PDF.

McGlynn, C., Niens, U., Cairns, E. and Hewstone, M. (2004): Moving out of conflict: the contribution of integrated schools in Northern Ireland to identity, attitudes, forgiveness and reconciliation, in: Journal of Peace Education, 1, 2, pp. 147–63.

Smith, A. (1999): Education and the peace process in Northern Ireland. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Education Research Association. Montreal, Canada, 23 April, 1999.

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Dunn, S. (1986): Education and the Conflict in Northern Ireland: a guide to the literature. Coleraine: Centre for the Study of Conflict.

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Smyth, M. with Fay, M.T., Brough, E. and Hamilton, J. (2004): The Impact of Political Conflict on Children in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Institute for Conflict Research.

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► Serbia/Kosovo/a Alva, Soumya; Murrugarra, Edmundo & Paci, Pierella (2002): The Hidden Cost of Ethnic Conflict: Decomposing Trends in Educational Outcomes of Young Kosovars. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2880, Washington: World Bank. “This paper examines the impact of ethnic segmentation in education on educational outcomes. Between 1991 and the late 1990s, the Albanian Kosovar population received education services in an informal system parallel to the official one. […] Our results suggest that the last decade of ethnic tension has claimed a substantial toll on the educational outcomes of young male Albanian Kosovars. In addition to declines in enrolment rates in secondary education, those who are enrolled are expected to complete one less year in education. However, secondary school enrolment for girls increased during the parallel system, but with a sharp decline in the expected numbers of years completed.” Electronically: http://venus.icre.go.kr/metadata/25691_wps2880.pdf

Nelles, Wayne (2005): Education, Underdevelopment, Unnecessary War and Human Security in Kosovo/Kosova, in: International Journal of Educational Development, vol. 25 n.1, p. 69-84.

This paper examines educational linkages to persistent conflicts and contemporary security challenges in Kosovo. Reviewing some historic foundations, debates and socioeconomic contexts concerning education as a security issue, it argues that poverty and underdevelopment coupled with failed diplomacy (particularly surrounding a 1996 ''Education Accord'')- contributed to human rights abuses, violent civil conflict and a major war in 1999. The paper shows how both Albanians and Serbs were both responsible for abuses in different periods while education was a contributing factor. The paper further discusses how education has (problematically) been part of the human security building and ''reconstruction'' process after NATO 1999 while many issues that led to international military intervention remain unresolved some 5 years later. It closes with some reflections on post-war or ''postconflict'' education dilemmas, cooperation imperatives and new research challenges for Kosovo.

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Sommers, Marc, Buckland, Peter (2004): Parallel Worlds: Rebuilding the Education System in Kosovo. Paris: UNESCO IIEP (181 pages).

Electronically: www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/kosovo.pdf

RUSSIA

Betancourt, T., R. Winthrop, W. Smith and G. Dunn (2002): The IRC’s Emergency Education Programme for Chechen Children and Adolescents, Forced Migration Review, 15.

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► Chechnia

Abu-Nimer, Mohammed (2000): Peace Building in Postsettlement Challenges for Israeli and Palestinian Peace Educators. Peace and Conflict, in: Journal of Peace Psychology 6 (2000) 1.

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5. The impact of education on conflict: both positive (education as prevention, protection and for peace-building) and negative (preparing and perpetuating conflict through stereotyping curricula, exclusion, etc.)

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Adwan, S. (1998): Ethnicity and Conflict: The Role of Education Project – The Palestinian National Authority (PNA). Florence: Unpublished research paper, UNICEF International Child Development Centre.

Al-Haj, M. (1995): Education, Empowerment and Control. The Case of the Arabs in Israel. Albany, NY.: State University Press (267 pages).

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Adwan, S. (1998): Ethnicity and Conflict: The Role of Education Project – The Palestinian National Authority (PNA). Florence: Unpublished research paper, UNICEF International Child Development Centre.

Bano, Masooda (2006): Beyond Politics: the reality of a Deobandi Madrasa in Pakistan, in: Oxford Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 18, no. 1, p. 43-68. “All of the key policy reports on madrasas in Pakistan since September 11, while acknowledging that only a minute fraction of madrasas promote militancy, recommend reforming the entire madrasa system and argue that even ordinary madrasas produce bigoted individuals. They question the quality of education at the madrasa, the socioeconomic relevance of this education, and the basis of the authority of the head or imam. This paper, based on an ethnographic account of a Deobandi madrasa in Pakistan, shows that the madrasa system has its own hierarchy of knowledge, well-developed criteria for measuring knowledge, and its own socio-economic relevance. Further, it argues that the imam’s authority is not absolute or uncontested; rather, the community bases its support for a madrasa on many rational calculations about his efficiency and personal commitment. The paper thus highlights the need for a thorough study of the madrasa system before embarking on any reform.”

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Bekerman, Zvi (2003): Reshaping Conflict through School Ceremonial Events in Israeli Palestinian-Jewish Coeducation, in: Anthropology and Education Quarterly 34, no. 2 (June 2003): 205 25.

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“The Two Faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict challenges a widely-held assumption – that education is inevitably a force for good. While the provision of good quality education can be a stabilizing factor, Kenneth Bush and Diana Saltarelli show how educational systems can be manipulated to drive a wedge between people, rather than drawing them closer together. In short, education reflects the society around it. The attitudes that flourish beyond the school walls will, inevitably, filter into the classroom. The report begins by describing the nature of today’s armed conflicts, with virtually every conflict of recent years fought within, rather than between, nations. It examines the growing importance of ‘ethnicity’ in conflicts, as clearly seen in recent tragedies such as Rwanda, Kosovo and Chechnya. Section two describes the two very different faces of education. The negative face shows itself in the uneven distribution of education to create or preserve privilege, the use of education as a weapon of cultural repression, and the production or doctoring of textbooks to promote intolerance. The positive face goes beyond the provision of education for peace programmes, reflecting the cumulative benefits of the provision of good quality education. These include the conflict-dampening impact of educational opportunity, the promotion of linguistic tolerance, the nurturing of ethnic tolerance, and the ‘disarming’ of history”

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Bush, Kenneth D., Saltarelli, Diana (2000): The Two faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict: Towards a Peacebuilding Education for Children. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Center.

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Electronically: http://gess.wordpress.com/2006/12/16/beyond-politics-the-reality-of-a-deobandi-madrasa-inpakistan/

Hardcopy: Bookstore

Chauvet, Lisa; Collier, Paul (2004): Development Effectiveness in Fragile States: Spillovers and Turnarounds. Centre for the Study of African Economies, Department of Economics, Oxford: Oxford University. The authors suggest that increasing investment in secondary education may be one way of improving the political climate in fragile states, given that, according to their results, the proportion of people in low-income countries who are enrolled in secondary education is highly correlated with reform. Electronically: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/32/59/34255628.pdf Hardcopy:

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Chung, Fay (1999): Education: A Key to Power and a Tool for Change, in: Current Issues in Comparative Education, 2 (1), 1999 (5 pages). The paper argues that, “because education is the key to power, it is the most effective tool agencies and individuals can use in combating political violence, poverty and injustice worldwide.” Electronically: www.tc.columbia.edu/CICE/archives/2.1/21chung.pdf

Coulby, David; Jones, Crispin (2001): Education and warfare in Europe. London: Ashgate (158 pages). Education and Warfare in Europe argues that "if major education changes and reforms occur after wars, partly to avoid their re-occurrence, it is important to examine why, in Europe as elsewhere, there has been only partial success in that aim" (p. 1). The book attempts "to tease out why and in what ways European schools and universities maintain and sustain antipathies, nationalisms, and xenophobic attitudes" (p. 2) that can potentially initiate violence and war. The second part examines insiders and outsiders arguing that warfare has an impact on migration, particularly refugee movements, affecting recipient schools or depriving source countries of stability. It discusses boundary creation (physical and ideational) arguing that schooling, textbooks, and language reproduce boundaries, while violence has shaped European states' ideas of borders. Education can enhance nation building and political myth making while inciting destruction or conflict. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Davies, Lynn (2004): Schools and war: urgent agendas for comparative and international education, in: Compare, vol. 35, no. 4, 01 Dec2005, pp. 357-371(15). A focus on conflict and education is one of the most pressing concerns of the current times, and yet the role of education in the perpetuation, or the mitigation, of international conflict is curiously underplayed and under-researched. This paper looks firstly at the contributions that education makes to conflict, through the reproduction of inequality and exclusion, through perpetuation of ethnic or religious divisions, through its acceptance of dominant aggressive masculinities, through selection, competition and fear, and through distorted curricular emphases on narrow cognitive areas of learning. However, the paper also outlines some ‘possibilities for hope', such as resilient schools, the impact of peace education initiatives and the rise of global citizenship education. It is argued that comparative and international education has a highly important role in establishing patterns of educational contribution to peace or conflict, and in dissemination of research to act as a lobbying force to influence education policy and practice. The paper outlines eight priorities, including alternative international studies focusing on ‘achievement' in peace education; cross-cultural or longitudinal studies of impact of peace education and war education; and tracer studies of why young people join fundamentalist organisations. Electronically: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/ccom/2005/00000035/00000004/art00002

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The book is a personalized account of an experimental educational project undertaken by Jewish and Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel and their families since the early 1970s at Neve Shalom/Wahat Al-Salam. The locality's name signifies "Oasis of Peace," in Hebrew and Arabic, respectively. Feuerverger's narrative depicts Arab and Jewish Oasis members attempting to foster a binational, bilingual, and multicultural community, often struggling against the residues of their own earlier socialization and schooling.

Firer, R. (1998): Ethnicity and Conflict: The Role of Education Project: The Case of Israel. Unpublished background paper. Florence: UNICEF International Child Development Centre.

Gundara J. (1998): Ethnic Co-Existence, Conflict and Violence; the Role of Education. Unpublished background paper. Florence: UNICEF International Child Development Centre.

Hashweh, Maher Z. (2002): Conflict and Democracy Education in Palestine, in: Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies 7, no. 2 (September 2002): 65 86.

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Feuerverger, Grace (2001): Oasis of Dreams: Teaching and Learning Peace in a Jewish-Palestinian Village in Israel. London: Routledge (218 pages).

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Höpken, Wolfgang: [no year indicated] History-Textbooks and Reconciliation – Preconditions and Experiences in a Comparative Perspective, (draft paper). Washington, D.C.: World Bank. The paper tries to identify some of the environmental conditions and variables, which seem to be influential for the role and the capacity of textbooks in post-war or post-conflict societies, illustrating them very briefly with some examples, mostly from experiences gathered in various textbook projects in particular in Central Europe, the Balkans, but also in the Middle East and East Asia. Electronically: www.Siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCEERD/Resources/EDUCwolfganghopken.pdf

International Crisis Group (2005): The State of Sectarianism. Asia Report no. 95, 18 April 2005. The report argues that the madrasas produce indoctrinated clergymen, thereby acknowledging that only a small number of madrasas are radical and that too as a result of state-sponsored exposure to jihad. Yet, it raises grave concerns about the madrasa system as a whole. It argues that the problems with madrasas go beyond militancy, that even ordinary madrasas sow the seeds of extremism in the minds of their students, produce graduates with a narrow worldview and a lack of modern civic education, who, because they are living in poverty, become a destabilizing factor in society. It further argues that for these reasons the graduates are susceptible to romantic notions of sectarian and international jihad, which promises instant salvation. The report also pointedly observes: ‘Madrasas have become the fiefdoms of their clerics, who jealously safeguard autonomy because it gives them unchecked control of finances, their students, and what they are taught.’ It goes on to claim that 33 percent of all children in schools in Pakistan attend madrasas. http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/south_asia/095_ the_state_of_sectarianism_in_pakistan.pdf

Nicolai, Susan; Triplehorn, Carl (2003): The role of education in protecting children in conflict. Humanitarian practice network, HPN Network Paper 42 (40 pages).

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Electronically: http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC13337.htmhttp://action.web.ca/home/cpcc/attach/HPNCAC.pdf Hardcopy: Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN) Overseas Development Institute 111 Westminster Bridge Road London, SE1 7JD United Kingdom Porter, Sargent (1943) War and Education. Boston: Revisionist Press (506 pages).

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“This paper argues for a reappraisal of the position of education in emergency programming. It explores the links between education and the wider protection needs of the children it assists. It suggests that, as protection in conflict emerges more clearly as a legitimate humanitarian concern, so the role of education as a tool of protection must be more clearly understood. It comes to the following conclusions: All children are at risk: humanitarian responses should not centre solely on the children most visibly affected by conflict, namely child soldiers, separated children, street children and child-headed households. Conflict harms all children in an affected area, and inequities in service can permanently solidify communities’ perceptions of difference. Education may prevent further risk. Education programmes support children’s psychological and social well-being by re-establishing a normal routine and peer networks. Education may facilitate the integration of children. Organisers and providers of education, such as teachers and youth workers, play an indispensable role in shaping the lives of young people. Child protection, while a continuous and on-going process, must constantly be re-evaluated for threats. Educational systems and curricula can perpetuate the divisions within a society and fuel a conflict. Education should be recognised as a core part of child protection. Schools and educational facilities should be designated as ‘safe areas’. Children should be actors in their own protection: children should be actively involved in all aspects of educational programming, including assessment, planning, implementation and monitoring. Barriers to educational access should be identified and addressed: minimising impediments to access, such as poverty, gender, disability or membership of a particular social or ethnic group. Curricula should encourage peace and respect for human rights.”

Electronically: http://ann.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/235/1/166

Seitz, Klaus (2004): Education and Conflict. The role of education in the creation, prevention and resolution of societal crises – Consequences for development cooperation. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (94 pages).

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“After his presentation of the relevance and scope of the problem “Education and Conflict”, Klaus Seitz discusses the most important strategies, methods and instruments for basic education assistance in times of war and crisis, as well as in post-war situations. In peace and conflict research a break-down into conflict phases (pre-conflict, escalation, post-conflict) is prevalent, on which the corresponding assignment of tasks in development cooperation (crisis prevention, development-oriented emergency aid, reconstruction) is based. Klaus Seitz has opted for a different approach, focusing instead on the discussion of four complex questions, on which he comments in detail in the introductory chapter. This approach allows him to look more closely at aspects given less accord in basic education assistance to date, and to specify the resulting consequences and conclusions for development cooperation. At this point it is only necessary to refer to the vivid description of “ the two faces of education” in Chapter Four. In a dialectic twist of the liberating potential of education he calls for the development of criteria for crisis-sensitive education systems and their application in education reform processes.” Electronically: www2.gtz.de/dokumente/bib/05-0160.pdf Hardcopy: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Postfach 5180, 65726 Eschborn

Singer, P.W. (2001): Pakistan’s Madrassahs: Ensuring a System of System of Education not Jihad. Brookings, Analysis Paper no. 14, November 2001. “Singer argues that madrasas now increasingly dominate the field of education in Pakistan. He acknowledges that only around 10–15 percent of the schools are affiliated with extremist religious and political groups, yet he views an ordinary madrasa’s displacement of the public education system as a serious threat to the political and economic stability of Pakistan. He argues that, being detached from a state regulatory system, every madrasa is free to determine its own teaching syllabus, and most graduates are unable to multiply or find their nation on a map. Having no better options, Singer says, the poor send their sons to madrasas, where they receive at least some education. The madrasa system, in Singer’s view, thus produces unemployed young men, who are entirely dependent on others. He argues that graduates from madrasas have skills only to be imams or assistants at mosques, and there are not enough jobs for them in these areas. He recommends ensuring facilities for technical education to replace the madrasa system.” Electronically:http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/singer/20020103.pdf

Smith, Alan; Vaux, Tony (2002): Education, Conflict and International Development. London: Department for International Development DFID (72 pages). “Smith and Vaux explore the short term, medium term and long term implications of working out a more strategic, systemic approach to education in conflict situations. They demonstrate the particular role that education can play in relation to conflict prevention, resolution, reconciliation and reconstruction. At the same time, they highlight the renewed effort that needs to be made to understand the ways in which education policies may inadvertently help create the conditions for further conflict instead of building reconciliation and sustainable peace. The paper emphasises the need to consider education as part of the problem as well as part of the solution. It also highlights the importance of a systemic analysis of the relationship between education and conflict, including attention to the role that the formal system has in exacerbating and /or ameliorating conflict. One of the main implications of this is that there is an urgent need to develop indicators for ‘conflict sensitive education systems’.”

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Electronically: www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/edconflictdev.pdf

Smith: Alan (2005): Education in the twenty-first century: Conflict, reconstruction and reconciliation, in: Compare vol. 35, no. 4, December 2005, pp. 373–391. “This paper is an attempt to map out an emerging, and increasingly important field of study concerning the relationship between education and conflict. The field has two main parameters. The first involves the variety of contexts within which education systems are required to operate. Distinctions are drawn between education that is provided within relatively peaceful and stable environments; during times of violent conflict; as part of reconstruction following conflict or political transition; and as part of longer term peace and reconciliation processes. Educational priorities and concerns may be quite different depending on each of these circumstances. The second parameter concerns different levels of action within an education system. These include the political and policy environment, administrative and structural features and various aspects of educational practice. The paper argues that actions through various ‘entry points’ at each of these levels carry the potential to exacerbate or ameliorate conflict and suggests that a systemic analysis of investments in education systems from a conflict perspective should be a routine part of educational planning.” Electronically:http://www.hku.hk/cerc/Seminars/ASmith-handout.pdf

Stern, Jessica (2000): Pakistan’s Jihad Culture, Foreign Affairs, November-December. The author argues that the Pakistani government supports militants and their religious schools as a cheap way of fighting India and educating Pakistani youth. She explained that these fighters do fight in Kashmir and Afghanistan but they also create a culture of violence that increases internal sectarianism. Electronically:http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20001101faessay940/jessica-stern/pakistan-sjihad-culture.html

Trimikliniotis, Nikos: Mapping Discriminatory Landspaces in Cyprs: Ethnic Discrimination in a Divided Education, The Cyprus Review, vol.15, Fall 2004, N.2

“This paper examines the way in which the Cyprus educational system, primarily concentrating on the Greek-Cypriot side, reproduces discriminatory patterns via an outmoded and ethnically divided educational model, in spite of some efforts to introduce multi-cultural elements of local level. Existing literature and a number of studies and reports on immigrant and minority students illustrate the need for further research on the subject, so that a comprehensive reform of the educational system can take place to move from an ethnocentric model towards a more critically orientated humanistic education based on tolerance and understanding – a matter of urgency if Cyprus is to meet the challenges of a state acceding to the EU and above all a society that overcomes the current ethnic and nationalistic divide, be it in the form of barbedwire or ideological and mental barriers in the minds of the people.”

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Walker-Keleher, Jessica (2006): Reconceptualizing the Relationship between Conflict and Education: The Case of Rwanda, in: PRAXIS, The Fletcher Journal of Human Security, vol. xxi. This paper has focused on the so-called “negative face” of education and has highlighted the important fact that education has the potential for harm as well as good. it has used some of the experiences of rwanda and rwandans as an example; but this african nation, and those who live there, are not alone in seeing the divisive potential of a formal education system. an important lesson to be drawn from this analysis is how crucial context and goals are when viewing education systems and practice. For example, while teacher-centered instruction can and does meet many learning objectives in countries around the world, it cannot, in isolation, meet the current and explicit peacebuilding objectives that have been set by the rwandan government. Those who would seek to assist in peacebuilding, reconciliation,and conflict prevention in society must apply a more critical analysis to formal education, the system tasked simultaneously with reproducing and changing society. Electronically: http://fletcher.tufts.edu/praxis/archives/xxi/keleher.pdf

Williams, James (2004): Civil Conflict, Education, and the Work of Schools: Twelve Propositions, Conflict Resolution Quarterly 21 p. 471 81. Education and civil conflict are deeply intertwined in complex ways. The author posits a series of hypotheses about interrelationships by which schools are a natural arena for conflict - attracting violence, sometimes helping to prevent it, and fostering it as well. Violence affects schools at multiple levels; attacking individuals, communities, and systems, and weakening their sense of agency.

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For reasons of time constraint, only publications on peace education have been included. This does not mean that e.g. civic education and human rights education is not seen as an equally important contribution to a more peaceful society. Ardizzone, Lionisa (2001): Towards Global Understanding: The Transformative Role of Peace Education. Adelphi University, December 18.

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“Peace education has always been concerned with understanding the root causes of all forms of violence and their subsequent eradication. Democracy, human rights and peace remain central to our practice and fundamental to our goals for education. Certainly, in the wake of the World Trade Center tragedy--and its global repercussions--some may ask the question of whether there is any potential for peace. What is certain however is that a "quickfix" solution, or a pre-packaged "tool," imposed either locally or globally, which fails to account for specific contexts will not work. Rather, what is necessary is a paradigm shift that shapes content and pedagogy by incorporating issues of human security, equity, justice and intercultural understanding through the promotion of global citizenship, planetary stewardship and humane relationship. These are the core values of peace education (as put forth by Betty Reardon, 1988, and related to the United Nations Charter, Universal Declaration of Human Rights and UNESCO) and they can be derived from and applied to many contexts.” Electronically: http://www.tc.columbia.edu/cice/archives/4.1/41ardizonne.pdf

Bacani, Benedicto, R (2004): Bridging theory and practice in peace education: The Notre Dame University peace education experience, in: Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, issue 4, June 2004, 503511. .

Electronically: Article can be purchased at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgibin/abstract/109084907/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0

Basiga, Branda (2004): Globalization and Peace Education, in: Canadian Social Studies, vol. 38, no.3. This paper is an attempt to bring the subject of globalization to the awareness of educators while particularly focusing on those in the Philippines. Various contradicting effects of globalization on nations all over the world, especially on the economic sphere, are presented in the early part of the paper, and then the specific impacts in the Philippine context are discussed. The latter portion of the paper discusses an attempt at reconciliation of the conflicts created because of globalization through global education or peace education. Electronically: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/css/Css_38_3/ARbasiga_globalization_peace.htm

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Baxter, Pamela (2001): The UNHCR Peace Education Programme: Skills for Life. Forced Migration Review, 11, p. 28-30. October 2001. Although refugees are often the victims of ethnic, religious or political intolerance, they carry their own prejudices with them into exile.

Electronically: http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR11/fmr11.11.pdf Hardcopy: Pamela Baxter, UNHCR, PO Box, 43801, Nairobi, Kenya. Email: [email protected]. Tel: +254 2, 442052 ext 2743.

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Electronically: The Article can be purchased online at http://www.springerlink.com/content/t06w8041k752q267/

Brock-Utne, Birgit (2000): Peace Education in an Era of Globalization. Routledge, part of the Taylor-Francis Group, vol. 12, no. 1, March 1, 2000, p.131-138.

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Bretherton, Diane; Weston, Jane; Zbar, Vic (2003) : Peace education in a post-conflict environment. The case of Sierra Leone, in: Prospects. Paris. 33 (2003) 2, p. 219-230.

Hardcopy: Bookstore

Burns, Robert J.; Aspeslagh, Robert (1996): Three Decades of Peace Education around the World. New York, London: Garland Publishing (413 pages). This book is a source for those wishing to know where Peace Education has been, what it has become and where it might be going. Drawing on data gathered from around the world, Burns and Aspeslagh focus on how peace is presented in formal and informal educational settings and what effects ideologies have in shaping that presentation. The book views peace education in the context of education about other major social and political issues and in a variety of geopolitical settings, exploring factors that affect the generation, selection, organization, transmission, and evaluation of knowledge for peace. Following a review of major approaches to policy and praxis in peace education, the editors draw on original research to offer interpretations based on pragmatic, normative, and conceptual approaches to the individual, the state, and the role of political literacy. The use of a comparative educational framework that goes beyond curriculum studies and descriptive case studies presents a perspective that is innovative, and timely. The volume includes both bibliography and index. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Clements, K. (2001): Peace Education in Conflict zones, in: SangSaeng Asia Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding, 2, Winter 2001, pp. 9-16.

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The article gives a very general description of peace education.

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Electronically: http://www.en.unescoapceiu.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=105&Itemid=89

Danesh, H.B (2006): Towards an Integrative Theory of Peace Education, in: Journal of Peace Education, vol. 3, no. 1, March 2006, p.55-78. This paper proposes the integrative theory of peace (ITP) and briefly outlines the education for peace curriculum (EFP) developed on the basis of this theory. ITP is based on the concept that peace is, at once, a psychological, social, political, ethical and spiritual state with its expressions in intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, international, and global areas of human life. The theory holds that all human states of being, including peace, are shaped by our worldview—our view of reality, human nature, purpose of life and human relationships. Four prerequisites for effective peace education— unity-based worldview, culture of healing, culture of peace and peace-oriented curriculum—are discussed. The paper supports the conceptual elements of the ITP by drawing from the existing body of research on peace education and the EFP experience in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) where, since 2000, some 112 BiH schools with almost 80,000 students, along with their parents and teachers, have begun to systematically introduce the principles and practices of EFP into the curriculum and operation of their respective schools. Electronically: http://www.efpinternational.org/publications/Towards_an_Integrative_Theory_of_Peace_Education.pdf

Duffy, T. (2000): Peace education in a divided society: creating a culture of peace in Northern Ireland, in: Prospects, 30, 1, p.15–29. The author explores the issue of peace education in Northern Ireland in a broad sense. Examines the sectarian context of schooling in Northern Ireland, the growing number of integrated schools, peace and conflict studies in colleges, school-level curricular innovations in peace education, interschool activities, positive attitudes of youth, and the resistance of parents and teachers.

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Hardcopy: Jean De Lannoy, UNESCO Subscription Service, Ave. du Roi, 202, 1190 Brussels, Belgium; e-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.jean-de-lannoy.be

Fountain, Susan (1999): Peace Education in UNICEF. Working Paper. New York: UNICEF (52 pages).

This working paper is produced to describe Peace Education programmes in UNICEF. Peace education programmes have been developed in a number of UNICEF country offices and National Committees for UNICEF over the past decade. Ideas are continually evolving about how to use the full range of children's educational experiences to promote commitment to principles of peace and social justice. The purpose of this working paper is to stimulate further discussion and networking among UNICEF colleagues, to move towards a clearer articulation of good practice in Peace Education, and to pave the way for further exploration of how best to evaluate the impact and effectiveness of this area of UNICEF activity. As the need to evaluate Peace Education programmes becomes greater, so too does the need for a common framework within which to examine their content and methods. Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/girlseducation/files/PeaceEducation.pdf Hardcopy: United Nations Children's Fund, Programme Publications, 3 UN Plaza,New York, NY 10017, USA 69

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New to this edition are additional discussions of the contributions of feminist theorists to the understanding of peacemaking, the role of the family in peace education, and the creation of visions and hope for the future. The present volume begins with a discussion of the concepts of peace and peace education. It then considers religious and historical concepts of war, peace and peace education, describes how peace education can move people to work for social change and look for alternatives to violence, and discusses ways to begin mplementing peace education in schools, churches and other community settings such as youth groups. It goes on to address sensitive issues in peace education, key concepts and topics, important biological and cultural factors, and barriers facing those who teach peace. It provides the "how" of peace education by examining optimal pedagogy and practices. Hardcopy: Bookstore

Johnson, M.L. (1998): Trends in Peace Education. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. This ERIC Digest reviews the development and current status of peace education in the United States. After briefly surveying the peace education movement from its origins with a small group of educators in New England in the 1800s through its stigmatization as being anti-American during periods of hot and cold war, the Digest devotes more attention to recent trends of the 1980s and 1990s. During this period, peace education has taken on a number of forms, including conflict resolution aiming at reducing youth violence, anti-nuclear education, and role playing games, cultural exchanges, and other programs to promote global awareness. Most recently, e-mail and the World Wide Web have been used to promote the exchange of information and ideas. The Digest includes a list of online resources for peace education and a 10-item bibliography of references and ERIC resources.

Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/2a/2a/e4.pdf

Ikramov, A. (2001): The Afghanistan War: root causes of conflict and peace education. Lecture given at the International Symposium on ‘Peace Movement and Education in Asia-Pacific Conflict Zones,’ 20-22- November 2001, UNESCO_APECEIU, Seoul, Republic of Korea.

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Harris, Ian M.; Morrison, Mary Lee (2002): Peace Education. New York: McFarland & Company (304 pages).

Electronically: http://www.en.unescoapceiu.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=105&Itemid=89

Kirk, J.; Mulay, S. (2004): Towards a sustainable peace: prioritizing education for girls, Paper presented at the “Women‘s role in building peace in India and Pakistan” Workshop, August 2004 (10 pages). 70

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The authors argue that in relation to conflict and peace “education is both part of the problem and part of the solution. For girls and young women this is especially the case; in relation to gender equality, school is also part of the problem and part of the solution.”

Electronically: http://upload.mcgill.ca/mcrtw/JackieandShreepaper.pdf

Maxwell, A.-M.; Maxwell, T. (2004): Educating for peace in the midst of violence: a South African experience’, Journal of Peace Education, 1, 1, p. 103–21. How do we educate for peace in a context of pervasive social violence? This paper explores this question as it presents the development and evaluation of a South African peace education programme at pre-school level. The programme comprised a pre-school curriculum and a teacher development course and was developed in conjunction with a team of preschool teachers from diverse backgrounds working in a variety of settings within two South African provinces. The results of the evaluation provided strong evidence that the peace education programme resulted in a drop in aggressive behaviour among the children of the target population. The results also indicated that the teacher development course was well received by the teachers and facilitated their growth in a number of areas. Thus, the study indicated that peace education can have considerable positive impact in a country that is recovering from years of political and social violence. Electronically: The article can be purchased at http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(nut2t5fvz3ukg5455vtwplvn)/app/home/contribution.as p?referrer=parent&backto=issue,8,10;journal,6,6;linkingpublicationresults,1:109459,1

Nevo, Baruch; Brem, Iris (2002): Peace Education Programs and the Evaluation of their Effectiveness, in: Baruch, Gavriel; Baruch, Nevo (eds): Peace Education. The Concept, Principles and Practices around the World. Mahwah/London: Lawrence Erlbaum (296 pages). While politicians and civil leaders are struggling, for better or worse, with the politicaleconomical aspects of conflicts, educators, psychologists, clergymen, and other concerned individuals address themselves to the human-psychological sides of conflicts. Employing a variety of means and approaches that range from shared seminars to courses on peace and from collaborative artistic projects to joint soul-searching encounters, they try to cultivate understanding between adversaries, reconciliation, mutual tolerance, skills and dispositions of conflict resolution, and the healing of past wounds. Indeed, the field—often called Peace Education—is very active all over the world, involving large numbers of both school children and adults, professionals (teachers, social workers), and political leaders. Electronically: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109637749

Reardon, Betty (1988): Comprehensive Peace Education: Educating for Global Responsibility. New York: John Wiley (136 pages).

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Salomon, Gavriel; Baruch, Nevo (2002): Peace Education: The Concept, Principles, and Practices Around the World. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ: 2002. Contributors for this volume come from conflict-ridden areas, such as Northern Ireland, Croatia, South Africa, Cyprus, Wales, the United States, Belgium, Rwanda, and Israel. Part 1 focuses on conceptual issues, presenting seven views of the nature and history and interrelationships of the field. Part 2 presents underlying psychological and pedagogical principles, while part 3 takes a descriptive approach to practice, seeking generalizability. Part 4, provides data from one research study and two reviews of evaluation efforts.

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Sandy, Leo R. and Ray Perkins Jr (2002): The Nature of Peace and its Implications for Peace Education, in: The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, vol. 4, issue 2, 2002, p.1-8

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The authors reflect on different definitions of peace e.g. cold peace, positive peace and its implications for peace education.

Electronically: http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/4_2natp.pdf

Schell Faucon, Stephanie (2004): Conflict Transformation through Educational and Youth Programs, in: Austin, Alex; Fischer, Martina; Ropers, Norbert (eds.): Transforming Ethnopolitical Conflict. The Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. The article examines the theoretical and conceptual debate about the teaching of peace and conflict resolution skills, also with regard to former child soldiers. Peace education faces complex and even contradictory challenges. For example, the tension between individual behavioural patterns at micro level and social policy actions at macro level cannot be dismantled. The article explores the various intervention options available within formal and non-formal education.

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Electronically: http://www.berghof-handbook.net/articles/schell_faucon_hb.pdf Hardcopy: Bookstore

Simpson, Kris (2004): Making Connections: Holistic Teaching Through Peace Education, in: Canadian Social Studies, vol. 38, no. 3. According to the authors, educating for peace at the primary level is more critical now than ever before, as our students struggle to choose and emulate the models of peace education that stand before them. Continuously facing a sensationalized picture of war, students must not learn from the media generated models that stand before them in a time of war. Instead, education must equip students with alternatives to violence. Thus, teachers must provide students with opportunities to explore their feelings about war, and learn about peaceful alternatives to conflict resolution. Further, students must learn to challenge the assumptions that traditions have put into place, to ensure that the tenets of peace education preside over inequity that is structural and has gone unquestioned for too long. Electronically: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/css/Css_38_3/ARsimpson_connections_wholistic_peace.htm

Slobig, Judy Hanawalt (2001): Peace Education in Montenegro, in: Elliot, Heather (ed,): Children and Peacebuilding: Experiences and perspectives. World Vision Discussion Paper.

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The author, who had served as a community manager for World Vision Monte Negro, describes a peace education project carried out in Montenegro’s primary education schools in Montenegro after the influx of IDPs from Kosovo.

Electronically: http://www.worldvision.com.au/resources/files/Children%20and%20Peacebuilding%202002.p df Sommers, Marc (2001): Peace Education and Refugee Youth. Paper prepared for presentation at a UNHCR workshop on ‘Refugee Education in Developing Countries: Policy and Practice’. Washington D.C.: March 2001. This report examines peace education concepts, assumptions and programmes for refugee populations that are being conducted by international humanitarian agencies. It also investigates the lives of a primary peace education target group in refugee populations – refugee youth – to understand the violence they confront and their responses to it. Electronically: http://www.hri.ca/children/refugees/unhcr_peaceed.pdf

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Electronically: Article can be purchased at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/l03047l5212q2272/

Toh, Swee-Hin and Virginia Floresca-Cawagas (1987): Peace Education: A Framework for the Philippines. Quezon City: Phoenix Pub. House (94 pages).

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Toh, Swee-Hin (2001): Peace Building and Peace Education: Local Experiences, Global Reflections. Springer Netherlands, vol. 32, no. 1, March 2002.

Wintersteiner, Werner and Vedrana Spajić-Vrkaš (2003): Peace Education in Europe: Visions and Experiences. Münster, New York: Waxmann (365 pages).

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With this publication, the authors want to stimulate the discussion on peace education in Europe and to open a debate on the European dimension of this goal. In the first part, various approaches to peace education are discussed. In the second part eight case studies are presented from selected European countries, from both “Eastern” and “Western” Europe: Italy, Hungary, Germany, The Netherlands, France, Croatia, Spain and Austria, preceded by a comparative introduction.

Electronically: http://www.aspr.ac.at/eured/PeaceEdinEurope.pdf

World Vision Australia: Children and Peacebuilding: Experiences and Perspectives. Melbourne 2001: World Vision Australia (51 pages). This publication tells stories from around Colombia, Uganda, Indonesia and Montenegro of children as powerful peace makers.

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Hardcopy: World Vision Australia, GPO Box 399C, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australien

6. Country strategies to deal with education in situations of conflict 6.1 AFRICA

Dodge, Cole; Raundelen, Magne (1991): Reaching Children in War: Sudan, Uganda and Mozambique, Bergen: Sigma (160 pages).

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► Various Countries

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► Eritrea Gottesman, Les (1998): To Fight and Learn: The Promise and Praxis of Literacy in Eritrea’s Independence War. Lawrenceville, NJ. This book investigates the promise of education and the practice of educators-teachers, administrators, and educational policy makers-in the newly independent nation of Eritrea.

Hardcopy: Bookstore

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► Liberia Triplehorn, Carl ([2002] 2005): Leveraging Learning: Revitalizing Education in Post-Conflict Liberia. [no location:] IRC (International Red Cross), (80 pages). Review of the International Rescue Committee's Liberia Repatriation and Reintegration Education Program, 1998-2001.

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Electronically: http://www.ineesite.org/uploads/documents/store/doc_1_48_Leveraging_Learning__Liberia_Education.pdf

Felsman, J.K. (1991): Children and War Project – Maputo, Mozambique, in: Tolfee, D.: Refugee Children in Malawi. A Study for the Implementation of the UNHCR-Guidelines on Refugee Children. London: International Save the Children Alliance/UNHCR.

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► Mozambique

Cantwell, N. (1997): Starting from Zero: The Promotion and Protection of Children’s Rights in PostGenocide Rwanda, July 1994 - December 1996. Innocenti Insights. Florence: UNICEF International Child Development Centre.

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Obura, Anna (2003): Never Again: Educational Reconstruction in Rwanda. Paris: UNESCO IIEP (244 pages).

Strong political leadership is decisive in turning a country's education system around. Anna Obura's study traces the remarkable efforts in Rwanda to reconstruct the national education system after the 1994 genocide, and to right the wrongs of long decades of discrimination, exclusion and divisiveness practiced in schools. A unique feature of Rwanda's experience is the harnessing of historical research to guide educational policy, and to help understand the causes and the nature of the genocide so as to deliberately avoid re-occurrence. Electronically: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001330/133051e.pdf

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Rutayisire, John; Kabano, John; Rubagiza, Jolly (2004): redefining rwanda’s future: the role of curriculum in social reconstruction, in: Tawil, Sobhi; Harley, Alexandra (eds.): Education, Conflict and Social Cohesion. Geneva: UNESCO IBE.

Hardcopy: http://publishing.unesco.org/details.aspx?Code_Livre=4249#

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► Somalia Bennaars, Gerard A.; Mwangi, Doris; Seif, Huda A. (1996): The Somalia Case Study. Mid Decade Review of Progress Towards Education for All. Nairobi: UNESCO, Education for All Forum Secretariat, pp. 6-32. This document examines the concept of "Education For All" and its underlying vision emphasizing every person's right to benefit from educational opportunities, vis-a-vis the collapse of Somalia's educational and administrative infrastructure due to political and social disorder, conflicts, extreme poverty, etc. The report provides a background of Somalia's educational system, its subsequent collapse and current efforts to reconstruct it. This is a critical analysis of problems involved in the education process. Clearly presented is an evaluation of the state of education in Somalia and specific recommendations to facilitate and promote education for all. Electronically: http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/file_download.php/3ace319c2c78212bec6723a3aa01dc85 somaliaEFA.pdf

Bekalo, S. A.; Brophy, M.; Welford, A. G. (2003): The Development of Education in Postconflict Somaliland, in: International Journal of Educational Development 23, no. 4 (July 2003): 459 75. This paper examines factors affecting its realisation in the context of Somaliland. In a 'country' where over 80% of the school age population are receiving little meaningful education, the paper reflects on more flexible approaches to education to enable sustainable education for children and disadvantaged adults. The paper draws on fieldwork data from a DfID-funded study (DFID ED2000/107) and the authors' own experiences. The discussion highlights the peculiar circumstances of Somaliland. It charts the provision of Education in Somaliland from the colonial era through post-independence times to the civil conflict which led to the destruction of education in the country. It goes on to look at the progress being made at the present time following 'stop-gap' measures for emergency education towards revitalising enhanced education. It completes the picture by describing challenges to the achievement of the UBE target.The authors review aspects of alternative and flexible educational approaches and urge the integration of these non-formal systems with the formal, governmentally controlled school systems being restored in Somaliland. They do so while sounding a note of caution that for all the energy and enthusiasm associated with these approaches, they have yet to be evaluated for their effectiveness in providing in providing quality basic education.” Electronically: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/07380593/2003/00000023/00000004/art00016

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Retamal, Gonzalo and Mudiappasamy Devadoss (1998): Education in a Nation with Chronic Crisis: The Case of Somalia, in: Education as a Humanitarian Response, ed. Retamal, Gonazlo; Aedo-Richmond, Ruth, London: Cassell, p. 74-93.

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► Sudan Ahmad, Omar Al-Abid; El-Dassis, Ibrahim Suleiman; Hassan, Daf’allah Ahmad and Hassan, Ibtisam Mohamed. (1999): Report on Sudan. Education for All. The Year 2000 Assessment. Khartoum: Education for All Forum (www.unesco.org).

The study gives a detailed description on the education situation in Sudan, including the implications of the conflict on the provision of education.

Electronically: http://www2.unesco.org/wef/countryreports/sudan/contents.html

Baraka, Muhammad Zaayid and Mahmud, Ushari Ahmad (1995): Educating Displaced Children: An Opportunity for Building Peace? Case Study: Sudan. Mid-Decade Review of Progress towards Education for All. Khartoum: UNESCO, Education for All Forum Secretariat,12. “This report documents efforts to educate children who fled their homes in the 1990s because of civil war in Sudan. Current estimates place the number of displaced people at about two million. The document states that the displaced come from over 60 different ethno-linguistic groups. Many of these people do not speak Arabic and reside at present in the southern states, including the Transitional Zone of the Nuba Mountains and southern Dafur and the four official camps for the displaced in Khartoum State. The report states that the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Emergency Education Program works with 480,000 school-aged children in the principal regions with displaced communities. According to the report, there are an estimated 65,000 children who are "unaccompanied," either orphans or children separated from their families, and many live in territories still in conflict. The report gives the results of a case study on Sudan, in which education officials were interviewed and four official camps for displaced persons were visited. The case study reports the following: (1) an analysis of the principal partners and how they are involved in educating displaced children; (2) a consideration of the crucial question of language and curriculum; and (3) a development of the themes of the second section through a set of proposals that recognize a special opportunity to turn the education of displaced children into a chance to promote longterm peace. (Abstract)

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Federal Ministry of Education (2004): The Development of Education. National Report of Sudan, [no location].

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Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/10/a8/c4.pdf

Electronically: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/english/Natreps/reports/sudan_ocr.pdf

Joyner, Alison (1996): Supporting education in emergencies: a case study from southern Sudan, in: Eade, Deborah (ed.): Development in States of War. Oxford: Oxfam Publishing, p.90-95. The paper provides insights into the task of incorporating development goals into long-term work with refugee populations. According to the author the introduction of a flexible system for educating teachers offers an approach for human development that is not contingent upon investing in buildings that might not survive the war. She notes that, even in prolonged conflicts, depending on the nature of the warfare, societies will continue to ‘develop’ through crisis periods. If NGOs can also be flexible and mobile in their efforts, then improved education and training becomes an investment in people which can survive physical destruction.

Electronically: http://www.developmentinpractice.org/readers/DSW/DiP%20Reader%20StatWar%20text.pdf

Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2006): Education in Darfur: A critical component of humanitarian response. New York: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (8 pages). This publication provides observations and recommendations for the development of education in Darfur based on meetings with representatives from the Government of Sudan, UN agencies, international and local nongovernmental organizations and teachers, headmasters, students and community leaders. Recommendations include: - encouraging the international community to increase funding for formal and non-formal education; establishing more programming for youth-in collaboration with young people; and developing creative interim measures to ensure teachers are compensated. Electronically: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/dfeducrit.pdf Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

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Eversmann, E. (not dated): Report on Education of Refugees in Tanzania. Geneva: UNICEF.

Bird, Lyndsay (1999): Education in Emergencies: The Tanzanian Experience. Unpublished document, presented at the “Basic Education in Emergencies and Transition Situations” workshop, World Bank, Washington, D.C., March 16, 1999.

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► Tanzania

6.2 ASIA

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► Buthan Brown, Timothy (2001): Improving the Quality and Attainment in Refugee Schools: The Case of the Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal, in: Crisp, Jeff; Talbot, Christopher; Cipollone, Daiana B.,( eds): Learning for a Future: Refugee Education in Developing Countries, Geneva: United Nations. The study highlights the lack of consistent donor funding to maintain even the low-cost models of refugee education supported by UNHCR.

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Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/23/3e/a5.pdf Hardcopy: United Nations Publications, Sales & Marketing Section, Room C-113, Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.un.org/pubs/sales.htm Hart, Jason (2001): Bhutan: conflict, displacement and children. Refugee Studies Center, Oxford University, June 2001 (45 pages).

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Electronically: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/RSC_Oxford/data/RSC%20Reports%5CCAAC%20Bhutan% 20final%20report.pdf

Perera, Lal; Wijetunge, Swarna; Balasooriy, A.S. (2004): Education reform and political violence in Sri Lanka, in: Tawil, Sobhi; Harley, Alexandra (eds.): Education, Conflict and Social Cohesion. Geneva: UNESCO-IIEP.

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► Sri Lanka

Hardcopy: http://publishing.unesco.org/details.aspx?Code_Livre=4249#

Sibbons, Mo (2004): The delivery of education services in difficult environments: the case of Sri Lanka. Department for International Development Health Systems Resource Centre (DFID HSRC) (22 pages). This paper forms part of the 2004 DFID report on Service Delivery in Difficult Environments, undertaken by the Health Systems Resource Centre.

Electronically: www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/CC96.pdf

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Akopova, E.C. Alekseeva, L.N., Alimova, T.M. et al. (2001): Assessment report (Education in the Chechen Republic: Conditions, Problems, Perspectives of Restoration and Development), Moscow, Grosny: UNESCO (161 pages). Prepared with financial and technical support from UNESCO the reported assessment is aimed at implementing and adopting necessary approaches to restore and develop the system of education of Chechen Republic at present, as well as in the near and distant future. The study describes the present situation of the education system of the Chechen Republic, provision of children's rights at the international level during the period of armed conflicts and the priority areas of major investment. Field-based model to provide database about the conditions of regional education system. Electronically:http://chechnya.unesco.ru/books/assessment_report.pdf

Balegamire, Juvenal Bazilashe; Adelaide Dhorsan and Cristina Tembe (2004): Curriculum Reform, Political Change and Reinforcement of National Identity in Mozambique, in: Tawil, Sobhi; Harley, Alexandra (eds.): Education, Conflict and Social Cohesion. Geneva: UNESCO-IIEP, pp. 207-254.

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7. Research of effectiveness of education programmes in conflict, including the role of curriculum and pedagogy in conflict, conflict prevention, the role of teachers, as victims, as participants in conflict, management, planning monitoring strategies of delivery mechanisms

Hardcopy: http://publishing.unesco.org/details.aspx?Code_Livre=4249#

Lyby, Erik (2001): Vocational Training for Refugees: A Case Study from Tanzania, in: Crisp, Jeff; Talbot, Christopher; Cipollone, Daiana (eds.): Learning for a Future: Refugee Education in Developing Countries. Geneva: UNHCR. This study evaluates the ongoing formal and informal vocational training programs for Burundian refugees in Tanzania.

Electronically: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/23/3e/a5.pdf

Fountain, Susan (2000): The impact of conflict resolution education on children in armed conflict: opportunities and challenges in UNICEF projects, in: The Fourth R, vol. 93, Nov-Dec 2000, pp. 3-6.

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Examines the variability of Israeli schools' emergency preparedness and response to the Gulf War and the association of school culture with school effectiveness during this emergency. Policy guidelines should include recommendations for diagnosing and identifying dimensions of school culture (including religious beliefs and school ideology) that may affect response to emergencies.

Institute for Security Studies (ISS) (2004): Interact - Children in Armed Conflict. Review and Evaluation Workshop. Workshop Report, June 22, 2004. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies (12 pages). The objective of this workshop was to conduct an informal evaluation of Interact’s work with some of our stakeholders. The agenda included discussions of challenges and achievements, methodology, new discourses on children and youth in armed conflict and the current state of advocacy. Towards the end of the day-long workshop, the participants, who came from different governments, non-governmental and academic institutions, were asked to make recommendations on the way forward for advocacy and research on behalf of children and youth and armed conflicts. Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/CReports/2004/interactjun.pdf Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected] Kirk, J. (2004): Promoting a gender-just peace: the roles of women teachers in peace-building and reconstruction’, in: Gender and development, November 2004.

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Harrison, J.-A. and Kuint, S. (1998): School culture and school effectiveness in emergencies: lessons from Israeli experience during the Gulf War, in: School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 9, 2, 192–217.

Electronically: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/resources/downloads/gender_peacebuilding_and_reco nstruction_kirk.pdf

Kupermintz, Haggai; Salomon, Gavriel (2005): Lessons to be Learned from Research on Peace Education in the Context of Intractable Conflict. Theory into Practice, vol. 44, no. 4, 293-302 83

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Recent research on peace education entails important practical lessons about educational work in regions of intractable conflict. Peace education in this context must deal with collective narratives and deeply rooted historical memories and societal beliefs. Research findings from a series of studies with Israeli and Palestinian students and teachers demonstrate the challenges of attaining durable and worthwhile effects through educational activities: short-term benefits may erode over time, ongoing violence and hostility may block attempts to understand the opponent’s perspective, and power and status asymmetries may dictate incompatible agendas or prohibit a mutual common ground for constructive interaction. At the same time, these studies offer several promising directions to enhance the potential of carefully designed peace education programs. Such programs are likely to foster participants’ ability to acknowledge the adversary’s collective narrative, engage in constructive negotiations over issues of national identity, and express a less monolithic outlook of the conflict. Electronically: http://www.leaonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15430421tip4404_3?cookieSet=1

Niens, Ulrike; Cairns, Ed [no year indicated]: Conflict, Contact, and Education in Northern Ireland, Theory into Practice, 44(4), 337– 344 This article outlines educational responses to the conflict in Northern Ireland designed to promote intergroup harmony. Current research about the impact of these programs on children and young people is also reviewed to draw conclusions for practitioners in formal and informal educational settings who want to use intergroup contact to implement education for peace in the most effective way. The contact hypothesis has provided the theoretical framework for the majority of educational initiatives in Northern Ireland designed to promote peace, and it is used here to evaluate empirical evidence regarding the impact of such initiatives. In the main this evidence supports the importance of the key conditions for successful outgroup contact as originally proposed by the contact hypothesis. In addition, intergroup anxiety is identified as a factor mediating successful outgroup contact and attention is drawn to the potentially significant role of outgroup contact that is not experienced first hand, but indirectly through reports of relevant others. Electronically: http://www.leaonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15430421tip4404_7?cookieSet=1

Obura, Anna P. (2002): Peace Education Programme in Dadaab and Kakuma, Kenya. Geneva: Evaluation Summary, UNHCR. The purpose of the 2001 evaluation of the UNHCR Peace Education programme (PEP) was to determine if the programme had had any positive impact on peace building and conflict prevention during the four years of its existence in the Dadaab and Kakuma refugee camps. (From 1998 to 2001.) The second issue was whether refugees had learned peace-building skills. The specific objectives of the evaluation were: 1. To assess the impact of the programme on the beneficiaries; 2. to provide accountability to beneficiaries and donors. 3. to assist forward programming; 4. to contribute to the development of peace education in Africa; 4. To gather information relevant to donors for future funding decisions. The evaluation follows two previous exercises to assess the PEP community workshops (1999) and programme materials (2000). The current exercise is timely in the sense that the programme was adopted in 2001 by INEE, the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies.

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Salomon, Gavriel (2004): Does Peace Education Really Make a Difference? in: Peace and Conflict – The Journal of Peace Psychology, vol. 12, no. 1, April 2004. A discrepancy is pointed out between formidable and thus discouraging hurdles facing peace education in the context of intractable conflicts and actual, encouraging research findings of such programs. It is suggested that the hurdles pertain to the most deep-seated and thus unchangeable convictions constituting the backbone of a group’s collective narrative. On the other hand, the change-objects affected by peace education programs pertain to more peripheral attitudes and beliefs which are more easily changeable, more weakly associated with behaviors and thus less consequential.

Electronically: http://construct.haifa.ac.il/~cerpe/pub/papers/Does%20PE%20REALLY%20make%20a%20dif ference1.pdf Salomon, Gavriel; Haggai Kupermintz (2002): The Evaluation of Peace Education Programmes: Main Considerations and Criteria. University of Haifa, Centre for Research on Peace Education, April 2002. Peace education (PE) programs face formidable challenges. They strive to bring about and maintain meaningful changes in perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs, and consequently in behaviour (often, towards “the enemy”) in order to usher a "transition from a culture of war to a culture of peace". Such programs vary widely in their rationale, scope, duration, activities, target clientele, and explicit and implicit objectives. Naturally, PE programs will also vary in their effectiveness; some will succeed to enable profound transformations in people’s minds, hearts and behaviours, while others will be able to achieve only modest, often transient, improvements; other programs, still, will result, unintentionally, in negative outcomes. Electronically: http://construct.haifa.ac.il/~cerpe/pub/papers/PE%20prog%20eval.pdf

Valid International, commissioned by UNHCR Evaluation and Policy Unit : Meeting the Rights and Protection of Refugee Children: An Independent Evaluation of the Impact of UNHCR's Activities. Geneva: UNHCR, 2000 (12 pages)

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Electronically: http://www.unhcr.org/publ/RESEARCH/3e1a9fd0b.pdf Hardcopy: Dr. Anna P. Obura, PO Box 31, Karen 00502, Nairobi, Kenya Tel (254) 2 884267 / 882284, [email protected]

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Electronically: www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/research/opendoc.pdf?tbl=RESEARCH&id=3cd6366c4 -Full report: www.unhcr.org Hardcopy: Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Case Postale 2500, CH-1211 Geneva 2 Dépôt; e-mail: [email protected]

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This publication documents internet forum discussions focused on how to maximise access to and quality of education in situations of emergency and reconstruction. The discussion was organised around four topics, one per week: maximising access to education and ensuring inclusion; using education as a tool of child protection; planning the introduction of life skills education (including education for health, peace, human rights, citizenship); pobilising resources for emergency education. Electronically: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/focus/emergency/PDF/for_rep_04.pdf

Snider, Lesly; Triplelhorn, Carl (2002): Assessment of CCF’s Emergency Entry Program into Afghanistan: Its Impact on Child Well-Being and Protection. Richmond, VA, U.S.A.: Christian Children’s Fund (54 pages).

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Sinclair, Margaret (2004): Planning education, before, in and after emergencies. Paris: IIEP, UNESCO (24 pages).

Electronically: http://www.christianchildrensfund.org/uploadedFiles/Public_Site/news/Publications/Afghanista n.pdf

Sommers, Marc (2004): Coordinating education during emergencies and reconstruction: challenges and responsibilities. Paris: UNESCO (119 pages). In this book, the coordination, or lack of coordination, of education during both emergencies and the early reconstruction period is examined. What constitutes effective and poor coordination is also analysed, with suggestions for enhancing coordination of education in emergency and post-conflict settings. This includes the need to recognize that coordinated education systems are unlikely to be achieved unless education authorities are willing to decline aid that does not help fulfil the objectives of their agreed and announced plans.

Electronically: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/136154.pdf?class=IIEP_PDF_recent&page=A245&estat _url=http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/136154.pdf

Sommers, Marc (2002): Youth: Care & Protection of Children in Emergencies: A Field Guide, Children in Crisis Unit, Washington D.C: Save the Children (52 pages). This field guide to Youth Programs in Emergencies provides lessons learned in this area to date, and is a complement to more specific guides in this series such as Child Soldiers and Education.

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Spink, Jeannine (2005): Education and politics in Afghanistan: the importance of an education system in peacebuilding and reconstruction, in: Journal of Peace Education, vol. 2, no. 2 / September 2005, p. 195-207. “More than four million children returned to school in the first two years of ‘peace’ in Afghanistan. Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent by the United Nations and other international donors on ensuring the physical provision of schools for children. However in 2005, three years into ‘the new era for Afghanistan’, teachers continue to teach ethnic hatred and intolerance. The textbooks continue to be highly politicised, promoting social divisions and violence, seemingly unnoticed by the International Community, whose expensive investments fuel rather than restrain this problem. A new curriculum for Afghanistan together with upgraded teacher capacities are the most pertinent factors to ensure that peace is established and maintained in the country. This will ensure that the new generation of Afghans learns a sense of social responsibility and national pride, incorporating ideas of unity in diversity and not an intolerance of perceived ‘difference’ based on militant ideologies.

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Electronically: http://savethechildren.com/publications/technical-resources/emergenciesprotection/YouthFieldGuide.pdf

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8. The role of international agencies and non-governmental organizations. Global policy, including the INEE network Aboagye, Festus B.; Bah, Alhaji M. S (2004): Liberia at a Crossroads: A preliminary look at the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) and the protection of civilians (ISS Paper Nr. 95). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. “This paper is a preliminary attempt to look at the role of the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) in the protection of civilians. In this vein, the paper will briefly explore the political and diplomatic developments leading to the deployment of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Mission in Liberia (ECOMIL), its mandate and its impact on the Liberian peace process. The paper then focuses on the UNMIL, particularly its broad mandate, deployment and the implementation of critical peacekeeping and peace-building tasks, notably disarmament, demobilisation, rehabilitation and reintegration (DDRR), reform of the security sector, issues of human rights as well as the rule of law and transitional justice. These issues will be analysed with the aim of highlighting their crucial importance to the overall peace process in general and the protection of civilians in particular. Also contains information on child soldiers.” [From the paper] Electronically: http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/95/Paper95.htm Hardcopy: Institute for Security Studies, P.O. Box 1787, Brooklyn Square, Pretoria 0075, South Africa, e-mail: [email protected]

Anderson, Allison and Beverly Roberts (2005): The Inter-Agency Network on Education in Emergencies, in: Forced Migration Review 22 (January 2005), p. 8s.

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The article describes how the Inter-Agency Network on Education in Emergencies evolved and developed.

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Electronically: http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR22/FMR22full.pdf

Aguilar, Pilar; Richmond, Mark (1998): Rapid Educational Response in Complex Emergencies. A Discussion Document. Hamburg: UNESCO-IBE, UNESCO-UIE, UNICEF, UNHCR (48 pages). Part I of this book deals with basic policy instruments and framework for education in complex emergencies, part II with phased development of the basic education programmes, part III with supplementary survival packages and part IV with the physical educational environment. Electronically: http://www.the-ecentre.net/resources/e_library/doc/retamal.pdf

International Bureau for Children's Right (IBRC) (2000): The Protection of War-Affected Children: Securing Children’s Rights in the Context of Armed Conflict. Report of the First Hearings, Colchester, U.K., April 3-6, 2000. Montréal: IBCR (70 pages). The report describes the activities of the Bureau for Children’s Right, which has developed the International Tribunal for Children’s Rights, an intervention mechanism for conducting enquiries and proposing practical solutions to specific violations of children’s rights.

Electronically: http://www.ibcr.org/Colchester_Hearings.pdf Hardcopy: International Bureau for Children's Right, 1185 Saint Mathieu Street, Montréal, QC H3H 2P7, Canada, e-mail: [email protected]

Bird, Lyndsay (2003): Surviving School: Education for refugee children from Ruanda (1994-1996). Paris: UNESCO IIEP (720 pages). The study investigates how education for refugee children emerged and developed after the genocide in Rwanda caused hundreds of thousands to flee to neighbouring countries. The study focuses on Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the period from 1994-1996, when the vast majority of refugees returned to Rwanda. The book highlights conflicting roles that governments and agencies have played in the process of addressing the educational needs of refugee children and the often limited role played by the refugees themselves in this process. Electronically: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/Rwanda_ss.pd

Jones, Phillip W, Coleman, David (2005): The United Nations and Education: Multilateralism, Development and Globalization, London: RoutledgeFalmer, Taylor and Francis Group (356 pages). 88

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This book examines the four key agencies within the UN system that share the vital role of addressing educational futures: UNESCO, the World Bank, UNICEF and UNDP. The history of each agency's commitment to education is explored, with particular attention paid to the post-Cold war period, during which each agency has needed to re-think the impact of globalisation on both its modes of operation as well as the content of its education policies. Just as education policy itself has been subject to the impact of globalisation, so to has each agency had to adapt at a time when not only education but also their own mandates have been thrown open to question.

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Kemper, Yvonne (2005): Youth in War-To-Peace Transitions. Approaches by International Organisations. Berlin: Berghof Forschungszentrum für konstruktive Konfliktbearbeitung (72 pages). This study deals with youth in war-to-peace transitions and the response of international organizations to them. While youth’s relevance for societal transformation is a longacknowledged fact, their large numbers and potential roles in conflict have recently caused organizations to consider them a target group for peace and development programs. Reflecting on this process, this study thus assesses the difficulties in conceptualizing the role of youth in peace-building processes on the one hand and the concrete efforts of international organizations to integrate them into their policies and programs on the other. For this purpose, it explores four guiding questions: First, what approaches have international organizations developed regarding youth? Second, on which assumptions about youth and their role in violent conflicts are they based? Third, how do the different approaches affect program development, and, fourth, are they are compatible? Also focuses on former child soldiers. Electronically: http://www.berghof-center.org/publications/reports/complete/BR10e.pdf Hardcopy: Berghof Forschungszentrum für konstruktive Konfliktbearbeitung, Altensteinstraße 48a, 14195 Berlin, e-mail: [email protected]

Lexow, Jane (2002): Issues, dilemmas and ways forward in emergency education. Thematic study for (LINS/DECO/NCG) NORAD. Oslo: Norad (56 pages). The paper has been prepared at the request of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). The main purpose of the paper has been to set the scene for discussion of policies and principles for emergency education and not at least how emergency education is funded in a broader development perspective. The paper presents international policies, commitments and institutional strategies with a particular focus on the large multilateral agencies such as UNHCR, UNICEF and UNESCO. The report also provides an argument for donors to become more active in funding education as an early intervention when an acute humanitarian crisis has come to an end and a process of reintegration and political and economic recovery has begun. The funding “gap” between relief and recovery seems particularly critical as far as education is concerned.

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Electronically: http://www.lins.no/db/pdf/report200207.pdf

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Pigozzi, Maria Joy (1999): Education in Emergencies and for Reconstruction: A developmental approach. UNICEF Working Papers, New York: UNICEF (30 pages). The paper outlines a set of broad strategies for UNICEF’s work in education in emergencies, and provides a summary of the organization’s approach, some practical information on implementation, and an identification of areas where more work is needed. It is intended to provide information and to stimulate the debate on how UNICEF’s approach to education in situations of crisis and chronic instability can be further refined. The publication views emergencies and early reconstruction as opportunities for transformation of education systems.

Save the Children Norway-Nepal (2005): Working with “Local Governance” in a Conflict Situation: The Experience of Save the Children Norway in Nepal, in: Children, Youth and Environment 15(2).

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Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/girlseducation/files/EducEmerg.PDF

UNICEF (2005): The impact of conflict on women and girls in West and Central Africa and the UNICEF response. UNICEF: New York (44 pages). Following a description of conflicts in West and Central Africa this study describes UNICEF‘s role and its efforts for prevention, protection and rehabilitation.

Electronically: http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Impact_final.pdf

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Bensalah, Kacem (2002): Guidelines for Education in Situations of Emergency and Crisis. EFA Strategic Planning, Paris: UNESCO.

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Guidelines, Kits, Tools, Source Books

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Electronically: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128214e.pdf

Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR) (2003): Children in war information kit. Geneva : Comité international de la Croix-Rouge. The kit describes those activities carried out by the ICRC to restore family links, provide care and protect unaccompanied children and child soldiers, among others. As both a work tool and a source of information, it covers the legal protection of children in situations of armed conflict and contains a summary of those provisions of international humanitarian law that apply specifically to children.

Hardcopy: Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR), Département de la Communication, unité 'Production, Marketing, Distribution', 19 avenue de la Paix, 1202 Genf, Schweiz, e-mail: [email protected] Avery, A.; Bobillier, C.; Sinclair, M. (1996): Source Book for refugee skill training. Geneva: UNHCR.

INEE (Interagency Network for Emergency Education) (undated): Technical Resource Kit for Emergency Education. INEE, UNICEF, UNESCO, UNHCR (25 pages)

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Electronically: http://www.icrc.org/WEB/ENG/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/p0577K?OpenDocument &style=Custo_Final.4&View=defaultBody2

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INEE (International Network on Education in Emergencies) (2004): Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies, Chronic Crisis and Early Reconstruction, UNESCO: Paris (78 pages). The Minimum Standards are the result of two years of consultative work facilitated by the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) Working Group on Minimum Standards, involving over 2,250 individuals from more than 50 countries. The standards, indicators and guidance notes articulate the minimum level of educational access and service to be attained in emergencies through to early reconstruction. The standards represent a universal tool to define a minimum level of educational quality and help ensure the right to education for people affected by crisis. Gender is a theme that cuts across all the categories of the Minimum Standards. Because of their grounding in the CRC and Education for All commitments, meeting any of the standards necessarily implies doing so for all affected children and adults. There are also standards which have especially positive impacts for girls, such as Teaching and Learning Standard 3: “Ensure that instruction is learner-centered, participatory and inclusive.” Gender concerns are made more explicit in other standards. Access is clearly a priority issue (Access Standard 1), but attention to women’s participation in community consultation and education support (Community Participation, Standards 1 & 2), to the facilities (Access Standard 3), the content of the curriculum (Teaching and Learning Standards 1 & 3) and the recruitment and support of women teachers (Teachers and Other Education Personnel, Standard 1) also convey the need for gender to be considered in all components and in all dimensions of education provision. From the onset of an emergency, an in-depth gender-based analysis of the situation is required. Electronically: www.ineesite.org/standards/MSEE_report.pdf Hardcopy:

Reproductive Health Response in Conflict Consortium, Women Commission (2003): Gender-based Violence Tools Manual. For Assessment & Program Design, Monitoring & Evaluation in conflict-affected settings, Reproductive Health Response in Conflict Consortium. New York: RHRC Consortium (205 pages).

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Electronically: http://www.ineesite.org/page.asp?pid=1345

Electronically: http://www.rhrc.org/resources/gbv/gbv_tools/manual_toc.html Hardcopy: Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 122 East 42nd Street, 12th Floor, New York, NY 10168-1289, United States, e-mail: [email protected]

International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEPI) (2006): Guidebook for planning education in emergencies and reconstruction. UNESCO IIEP: Paris (720 pages)

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Electronically: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/focus/emergency/guidebook/guidebook.pdf Individual chapters: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/focus/emergency/guidebook.htm

UNHCR (2005): Revised Guidelines for Educational Assistance to Refugees. UNHCR: Geneva.

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“This publication is designed as a practical tool with comprehensive guidance notes, checklists of useful strategies and best practices to allow education ministry staff and other stakeholders to respond quickly to crises. It is part of IIEP's pioneering research programme on educational planning in emergencies and reconstruction, and draws on case studies from areas as diverse as Kosovo, Southern Sudan, Timor-Leste and Rwanda. The 38 user-friendly chapters cover the following four subject themes: Access and Inclusion, Teachers and Learners, Curriculum and Learning and Management Capacity. They cover issues such as former child soldiers, psychosocial support to learners, curriculum content and review processes, planning processes, education management information systems and budget and financial management. Each chapter can be consulted either in conjunction with other chapters as an ensemble or as self-contained topics. The Guidebook was developed by IIEP in collaboration with a high-level team of recognized specialists, representing researchers and practitioners from institutions, agencies and ministries across the world.”

UNHCR, Save the Children (2002): Note for Implementing and Operational Partners by UNHCR and Save the Children-UK on Sexual Violence and Exploitation : The Experience of Refugee Children in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. UNHCR and Save the Children UK.

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Electronically: http://www.pitt.edu/~ginie/unhcr/pdf/rgfeatr.pdf

Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/scuk_cache/scuk/cache/cmsattach/1550_unhcrscuk%20wa frica%20report.pdf

Visman, Emma on behalf of Save the Children (2005): Reaching all. Core principles for working with children associated with armed groups and forces. London: Save the Children (12 pages). This report highlights that the risks of conflict impacting directly on children has greatly increased, as has the involvement of children in hostilities. Children are used in a variety of roles, for example as cooks, porters and spies, and for sexual services. This paper outlines the critical issues for children associated with armed groups and forces. It argues that family unity and community-based approaches offer the best opportunity for durable reintegration and protection. Such approaches demand continued support during, and even long after, the end of violent conflict

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Electronically: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/scuk_cache/scuk/cache/cmsattach/2746_Reaching%20All %20-%20March%202005.pdf http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC19370.htm

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Bibliographies Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2005): Child Soldiers Bibliography. London: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (39 pages). This bibliography lists mainly Anglophone material, published after the mid 90ties until January 2005.

Benefield, P. ;Tomlinson, K. (2005): Education and Conflict: Research and Research Possibilities. National Foundation for Educational Research, January 2005. National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) undertook this project for a scoping study of existent and potential research into the relationship between education and conflict, peace building and post-conflict situations, both nationally and internationally. Within this aim, the project investigates the main research dimensions of this area, identifies a big gap between research and practice, and summarises key findings that emerge from the literature. Electronically: http://www.nfer.ac.uk/publications/other-publications/downloadablereports/pdf_docs/ECO.PDF Hardcopy: Bista, M. B.(2004): A Review of Research Literature on Girls’ Education in Nepal. Bangkok/Kathmandu: UNESCO (50 pages).

Electronically: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001386/138640e.pdf

Bjerstedt, A. (2001): Educating Towards a Culture of Peace: a Selective Bibliography Focusing on the Last 25 Years. Malmo: Lund University, Malmo School of Education.

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Electronically: http://www.child-soldiers.org/resources/solereport-jan05.pdf

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Buckland, Peter (??? ) Education in Emergencies and for Reconstruction: An Annotated Listing of Information Sources, New York: UNICEF Education Section.

Kohl, Christoph (2005): Annotierte Bibliographie und Link-Sammlung zur Kindersoldaten-Thematik. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (56 pages). Comprehensive annotated bibliography of mostly Anglophone publications about child soldiers

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Merabet, Hind; Gatak, Saran (2001): Children and armed conflict bibliography. New York: Social Science Research Council (164 pages).

Elektronically: http://www.ssrc.org/programs/children/publications/CAC-Bibliography.pdf

Talbot, C. (2005): Recent research and current research gaps, in: Forced Migration Review 22.

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Comprehensive bibliography with literature until May 2001.

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Electronically: http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR22/FMR22full.pdf

Internet Sites This list of sites may be of wider interest.

Global Information Networks in Education (GINIE) GINIE serves as a ‘virtual learning community’ for education innovation in nations in crisis and transition. It uses internet-based technology to build a capacity for rapid access to information and expertise for education professionals working internationally in nations in crisis and at risk to disruption. http://www.ginie.org/

id21 id21 is a free development research reporting service, providing UK-resourced research on developing countries, enabled by DfID and hosted by the Institute of Development Studies http://www.id21.org/index.html Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) INEE was established to ‘promote access and completion of education of high quality for all persons affected by emergencies, crises or chronic instability’ http://www.ineesite.org/default.asp

UNITED NATIONS Office of the Special Representative for Children and Armed Conflict http://www.un.org/special-rep/children-armed-conflict/English/

UNITED NATIONS The United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children http://www.violence.org

UNICEF Child protection in emergencies – education and recreation http://www.unicef.org/supply/index_cpe_education.html Girls education – emergencies http://www.unicef.org/girlseducation/index_focus_emergencies.html

UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) A UNESCO centre for training and research, specialized in educational planning and management. On education in emergencies and reconstruction, IIEP provided research and training to help achieve education for all in conflict affected countries; collaborates with numerous national and local 96

educational actors on activities in conflict-affected countries and builds capacity and raises awareness. http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/focus/emergency/emergency_1.htm IIEP’s Curriculum Change and Social Cohesion in Conflict-affected Societies project includes seven case study analyses of curriculum making with a peacebuilding approach (which address connections between violent conflict and schooling, and factors that shape curriculum reform intended to improve social cohesion.) The case studies examine Bosnia-Herzegovina, Guatemala, Lebanon, Mozambique, Nothern Ireland, Rwanda, and Sri Lanka. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/Regional/social_cohesion/schome.htm Children in Armed Conflict This European Research Network grew out of the international research seminar, ‘Filling the Knowledge Gaps: a Research Agenda on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children’, convened in Florence, 2–4 July 2001. The website hosts a database of research activities by partner institutions and seeks to facilitate the highlighting of areas where research has focussed, as well as clarifying knowledge gaps and potential areas for enhanced collaborative research. http://www.childreninarmedconflict.org/about/index.ht

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