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Idea Transcript


ANTHROPOMETRIC AND MATURATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF FEMALE GYMNASTS FROM VARYING PERFORMANCE LEVELS

by

KATHERINE SUSAN GACUK CAMERON Honours Degree B . P . H . E . , Lakehead University,

1975

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES School of Physical Education and Recreation We accept this thesis as conforming to the required

standards

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA March, ©

1981

Katherine S. Cameron,

1981

In

presenting

requirements

this thesis

f o r an a d v a n c e d

of

British

it

freely available

agree for

that

Columbia,

f o r reference

the L i b r a r y

shall

and study.

I

f o r extensive

p u r p o s e s may

f u l f i l m e n t of the

degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y

I agree that

permission

scholarly

in partial

for

that

of this

thesis

n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

S.AC_Jl

,

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e V a n c o u v e r , Canada V6T 1W5

Date

It is

shall

permission.

Department o f

thesis

be g r a n t e d by t h e h e a d o f my

copying or publication

f i n a n c i a l gain

further

copying of t h i s

d e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . understood

make

f o

Group 1

vs

Group 2.

.14).

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1

vs

Group 2, the highly s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate F (p < .0003) was due to the trunk length difference (univariate p < .001) (univariate p < .002).

and the thigh length difference

A l l other height and length differences for this

contrast were not s i g n i f i c a n t (p's >

.34).

The results of this study p a r t i a l l y support the above hypothesis that measures of height and length are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among the four groups, with primary support due to differences noted in the trunk

.•

length measure, and secondary support due to differences noted in the s i t t i n g height and the thigh length measures. National e l i t e , pre-national e l i t e , and lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to recreational gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y shorter in mean trunk length (3.1 cm). National e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, taken together,

in

comparison to lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y shorter in mean trunk length (3.4 cm) and s i t t i n g height (2.6 cm). National e l i t e gymnasts in comparison to pre-national

elite

gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y shorter in mean trunk length (2.1 cm) and s i g n i f i c a n t l y longer in mean thigh length (3.3 cm).

121

II

Breadth, Width, and Depth Measures Hypothesis 4 The measures of breadth, width, and depth are s i g n i f i c a n t l y different among national e l i t e , pre-national e l i t e , lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts. Table 7 presents the observed c e l l means and standard deviations

for the six breadth, width, and depth measures. Table 8 presents the multivariate

and univariate analysis of

covariance results f o r the breadth, width, and depth measures for each preplanned orthogonal contrast, using chronological age as the covariate.

Group 1 + 2 + 3 1+2+3

vs

vs

Group 4.

In the orthogonal contrast Group

Group 4, the s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate

to the bi-epicondylar femur width difference

F (p < .01) was due

(univariate

p < .002).

All

other breadth, width, and depth differences f o r this contrast were not s i g n i f i c a n t (p's > .09). Group 1 + 2 vs

vs

Group 3.

Group 3, the multivariate

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 + 2

F was not s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .14), indicating

that differences in the breadth, width, and depth measures, for this contrast, were not s i g n i f i c a n t .

It is of interest to note however, that

irrespective of the multivariate

a n a l y s i s , univariate analysis

p < .007) shows the b i i l i o c r i s t a l

(univariate

breadth difference to be s i g n i f i c a n t for

this contrast.

Group 1

vs

Group 2.

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 vs

Group 2, the highly s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate

F (p < .005) was due to the

anterior-posterior chest depth difference (univariate

p < .0008).

All

TABLE 7 OBSERVED CELL MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR BREADTH, WIDTH, AND DEPTH MEASURES Group 2

3

4

1+2

1+2+3

(n=15)

(n=13)

(n=20)

(n=21)

(n=28)

(n=48)

X s.d.

34.1 1.6

33.4 2.1

34.8 1.5

34.6 1.8

33.8 1.9

34.2 1.8

X s.d.

24.0 1.3

23.5 2.1

25.2 1.4

25.3 1.9

23.8 1.7

24.4 1.7

X s.d.

23.0 1.2

22.6 1.5

23.7 1.3

23.4

23.2

1.4

22.8 1.4

Bi-epicondylar Humerus Width

X s.d.

6.1 .4

5.9 .4

6.1 .3

6.1 .3

6.0 .4

6.1 .4

Bi-epicondylar Femur Width

X s.d.

8.4 .3

8.3 .5

8.4 .3

8.7 .4

8.3 .4

8.4 .4

Anterior-Posterior

X s.d.

14.2 1.0

15.7 1.5

15.5 1.4

15.4 1.2

14.9 1.4

15.2

Variables (cm.)

Biacromial

Breadth

Biiliocristal

Breadth

Transverse Chest Width

Chest Depth

1.4

1.4

ro ro

TABLE 8 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RESULTS FOR BREADTH, WIDTH, AND DEPTH MEASURES FOR EACH PREPLANNED ORTHOGONAL CONTRAST Orthogonal 1+2+3 vs 4

Contrasts

1+2 vs 3

1 vs 2

p <

.01

.14

.005

Biacromial Breadth

p <

.80

.07

.66

Biiliocristal

p <

.09

.007

.98

Transverse Chest Width

p <

.92

.02

.85

Bi-epicondylar Humerus Width

p <

.90

.39

.27

Bi-epicondylar Femur Width

p <

,002

.64

.66

Anterior-Posterior

p <

.71

.16

.0008

Multivariate Univariates

Breadth

Chest Depth

124

other breadth, width, and depth differences for this contrast were not s i g n i f i c a n t (p's >

.27).

The results of this study p a r t i a l l y support the above hypothesis that measures of breadth, width, and depth are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among the four groups, with primary support due to differences noted in the b i epicondylar femur width and the anterior-posterior chest depth measures. National e l i t e ,

pre-national e l i t e ,

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to recreational gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in mean bi-epicondylar femur width (.3

cm).

National e l i t e gymnasts in comparison to pre-national

elite

gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in mean anterior-posterior chest depth (1.5 cm). Although a number of d i f f e r e n c e s , with respect to the breadth, width, and depth measures, were noted between the national e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, taken together, and the lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, none of these differences was s i g n i f i c a n t and thus the results of this contrast do not support the stated hypothesis.

Ill

Girth Measures Hypothesis 5 The measures of girth are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among national e l i t e , pre-national e l i t e , lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts. Table 9 presents the observed c e l l means and standard deviations

for the eleven girth measures. Table 10 presents the multivariate

and univariate analysis of

covariance results for the g i r t h measures for each preplanned orthogonal contrast, using chronological age as the covariate.

TABLE 9 OBSERVED CELL MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GIRTH MEASURES Group 2

3

4

1+2

1+2+3

(n=15)

(n=13)

(n=20)

(n=21)

(n=28)

(n=48)

Variables (cm.)

Relaxed Arm Girth

X s.d.

23.4 1.5

23.0 2.3

24.6 ' 2.3

24.5 2.3

23.2 1.9

23.8 2.2

Flexed Arm Girth

X s.d.

25.0 1.4

24.7 2.4

26.0 2.1

25.6 2.1

24.8 1.9

25.3 2.1

Forearm Girth

X s.d.

22.1 1.1

21.5 1.7

22.7 1.4

22.3 1.2

21.8 1.4

22.2 1.5

Wrist Girth

X s.d.

14.5 .6

14.2 .9

14.5 .6

14.4 .6

14.3 .8

14.4 .7

Chest Girth

X s.d.

78.3 4.7

78.3 6.1

81.5 5.6

80.5 6.0

78.3 5.3

79.7 5.6

Waist Girth

X s.d.

61.1 3.2

62.6 6.5

63.9 4.2

64.9 5.4

61.8 4.9

62.7 4.7

ro

TABLE 9 CONTINUED

Group 1

2

3

4

1+2

1+2+3

(n=15)

(n=13)

(n=20)

(n=21)

(n=28)

(n=48)

Variables (cm.)

Thigh Girth

X s.d.

47.1 3.0

47.1 4.3

50.8 5.1

51.9 4.4

47.1 3.6

48.7 4.6

Calf Girth

X s.d.

30.2 2.9

31.3 3.1

31.7 2.0

32.6 1.8

30.7 3.0

31.1 2.7

Ankle Girth

X s.d.

19.2 1.1

19.4 1.5

19.7 1.1

20.0 .9

19.3 1.3

19.5 1.2

Head Girth

X" s.d.

53.5 .8

52.7 1.4

53.2 1.3

53.9 1.4

53.1 1.2

53.1 1.2

Neck Girth

X s.d.

29.8 1.0

29.6 2.2

30.6 1.6

30.3 1.6

29.7 1.6

30.1 1.7

TABLE 10 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RESULTS FOR GIRTH MEASURES FOR EACH PREPLANNED ORTHOGONAL CONTRAST Orthogonal Contrasts 1+2+3 vs 4

1+2 vs 3

1 vs

P <

.0004

.29

.04

Relaxed Arm Girth

P <

.42

.04

.92

Flexed Arm Girth

P <

.99

.06

.77

Forearm Girth

P <

.95

.04

.44

Wrist Girth

P <

.64

.52

.51

Chest Girth

P <

.87

.05

.34

Waist Girth

P <

.18

.18

.16

Thigh Girth

P <

.01

.004

.43

Calf Girth

P <

.05

.20

.07

Ankle Girth

P <

.10

.28

.49

Head Girth

P <

.03

.93

.13

Neck Girth

P <

.91

.08

.94

Multivariate Univariates

128

Group 1 + 2 + 3 1+2+3

vs

vs

Group 4.

In the orthogonal contrast Group

Group 4, the highly s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate

F (p < .0004)

was due primarily to the thigh girth difference (univariate

p < .01) with

some contribution from the head girth difference (univariate

p < .03).

All

other girth differences f o r this contrast were not s i g n i f i c a n t (p's > .05).

Group 1 + 2

vs

Group 3.

vs Group 3, the multivariate

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 + 2

F was not s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .29), indicating

.

that differences in the girth measures, f o r this contrast, were not significant. multivariate

It i s of interest to note however, that irrespective of the a n a l y s i s , univariate analysis (univariate

p < .004) shows the

thigh girth difference to be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r this contrast. Group 1

vs

Group 2.

Group 2, the multivariate

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 ' vs

F was not s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .04), indicating that

differences in the g i r t h measures, for this contrast, were not s i g n i f i c a n t . The results of this study p a r t i a l l y support the above hypothesis that measures of girth are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

among the four groups,

with primary support due to the difference noted in the thigh girth measure. National e l i t e ,

pre-national e l i t e ,

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to recreational gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in thigh girth

(3.2 cm).

Although a number of differences, with respect to the girth measures, were noted between national e l i t e and pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts, taken

together, and lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts; and between national

elite

a/.nd pre-national ..elite gymnasts, none of these" differences was s i g n i f i c a n t and thus the results o f these contrasts do not support.the stated hypothesis.

129

IV

Skinfold Thickness Measures Hypothesis 6 The measures of skinfold thickness are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among national e l i t e , pre-national e l i t e , lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts. Table 11 presents the observed c e l l means and standard deviations

for the six skinfold thickness measures. Table 12 presents the multivariate and univariate

analysis of

covariance results f o r the skinfold thickness measures f o r each preplanned orthogonal contrast, using chronological age as the covariate.

Group 1 + 2 + 3 1+2+3

vs

vs

Group 4.

In the orthogonal contrast Group

Group 4, the highly s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate F (p < .0001)

was due to a l l of the skinfold thickness differences; the triceps (univariate p < .0001), subscapular (univariate p < .001), s u p r a i l i a c (univariate p < .009), abdominal (univariate p < .0002), front thigh (univariate p < .0001), and medial c a l f (univariate p < .0001).

Group 1 + 2 vs

vs

Group 3.

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 + 2

Group 3, the s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate F (p < .01) was due primarily to

the triceps (univariate p < .001), s u p r a i l i a c (univariate p < .009), abdominal

(univariate p < .003), front thigh (univariate p < .004), and

medial c a l f (univariate p < .002) skinfold thickness d i f f e r e n c e s , with some contribution from the subscapular skinfold thickness difference

(univariate

p < .02).

Group 1

vs

Group 2.

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 vs

Group 2, the multivariate F was not s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < .98), indicating that

differences in the skinfold measures, f o r this contrast, were not s i g n i f i c a n t .

TABLE 11 OBSERVED CELL MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR SKINFOLD THICKNESS MEASURES Group 1

2

(n=15)

(n=13)

3 (n=20)

4 (n=21)

1+2

1+2+3

(n=28)

(n=48)

Variables (mm.)

Triceps Skinfold

X s.d.

7.0 1.5

6.7 1.1

9.3 1.9

11.5 3.5

Subscapular Skinfold

X s.d.

5.5 1.1

5.8 1.2

8.0 2.4

9.9 5.5

6.6 2.1

Suprailiac Skinfold

X s.d.

4.0 1.2

4.0 1.0

6.6 3.9

7.5 4.2

5.1 2.9

Abdominal Skinfold

X s.d.

5.0 1.3

4.9 1.2

9.0 4.9

11.7 6.1

5.0 1.2

6.7 3.9

Front Thigh Skinfold

X s.d.

11.2 3.2

11.4 3.3

15.5 4.6

19.3 6.0

11.3 3.2

13.1 4.3

Medial Calf Skinfold

X s.d.

6.4 1.9

6.2 1.6

8.9 1.9

10.9 4.2

6.3 1.7

7.4 2.2

6.9 1.4

7.9 2.0

GO

o

TABLE 12 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RESULTS FOR SKINFOLD THICKNESS MEASURES FOR EACH PREPLANNED ORTHOGONAL CONTRAST Orthogonal 1+2+3 vs 4

Contrasts

1+2 vs 3

1 vs 2

P <

.0001

.01

.98

Triceps Skinfold

P <

.0001

,001

.94

Subscapular Skinfold

P <

.001

.02

.65

Suprailiac Skinfold

P <

.009

,009

.71

Abdominal Skinfold

P <

.0002

,003

.76

Front Thigh Skinfold

P <

.0001

.004

.65

Medial Calf Skinfold

P <

.0001

.002

.89

Multivariate Univariates

00

132

The results of this study p a r t i a l l y

support the above hypothesis

that measures of skinfold thickness are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among the four groups, with primary support due to differences noted in the t r i c e p s , s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f skinfold thickness measures, and secondary support due to differences noted in the subscapular skinfold thickness measure. National

elite,

gymnasts, taken together,

pre-national

elite,

in comparison to recreational

s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in mean triceps (3.6 s u p r a i l i a c (2.4 c a l f (3.5

and lesser s k i l l e d

cm), abdominal

(5.0

competitive

gymnasts, are

cm), subscapular (3.3

cm), front thigh (6.2

cm),

cm), and medial

cm) skinfold thickness measures. National

e l i t e and pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts, taken together,

in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, are smaller in mean triceps (2.4 front thigh (4.2

cm), s u p r a i l i a c (2.6

cm), and medial c a l f (2.6

significantly

cm), abdominal

(4.0

cm),

cm) skinfold thickness measures.

Although a number of d i f f e r e n c e s , with respect to the skinfold thickness measures, were noted between national

e l i t e and pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts, none of these differences was s i g n i f i c a n t and thus the results of this contrast do not support the stated hypothesis.

V

Weight and Proportional Mass Measures Hypothesis 7 The measures of weight and proportional mass are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among national e l i t e , pre-national e l i t e , lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts. Table 13 presents the observed c e l l means and standard deviations

for the single weight and the four proportional mass measures.

TABLE 13 OBSERVED CELL MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR WEIGHT AND PROPORTIONAL MASS MEASURES Group 1

2

(n=15)

(n=13)

X s.d.

43.7 5.3

'

X s.d.

Mass *

.

3

4

1+2

1+2+3

(n=20)

(n=21)

(n=28)

(n=48)

44.1 8.0

48.7 6.7

50.0 7.8

43.9 6.6

45.9 7.0

9.5 1.1

9.4 .9

11.8

13.9 3.2

9.4 1.0

X s.d.

18.3 1.5

17.7 1.2

17.0 1.5

17.0 1.5

18.0 1.4

17.6 1.5

J s.d.

46.9

46.9 1.5

45.7

44.2 1.8

46.9 1.5

46.4

X s.d.

25.6 1.2

26.1 1.4

25.6 1.3

25.0 1.3

25.8 1.3

25.7 1.3

Variables

Body Weight (kg.)

Proportional

Fat Mass *

Proportional

Skeletal

Proportional

Muscle Mass *

Proportional

Residual Mass *

* Note: Masses expressed in percent

1.6

1.6

1.6

'

10.4 1.8

1.6

TABLE 14 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE RESULTS FOR WEIGHT AND PROPORTIONAL MASS MEASURES FOR EACH PREPLANNED ORTHOGONAL CONTRAST Orthogonal Contrasts 1+2+3 vs 4

Multivariate

1+2 vs 3

1 vs 2

p <

.0001

.006

.37

Body Weight

p <

.07

.02

.32

Proportional Fat Mass

p <

.0001

.0003

.87

Proportional Skeletal Mass

p <

.35

.01

.04

Proportional Muscle Mass

p <

.0001

.009

.82

Proportional Residual Mass

p <

.04

.48

.35

Univariates

CO -F=.

135

Table 14 presents the multivariate

and univariate analysis of

covariance results f o r the weight and proportional mass measures f o r each preplanned orthogonal contrast, using chronological age as the covariate.

Group 1 + 2 + 3 1+2+3

vs

vs

Group 4.

In the orthogonal contrast Group

Group 4, the highly s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate

was due primarily to the proportional f a t (univariate muscle mass (univariate

F (p < .0001)

p < .0001) and

p < .0001) d i f f e r e n c e s , with some contribution

from the proportional residual mass difference

(univariate

p < .04).

Body

weight and proportional skeletal mass differences for this contrast were not s i g n i f i c a n t (p's > .07). Group 1 + 2 vs

vs

Group 3.

In the. orthogonal contrast Group 1 + 2

Group 3, the highly s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate

to the proportional f a t (univariate and muscle (univariate

F (p < .006) was due primarily

p < .0003), skeletal

(univariate

p < .009) mass d i f f e r e n c e s , with some contribution from

the body weight difference

(univariate

p < .02).

The proportional

mass difference f o r this contrast was not s i g n i f i c a n t (univariate

Group 1

vs

p < .01),

Group 2.

Group 2, the multivariate

residual p < .48).

In the orthogonal contrast Group 1 vs

F was not s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .37) indicating that

differences in the body weight and the proportional mass measures, f o r this contrast, were not s i g n i f i c a n t . The results of this study p a r t i a l l y

support the above hypothesis

that measures of weight and proportional mass are s i g n i f i c a n t l y

different

among the four groups, with primary support due to differences noted i n the proportional skeletal mass measure. National e l i t e ,

pre-national

elite,

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

136

gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to recreational gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in mean proportional f a t mass (3.5%) and s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger in mean proportional muscle mass (2.2%). National e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, are s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger in mean proportional muscle (1.2%) and skeletal

(1.0%) masses; and s i g n i f i - i

cantly smaller in mean proportional f a t mass (2.4%). Although a number of d i f f e r e n c e s , with respect to the weight and proportional mass measures, were noted between national e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, none of these differences was s i g n i f i c a n t and thus the results of this contrast do not support the stated hypothesis.

Summary of Results:

Anthropometric Assessment

S t a t i s t i c a l analysis of the anthropometric measures of height and length; breadth, width, and depth; g i r t h ; s k i n f o l d ; and weight and proportional mass disclosed that Hypotheses 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 were p a r t i a l l y supported.

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , the s t a t i s t i c a l analysis indicated that at a

level of significance of p < .01:

1.

National e l i t e ,

pre-national e l i t e ,

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to recreational gymnasts, are shorter in mean trunk length, smaller in mean bi-epicondylar -femur width, thigh g i r t h , and t r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front t h i g h , and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d s .

They also have a smaller

mean proportional f a t mass and a larger mean proportional muscle mass ..

:

than the recreational gymnasts.

137

2.

National e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, taken together,

in

comparison to lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, are shorter in mean s i t t i n g height and trunk length, and smaller in mean t r i c e p s , s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d s . They also have a smaller mean proportional fat mass, and larger mean proportional muscle and skeletal masses, than the lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts. 3.

National e l i t e gymnasts, in comparison to pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, are shorter in mean trunk length, longer in mean thigh length, and smaller in anterior-posterior chest depth.

DISCUSSION MATURATIONAL ASSESSMENT Maturational

differences among national e l i t e ,

pre-national

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts were expected.

elite, Those

females involved in gymnastics and gymnastic-related sports, such as figure skating, in comparison to normal reference (Faulkner, 1977; Ross et a l . , in Taylor, 1976:257) and a t h l e t i c samples (Malina et a l . , 1973), have consistently been assessed as late maturers based on their ages of menarche. S i g n i f i c a n t maturational

differences among female gymnasts of

varying a b i l i t y levels were found in the present study.

These differences

indicated that there may be a relationship between gymnastic a b i l i t y and maturity, with highly s k i l l e d gymnasts being developmentally less mature than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

The fact that s i g n i f i c a n t maturational

differences were not found between national e l i t e and pre-national gymnasts, possibly serves to further support a m a t u r i t y - a b i l i t y

elite

relationship

138

since these two groups are considered to be r e l a t i v e l y close in

ability.

Some of the gymnasts who passed Level II and a l l the gymnasts of Level III, [Level III gymnasts referred to are categorized as pre-national e l i t e gymnasts] i f they also show very good results at selection meets, could be e l i g i b l e for selection for some international tournaments and dual meets' for junior and senior levels [junior and senior levels referred t o , are categorized as national el i t e gymnasts]. (Bajin, However, i t

1978:1)

should also be noted that the Chronological Age minus Skeletal

Age difference,

when compared between Group 1 and Group 2 was approaching

s i g n i f i c a n c e , with the former group being developmentally

less mature than

the l a t t e r group. Furthermore,

the maturity indicators suggest a consistent trend

concerning maturational status and success in gymnastics, such that • accompanying progressive increases in gymnastic a b i l i t y are progressive decreases in maturational status (Chronological Age minus Skeletal Age differences

increase such that; Group 4 < Group 3 < Group 2 < Group 1;

and also Group 1 + 2 + 3 < Group 1 + 2 .

The frequency (%)

of the

incidence of menarche decreases such that; Group 4 > Group 3 > Group 2 > Group 1; and also Group 1 + 2 + 3 > Group

1+2).

From these observations, i t can be hypothesized t h a t ; "those female gymnasts who are l a t e maturers, are more apt, than average or early maturing female gymnasts, to progress to higher performance l e v e l s " . It

i s not unreasonable to expect that maturity i s related both

d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y to success in gymnastics since: 1.

Some of the major physique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of female gymnasts that have reached a high degree of success, a r e l a t i v e l y short stature and l i g h t weight; small skinfold thickness, g i r t h ,

bicristal

breadth, and trunk

length measurements; r e l a t i v e l y long l e g s , and low percent body fat

139

(De Garay et a l . , 1974; D r a z i l , 1971; Grossfeld, in Nichols, 1979:18; H i r a t a , 1966; Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973, 1977; Pool et a l . , 1969; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Smit, 1973; Sprynarova & Parizkova, 1979; Youngren, 1969)

are also present in the young pre-pubescent and

late maturing female (Tanner, 1962).

r

The late maturing g i r l i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y longer-legged and narrower hipped, has a more linear physique, has less weight for height, and has less r e l a t i v e fatness than her early maturing peers. (Malina et a l . , 1978:221)

The ultimate adult physique of the late maturing female appears also to resemble that physique associated with success at e l i t e gymnastic l e v e l s . Although the l i t e r a t u r e is non-conclusive, "late" maturing females, as adults, are reported to be shorter than average (Frisch & Revelle,

1969)

or of average height (Tanner, 1962:96), to possess a higher ponderal index (Hillman et a l . , 1970), to be more ectomorphic (Zuk, 1958), have wider shoulders (Bayley, 1943b, cited in Tanner, 1962:102), and a smaller b i - i l i a c diameter in r e l a t i o n to height (Tanner, unpublished, cited in lanner,

1962:102) than average and late maturing females.

A delayed maturity with i t s concomitantly longer pre-pubescent period has been associated with an extended c r i t i c a l

learning period in female

figure skaters (Faulkner, 1977; Ross & Marshall, 1979). critical

Whether or not

learning periods per s e , do e x i s t in gymnastics and other

gymnastic-related sports, such as figure skating, is not known.

It

appears reasonable however, to suggest that a physique free of pubertal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , such as increased weight, f a t ,

and overall dimensions,

(Tanner, 1962:10) would be an advantage in learning and mastering specific s k i l l s .

140

4.

The l i t e r a t u r e tends to indicate that puberty in females offers no "strength advantage", as i t does in males (Church, 1976)

and further-

more,'is associated with a plateau or decrease in performance (Espenchade, 1940, 1974).

1960, cited in Malina, 1974:127; Johnson & Buskirk,

This occurrence however, may well be a social or

life-style

related phenomenon rather than a result of biological maturity and ageing, since an obvious unwillingness in females to "perform" has been noted ( K r i e s e l , 1977), and the cross-sectional studies of Fleishman (1964) and Hunsicker and Reiff

(1966, both cited in Malina, 1974:128)

indicate a s l i g h t but continued improvement in performance through to 17 years. Furthermore, Pool et al . (1969:336) reported that strength> did r

not

correlate with performance in female gymnasts, and concluded that; "this measure lias l i k e l y no meaning for selection or training of top gymnasts".

This result is not surprizing in view of the fact that

gymnastic-activity for females involves " h i g h . r e l a t i v e , absolute strength" (Ross & Marshall, 1979:13).

rather

than

Thus, any strength i n -

crease that puberty may bring, without an associated increase in r e l a t i v e strength, would probably affect gymnastic performance very l i t t l e .

5.

Regular, strenuous exercise has a potentially great influence on modifying the body, compositionally, p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y , and dimensionally (Astrand & Rodahl, 1970; Behnke & Wilmore, 1974; Brozek, 1961; Malina, 1969a), and i t has been proposed that exercise carried to excess during or previous to the pubertal y e a r s , may a f f e c t the maturing processes by "loading" an organism already "stressed" by pubertal changes (La Cava, 1974).

Such a proposal is well founded since other external

variables,

141

such as sleep (Goldfarb, 1977)

and nutrition

(Charzewska et a l . ,

1975;

Kraij-Cercek, 1956; Tanner et a l . , 1975:19), are known to "stress" and affect s p e c i f i c adolescent events.

As w e l l , " c r i t i c a l metabolic

masses" have been associated with-triggering (Frisch & McArthur, 1974).

fat

the onset of menarche

In the event that such " c r i t i c a l masses"

do e x i s t , and at the present time there is a lack of evidence to suggest that they do (Billewicz et a l . , 1976; Crawford & O s i e r , 1975; Johnston et a l . , 1971, 1975), i t can be conjectured that exercise can d i r e c t l y affect the maturing processes by altering the composition of the body. Gymnasts at e l i t e and competitive a b i l i t y

l e v e l s , involved in

regular strenuous training regimes, display the effects of exercise in modifying the body (a low percent f a t mass in the presence of a high percent lean body mass), to a greater degree than gymnasts with less involvement.

Furthermore, without disregarding genetical associations

with the rate of maturity,

i t can be expected that those gymnasts

involved in more frequent and strenuous training programs, would r e f l e c t maturational

changes associated with exercise to a greater

extent, than gymnasts with less strenuous and regular If

involvement.

regular., strenuous exercise has the effect of altering the "normal"

rate of maturity, and/or maturity

of an i n d i v i d u a l , then dramatic changes in growth

should be "expected" upon cessation of a c t i v i t y ,

in

accordance with the "catch-up" phenomenon proposed by Tanner (1963). While there is no supportive documentation, a number of gymnasts have reported experiencing menarche following an extended period of r e s t , following cessation of strenuous t r a i n i n g , and accompanying increases in weight.

142

The advantage of a delayed maturity and an extended pre-pubescent period may be a very real and important factor in success for female gymnasts, since there is some speculation that female gymnasts from the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe may be using a "brake" drug to remain petite and l i t h e , by delaying puberty (Quinn, 1979:50).

Dr. K l e i n , the chief medical examiner

at the 1978 World Gymnastic Championships, has reported seeing photos of a leading Soviet gymnast, showing a steady regression of breast development during a four year period.

It

is suspected that the drug acts on the

p i t u i t a r y gland, and gives the smaller, l i g h t e r females, a higher strengthto-weight r a t i o allowing them to outperform their competitors (Quinn,

1979:

50). The lowering in age of both the participants and the medalists of women's gymnastics in the O l y m p i c s f r o m the 1956 to the 1976 Games (Krustev, 1977), the domination of Olympic gymnastics by females in the teenage group (Novak et a l . , 1977), and the increasing complexity of s k i l l

performance,

has led to the speculation that the "younger" gymnast may possess d i s t i n c t "advantages" over the "older" performer, by virtue of her unique b u i l d . Since a "performance discriminating f a c t o r " , in that the equipment does not offer equal advantages to a l l gymnastics ( V a l l i e r e ,

gymnasts, is recognized as operating in

in Salmela, 1976:96), i t follows that those gymnasts

possessing physical attributes that "co-operate" with the equipment's properties and p o t e n t i a l s , are more successful in performing s p e c i f i c movements than those gymnasts with physical attributes that do not conform with the equipment's c a p a c i t i e s .

These attributes may well be uncontrollable

and unalterable physical expressions as skeletal "build" in general.

proportions, s i z e , or

There is the p o s s i b i l i t y then, that as yet

variables-are present in the young female gymnastic competitor,

unidentified rendering

143

her more "biomechanically" equipped to perform gymnastic-type movements than the "older" performer, and biasing performance in her favour. Whether or not the pre-pubescent female is better equipped "biomechanically" and f u n c t i o n a l l y , to perform complex gymnastic s k i l l s , and whether or not puberty is the "despoiler of a t h l e t i c maids" as Cranston (cited in Clark, 1980:6) contends, is at this time only speculative since there is an absence of d i r e c t evidence.

ANTHROPOMETRIC ASSESSMENT Anthropometric differences among national e l i t e , elite,

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational

preTnational

gymnasts were expected

since: 1.

Disparity and inconsistencies in anthropometric descriptions of gymnasts have been a t t r i b u t e d ,

in p a r t , to a b i l i t y

differences

(Carter et a l . , 1971). 2.

S p e c i f i c anthropometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been shown to present biomechanical advantages (Hebbelinck & Ross, in Nelson & Morehouse, 1974:546; Khosla, 1968,

1977; Lewis, 1969), and to affect

performance

outcomes of gymnastic s k i l l s (George, in Salmela, 1976:96; Le Veau et a l . , 1974; Nelson, 1974; Ross & Marshall, 1979; Rozin, 1974; Salmela, 1976; V a l l i e r e , in Salmela, 1976:96).

These "advantageous"

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were expected to be present more consistently in the higher s k i l l e d than in the lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

However, i t was

also considered that while s p e c i f i c physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would be an advantage to performance in one event, they may serve as deterrents

144

to success in another (Le Veau et a l . , 1974; Rozin, 1974; Youngren, 1969).

Therefore, i t was recognized that the best body-type for gymnasts

competing in a l l events, would be a compromise of the ideal morphological determinants best suited for a one-event s p e c i a l i s t , as suggested by Salmela et a l .

(1976:169).

In this respect, i t was expected that

"dramatic differences" among the a b i l i t y groups would not be displayed, since the better gymnasts, competing in a l l events, would have physique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a compromising nature.

3.

Exercise has the effect of modifying s p e c i f i c physical parameters, such as skinfold thickness values, and muscle girth dimensions (Brozek,

1961;

Malina, 1969a), and i t was expected that highly s k i l l e d gymnasts involved in frequent, vigorous training would display exercise induced changes to a greater extent than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

4.

Maturational

differences were expected among the a b i l i t y groups, and i t

was expected that these differences would be represented anthropometrica l l y , in those physical parameters, such as b i i l i o c r i s t a l breadth, height, weight, and percent body f a t , with maturity

undergoing changes associated

(Parizkova, 1959, 1961b; Reynolds, 1950; Tanner, 1962:45).

Because of the r e l a t i v e closeness in a b i l i t y of the national

elite

and the pre-national e l i t e gymnasts (Bajin, 1978), and because i t has repeatedly been shown that the higher the a b i l i t y level the narrower the v a r i a b i l i t y of physique (Carter,

1970; Montpetit,

in Salmela, 1976:183),

few s i g n i f i c a n t differences between these groups, in those anthropometric variables related to success, were expected.

Differences between these

groups were expected however, since anthropometric differences between

145

higher and lesser placing gymnasts at e l i t e competitions have been reported (Montpetit, in Salmela, 1976:183; Pool et a l . , 1969; Youngren, 1969).

It

was also considered that s i g n i f i c a n t differences would possibly indicate those anthropometric variables distinguishing the consistently "better" gymnasts, the national national

e l i t e s , from the "very good" gymnasts, the pre-

elites. Trends concerning anthropometric parameters and gymnastic

were not c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e

in the l i t e r a t u r e , due primarily to an

absence of studies concerned d i r e c t l y with varying a b i l i t y pometric parameters.

ability

levels and anthro-

Of the three studies located, involving these two.

variables . (Montpetit, in Salmela, 1976:183; Pool et a l . , 1969; Youngren, 1969), a l l were comparisons between the "winners" of a competition and the lesser placing p a r t i c i p a n t s .

Montpetit (in Salmela, 1976:183) compared the

top f i v e placing women's gymnastic teams at the 1972 Olympic Games. Although there were no consistent trends among the f i v e teams, in age, height, or weight,

the f i r s t and second placing teams were shorter in

height and l i g h t e r

in weight than the third placing team.

et a l .

S i m i l a r l y , Pool

(1969) compared the higher and lower placing gymnasts of the 1967

European Gymnastic Championships, and found the better performers to be younger, shorter, l i g h t e r , taken.

and smaller in the skinfold thickness meaurement

Youngren (1969) compared the placing and non-placing gymnasts at the

1968 U.S. .Olympic Gymnastic T r i a l s , and also noted that those gymnasts who were younger, shorter, and thinner in skinfold thickness measures, tended to rank higher. In the absence of studies concerned d i r e c t l y with varying levels of gymnastic a b i l i t y

and anthropometric parameters, trends concerning these

146

two variables were investigated and interpolated through comparisons of Olympic (De Garay et a l . , 1974; Hirata,

inter-study

1966;

Montpetit,

in Salmela, 1976:187; Novak et a l . , 1977; Pool et a l . , 1969; Ross, 1980), "highly s k i l l e d " (Carter, al.,

1970; Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Pool et

1969; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Smit, 1973; Sprynarova & Parizkova,

1969; Youngren, 1969), and recreational Pool et a l . , 1969).

female gymnasts (Medved,

1966;

This procedure was followed with some reservation

however, since measurement techniques, and t h e . c r i t e r i o n for defining ability

l e v e l s , were not consistent from one study to the next.

These

inconsistencies may well account for anothropometric differences noted among the a b i l i t y

groups, as well as for the concealment of any "true" and

existing differences.

Even within the seemingly well defined a b i l i t y group,

"Olympic gymnasts", there exists varying a b i l i t y

levels.

The "Olympic

participants" of one country may well be, merely, of equal a b i l i t y "highly s k i l l e d " gymnasts of another. Novak et a l .

(1977:276) were a l l

The Olympic gymnasts studies by

from one country that "did not reach a

s i g n i f i c a n t place during the competition". Montpetit

to the

The Olympic gymnasts studied by

(in Salmela, 1976:183), comprised the "top f i v e teams" of the

1972 Olympic Games.

Furthermore, the a b i l i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s "highly

s k i l l e d " and "recreational" contain much v a r i a b i l i t y

in terms of -

gymnastic-skill level and a b i l i t y . Age is another factor that may account for anthropometric differences noted among varying a b i l i t y same a b i l i t y .

l e v e l s , and among gymnasts of the

Large age differences among the various studies compared

may also mask "true" anthropometric differences and s i m i l a r i t i e s . is much v a r i a b i l i t y

There

in mean ages among the gymnastic groups referred to

147

in the inter-study comparisons.

The "Olympic gymnasts" vary in mean ages

from 17.0 to 23.1 years (De Garay et a l . , 17.8 y r s ; H i r a t a , 22.7 y r s ; Montpetit,

20.2 y r s ; Novak et a l . , 19.0 y r s ; Pool et a l . , 23.1 and 19.2 y r s ;

Ross, 17.0 y r s ) , the "highly s k i l l e d gymnasts" from 15.0 to 20.5 years . (Carter, age not given; Nelson, 20.5 y r s ; Novak et a l . , 14.3 y r s ; Pool et al.,

20.5 y r s ; Sinning & Lindberg, 20.0 y r s ; Smit, 15.0 y r s ; Sprynarova

& Parizkova, 17.2 y r s ; Youngren, 18.5 y r s ) , and the "recreational gymnasts" from 20.1 to 22.7 years (Medved, 20.1 y r s ; Pool et a l . , 22.7 y r s ) . The gymnasts in the varying a b i l i t y groups from the present study range in mean ages from 14.3 to 15.3 decimal years.

I

Height and Length Measures Vertex standing height.

The l i t e r a t u r e did not indicate a trend

towards shortness in stature with increasing gymnastic a b i l i t y , what was expected. Montpetit, Ross, 1980)

contrary to

Olympic gymnasts (De Garay et a l . , 1974; H i r a t a ,

in Salmela, 1976:187; Novak et a l . , 1977; Pool et a l . , did not d i f f e r

1969;

notably in mean height from highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts (Carter, 1970; Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Pool et a l . , Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Smit, 1973; Sprynarova & Parizkova, Youngren, 1969), or from recreational 1966).

1966;

1969;

1969;

gymnasts (Medved, 1966; Pool et a l . ,

However, in comparison to appropriate female reference populations,

the gymnasts described by Carter (1970), Medved (1966), Nelson (1974), Sinning and Lindberg (1972), and Smit (1973) were reported to be shorter in stature, with the Sinning and Lindberg gymnasts s i g n i f i c a n t l y shorter.

On

the other hand, the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts of Nelson's study (1974) were reported to be of s i m i l a r height to an appropriate reference population of females.

148

S i g n i f i c a n t differences in height between national e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, taken together, and lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts; and between national e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, were not expected based on the observation that e l i t e and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts in general are short, and i t appears that a r e l a t i v e l y short stature i s a prerequisite f o r successful p a r t i c i p a t i o n at these l e v e l s . A s i g n i f i c a n t difference between national e l i t e , elite,

pre-national

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, taken together, and recreat-

ional gymnasts were expected s i n c e , a r e l a t i v e l y short stature does not appear to be a prerequisite for p a r t i c i p a t i o n at recreational s k i l l level i s r e l a t i v e l y

l e v e l s , where

low and emphasis i s generally placed on p a r t i c i -

pation, rather than.on performance. Although Group 1 + 2 + 3

has a shorter mean height than Group 4

(2.6 cm), Group 1 + 2 a shorter mean height than Group 3 (3.0 cm), and Group 1 a t a l l e r mean height than Group 2 (1.4 cm), these differences were not s i g n i f i c a n t .

However, they do indicate a trend towards shortness in

stature for higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. The non-significant difference in height noted between Group 1 and Group 2 was expected due to the r e l a t i v e closeness in a b i l i t y of these two groups (Bajin, 1978).

This r e s u l t is s i m i l a r to results noted in the studies

of Pool et a l . (1969) and Youngren (1969), in which higher placing gymnasts were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y different

in height from lower placing gymnasts of

similar a b i l i t y . . . However, the tendency for higher piacing .gymnasts to be shorter than lower placing gymnasts noted in these s t u d i e s , was not evident in the present comparison of national and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts. The non-significant difference noted between Group 1 + 2 + 3 and Group 4 i s not in agreement with the expected r e s u l t , and with the comparison of

149

gymnasts in Pool et a l . ' s study (1969), in which high caliber Dutch gymnasts were found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y shorter in stature than lower c a l i b e r , noncompeting Dutch gymnasts.

The non-significant difference in the present

study may have occurred as a result of club "attitudes". the recreational

level

In clubs where

is viewed as a "base" for the competitive programs,

participants are often pre-selected on shortness in stature, v a r i a b l e s , for inclusion in the recreational g i r l s who are r e l a t i v e l y relatively

program.

t a l l pursue a c t i v i t i e s

among other

Perhaps too, those

other than gymnastics, while

short g i r l s are attracted to recreational

gymnastic c l a s s e s .

Because s i g n i f i c a n t height differences among the a b i l i t y groups were not found, this does not simultaneously indicate that height is not an important variable for participation and success in gymnastics.

A relatively

small stature, coupled with a l i g h t weight, has been shown to present a biomechanical advantage in performing gymnastic-type movements (Le Veau et al.,

1974; Nelson, 1974; Ross & Marshall, 1979). In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by De Garay et a l .

(1974), Hirata

(1966), Montpetit (in Salmela, 1976:187), Novak et a l .

and Ross (1980), both the national

e l i t e and the pre-national

in the present study have a smaller mean height. competitors described by Pool et a l . than both the national

(1977),

e l i t e gymnasts

The non-mongolian Olympic

(1969) are also t a l l e r in mean height

e l i t e and the pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts, while

the mongolian competitors are the only Olympic gymnasts described in the l i t e r a t u r e to be similar in height to both the national pre-national

e l i t e and the

e l i t e gymnasts.

In comparison to highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Carter (1970), Nelson (1974), Sinning and Lindberg (1972), Smit (1973), Sprynarova and Parizkova (1969), and Youngren (1969), the competitive gymnasts in the

150

present study have a shorter mean height.

However, in comparison to the

highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Novak et a l . (1973), the competitive gymnasts have a similar mean height. In comparison to the recreational gymnasts described by Medved (1966) and Pool et a l .

(1969), the recreational gymnasts in the present

study have a shorter mean height.

Trunk length. the l i t e r a t u r e ,

This measurement appears to have been neglected in

with only a single study (De Garay et a l . , 1974)

this measure in an anthropometric series of measurements.

including

Speculations

concerning trunk length and a b i l i t y were not made although i t was noted in the l i t e r a t u r e that; "A very long torso . . . w i l l get in your way on the uneven bars" (Grossfeld, cited in Nichols, 1979:18). The trunk length measure was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group

1+2

+3 in comparison to Group 4, in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3, and in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2.

This consistency indicates a trend

towards shortness in trunk length for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, and a possible relationship between a b i l i t y and trunk length, with a shorter trunk length presenting an advantage in gymnastics.

Perhaps a short trunk length in r e l a t i o n to height may result

in a reduced moment of i n e r t i a about the trunk and head in twisting move- . ments.

Furthermore, proportional analysis of the trunk length measure,

in relation to leg length or height would have maturational

implications:

About a year separates the peaks of total leg length and trunk length . . . The spurt in height i s due more to an increase in length of trunk than length of l e g , however, and the r a t i o of trunk length/leg length always increases during adolescence. (Tanner, 1962:12-13)

151

These results indicate that the trunk length measure is worthy of

further

a n a l y s i s , especially with respect to proportional assessments. In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by De Garay et a l . (1974), both the national

e l i t e and the pre-national

present study have a shorter mean trunk length.

It

e l i t e gymnasts in the should be noted however,

that the suprasternal point, used in obtaining this measure, was not the same landmark point as that used in the present study.

S i t t i n g height.

This measure appears to have been neglected in

the l i t e r a t u r e with only two studies (Nelson, 1974; Ross, 1980) this measure in an anthropometric series of measurements.

including

The Olympic

gymnasts described by Ross (1980), in comparison to the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Nelson (1974), have a smaller mean s i t t i n g

height.

Based on this comparison i t was speculated that in the present study higher s k i l l e d gymnasts would possess a smaller mean s i t t i n g height than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. The s i t t i n g height measure was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group

1+2

in comparison to Group 3, and the s i t t i n g height difference between Group 1+2+3

and Group 4 was approaching s i g n i f i c a n c e , with this former group

having a smaller mean than the l a t t e r .

These r e s u l t s , in conjunction with

those obtained for trunk length and vertex height, strongly suggest a trend towards shortness in the torso for higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

These results also suggest that a short torso in

to height may be associated with gymnastic a b i l i t y , ing some biomechanical advantage, or i n d i r e c t l y ,

relation

either d i r e c t l y by provid-

possibly by presenting less

weight in the upper body; assuming that a long torso would weight more than a short.

Such a weight d i s t r i b u t i o n may have some implications for angular

152

(rotary) motion where "not only is the weight important but also i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n in r e l a t i o n to the axis of rotation"

(Nelson, 1974:46).

Further analysis is necessary however, before such relationships can be . established. In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by Ross (1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national have a shorter mean s i t t i n g

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study

height.

In comparison to highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Nelson (1974), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a shorter mean sitting

height.

Thigh length.

A trend concerning thigh length and gymnastic

a b i l i t y was not evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic (Novak et al.,

1977; Ross, 1980)

and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974).

The

gymnasts described by Ross (1980) were given two values for thigh length, each derived using d i f f e r e n t equations, with a difference of 13.6 cm in thigh length between the two measurements. illustrate

This difference serves to

that caution should be used in inter-study comparisons of

anthropometric measurements, especially with respect to those measurements l i k e l y to have varying landmark p o i n t s , or d e r i v a t i o n s . The thigh length measure was s i g n i f i c a n t l y longer in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2.

Since this was the only s i g n i f i c a n t difference to

emerge among the contrasts, i t However, since Group 1 + 2

is possible that this is a spurious r e s u l t .

and Group 1 + 2 + 3 ,

both have " s l i g h t l y " longer

mean thigh lengths than Group 3 and Group 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y , there appears to be a "suggestion" that highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts tend to have longer thigh lengths.

153

Considering the thigh length r e s u l t s , those of the trunk

length,

and the tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to be shorter in vertex standing height than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, i t appears that there may be proportional length differences among the a b i l i t y groups, especially with respect to the segmental lengths contributing to stature

height.

Furthermore, a thigh length, proportionately long in relation

to

total leg length or height, may indicate a developmental stage in the adolescent growth spurt since: Within the leg there is a d e f i n i t e gradient of timing. The foot has i t s rather small acceleration about 6 months before the c a l f and thigh. . . . . The c a l f length accelerates a l i t t l e before the thigh. (Tanner, 1962:12) Proportional analysis is necessary however, before these

proportionality

hypotheses can be tested among the present a b i l i t y groups. These results may indicate that there is a relationship between gymnastic a b i l i t y and thigh length, with a longer thigh length providing a biomechanical advantage to performance. the few d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g

Possibly this variable is one of

variables in which "better" gymnasts, the national

e l i t e s , can be distinguished from "very good" gymnasts, the

pre-national

elites. In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by Ross (1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national have a longer mean thigh length.

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study

However, i t should be noted that the thigh

length measure in the present study was derived from an equation from that used by Ross. Novak et a l .

different

In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by

(1977), both/, the national e l i t e and the pre-national

gymnasts have a shorter mean thigh length.

elite

However, the derivation of

154

the thigh length measure in this study."was"not specified._' "" In comparison to the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Nelson (1974), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a smaller mean thigh length.

However, the derivation of thigh length in this study was

not s p e c i f i e d .

Other height and length measures ( t i b i a l , i l i o s p i n a l e , and trochanterion height; f o o t , upper arm, forearm, and hand length). Trends concerning t i b i a l height (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . ,

1977;

Ross, 1980), forearm length (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980), and foot length (Nelson, 1974; Ross, 1980), and gymnastic a b i l i t y , were not evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts. The upper arm length was longer in Olympic gymnasts (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980)

than in highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974).

i l i o s p i n a l e height was shorter in Olympic gymnasts (Ross, 1980) highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Smit, 1973).

The

than in

These comparisons suggest a tendency

for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to have a longer upper arm length and a shorter i l i o s p i n a l e height than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. The hand length and trochanterion height measurements appear to have been neglected in the l i t e r a t u r e , with only a single study including a hand length measure (Ross, 1980), and only a single study including a trochanterion height measurement (Nelson, 1974).

There were also a few

studies referring to a "total leg length" measurement (De Garay et a l . , Pool et a l . , 1969; Ross, 1980).

1974;

In two of these studies, in which the leg

length measure was derived using the same equation, Olympic gymnasts (Ross, 1980), in comparison to highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Pool et a l . , 1969), were found to have a longer mean total leg length.

This comparison suggests a

155

tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to have a longer leg length than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. Speculations concerning the t i b i a l ,

i l i o s p i n a l e , and trochanterion

height, the f o o t , forearm, and hand length measurements, and gymnastic ability

in the present study were not made.

However, i t was noted in the

l i t e r a t u r e that highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, in comparison to an appropriate reference population of females, had "longer lower limbs proportionate their total height"

(Smit, 1973:484).

S i g n i f i c a n t differences among the national e l i t e , elite,

to

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational

for any of these height and length v a r i a b l e s .

pre-national

gymnasts were not found

Furthermore, differences in

these v a r i a b l e s , among the various groups do not suggest any trends or tendencies. While s t a t i s t i c a l

analysis indicated non-significant differences

in these variables for the various contrasts, further analysis is necessary in order to determine whether or not proportional differences e x i s t . differences may,indicate developmental spurt.

Such

stages in the adolescent growth

A long t i b i a l length, in r e l a t i o n to thigh or total leg length; or

a long forearm length, in r e l a t i o n to upper arm or total arm length, may indicate s p e c i f i c stages in the growth sequences of these

extremities,

since during the adolescent growth spurt:

a n d

.

The c a l f length accelerates a l i t t l e before the thigh. (Tanner, 1962:12) The forearm has i t s peak velocity about 6 months ahead of the upper arm. It seems that the peripheral parts of the limbs are throughout growth more advanced than the proximal. (Maresh, 1955, cited in Tanner, 1962:12)

Relatively long legs (as measured by trochanterion or i l i o s p i n a l e height)

156

may indicate a delayed maturity

in which a longer pre-adolescent period

would provide "extra" growing time before the growth spurt: In the immediate preadolescent years, i t is the legs which are growing r e l a t i v e l y fastest of a l l skeletal dimensions . . . and so i f allowed to grow for an extra 2 years before the spurt, the legs become r e l a t i v e l y long. (Tanner, 1962:46) Proportionately longer feet and hands would also have maturational

impli-

cations (Hebbelinck & Ross, in Nelson & Morehouse, 1974:546): Foot length is probably the f i r s t of a l l skeletal dimensions below the head to cease growing. (Tanner, 1962:12) as well as biomechanical implications (Faulkner, 1977), such that longer feet and hands would benefit balance, and aid in movements where the body i s propelled from them. In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by Novak et a l . both the national e l i t e and the pre-national

(1977),

e l i t e gymnasts in the present

study, have a shorter mean upper arm and forearm length, and a similar mean tibial

height.

However, the landmarks used in deriving these measurements

were not s p e c i f i e d .

In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by Ross

(1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national shorter mean t i b i a l

e l i t e gymnasts have a

and i l i o s p i n a l e height, f o o t , upper arm, and forearm

length, and a similar mean hand length.

The same landmarks were used in

obtaining these measurements for this l a t t e r study as were used in the present study. In comparison to highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Nelson (1974), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a shorter mean tibial

and trochanterion height, a shorter mean forearm and foot length,

and a similar mean upper arm length.

However, the landmarks used in

obtaining these measurements were not s p e c i f i e d .

157

II

Breadth, Width, and Depth Measures Biacromial breadth.

A trend concerning biacromial breadth and

gymnastic a b i l i t y was not evident in an .inter-study: comparison of Olympic (De Garay et a l . , 1974; Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980)

and highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Smit, 1973).

However, in comparison to an appropriate female reference

population, the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts of Sinning and Lindberg's study (1972) were reported to have a s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller biacromial

diameter.

A s i g n i f i c a n t difference in biacromial breadth was expected between national e l i t e ,

pre-national e l i t e ,

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

gymnasts, taken together, and recreational gymnasts, based on the observation that e l i t e and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts appear to have r e l a t i v e l y wider biacromial breadths than recreational gymnasts.

It was also expected

that exercise would show a positive effect upon skeletal growth in the region of the shoulders, as was suspected to have occurred in previous studies of gymnasts (Buckler & Brodie, 1977; Parizkova, 1968a; Smit, 1973).

Further-

more, late maturing females, as a d u l t s , have been reported to have wider shoulders than early maturing females (Bayley, 1943b, cited in Tanner, 1962: 102).

Since i t was speculated that higher s k i l l e d gymnasts would be develop-

mentally less mature than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, i t was expected that this difference would be displayed in the biacromial breadth measure. Although the biacromial breadth was smaller in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3, " s l i g h t l y " smaller in Group 1 + 2 + 3 in comparison to Group 4, and larger in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2, these differences were not s i g n i f i c a n t and in contradiction to the expected r e s u l t .

These

differences however, "suggest" a tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to shave a smaller biacromial breadth than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

158

It

is suspected that the "observed" wide biacromial

breadth

measure "appears" this way in relation to height, or to a "seemingly" narrow b i i l i o c r i s t a l breadth, and is not necessarily "wide" when considered alone, in absolute terms.

Furthermore, Smit (1973) noted that highly

s k i l l e d gymnasts, in comparison to an appropriate reference sample, had a smaller biacromial breadth in absolute terms however, in relation to height, they had a r e l a t i v e l y

large breadth.

their

Proportional analysis is

necessary however, before such a r e l a t i o n s h i p , among the present

ability

groups, can be investigated. In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(Olympic gymnasts)

described in the l i t e r a t u r e (De Garay et a l . , 1974; Novak et a l . , Ross, 1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national

1977;

e l i t e gymnasts

in the present study have smaller mean biacromial breadths. In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(highly

skilled

gymnasts) described in the l i t e r a t u r e , the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a similar mean biacromial breadth to the gymnasts described by Novak et a l .

(1973) and Sinning and Lindberg (1972); a smaller

mean breadth than the gymnasts of Nelson's study (1974); and a larger mean breadth than the gymnasts of Smit's study (1973).

B i i l i o c r i s t a l breadth.

A trend concerning b i i l i o c r i s t a l

breadth

and gymnastic a b i l i t y was not evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic (De Garay et a l . , 1974; Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980)

and highly

s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Smit, 1973).

However, in comparison to an appropriate

female

reference population, the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts of Sinning and Lindberg's study (1972) were reported to have a s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller b i i l i a c

diameter.

159

A s i g n i f i c a n t difference in b i i l i o c r i s t a l between national e l i t e ,

pre-national

elite,

breadth was expected

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

gymnasts, taken together, and recreational gymnasts, based on the observation that e l i t e and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts appear to have a r e l a t i v e l y bii1iocristal

breadth than recreational

gymnasts.

smaller

Since i t was also

speculated that higher s k i l l e d gymnasts would be developmentally less mature than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, i t was expected that this difference would be displayed in the b i i l i o c r i s t a l breadth measure.

Late maturing females, as

adults, have been reported to have smaller b i i l i a c diameters in r e l a t i o n

to

their height, than early maturing females (Tanner, unpublished, cited in Tanner, 1962:102).

Furthermore, at maturity

bones, with "a p a r t i c u l a r l y

there are changes in the pelvic

large spurt in hip width"

Although the b i i l i o c r i s t a l

(Tanner, 1962:45).

breadth was smaller in Group 1 + 2 + 3

in comparison to Group 4, in Group 1 + 2

in comparison to Group 3, and larger

in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2.-,-.these differences were not s i g n i f i c a n t and thus not "in agreement with the the expected r e s u l t .

-These differences

however, indicate a tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to have a smaller bii1iocristal

breadth than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

Furthermore, i t should

be noted that irrespective of the non-significant multivariate univariate analysis shows the b i i 1 i o c r i s t a l

analysis,

breadth difference to be

s i g n i f i c a n t for Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3. It

is suspected that the "observed" narrow b i i l i o c r i s t a l

breadth

measure "appears" this way in r e l a t i o n to height or to a "seemingly" wide biacromial breadth, and is not necessarily "narrow" when considered alone, in absolute terms.

Furthermore, Smit (1973) noted that highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts, in comparison to an appropriate reference sample, had a smaller intercristal

width in absolute terms, and also in r e l a t i o n to their

height.

160

Proportional analysis is necessary however, before such a relationship among the present a b i l i t y have developmental

groups can be investigated.

Such an analysis would also

implications, as a broadening of the hips r e l a t i v e to

the shoulders and waist is characteristic of female adolescence

(Malina,

1974:119). In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(Olympic gymnasts)

described in the l i t e r a t u r e (De Garay et a l . , 1974; Novak et a l . , Ross, 1980), both the national

e l i t e and the pre-national

in the present study have smaller mean b i i l i o c r i s t a l

1977;

e l i t e gymnasts

breadths.

In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(highly

skilled

gymnasts) described in the l i t e r a t u r e , the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a similar mean b i i l i o c r i s t a l described by Novak et a l .

breadth to the gymnasts

(1973) and Sinning and Lindberg (1972); a

smaller mean breadth than the gymnasts of Nelson's study (1974); and a larger mean breadth than the gymnasts of Smit's study (1973).

Bi-epicondylar femur width.

A trend concerning bi-epicondylar

femur width and gymnastic a b i l i t y was not evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980)

and highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Pool et a l . , 1969; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972).

Speculations concerning bi-epicondylar femur width and

gymnastic a b i l i t y

in the present study were not made.

However,

the

observation of Adam's (1938, cited in Malina, 1969b:22), that women subjected to strenuous physical labor during childhood'had larger knee widths than women not subjected to such s t r e s s , was noted. The bi-epicondylar femur width was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 + 2 + 3 in comparison to Group 4,

Since this was the only s i g n i f i c a n t

161

difference.;to emerge among the contrasts, i t spurious r e s u l t .

is possible that this is a

However, observing the similar mean values for Group.1,

Group 2, Group 3, and Group 1 + 2, i t can be conjectured that this measure is related to performance, such that highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, in general, have a similar bi-epicondylar femur width, and in comparison to recreational gymnasts have a s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller width.

This difference may be a

r e f l e c t i o n of the generally small skeletal structure associated with highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, and known to present d i s t i n c t advantages in performing gymnastic-type movements. This result may also have implications with respect to total body weight, with a small bi-epicondylar femur width indicating a small skeletal structure and thus a small skeletal

weight.

This measure should also be viewed in proportion to height or total leg length, since these comparisons have developmental implications: for their s i z e , children have proportionately larger knees, ankles and feet. (Ross, cited in Taunton, 1979:20) as well as biomechanical implications: The proportionally wider knee widths . . . may benefit s t a b i l i t y [and provide] a proportionately greater area for weight-bearing s t r e s s . (Faulkner, 1977:22) In comparison to gymnasts of s i m i l a r a b i l i t y

(Olympic gymnasts)

described in the l i t e r a t u r e (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national e l i t e gymnasts in the present study have s i m i l a r mean bi-epicondylar femur widths. In comparison to gymnasts of s i m i l a r a b i l i t y

(highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts) described in the l i t e r a t u r e (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . ,

1973;

Pool et a l . , 1969; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a s i m i l a r mean bi-epicondylar femur width.

162

Anterior-posterior chest depth. (Ross, 1980)

A tendency for Olympic gymnasts

to have a smaller anterior-posterior chest depth than highly

s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972) was evident in an inter-study comparison of these two a b i l i t y

levels.

This

comparison was made with some reservation however, since the value obtained for this measurement is subject to the landmark points used, as well as to the technique followed.

With a difference of 8.3 cm in anterior-posterior

chest depth between two of the studies describing highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, it

is speculated that one of these measurements may have been taken at

e x p i r a t i o n , while the other at f u l l

inspiration.

full

Speculations concerning

anterior-posterior chest depth and gymnastic a b i l i t y in the present study were not made. Anterior-posterior chest depth was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2.

Since this was the only s i g n i f i c a n t difference

to emerge among the contrasts, i t

is possible that this is a spurious r e s u l t .

Conceivably however, this may well be one of the few

differentiating

variables distinguishing the "better" gymnasts, the national e l i t e s , from the "very good" gymnasts, the pre-national e l i t e s . Group 1 + 2

Furthermore, since

has a smaller mean anterior-posterior chest depth than Group 3,

and Group 1 + 2 + 3

has a " s l i g h t l y " smaller mean than Group 4, there appears

to be a tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to have a smaller mean chest depth than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

This difference may be a r e f l e c t i o n of

the generally small skeletal structure associated with highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, and known to present d i s t i n c t advantages in performing gymnastictype movements. This r e s u l t may also have implications with respect to the body mass components, with a small anterior-posterior chest depth indicating a

163

relatively

small skeletal

structure and thus, a small skeletal mass.

Since

the anterior posterior chest depth measure encompasses the organs of the chest, a small measure may also indicate a small residual mass. Although none of the individual subject's values for this

variable

are in discord with those of the other subjects, i t should not be overlooked that this s i g n i f i c a n t difference may be the r e s u l t of measurement e r r o r . Since this measurement is taken at that "instance" before normal i n s p i r a t i o n , i t i s possible that this "point" may have been misjudged for some i n d i v i d u a l s . In comparison to Olympic gymnasts described by Ross (1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study

have a smaller mean anterior-posterior chest depth. In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts) described in the l i t e r a t u r e (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . ,

1973;

Sinning & Lindberg, 1972), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a smaller mean anterior-posterior chest depth.

Other breadth, width, and depth measures (transverse chest and bi-epicondylar humerus widths). A trend concerning transverse chest width and gymnastic a b i l i t y was not evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic (Ross, 1980) and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Pool et a l . , 1969; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972). A tendency for Olympic gymnasts (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross,

1980)

to have a larger bi-epicondylar humerus width than highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972), was evident in an inter-study comparison of these two a b i l i t y

levels.

Speculations concerning the transverse chest and bi-epicondylar

164

humerus widths, and gymnastic a b i l i t y ,

in the present study, were not made.

However, the observation of Adam's (1938, cited in Malina, 1969b:22), that women subjected to strenuous physical labor during childhood had larger chest breadths than women not subjected to such s t r e s s , was noted. S i g n i f i c a n t differences among the national elite,

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational

elite,

pre-national

gymnasts were not found

for the transverse chest or the bi-epicondylar humerus widths. differences any trends.

Furthermore,

in these v a r i a b l e s , among the various groups, do not suggest The non-significant transverse chest width differences-found .

among the a b i l i t y

groups are in discord with the findings of Pool et a l .

(1969), in that thorax width was found to correlate s i g n i f i c a n t l y with gymnastic performance. While s t a t i s t i c a l

analyses indicated non-significant

differences

in the bi-epicondylar humerus width for the various contrasts, further analysis is necessary in order to determine whether or not proportional d i f f e r e n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y with respect to height or total arm length, existence among the a b i l i t y

groups.

are.in

Furthermore, proportional assessments

of this variable may have developmental

as well as biomechanical

implications.

A proportionally wide bi-epicondylar humerus width while indicating a developmentally

immature physique (Ross, 1980)

would also benefit s t a b i l i t y

of

balances performed on the hands by presenting a larger surface area for weight-bearing

stress.

A proportionally wide bi-epicondylar humerus width,

especially in a post-pubescent gymnast, may also indicate the positive of exercise upon skeletal

growth in this region since:

bone thickens'when subjected to heavy loads . . . [and] is deposited in proportion to the compressional load that the bone must carry. (Guyton, 1976:1058)

effect

165

A proportionally wide transverse chest width may also indicate the

effects

of exercise in developing this area. In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(Olympic gymnasts)

described in the l i t e r a t u r e , both the national e l i t e and the

pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study have similar mean bi-epicondylar humerus widths (Novak et a l . , 1977;

Ross, 1980), and smaller mean transverse chest

widths (Ross, 1980). In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(highly

skilled

gymnasts) described in the l i t e r a t u r e (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . ,

1973;

Sinning & Lindberg, 1972), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a similar mean bi-epicondylar humerus width.

The competitive gymnasts

also have a similar mean transverse chest width to the gymnasts from Pool et a l . ' s study (1969); a smaller mean width than the gymnasts described by Nelson (1974) and Novak et a l .

(1973); and a larger mean width than the

gymnasts of Sinning and Lindberg's study (1972).

Ill

Girth Measures Since i t

is well established that exercise has the effect

increasing muscular girths

of

(Bready, 1961, Kusinitz et a l . , 1958, Tanner,

1952,

cited in Malina, 1969a:24), i t was expected that highly s k i l l e d gymnasts involved in frequent and strenuous t r a i n i n g , would display larger exercise induced muscle girths than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts involved in fewer hours of concentrated a c t i v i t y . national

elite,

recreational

pre-national

elite,

relatively

Thus, s i g n i f i c a n t differences among

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and

gymnasts were expected.

Thigh g i r t h .

A trend concerning thigh girth and gymnastic

ability

166

was not evident in an inter-study Ross, 1980)

comparison of Olympic (Novak et a l . ,

and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . ,

1977;

1973;

Sinning & Lindberg, 1972). The thigh girth measure was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group in comparison to Group 4.

1+2+3

In a multivariate sense, the thigh girth measure

was not s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3. However, irrespective of the i n s i g n i f i c a n t multivariate a n a l y s i s , analysis shows the thigh girth difference to be s i g n i f i c a n t for contrast.

univariate

this

These results indicate a trend towards smallness in thigh girth

for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. Although these results are in the opposite direction to the expected r e s u l t s , they do not indicate that the effects of exercise are displayed to a greater degree in the lesser s k i l l e d compared to the higher s k i l l e d gymnasts, or that this former group has a larger "muscle" girth than the l a t t e r group.

Lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts consistently have a larger mean thigh

skinfold than higher s k i l l e d gymnasts, and since girth measures were not "corrected" for skinfold thickness, i t

is suspected that this former group

has a larger "absolute" thigh girth comprised of a smaller "muscle" g i r t h , r e l a t i v e to a larger layer of subcutaneous fat plus s k i n , than the l a t t e r group.

These results do however, r e f l e c t

the general smallness in physique

associated with highly s k i l l e d gymnast, in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

Furthermore, this "smallness" has been known to present d i s t i n c t

advantages in performing gymnastic-type movements. • Proportional assessments of the thigh g i r t h , especially with respect to height or total leg length, would more graphically identify shape differences .among the a b i l i t y

groups.- .Such, an assessment would also have

167

developmental implications, since major changes in the thigh girth

are

evident with growth: The p r i n c i p l e changes in shape . . . from 2.5 years to 12 years, are r e l a t i v e decrease in size of the waist, and enlargement of hips and thighs. Thus development to maturity can be followed progressively as the deviations of the converted dimensions migrate to the midline [which represents the f u l l y mature figure of a 20 - 24 year old female]. (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974:88-89) In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y

(Olympic gymnasts)

described in the l i t e r a t u r e (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study have

smaller mean thigh g i r t h s . In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y gymnasts) described in the l i t e r a t u r e ,

(highly

skilled

the competitive gymnasts in the

present study have a similar mean thigh girth to the gymnasts described by Nelson (1974); a smaller mean girth than the gymnasts of Sinning and Lindberg's study (1972); and a larger mean girth than the gymnasts of Novak et a l . ' s study (1973).

Other girth measures (relaxed arm, flexed arm, forearm,

wrist,

chest, waist, c a l f , ankle, head, and neck g i r t h s ) . Trends concerning the relaxed arm, c a l f (Nelson, 1974; Novak et al.,

1973, 1977; Pool et a l . , 1969; Ross, 1980; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972),

flexed arm (Novak et a l . , 1973, 1977; Ross, 1980; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972), forearm (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973, 1977; Ross, 1980; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972), and waist girths

(Nelson, 1974; Ross, 1980; Sinning &

Lindberg, 1972), and gymnastic a b i l i t y were not evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts.

168

A tendency for Olympic gymnasts (Ross, 1980)

to have a larger

wrist girth than highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972) was evident in an inter-study comparison of these two a b i l i t y

levels.

Nelson (1974) noted a tendency for highly s k i l l e d gymnasts to have larger chest circumferences than females from an appropriate reference population!

However, there appears to be no trend concerning chest girth

and gymnastic a b i l i t y

in an inter-study comparison of Olympic (Ross, 1980)

and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Nelson, 1974; Novak et a l . , 1973; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972).

This l a t t e r comparison was made with some reservation,

since the value obtained for this measurement is subject to the height of the tape, as well as to the technique followed.

Ross (1980) took the chest

girth measurement at the height of the fourth costosternal a r t i c u l a t i o n . Sinning and Lindberg (1972) recorded two values, one taken from a measurement made at the level of the a x i l l a , and the other from a measurement made at a level just below the breasts, while Novak et a l . (1973) recorded a maximum and a minimum chest girth measurement.

Specifics on the chest girth measure-

ment taken in Nelson's study (1974) were not given.

Furthermore, only the

study by Ross (1980) indicated the breathing phase in which the chest girth measurement was taken. The ankle, head, and neck girth measurements appear to have been neglected in the l i t e r a t u r e with only a single study including a head girth measurement (Nelson, 1974), and only a single study including a neck girth measurement (Sinning & Lindberg, 1972).

Two studies describing highly

s k i l l e d gymnasts included an ankle girth measurement (Nelson, 1974; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972). S i g n i f i c a n t differences among the national e l i t e , elite,

pre-national

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts were expected,

169

particularly

in the relaxed arm, flexed arm, forearm, and c a l f

Since these are r e l a t i v e l y

girths.

muscular s i t e s , i t was expected that the

effects

of exercise would be displayed at these s i t e s , to a greater extent in those highly s k i l l e d gymnasts involved in frequent and strenuous S i g n i f i c a n t differences in w r i s t ,

training.

chest, waist, ankle, head, and neck

g i r t h s , among'the a b i l i t y groups, were expected to a lesser degree. S i g n i f i c a n t differences among the national elite,

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational

elite,

pre-national

gymnasts were not found

for the relaxed arm, flexed arm, forearm, w r i s t , waist, c a l f , ankle, chest, head, and neck g i r t h s . arm, forearm, w r i s t , consistent trends.

Differences among the a b i l i t y

groups, in the

flexed

ankle, head, and neck girths do not suggest any However, the relaxed arm, c a l f , chest, and waist

girths

are smaller in Group 1 + 2 + 3 in comparison to Group 4, and in Group

1+2

in comparison to Group 3, suggesting a tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to have smaller girth measurements, in these v a r i a b l e s , than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. These r e s u l t s , especially those noted for the relaxed arm and c a l f g i r t h s , are in the opposite direction to the expected trend, and no tendencies concerning the flexed arm and forearm g i r t h s , and gymnastic were found, in contradiction to what was expected.

It

ability

is possible that,

similar to the thigh girth r e s u l t , the "muscular" g i r t h differences of the relaxed arm, flexed arm, forearm, and c a l f girths were obscured by the subcutaneous fat plus skin layer.

Furthermore, lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts in

comparison to higher s k i l l e d gymnasts consistently have larger mean t r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d s . measurements were not "corrected" for skinfold thickness, i t

Since girth

is suspected

that this former group has larger "absolute" g i r t h s , comprised of smaller

170

"muscle" girths r e l a t i v e to larger subcutaneous fat l a y e r s , than the l a t t e r group. Proportional assessments of the g i r t h measurements, especially • with respect to height, would more graphically identify shape differences among the a b i l i t y groups.

Such an assessment would also have developmental

implications, since during growth and maturity the head, waist, and c a l f girths become progressively smaller in proportion to height (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974:84-85). It 1+2+3

should be noted that the head g i r t h difference between Group

and Group 4, with the former group having a smaller mean than the

l a t t e r , was approaching s i g n i f i c a n c e .

This difference may be attributable

to the thickness of the h a i r , since this measure encompasses the hair as well as the s k u l l .

This difference may also indicate a developmental

difference between the two groups since during the adolescent growth spurt: the head diameters, p r a c t i c a l l y dormant since a few years after b i r t h , accelerate somewhat in most i n d i v i d u a l s . (Tanner, 1962:10) Furthermore, in general, the circumference of the head in r e l a t i o n to height becomes progressively smaller with growth and maturity

(Medawar,

1945;

Ross, 1980). Proportionally large w r i s t , ankle, and chest g i r t h s , in addition to having developmental implications, may also r e f l e c t the effects of exercise in developing these areas. In comparison to gymnasts of similar a b i l i t y described in the l i t e r a t u r e ,

(Olympic gymnasts)

both the national e l i t e and the pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study have smaller mean relaxed arm (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980), flexed arm (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980),

171

forearm (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980), wrist (Ross, 1980), chest (Ross, 1980), waist (Ross, 1980), and c a l f girths (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980). In comparison to highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Nelson (1974), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a smaller mean relaxed arm, forearm, chest, c a l f , and ankle g i r t h ; a similar mean wrist and head g i r t h ; and a larger mean waist g i r t h . gymnasts described by Novak et a l .

In comparison to the

(1973), the competitive gymnasts have a

smaller mean relaxed arm g i r t h ; a larger mean flexed arm, forearm, and chest g i r t h ; and a similar mean c a l f g i r t h .

In comparison to Sinning and Lindberg's

gymnasts (1972), the competitive gymnasts have a larger mean relaxed arm and waist g i r t h ; a similar mean flexed arm, forearm, w r i s t , and a smaller mean c a l f g i r t h .

neck, and ankle g i r t h ;

In comparison to the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts

of Pool et a l . ' s study (1969), the competitive gymnasts have a smaller mean relaxed arm and c a l f

IV

girth.

Skinfold Thickness Measures It

is well established that exercise has the effect of reducing

the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer (Johnson, 1969; Parizkova & Poupa, 1963; Smit, 1973; Well, J o k l , & Bohranen, 1963); and Smit (1973: 480)

noted that; "the skinfolds of gymnasts decreased as their hours of

a c t i v i t y per week increased".

Furthermore, exercise has also been noted

to "check" or maintain the level of fat in growing adolescence, so that as growth proceeds, the skinfold thickness measures remain r e l a t i v e l y (Parizkova, 1959).

constant

For these reasons, i t was expected that highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts, involved in frequent and rigorous t r a i n i n g , would display smaller skinfold thickness measures than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, involved in comparatively fewer hours of concentrated

activity.

172

T r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f skinfold thickness measures. A tendency for Olympic gymnasts to have smaller s u p r a i l i a c (Novak et a l . , 1973, al.,

1977; Ross, 1980)

and abdominal skinfolds (Novak

1973; 1977; Ross, 1980; Smit, 1973; Youngren, 1969)

s k i l l e d gymnasts was evident in an inter-study ability

et

than highly

comparison of these two

levels. A tendency for Olympic gymnasts (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross,

1980)

to have a larger triceps skinfold than highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Novak et al.,

1973; Pool et a l . , 1969; Smit, 1973; Youngren, 1969)

an inter-study comparison of these two a b i l i t y

was evident

in

levels.

Trends concerning the subscapular (Novak et a l . , 1973,

1977;

Pool et a l . , 1969; Ross, 1980; Smit, 1973), front thigh (Novak et a l . ,

1973,

1977; Ross, 1980; Youngren, 1969), and medial c a l f skinfolds (Novak et a l . , 1973, 1977; Ross, 1980), and gymnastic a b i l i t y were not evident in an i n t e r study comparison of Olympic and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts.

Although i t was

expected that the Olympic gymnasts would consistently have smaller skinfold thicknesses than highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, these results are not surprising in view of the findings of Wilmore et a l .

(1970a, 1970b) and Zwiren et a l .

(1973), in that skinfold measurements were found to be b a s i c a l l y unsound in assessing changes in body fat with exercise.

Furthermore, Young et a l .

(1964, cited in Shephard et a l . , 1969:1185) noted that the triceps skinfold did not correlate well with obesity.

It

should also be noted that trends

concerning skinfold thickness and a b i l i t y ,

in the inter-study comparisons,

may have been masked by variations in the landmark s i t e at which the measurement was taken.

Ross (1980) takes the s u p r a i l i a c skinfold measurement

approximately f i v e to seven centimeters

superior to the i l i o s p i n a l e , while

173

Novak et a l .

(1973, 1977)

takes this measurement at the i l i a c

crest.

Techniques and landmark points for the skinfold measurements were not " specified in the majority of the studies reviewed. A l l of the skinfold thickness measures, the t r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f , were found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 + 2 + 3 in comparison to Group 4, as was expected.

Similarly a l l of the skinfold thickness measures, with the

exception of the subscapular s k i n f o l d , were s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3.

However, even the subscapular

skinfold was smaller in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3, with the skinfold difference for this contrast approaching s i g n i f i c a n c e . differences indicate a d e f i n i t e

These

trend towards smaller skinfold thickness

measurements for highly s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. None of the skinfold thickness measures, the t r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, or medial c a l f , was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2.

This result is not

surprising in view of the fact that these groups are very close in

ability,

and are assumed to have training programs of similar intensity and frequency.

Furthermore, this r e s u l t is in agreement with those results

reported by Pool et a l .

(1969) and Youngren (1969), in which higher placing

gymnasts did not have s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t skinfolds than lower placing gymnasts.

However, the "tendency" for higher placing gymnasts to have smaller

skinfold thickness measures than lower placing gymnasts, noted in these two studies, was not evident in the present comparison of national pre-national

e l i t e and

e l i t e gymnasts.

In comparison to the Olympic gymnasts described by Novak et a l . (1977) and Ross (1980) both the national

e l i t e and the pre-national

elite

174

gymnasts in the present study have a smaller mean t r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d . In comparison to the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Novak et a l .

(1973), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a larger

mean t r i c e p s , subscapular, medial c a l f , and front thigh s k i n f o l d ; a similar mean abdominal s k i n f o l d ; and a smaller mean s u p r a i l i a c s k i n f o l d .

In compar-

ison to the gymnasts of Smit's study (1973), the competitive gymnasts have a similar mean triceps s k i n f o l d , and a smaller mean subscapular and abdominal skinfold.

In comparison to the gymnasts described by Youngren (1969), the

competitive gymnasts have a similar mean triceps and front thigh s k i n f o l d , and a smaller mean abdominal s k i n f o l d . measured by Pool et a l .

In comparison to the gymnasts

(1969), the competitive gymnasts have a larger mean

triceps and subscapular s k i n f o l d .

V

Weight and Proportional Mass Measures Practical and workable anthropometric equations for

fractionating

the body mass into muscular, s k e l e t a l , r e s i d u a l , and fat components have just recently been presented (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974; Drinkwater & Ross, in Ostyn et a l . , 1980:177).

As a r e s u l t , there were few studies located

referring to "muscular, s k e l e t a l , and residual masses" distinguishable from a lean body mass. Since exercise tends to reduce the fat

"content" of the body as

i t encourages the "deposition" of muscle tissue (Parizkova,

1959;

Parizkova

& Poupa, 1963), higher s k i l l e d gymnasts were expected to possess a smaller "proportional" fat mass, in r e l a t i o n to a larger "proportional" muscle mass, than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. It was expected that higher s k i l l e d gymnasts would be shorter in

175

stature, and have generally smaller skeletal

and girth dimensions, as well

as smaller skinfold thicknesses,than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

Therefore,

i t was speculated that these differences would be reflected in smaller "absolute" f a t ,

s k e l e t a l , muscular, and residual masses f o r higher s k i l l e d

in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

However, i n .proportional

terms,

due to the expected smaller "proportional"

(percent) fat mass of the higher

s k i l l e d , in comparison to the lesser s k i l l e d gymnast, there would thus be a larger proportion '.of the body mass due to the other three mass components. Therefore, differences in the "proportional" s k e l e t a l , muscle, and residual masses among the a b i l i t y

groups were expected to emerge, with higher s k i l l e d

gymnasts having larger "proportional" muscle, s k e l e t a l , and residual masses than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

Furthermore, these differences were expected

to be the direct result of a smaller proportional

fat mass in the higher

s k i l l e d , in comparison to the lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

It

should also be

emphasized that the "proportional masses" incorporated a "calculated" mass, which is the sum of the four fractional

masses, in their d e r i v a t i o n , and

not the d i r e c t l y measured scale weight.

Weight.

A trend concerning weight and gymnastic a b i l i t y was not

evident in an inter-study comparison of Olympic (De Garay et a l . , Hirata, al.,

1966; Montpetit,

1974;

in Salmela, 1976:187; Novak et a l . , 1977; Pool et

1969; Ross, 1980), highly s k i l l e d (Carter, 1970; Nelson, 1974; Novak

et a l . , 1973; Pool et a l . , 1969; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Smit, Sprynarova & Parizkova, 1969; Youngren, 1969), and recreational (Pool et a l . , 1969).

However, in comparison to appropriate

1973; gymnasts

reference

populations, the gymnasts described by Carter (1970), Sinning and Lindberg (1972), and Smit (1973) were reported to be l i g h t e r

in weight, and the

176

Sinning and Lindberg gymnasts were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l i g h t e r .

On the other

hand, the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts of Nelson's study (1974) were found to be similar in weight to an appropriate reference population of females, to whom they were compared. S i g n i f i c a n t differences in weight among national national

elite,

elite,

pre-

and lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts were not expected,

based on the observation that e l i t e and highly s k i l l e d gymnasts, in general, "appear" l i g h t in weight.

It

also appears that a r e l a t i v e l y

l i g h t weight is

a prerequisite for successful participation at these l e v e l s .

Highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts were expected to possess a low "proportional" fat mass in

relation

to a high "proportional" lean body mass (muscle, s k e l e t a l , and residual masses), while lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts were expected to possess a higher "proportional" fat mass in relation

to their proportional

lean body mass.

These differences were expected as a product of the varying degrees of exercise involvement of the groups.

However, since adipose tissue is less

dense than muscle tissue (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974), and since "the bones of athletes

become considerably heavier than those of non-athletes"

(Guyton,

1976:1060), i t was conjectured that the compositional differences among.the a b i l i t y groups would cancel weight differences, and "absolute" weight would thus show no difference. It was expected that national

elite,

pre-national

elite,

and

lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, taken together, would have a s i g n i f i cantly l i g h t e r mean body weight than recreational

gymnasts.

This speculat-

ion was based on the assumption that the higher s k i l l e d gymnasts would be smaller in height.and overall

skeletal

dimensions (indicating

less absolute

skeletal weight), and possess smaller skinfold thickness values

(indicating

-less absolute fat weight) and smaller girth measures (indicating

less

177

absolute muscle weight), than the recreational

gymnasts.

Furthermore,

was speculated that the "absolute" muscle mass (but not the muscle mass) would be less in the higher a b i l i t y overall

smallness in skeletal

it

proportional

group, due to their

general

dimensions, which according to Behnke (1963,

cited in Behnke & Royce, 1966:76) would indicate a smaller muscle mass since, a s p e c i f i c amount of lean body mass is associated with a given skeletal

size. Although Group 1 + 2 + 3

(4.1

has a smaller mean weight than Group 4

kg), Group 1 + 2 a smaller mean weight than Group 3 (4,8

Group 1 a smaller mean weight than Group 2 (0.4 not s i g n i f i c a n t . between Group 1 + 2

It

kg), and

kg), these differences were

should be noted however, that the difference in weight and Group 3 was approaching s i g n i f i c a n c e .

These

differences indicate a trend towards lightness in weight for higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

These r e s u l t s , and especially

the non-significant weight difference noted between Group 1 and Group 2, 1

are in agreement with the results of Pool et a l . ' s study (1969), in that higher placing gymnasts tended to weigh less than lower placing gymnasts, but not s i g n i f i c a n t l y so. Although these results are not as expected, they are not " surprising in view of the fact that the anthropometric indicants of weight differences, height, and most of the other skeletal

dimensions, as well as

a l l of the girth measures, with the exception of the thigh g i r t h , were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t among the a b i l i t y

groups.

Differences in these

v a r i a b l e s , among the a b i l i t y

groups, were not of s u f f i c i e n t magnitude to

affect

However, since there was a tendency for

the weight measures.

higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to be both shorter and l i g h t e r than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, perhaps a ponderal index (height-to-weight) comparison, among

178

the a b i l i t y groups, would be a more meaningful comparison. The non-significant weight difference between Group 1 + 2 + 3 , and Group 4, may be a r e f l e c t i o n of club "attitudes". recreational

In clubs where the

level i s viewed as a "base" for the competitive program,

participants are often pre-selected on lightness in weight, among other v a r i a b l e s , for inclusion in the recreational program. In comparison to gymnasts of s i m i l a r a b i l i t y

(Olympic gymnasts)

described in the l i t e r a t u r e (De Garay et a l . , 1974; H i r a t a , 1966; Montpetit, in Salmela, 1976:187; Novak et a l . , 1977; Pool et a l . , 1969; Ross, 1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national e l i t e gymnasts in the present study have smaller mean weights. In comparison to gymnasts of s i m i l a r a b i l i t y

(highly s k i l l e d

gymnasts) described by Carter (1970), Nelson (1974), Pool et a l . (1969), Sinning and Lindberg (1972), Smit (1973), Sprynarova and Parizkova (1969), and Youngren (1969), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a smaller mean weight.

However, in comparison to the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts

described by Novak et a l . (1973), the competitive gymnasts have a larger mean weight. In comparison to the recreational gymnasts referred to in Pool et a l . ' s study (1969), the recreational gymnasts in the present study have a smaller mean weight.

Proportional f a t mass.

A tendency for Olympic gymnasts to have

a smaller percent fat mass (Novak et a l . , 1977; Ross, 1980) than highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Novak et a l . , 1973; Sinning & Lindberg, 1972; Sprynarova & Parizkova, 1969), was evident in an inter-study comparison of these two ability

levels.

179

The proportional fat mass was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 + 2 + 3 in comparison to Group 4, and in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3, as expected.

The non-significant proportional fat mass difference

between Group 1 and Group 2 was also expected, due to the r e l a t i v e closeness of the two groups, in training intensity and regime in general.

These

results suggest a trend towards smallness in proportional fat mass in higher s k i l l e d gymnasts in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. While these results may r e f l e c t the effects of exercise in reducing the fat "content" of the body, they may also have developmental implications, especially since s i g n i f i c a n t differences in maturity were also reported for these contrasts.

Around the time of puberty there are

marked changes in the composition of the female body, with a noted increase in the fat "content" (Edwards, 1951; Parizkova, 1959; Reynolds, 1950). gymnasts that are further advanced in maturity, would l i k e l y exhibit

Those

this

increase to a greater extent than those gymnasts who are less mature. Furthermore, in the present study, lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts in comparison to higher s k i l l e d gymnasts were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more mature, and also had s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger proportional fat masses. Since the proportional fat mass value (also referred to as the percent fat mass value) .varies considerably with the derivative

equation

used (Damon & Goldman, 1964; Malina, 1969b; Steinkamp e t a l . , 1965, as cited in Malina, 1969b: 19),

it

is with much reservation that the percent fat mass

values in the present study are compared with those reported in the Keeping this point in view, i t

literature.

is noted that in comparison to the Olympic

gymnasts described by Novak et a l . (1977) and Ross (1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national mean proportional fat mass.

e l i t e gymnasts in the present study have a smaller This l a t t e r study employed the same equations as

180

the present study, in the calculation of proportional

f a t mass.

In comparison to the highly s k i l l e d gymnasts described by Novak et a l . (1973), Sinning and Lindberg (1972), and Sprynarova and Parizkova (1969), the competitive gymnasts in the present study have a smaller proportional

f a t mass.

Proportional significantly

muscle mass.

The proportional

larger in Group 1 + 2 + 3 in comparison to Group 4, and in

Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3, as expected. proportional

muscle mass was

muscle mass difference

The non-significant

between Group 1 and Group 2 was also

expected, due to the r e l a t i v e closeness of the two groups in a b i l i t y and in training

regime.

These results suggest a trend towards larger proport- ..

ional muscle masses in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, and generally r e f l e c t the e f f e c t of exercise in developing the muscular component of the body. The proportional

muscle mass value was derived from height,

"calculated" body weight, skinfold thickness, and girth measures.

Of these

measures, only the skinfold thicknesses and the thigh girth were, found to.be s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to recreational gymnasts.

However, calculation of the proportional

muscle mass measure

incorporated muscle girths "corrected" for the subcutaneous f a t Furthermore, while larger girths

layer.

indicated larger "absolute" muscle masses

for lesser s k i l l e d in comparison to higher s k i l l e d

gymnasts/"corrected"

g i r t h s , led to smaller "proportional" muscle masses for the lesser s k i l l e d in comparison to the higher s k i l l e d gymnasts. In comparison to the Olympic gymnasts described by Ross (1980), both the national

e l i t e and the pre-national

e l i t e gymnasts in the present

181

study have similar mean proportional muscle masses.

This study employed

the same equation as the present study, in the calculation of proportional muscle mass.

Proportional skeletal mass.

The proportional

skeletal mass was

s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger in Group 1 + 2 in comparison to Group 3. Group 1 + 2 + 3

has a larger mean proportional

Although

skeletal mass than Group 4,

and Group 1 a larger mean mass than Group 2, these differences were not significant.

However, these results do indicate a tendency for higher

s k i l l e d gymnasts to have larger proportional

skeletal masses than lesser

s k i l l e d gymnasts. The proportional

skeletal mass value was derived from height,

"calculated" body weight, wrist and ankle g i r t h s , and bi-epicondylar humerus and femur widths.

Of these measures, only the bi-epicondylar femur

width was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to recreational

gymnasts.

While these results may indicate a smaller "absolute"

skeletal mass, they do not simultaneously indicate a smaller skeletal mass.

"proportional"

The fact that there was a s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller

proportional

fat mass in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, indicates that "automatically"

the other mass components would have larger

weightings, with respect to the "calculated" weight.

Thus, the

skeletal mass measure has emerged as having a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

proportional proportional

larger

contribution to the "calculated" weight in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. In comparison to the Olympic gymnasts described by Ross (1980), both the national e l i t e and the pre-national study have larger mean proportional

e l i t e gymnasts in the present

skeletal masses.

This study employed

182

the same equations as the present study, in the calculation of proportional skeletal mass.

Proportional residual mass.

Although Group 1 + 2 + 3

has a

larger mean proportional residual mass than Group 4, Group 1 + 2 a larger mean mass than Group 3, and Group 1 a smaller mean than Group 2, these . differences were not s i g n i f i c a n t . between Group 1 + 2 + 3

However, the residual mass difference

and Group 4 was approaching s i g n i f i c a n c e .

Furthermore, these results suggest a tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to have larger proportional residual masses than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. The proportional residual mass was derived from height, the biacromial and b i i l i o c r i s t a l

breadths, the transverse chest width, and the

anterior-posterior ,chest depth.

Of these measures, only the anterior-

posterior chest depth was s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller in Group 1 in comparison to Group 2.

Considering these r e s u l t s , i t i s not surprising that the

proportional residual mass measures did not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y for any of the contrasts. In comparison to the Olympic gymnasts described by Ross (1980), the national e l i t e gymnasts have a similar mean proportional residual mass, and the pre-national residual mass.

e l i t e gymnasts have a larger mean proportional

This study employed the same equations as the present study,

in the calculation of proportional residual mass.

183

MATURITY-ANTHROPOMETRTC RELATIONSHIP Because s i g n i f i c a n t differences in maturity were found among the a b i l i t y groups, i t was expected that these maturational

differences would

also be r e f l e c t e d in the anthropometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , since maturity and morphology are so c l o s e l y r e l a t e d ( F r i s c h & McArthur, 1974; F r i s c h & R e v e l l e , 1970, 1971; Garn & H a s k e l l , 1960; Johnston et a l . , 1971; Maresh, 1972; McNeill & L i v s o n , 1963; Reynolds, 1950). While absolute values of the anthropometric v a r i a b l e s i n d i c a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e growth, proportional developmental growth.

values more g r a p h i c a l l y

reflect

In the present study, a l l anthropometric v a r i a b l e s ,

with the exception of the proportional mass measures, were assessed in terms of t h e i r absolute values o n l y .

While anthropometric differences among the

gymnastic a b i l i t y groups were found, i t was not possible to maturational

developments from these d i f f e r e n c e s .

It

infer

i s possible however,

to impl i c a t e maturational

developments from proportional

differences.'

Furthermore, proportional

assessments are concerned with shape and not

amount, and therefore quantity i s not confused with representing a mature physique, as may e a s i l y occur when maturity i s implied from absolute values alone. The maturity-anthropometric

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s i l l u s t r a t e d by Ross

and Wilson (1974) i n a shape comparison between a pre-pubescent and a postpubescent female.

Using anthropometric variables p r o p o r t i o n a l l y adjusted to

a standard height, the pre-pubescent female in contrast to the post-pubescent female, has a shorter trunk length and a longer t o t a l leg l e n g t h , comprised of a longer lower leg and thigh l e n g t h .

These r e s u l t s are i n t e r e s t i n g

view of the findings noted in the present study.

in

Highly s k i l l e d gymnasts

in comparison to l e s s e r s k i l l e d gymnasts were found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y

184

delayed in maturity

(Group 1 + 2 + 3

vs

Group 4, Group 1 + 2

vs

Group 3 ) ,

and anthropometrics!ly, were s i g n i f i c a n t l y shorter in trunk length (Group 1+2+3

vs

Group 4, Group 1 + 2

and thigh length (Group 1

vs

vs

Group 3, Group 1

vs

Group 2 ) ,

Group 2 ) , while s i g n i f i c a n t differences in

height were not found. From the discussion of the anthropometric v a r i a b l e s , i t i s evident that further analysis with respect to proportional assessments, is necessary to e x p l i c i t l y i l l u s t r a t e ability

levels.

shape differences among gymnasts from varying

Furthermore, such analysis i s necessary before anthropometric

variables can be closely associated with maturational

status.

185

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

SUMMARY Fame for female gymnasts is often s h o r t - l i v e d , with many highly s k i l l e d gymnasts dropping out of e l i t e c a l i b e r competitions during, or soon after adolescence.

Many of today's e l i t e female gymnasts are in the age

range when normal pubertal

developments, such as increases in weight,

height,

adiposity, and dimensions in general, are expected to occur. The recent trend towards younger participation at e l i t e gymnastic competitions, coupled with an increasing display of movement perfection and task complexity, seems to indicate that female gymnasts are reaching prime, or "peaking" at younger ages.

their

This trend also suggests the p o s s i b i l -

i t y that important relationships exist among maturational

status,

anthro-

pometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and success in gymnastic performance. It was the purpose of this study to investigate

the p o s s i b i l i t y

that success in gymnastics is related to the concept of maturity and anthropometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . be s i g n i f i c a n t maturational

Furthermore, i t was hypothesized that there would (skeletal age in reference to chronological age;

incidence of menarche) and anthropometric differences

(height and length

measures; width, breadth, and depth measures; girth measures; skinfold thickness measures; weight and proportional mass measures) among national elite,

pre-national

gymnasts.

elite,

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational

186

Sixty-nine Canadian female gymnasts, ages 11.5 to 18.0 years, with a b i l i t y levels ranging from recreational were participants were i d e n t i f i e d

in the study.

through to national

Performance levels and research groups

as; Group 1, National

E l i t e Gymnasts; Group 2,

E l i t e Gymnasts; Group 3, Competitive Gymnasts; and Group 4, Gymnasts.

elite,

A l l available subjects were participants

Pre-National

Recreational

in Groups 1 and 2, while

subjects were randomly selected to represent Groups 3 and 4. Maturational assessment for each subject consisted of a skeletal age r a t i n g , based on a radiographic photo of the l e f t hand and w r i s t , and an indication that menarche had, or had not occurred. Anthropometric assessment consisted of 39 selected variables. S p e c i f i c a l l y , 11 height and length; 6 breadth, width, and depth; 11 g i r t h ; 6 skinfold thickness; 1 weight and 4 proportional

mass measures were

evaluated. In a l l

statistical

analyses the following preplanned

contrasts were used; Group 1 + 2 + 3 and Group 1

vs

Group 2.

vs

Group 4, Group 1 + 2

The chronological age minus skeletal

orthogonal vs

Group 3,

age d i f f e r -

ence, when compared between groups, was assessed using analysis of variance. The incidence of menarche difference chi-square a n a l y s i s .

The anthropometric

multivariate and univariate as the covariate.

between groups was assessed using differences were assessed using

analysis of covariance, using chronological age

The level of significance for a l l

statistical

tests was

set at p < .01. The results of the s t a t i s t i c a l

tests indicated that the two

maturational hypotheses, and the f i v e anthropometric p a r t i a l l y supported.

hypotheses were

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , at a level of significance of

p < .01, the following results were noted.

187

Highly s k i l l e d gymnasts in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts (Group 1 + 2 + 3

vs

Group 4, Group 1 + 2

delayed both s k e l e t a l l y and menarcheally.

vs

Group 3) were maturationally

Anthropometrically, they were

shorter in trunk length; smaller in t r i c e p s , s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d s ; smaller in proportional f a t mass and larger in proportional muscle mass. 1+2+3),

In a d d i t i o n , highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Group

in comparison to recreational

gymnasts (Group 4 ) , were smaller

in bi-epicondylar femur width, thigh g i r t h , and subscapular s k i n f o l d . As w e l l , e l i t e gymnasts (Group 1 + 2 ) , i n comparison to lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts (Group 3 ) , were smaller in s i t t i n g height and larger in proportional skeletal mass. National e l i t e gymnasts (Group 1), in comparison to pre-national e l i t e gymnasts (Group 2 ) , were not maturationally d i f f e r e n t , menarcheally.

s k e l e t a l l y or

Anthropometrically, they were shorter in trunk length, longer

in thigh length, and smaller i n a n t e r i o r - p o s t e r i o r chest depth. The results of the maturational

assessment indicated that there

may be a relationship between gymnastic a b i l i t y and maturity,

with highly

s k i l l e d gymnasts being developmentally less mature than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts. The results of the anthropometric assessment indicated that there may be a relationship between gymnastic a b i l i t y and anthropometric

parameters.

It was suggested that the shorter s i t t i n g height, trunk and thigh lengths, observed in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, provided s p e c i f i c biomechanical advantages in performing gymnastic-type movements. The smaller anterior-posterior chest depth, thigh g i r t h , and bi-epicondylar femur width, observed in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, were considered to be r e f l e c t i o n s of the generally small physique

188

associated with biomechanical advantages for gymnastic-type movements. As well i t was considered that, due to the nature of the measurement, the anterior-posterior chest depth difference may have been a product of measurement

error.

The skinfold thickness, proportional

fat and muscle mass d i f f -

erences, among the a b i l i t y groups, were presumed related to differences in training regime, with higher s k i l l e d gymnasts involved in considerably more hours of intense training displaying smaller skinfold thickness values, a lower proportional fat mass, and a higher proportional muscle mass, than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts.

The larger proportional

skeletal

mass, observed in higher s k i l l e d in comparison to lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, was attributed

to the low fat mass value of this former group, which

consequently led to a higher weighting of the skeletal mass, as well as of the other lean body mass components, when assessed in proportional terms of "calculated" total body weight. It

was conjectured that the differences noted, among the

ability

groups, in thigh and trunk length, s i t t i n g height, bi-epicondylar femur width, thigh g i r t h , and proportional fat mass, were r e f l e c t i o n s of maturational

differences.

However, i t was postulated that proportional analysis

of these v a r i a b l e s , in relation to height, would more c l o s e l y indicate developmental differences.

Furthermore, the s i g n i f i c a n t thigh and trunk -

length, and s i t t i n g height d i f f e r e n c e s , and the non-significant vertex standing height differences, suggested proportional differences among the a b i l i t y groups, in those segmental lengths comprising the vertex

standing

height measure. Since height and weight were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y different among the a b i l i t y groups, and since there was a tendency for higher s k i l l e d gymnasts to be shorter and l i g h t e r than lesser s k i l l e d gymnasts, i t was

189

speculated that a ponderal index comparison would be a meaningful

variable

to investigate. It was suggested that girth measurements "corrected" for the subcutaneous layer of fat plus s k i n , would be more appropriate in assessing muscular development at s p e c i f i c s i t e s . F i n a l l y , i t was proposed that further analysis of the anthropometric v a r i a b l e s , with respect to proportional assessments, would be meaningful in identifying shape differences among the a b i l i t y groups, and would more graphically i l l u s t r a t e maturity-anthropometric r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

CONCLUSIONS The two maturational

and the f i v e anthropometric hypotheses were

p a r t i a l l y supported at a level of significance of p < .01. maturational

Thus, there are

and anthropometric differences among national e l i t e ,

national e l i t e ,

pre-

lesser s k i l l e d competitive and recreational gymnasts.

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , at ;p < .01, the following results were noted: 1.

National e l i t e ,

pre-national e l i t e , and lesser s k i l l e d competitive

gymnasts, taken together, in comparison to recreational gymnasts, are maturationally delayed, both s k e l e t a l l y and menarcheally.

Anthropo-

m e t r i c a l l y , they are shorter in trunk length, smaller in bi-epicondylar femur width, thigh g i r t h , t r i c e p s , subscapular, s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front t h i g h , and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d s ; have a smaller proportional

fat

mass, and a larger proportional muscle mass. 2.

National e l i t e and pre-national e l i t e gymnasts, taken together,

in

comparison to lesser s k i l l e d competitive gymnasts, are maturationally delayed, both s k e l e t a l l y and menarcheally.

Anthropometrically, they

are shorter in s i t t i n g height and trunk length; smaller in t r i c e p s ,

190

s u p r a i l i a c , abdominal, front thigh, and medial c a l f s k i n f o l d s ; have a smaller proportional fat mass; and larger proportional muscle and skeletal masses. 3.

National e l i t e gymnasts, in comparison to pre-national are not maturationally

different,

e l i t e gymnasts,

s k e l e t a l l y or menarcheally.

Anthropometrically, they are shorter in trunk length, longer in thigh length, and smaller in anterior-posterior chest depth.

It

is both necessary and v i t a l

to the advancement of the sport of

gymnastics that coaches understand the relationships among anthropometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , maturity,

and performance, since the best performers may

not necessarily possess the potential

for future promise, and to select

teams on the grounds of present performance and physique alone is misleading, and may deter those with true potential

from p a r t i c i p a t i n g :

We wonder how much Canadian competitive talent is l o s t by f a i l u r e to recognize that youngsters with ideal physique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for these sports have a tendency to be late maturers. (Ross et a l . , in Taylor, 1976:277)

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH There are many ways in which anthropometric and maturational can be observed and compared. gymnasts from varying a b i l i t y

The present study focused on comparing l e v e l s , on maturational

and anthropometric

parameters. It

data

i s proposed that conversion of the absolute anthropometric

values into proportional values, would result in the nascency of new information, that would be interpretable

in maturational

and possibly

191

biomechanical terms.

Furthermore, such assessments may aid in the

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of optimum body proportions f o r success in gymnastics. It would also be of interest to compare the values of the anthropometric variables-from each a b i l i t y group, with the s t a t i s t i c s from normative data, in order to identify the degree of deviation of the gymnastic populations from the norm.

Such comparisons would also offer

further

insights into the "uniqueness" of the female gymnast's physique. For example, recognizing that the present sample of gymnasts is comprised of females 11.5 to 18.0 years, with a mean age of 14.9 years, the anthropomet r i c s t a t i s t i c s of this population are compared with those of 14 year olds from a reference population described by Ross, Drinkwater, Whittingham, and Faulkner (in Berg & Erikson, 1980:3).

Compared with these 14 year o l d s ,

highly s k i l l e d gymnasts (Group 1 + 2 + 3 )

are at the 10th percentile f o r

height and the 20th percentile for weight; while recreational gymnasts (Group 4) are at the 20th percentile f o r height and the 45th percentile f o r weight.

These results indicate that while the gymnasts are comparatively

shorter in stature than the average 14 year o l d , they are heavier for their height i n comparison to those 14 year olds of the same height. the higher s k i l l e d gymnasts (Group 1 + 2 + 3 ) than the recreational gymnasts (Group 4 ) .

However,

are less heavy f o r their

height

Furthermore, this "heaviness" i s

probably due to muscular development and not excess adiposity s i n c e , muscular tissue is more dense than adipose tissue (Behnke & Wilmore, 1974), and exercise tends to encourage the "deposition" of muscle tissue (Smit, 1976) while i t discourages the "accumulation" of adipose tissue (Parizkova & Poupa, 1963).

The skinfold thickness values for these Groups further support this

contention. Most anthropometric and maturational

studies describing the female

192

gymnastic population have included only college aged gymnasts, and have been concerned with gymnasts from only one a b i l i t y l e v e l .

As the number

of young female gymnasts undergoing serious gymnastic t r a i n i n g , and participating'and succeeding in e l i t e competitions increases, the need for maturational

and anthropometric descriptions of this "new" gymnastic

population becomes evident.

REFERENCES

193

194

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APPENDIX A

208

APPENDIX A

THE ABILITY OF THE DRINKWATER TACTIC* (ANTHROPOMETRIC FRACTIONATION OF BODY MASS) TO ESTIMATE OBSERVED BODY MASS IN THE PRESENT SAMPLE OF GYMNASTS

OBM

=

Obtained Body Mass = Scale Weight

PBM

=

Predicted Body Mass =

DIFF

=

(PBM - OBM) = Difference

% ERR =

DIFF OBM

Y A ;

1 n n

FAT MASS + MUSCLE MASS + SKELETAL MASS + RESIDUAL MASS

= % Error

i U U

Group 1

2

3

4

1+2

1+2+3

OBM

X

43.7

44.1

48.7

50.0

43.9

45.9

PBM

X

41.9

41.5

46.1

47.1

41.7

43.5

DIFF

X

-1.8

-2.6

-2.6

-2.9

-2.2

-2.4

% ERR

X

4.3

6.3

5.6

6.2

5.3

5.5

* Drinkwater & Ross,

1980

ro o

210

APPENDIX A CONTINUED

The Drinkwater

Tactic systematically underestimated obtained

body mass (scale weight) in the present sample of female gymnasts. The original

formulae (applied to the present sample) were based on

deviations from a unisex adult model, and i t

is hypothesized that the

s p e c i f i c anthropometric v a r i a b l e s , selected to represent the individual masses, do not r e f l e c t these masses in children as c l o s e l y as they do in adults.

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