ARABIC CULTURAL/EDUCATIONAL AND LINGUISTIC ... [PDF]

ARABIC CULTURAL/EDUCATIONAL AND LINGUISTIC BACKGROUND AS FACTORS AFFECTING EFL WRITING PERFORMANCE

by

Abdelmajid

Labidi

for Degree A thesis the submitted Doctor Philosophy to the of of Salford, Department University of Arabic Section of Modern Languages,

January

1992

To Leila,

Amel,

and Asmaa

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish for

his

to

my thanks

express

continuous

support,

even at

another

university.

I am grateful opportunity

to

studies.

valuable

when he was busy

the

British

for

Council

I am also

grateful hand to

lent

me a much needed

financial

over

for

a few months.

Without

their

to

ready

providing

generous

to

bring

help,

this

to

the

with persue

my relatives

be able

and move

me

I could

so that to all

Mustapha,

suggestions

getting

come to Britain

to

and a grant

postgraduate

his

encouragement,

a time

Dr Hassan

to my supervisor,

my have

who

family

my

would

not

have been possible.

This

thesis

and assistance

patience, endure endebted

for

life.

Last

but

not

for

their

Library, kind

of

least,

sincere

especially

assistance

been

my beloved

and daily-life

loneliness

University

have

never

could

completed wife

thanks those

are at

and cooperation.

and daughters for

hardships

the

without

my sake.

due to

the

Inter-Library

love,

the who

had

To them,

staff

of

I

to am

Salford

Loan Service

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE Dedication Acknowledgements Table of contents A note on transliteration Transliteration system Abbreviations Abstract FIIAIKIýr

ONIE:

used in

Cultural

this

/educational

thesis

background

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE:

Review Literature 1.0 Pr9liminaries Education 1.1 qurlanic Education 1.2 Advanced Islamic Educational Arabic-Islamic CHAPTER TWO: system overview a Historical Islamic Traditional CHAPTER THREE: Teaching methods-in Traces in Today's Arabic Education and their Educational system CHAPTER FOUR: Status of the Teacher in the Arab World Past and Present 4.0 Preliminaries in Past the Teacher Arab 4.1 Status the of 4.2 Status of the Arab Teacher Today 4.3 Plagiarism and the Arab Student 4.4 Memorization and the Arab Student CONCLUSION PAh. E;Lrr

rrWO:

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER FIVE:

CHAPTER SIX:

Linguistic

1 8 8 9 17 29

54 69 69 70 78 80 83 91

BacKground

Review Preliminaries its Establishment Analysis: Contrastive its Criticism Analysis: Contrastive its Revival Analysis: Contrastive Rhetoric: Contrastive Dimension to CA a Further Involving 5.5 Contrastive studies Arabic and English Language 5.5.1 Study of the Arabic Kaplan's Language 5.5.2 Study of the Arabic Johnstone's Language 5.5.3 Williams' of the Arabic studies Language 5.5.4 Study of the Arabic Al-Jubourils 5.5.5 Language Study of the Arabic Ostler's Level Differences at the micro Linguistic

Literature 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

111 iv vi vii ix x

94 108 108 108 112 115 120 125 126 128 131 137 139 143

V

6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.3.1 6.5.3.2 6.5.3.3

Preliminaries Arabic English Preliminaries Arabic versus English: Differences of Phonology Differences of Morphology in English Derivation Compounding in English in Arabic al-lishtiqaaq 1-'aSghar (Minor Derivation) al-lishtiqaaqu (major Derivation) 1-lakbar al-lishtiqaaqu 1-lughawi al-libdaalu (Consonantal Substitution) 6.5.3.4 an-naHt (coining) 6.5.4 in Arabic Inflection 6.5.5 Compounding in Arabic 6.5.6 in learning Vocabulary Difficulties 6.6 Differences of Syntax 6.6.1 Capitalisation and Punctuation 6.6.2 Definiteness/Indefiniteness in Arabic and English 6.6.3 Difficulties Sentence-building 6.6.4 Word order 6.6.5 Tense Level CHAPTERSEVEN: Differences at the Macro Linguistic 7.0 Preliminaries in Languages Difference Rhetorical 7.1 Rhetorical organization 7.2 in Arabic and English features Characteristic 7.3 rhetorical of Arabic Use of Long Sentences 7.3.1 7.3.1.1 Punctuation "wa" (and) 7.3.1.2 Coordination: 7.3.1.3 Repetition 7.3.1.4 Parallelism to Undergraduate CHAPTEREIGHT: Teaching EFL Writing Skills Arab Students - Recommendations and Conclusions 8.0 Preliminaries 8.1 Culture and EFL Writing 8.2 Translation as EFL Technique of Enhancing the Writing Performance 8.3 Brief Summary and Conclusions Notes English and French References References Arabic Glossary terms used of Arabic Appendices a. Appendix A b. Appendix B

in

this

thesis

143 143 152 157 158 167 167 169 170 172 174 175 176 177 179 182 185 188 189 194 204 208 216 216 217 235 246 246 247 252 265 280 295 295 295 300 311 318 234 352 354 361 374

vi A NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION

The system

by The Hans Wehr Dictionary vowels'and

of

Arabic

names that

form.

Thus,

fallaah

(cf

appropriate

for

example, "Caliph"

and the word

however,

inconsistency,

because

transliteration

of

quoted

in

Arabic

books--

this

Ahmed; Muchrif; such authors course,

thesis, a

Lotfi;

own.

are the

the

Arabic,

table

their

Again,

is

the

such

books,

used

for

long

follows) Also,

the

Anglicized

used

had a

instead

English

of

show

of

authors of

transliterations, When referring

transliterations

some

Anglicized

Arabic

editions

and so on. their

to

simple

names

simplified

Hossain;

that

khaliifah.

use

the

that

simplified

"Allah" of

except

facilities.

in

often

of

to be retained.

kept

is

thesis

transliteration

variety

from

this

transliteration

instead

--in

or quoting

Written

word

appear

Husain;

in

word-processing

authors

their

in

the

familiar

are

Occasionally,

of

of Modern

some consonants

due to a lack

followed

transliteration

of

their eg. to had,

vii TRANSLITERATION SYSTEM USED IN THIS THESIS

Symbols

Description

Corresponding

Arabic

Consonants CONSON-A,

N'rS

I

voiceless

b

voiced

t

voiceless

th

voiceless

glottal

Is

stop

bilabial

stop

dental

stop

interdental

fricative

C

i

voiced

H

voiceless

pharyngeal

x

voiceless

uvular

d

voiced

dental

dh

voiced

interdental

r

voiced

alveolar

trill

z

voiced

alveolar

fricative

s

voiceless

palatal

affricate fricative

fricative stop fricative

alveolar palatal

S

voiceless

alveolar

D

voiced

T

voiceless

z

voiced

alveolar

voiced

pharyngeal

gh

voiced

uvular

f

voiceless

labio-dental

q

voiceless

uvular

k

voiceless

1

voiced

emphatic

stop interdental

fricative

fricative

fricative

stop

stop

velar alveolar

fricative

stop

velarized

velar

U"

fricative

voiceless

velarized

fricative

non-emphatic

sh

voiced

%io

stop lateral

fricative

U-0

V;;

m

voiced

bilabial

nasal

n

voiced

alveolar

nasal

h

voiceless

w

voiced

labio-velar

y

voiced

palatal

* geminate

consonants

laryngeal

are

fricative semi-vowel

semi-vowel

doubled.

,N70WEI-s Corresponding

Arabic -1

a

J

"I * long

vowels

are

doubled.

Vowels

i

ix

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS THESIS

A. D.

Anno Domini

(Gregorian

A. H.

After

(Muslim

CA

Contrastive

Analysis

CR

Contrastive

Rhetoric

EFL

English

as

a Foreign

ESL

English

as

a Second

FL

Foreign

Language

Ll

First

L2

Second

Language

NL

Native

Language

SL

Source

Language

ST

Source

Text

TL

Target

Language

TT

Target

Text

Hijra

Language

Calendar) Calendar)

Language Language

x ABSTRACT

Effective knowing the of

the

rules

processing

of

of

lexicon,

language

The

strategies.

general

of

one

the

strategies

ethos

differences the

in

communicative

of

of

languages

of

properties

in

to of

aspects

be

might

the

lead

another

as certain

communication,

its vary

The differences to

form

has

communication

compared

as

Any

communication)

and cultures.

community

involves

It

knowledge.

language

of

on more than

and phonology.

one form

is

languages

across

depends

as linguistic

strategies

systematically

language

grammar,

as well

cultural (and

communication

own

its

a foreign

in

communication

and

culture-

language-specific.

foreign

As a result, the

foreign

a transferance

of

in

effectively due to

to

foreign

the

as

problem language

teachers

through the

students differences

this

thesis,

Such

approach

and

the

makes

between

interference

will

The present considerably

the

two and

foreign

language

work

juxtaposition

of

allowing

the

thus the

this

solve

culturo-linguistic

languages. successful

Otherwise, performance

be achieved.

will

study

sets

to

Arab

students'

affect

language,

persist

language

not

the

possible

greatly

other

many

contrastive

themselves

similarities

foreign

and

for

and

in

is

foreign

be

strategies to

way

alongside

linguists,

applied

communicate

to

seems

appropriate

practically

language

to

most

to

communicative

native-language

The

fail

might failure

This

see

native the

and

language to

the

in

translation.

native

language.

language.

suggested

learners

language

investigate

two major

learning

of

factors

English

that

seem

as a foreign

xi language.

First,

the

ignored

totally language

as being

learning. though

which,

culturo-

educational

the

Second,

more

second

researched,

which

factor

affecting

major

(or

linguistic

the

background

no

almost foreign factor

tongue)

mother

appropriate

is

solutions

yet

are

provided.

Due to of

this

language

in

seem to

rely

part

in

their

Arab

thesis-the

For

plagiarism,

a practice

them alone.

The Arab the

of

students,

educational

stage,

trained

to

young

children

stop

at

to most

is

The

language

this

it

that

and of

accused laid

be

not

upon biggest

the

undergo-

should

They

language

often

are

should

in

of

to get

the

concluding

factor

second which

of

the

micro

the

word

seen and and

Though such

training

itself

a

problem

as

to the

to

macro

sentence.

extends

is itself

levels. Influence

EFL

to

thesis.

language

thesis-manifest

this

does

particular and

foreign

this

that

to

level

chapter

suits it

university such

and

(Qurlan),

taught

are

affecting

part is

over

earliest

orally

confine

them up till

the

basically

instructed

they

from

and

age

memories.

does it

nor

major the

are

subject

A solution

language: is

they

young

very

escorts

language,

of

foreign

the

foreign

the language.

native

of

system

on their

stage,

second

native

a

and the major

in

approach

blame

the

which

kuttaab,

the

suggested

with

--dealt

levels

from

subjects.

teaching

study

reason,

educational

heavily

Rather,

subject.

the

rely

for

the

this

to

first

the

blame.

Arab

not

in

on memorization

--dealt

their

approach

in

with

tend

students

same way they

essay-writing.

portion

influence

culturo-educational

the

from

influence

on the The micro at

learning

such

two

major

level a

of level

xii from

appears it the

is

not

as

nature,

the

through

will

textual

is

to

and the

repertoire.

help

foreign

of

and

English.

as

an

develop

students of the

composing

language.

that

Besides,

and more practically

exist it

will

their

if

teaching applied

awareness

an

differences their

certainly lexical

of

awareness

needed

between

EFL

textual

of

approach,

a much

are

and

approach

linguistic

general

deviations,

rhetorical

language;

the, foreign

grave

make

background

effective Such

ie.

level,

macro

Such

linguistic major

However,

often

language.

EFL students.

pecularities

those

more quickly

proposed

them to

Arabic

to

the

at

the

of

examination

that

learning.

students

and

cultural

advanced will

sensitize

particular,

their

Arab foreign

the

of

norms

as

persistent Here,

pertaining

methodically, the

as

language

foreign

of

level.

the

Translation composition

and

and

characteristics

stages

text

or from

discussed

early

serious

discourse

deviations their

the

and,

mother

help

which in

tongue

them enlarge

and

idiomatic

1=1 AL

Cii1tir*1

Ek

/Ediict±Dr1t1

Ir

IF-

Bx-crnd

I

INTRODUCTION

Language, foreign

every ignored. the

as the language

One major is

classroom is

culture

the

generations tradition

is

both

the

are

the

methodology foreign

to

a

society

the

Recognizing education], renewed especially

foreign

to

and a

He says,

this

potential

higher

links

the

and

and language the

way

that

a

have

the study education,

recently of

a 'specific

degree,

[the

how

implicitly

affect language

to

the

shapes Eickelman

thinking.

this

might

foreign

consequently

of

Since

it

is

system

teaching.

determinant

world.

in

the

present

educational

certain

implicit

sociologists

the

another,

sense

and pattern

style

the

language

the

to

in

determines

system

regarding

country

It,

from

educational

culture

which

absent

that

This

with

past

sometimes

Included

chain

of

be transmitted.

foreign

in

the

together.

the

culture,

interest

is

which

concern

completely

language.

educational

part

to be a major

conceives

are

should

one

specific

cognitive

aspects

certain

way through

the

teaching,

individual's schooling

the

in

from

background.

Yet,

relates

this

of

educational

holds

is

used

language

belongs

which

and language

varies

major

community

In brief,

methodology

the

tradition

It

concern

is

the

of

particular

future.

communication,

has been almost

which

culture

system

culture

The main the

a

transmitted.

by which

teacher.

aspect the

of

educational

of

with

vehicle

(1978)

of how a particular

study

of

indicated schooling, defines

a

2

and transmits ?a

a culturally-valued

set

basic,

of

master-patterns' basis

Eickelman

other

system,

i. e the

forms

society

shapes,

and accommodates

as the fits

vehicle that

particular

patterning

learning/teaching overall first

Weir remarks

teaching are

that

foreign

affects

which

(1982),

about

overseas

cultural

talking

"are

problems

backgrounds", linguistic

faced

among the

(Weir,

investigation

this

foreign by foreign

the

is

not

only

the

learning

but

also

the

that

language.

have a bearing

educational

backgrounds.

on language

foreign

language

problem

language

reseachers

on foreign

learning

has not

that

asserts

The

yet

to

not

language

influence is

received

and applied

West,

educational

previous

rightly

the

related

are

which

Weir

in

studying

which

alone

the

backgrounds

educational However,

also

suit

difficulties

Again,

language

to

students

in

the

it

patterned

goes with

differences

1982: 92).

backgrounds but

study

a

the

to

result

and

it

language

system

a

materials

Therefore,

system.

such a way that

As

accordingly

in

Language

change.

in

patterned

educational

available

and cultural

society.

and educational

that

learning

the

and cultural

language

is and

methodology

societal

cultural

culture

language,

of

social

the

that knowledge

of

transmission

this

of

the

on

subsequently

are

therefore,

transmission

of

thought

1978: 485).

believe,

and others

style,

interiorated

and

patterns

(Eickelman,

acquired,

deeply

language

of

which

of

cognitive

of

obvious. its

linguists.

due

3 is

It learner

his study

habits

or

say,

learning

student

his

would

English is

West do not

share

Nor do they

belong

In point

of

Configurationist

each

varies

have

learning

styles

which

are

fact,

(in

Benedict of

school

culture

James,

the

accordingly.

his world

educational

1980),

the

from, Western and

the

systems.

reality

and

how

the

from distinctive

affects

the

James,

the

this

that members

saw

ways in 1980: 11)

orientation actually

and

processed

one society which

a

set

environment. from

that

developed or

set'

founder

claims

had

ages

'psychological

in

from

their

anthropology,

cultural

over

information

(quoted

vary

the same cultures.

to

determined

and it

to

his

different

Arab

the

by

he acquires

broadly,

because

and

shaped

systems

educational also

to be expected

is

that

system

more

and

doubt

no

style

the same background

towards

is

learning

or,

knowledge

him.

the

distinctive

effect,

this

Because

counterpart

This

counterpart.

through

the

knowledge,

this around

learning

of

styles.

to another,

one culture

is

It

acquiring

and everything

perception

system.

way of

Igives'

fact,

way of perceiving

environment

student's

educational

The Arab

his

in

which, his

channels

a particular

viewing

The Arab

It

method.

him with of

background

educational

a study

provides thus,

the

Culture,

in

to another

the mind

works,

of

the

4 For

this

language

culture

teaching

the the

acquire because

foreign

Many foreign of

a foreign

in

foreign

other

in

teachers

language language

factors

Talking

to

the

The important

the

(1980)

of

ideological more than

issue

education

differences

codes

or

interpret

in

gap.

differences

Eastern

of,

hold

culture,

In

on the

whether

the

East' a

social,

moral,

and

one

the

educations,

inevitably

practices

hold

and also

are

other

of

of

background.

Middle

between

educational

products

is

they

whether

a generation

Lack loose

to a

and Western

Arab

between

and Western

its

of

language

that

and unresolved

education reflection

between

by

to a loose

educational

write

differences

different

but

the

students,

nature.

linked

people;

incomplete.

as caused

only

part

students'

current

Middle

not

is

which

differences

and Swales

we

is

grammar and structures

related

Dudley-Evans

language

and

their

different

a

should

culture,

remain

interpret

language

while

learner

culture

will

to

may be of

pragmatics,

about

tend

i. e.

language

logic

foreign

the

language

foreign

the

foreign

that

classroom,

language

language

when some reasons

proficiency

foreign

language

communication

problems,

of

foreign

the

the

foreign

the

of

language,

foreign

The

understanding of

in

present

language.

understanding

understanding

lack

be

should

without

a foreign

when teaching

reason,

little

signify words,

should

Western

and

as being

the

hand,

a

Near

to

Eastern

educational

milieu,

secularized

European

or should

we conclude

modes

of in

practised

number in

authority, of

for in

writing etc. )?

lettres',

ways

tradition,

of

study

today

and

similar ago (the

and

are

in

to

those as

facts,

of

tradition

'belles

of

(Dudley-Evans

a

teacher

the acquisition the

a

accepted

East

West 50 years

the

a respect

a style

modes

commonly

of

other,

American

that

Middle

the

surprising existing

or North

expression

on the

and,

and

Swales,

whether

the

1980: 92).

Dudley-Evans between of

Arab

and Western

educational

institutions,

'radically'

differ

Dudley-Evans Arab

in

But

education.

through

educational

'old-age'

'youth'.

system

conservative,

is

that

function

metaphor

'Islam' the

--or

and

West with

'old'

are

to understand

Dudley-Evans

our

conception

quite

two types

when they

'maturity',

and is

linked

be

'young'

the

the

system

and is

system

higher

as

'religion'

word

metaphor,

education

consider

'conservatism'

at

'maturity'

of

Western

the the

and rebellious

a few things.

of

and

means 'rebellion'

and Swales'

and

'youth'

of

rather

differences

and execution

themselves

as 'Islamicized'

'youth'

of

these

how can an educational

and another

of

the

contradict

'secularism'

while

The point

or whether

in

associated

is

educations

this

The word is

general--

go on wondering

conceiving

and Swales

'secularized'.

with

and Swales

same time?

in linked with and It

we

we need to change

6 In my view, terms

we cannot

youth

of

background,

and maturity, and

themselves,

they

ideological

codes.

is

system drastic

the

from age of

is

It its

in

the

of

overview

in

educational in

today's

with

the

Arab status

of his

educational

the

system to

as

background

of Arab

how

(1)

one,

in the

chapter the

with

(2)

in

chapter

the

on Arab general.

In

knowledge

EFL learners

in

students the

can be of

help

on

the

existing

the

teaching

persistent

traces

particular

brief

a

four

chapter past

the

immed;ately

literature

and

deals

present,

and on some hints

conclusion,

of

first

this

of

root

Arab world,

will

is

(4)

and finally

system;

This

there

and their

education

limited

is

coming

discusses

three

chapter

in

two,

from

varies

of

relevant

as the

education

teacher

influence

suggested

The lay-out

by

influenced

'Eastern'.

hereafter.

deals

educational

is

influence

remains

Islamic

a

centuries

previous

influence

of

'spirit'

the

(3)

or so a

transition,

of

the

this

Islamic

educational

two decades

system

degree

the

part

system;

during

Nevertheless,

education; of

last

and

moral,

Arab

period

educational

as follows:

traditional

and discusses Arab

Arab

introduction,

historical

methods

first

a

social, the

Swales

and

and progress.

though

is

Islamic

Arab

the

while

this

traditional

the

'stagnation'

to another.

thesis

this

after

that

'form',

the

during

reform

counterpart;

be discussed part

for

in that

through

same cultural

Dudley-Evans

can be said

going

age of

strife

country

to

mostly

it

by

in

systems

the

share

differences

particularly is

the

obvious

Western

one Arab

reflect

It

change.

transition to

seem to

two educational

do not

described

as

Rather,

the

they

since

since,

undergoing,

for

account

the are

culturo-educational to

the

EFL

teacher,

7

especially share

with

if his

he is

a native

students

the

speaker

of

same cultural

ie.

English,

if

he

background.

-A

/

/ /

does

not

8

CH-A,

P'r1F-E: K'

ONIE

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.0

Preliminaries

While

extended

research

the

first

language

on the

on

the

influence on foreign

habits

are

concerned

affect

foreign

about

their

Arab

about

their

English

seen

rely

a common practice

In with

this

the

education, inspiration here the

that Arab

review

is

of

learning

habits both

amongst

educational

'first

such

learning

the

as

habits'

can

the

literature,

Islamic'

complain

equally

complain

Arab

and written. is

and plagiarism

are

education

educational

reviewed habits

the

some of

to modern Arab

learning

they

as

language

students to be

thought

them.

claimed,

student

oral

much on memorization;

the

far

as a foreign

English

performance,

of

was written

nothing

learner's

so

to which

sometimes

none of

in

of

learning.

students'

traditional it

language

learning, extent

teachers

Native-speaking

are

and the

almost

influence

the

over

out

language,

foreign

language

language

to

foreign

the

of

background

has been carried

is

still

a

systems.

But

literature as such,

This

examined.

has neither

major it

actually their

is

dealt

that

works

type source worth

of of

noting

investigated influence

on

9

education

in

part

the

of

general

1.1

foreign

to

related

Qurlanic

language

to

try

1978;

of

Islamic

world

however,

the

with but

itself

in

applicable

at

that higher

the

such as Ibn of

stage

not

as

(malakatu

l-HifZ)

(malakatu

1-fahm).

(The)

the

the

creed

will

is

is

Qurlanic

than

that

of

of understanding

to be taught

ought

childhood, in

memory.

keep gradually by point,

committing

so

that

he

in

boy

to a

may

the

hold

it

meaning

of

Thereafter,

the

unfolding

itself

to

him,

So,

first,

is

as he grows to memory;

older. then

understanding,

then

also Muslim

in

that

faculty

a

rather

was

Early

believed

possesses

stronger

or

wrong

education.

and Al-Ghazaali,

1980,

representative

methodology

Islamic

child

1973;

Lotfi,

For Al-Ghazaali,

absolutely

point

of

Khalduun

which

earliest

it

level

it

been

has

Santerre,

genuine

But,

education,

what

Wagner and

only

nowadays. basic

1949;

1983;

the

ie.

it.

of

(Jomier,

this

evolution,

level

Wagner,

Islamic

of

nature

ground

as being

education

to claim

early

the

1979; it

with

misleading

scholars,

Arab

the

education"

Badawi,

They dealt

remnant

deal,

A

particular.

learning.

with

"Qurlanic

as

1983).

the

and understand

dealt

many researchers

Eickelman,

did

in

Education

In order

termed

in

education

learning

language

literature

reviewed

Islamic

traditional

on foreign

nor

his

memory

10

belief

1983:

Wagner,

For

that

reason,

the

first

stage

to

the

pupils

kutta:

Islamic

of

the

about

b to

the

Qurlanic

education,

child's

ability

in

(cf.

whole

no.

mainly

which,

from

the

they

will

they

5 and 6)

after

Qurlan.

"rote"44

to him,

according

move

when

the

with

given to

are

the

or most of

at

taught

they

later

notes

is

no explanation

Qurlan

the

of

learning

of

method

Almost

provided

dealt

central

education.

is

the

(1983)

Wagner

was the

chapters

madrasah

have memorized

(cited

acceptance,

185).

memorization

Explanation

memorize.

and

and certainty

to

engage

in

critical

(1978),

on the

other

hand,

learning

of

aspect

the

affects

negatively thinking

reading

and

comprehension.

Eickelman that

the

"collapse"

influence

the

West,

and this

the

over

guaranteed

of the

of

due to

the

last

Islamic

Jobs after

for

the

means of

securing

expansion

for

of

a source

way of

in

one major

reason.

Islamic

Scholarship

religiousness

and

living.

the

Arab

to

It

was

world by

the most

it

was that --besides carried

has Islamically

social

the

education

education

Islam--

knowledge.

of

led

Western-style

But

preserving

that

hegemony over

European

of

suggest

inspired

institutions

Whereas

graduation.

sake of

more as a sign

co-existing

education

reasons

institutions

Islamic

the

the

two centuries.

seen as an efficient

primarily viewed

is in

world

prevailed

being

"eclipse"

or

under

of

on memory has been one of

stress

implicitly

seems to

prestige

out been than

a

11

for

As

Wagner

education, basic

that

of

reading,

skills

knowledge

and primary centres

to

verses Dictation

Islamic

law.

and the

IuH (wooden

slate),

be memorized,

is

(1983)

Islamic

countries,

particularly

that

traditional

Islamic

and propagate why,

they

in

Islam

used

in

prevailing

out

to

designed

(Wagner

led

schools

an

of

teaching.

the in

them

The emphasis

112).

1983:

the

on

body of (2)

learning

self-paced

ages

for

guide

of oral

(eventually)

the

relationship;

literary

mastery,

often,

and

as well

the acquisition

as for of

or the

at instruction and

to

skills

ritual;

grades

individualized

level,

a master-apprentice

learning

and

fixed

no

with

completion

postelementary in

teachings

written

essential

a

of

mastery

oral

on verbatim

(3)

sujflement self-study new

to

way few

a

claim

to maintain

areas:

(1)

end.

such

primarily

stress

only

Qurlanic

research

and Lotfi, lay

the

behind

reason

and Yemen,

"is

society",

--in writes

Their

still

fact

methods

the

grammar,

learning

to achieve

the

Morocco

education

aid

child

was designed.

traditional

claim,

teaching

old

the

only

of

of

method

being

point

education

Arab

The

with

notions

elementary

the

are

learner

the

on which still

repetition

and oral

traditional

three

the

Qur'anic

present-day

provides

writing, of

Wagner and Lotfi

is

Morocco,

upon memorization; the

aid--

in

mainly

(1980.1983),

Lotfi

and

the and and

knowledge,

That

following

12

(Ibid:

112).

Memorization, Islamic

from

faith

comprehensive scholar

puts

to

generation

Muslim

traditional

comes here

therefore,

and

A Muslim

should

be able

without

being

able

the ability

teachings

of

very

valuable.

will

hardly

childhood consonants Qurlan,

scholar

with

understanding

Santerre

bother

that

much As

Islam

why a

about

more

contemporary

one

which

to

claims

which,

they

(1973)

and to

deals

been people

in the

of

their Arabic the

of

rhythms

throughout

the

to

these

learn

the

has

itself

their

lives

(in

Husain

to it,

115).

"emotional children

words,

has

of

they

attachment

that

their

the

response

the music

continue

1979:

a

most

to respond

will

even

sociologically

this

and vowels,

Qurlan

the Qurlan

people

Beyond

the

understand

provided

they

this

to

go but

and Ashraf,

continue

the

to read

in

to have an emotional

is

is

method.

to read

been known to evoke

primarily

Maybe,

it:

because

This

the

not

teaching

effective

transmitting

another.

did

teachers

as a means of

attachment", throughout

believe,

with

Muslims

what

they lives,

caring hope, rather

for will than

come later.

will

what

which, their

be

to

seem

he

calls

"Pddagogie

Musulmane

,

13

d'Afrique

Noire"

discusses

only

of

Black

(Muslim

Africa:

one cannot

Qurlanic

the

the

oneself

has emerged.

His

of

de

la

part

however,

that unless

system

such system

wherefrom

ä

(Santerre,

socidtd,

145).

necessarily

overall

organization

of society].

on "science",

than

than

rather

(1949),

to use his

term.

is

to

school

easy

Muslim

characteristic

of

says

the

that

works Muslim

in

had dealt

to have examined is

The first

reasons.

that

What he

"authority

with

the

the

of

subject).

his

Qurlanic

of

conclusions

very

school is

means iomier's

The second (p.

pedagogy

pedagogy

apparently

civilization

drawing

on

stress

the

this

the

because

research on the

lays

schooling

mind".

Santerre,

He claims

the

to

refers

and on

"critical

on the

before

school.

Qurlanic

that

concludes rather

available

Qurlanic

the

one small

n6cessalrement

organization

visit",

concludes,

society

[School

"to

only

fact,

in

that,

posits

g9n6rale

two major

Jomier

same type

of

l'organisation

for

the

judgement

the

and in

He

renvoie

. Jomier

Qurlanic

Cameroon.

of

But he,

Africa).

pedagogy

scolaire

"knowledge"

Qurlanic

in

black

L'organisation

also

teacher"

North

hypothesis

1973:

He

school

make an equitable

one replaces

in

Pedagogy

the

of

closely is

easy

that

the to

easy access is

that

it

is

326).

about

Qurlanic

school

a

14

pedagogy,

he has sought

prominent

Tunisian

Muslim era):

(14th

era

Muslim

and Ibn

La formation

toute

his

will

in

childhood his

"visites"

(At his

help

the

the

former,

in

age of

his

en

during

Chritian

the

durant

les

effejt

pour

the

years

mark him for

to

the

Qurlanic

of

two

"guides",

his

autobiographical

Village

School

of

the

rest

sees

view

of

childhood,

the

latter

fact

the

so

his

and therefore

a

reliable

he had lost

that

Dr.

al-layyaam

entitled

as not

fii

entitled and

his

sight

judgement

made

Mohammed Abd

professor

Qurlan),

been

have

school

work

of

work

autobiographical

Jomier

However,

the

of

life]

through

el-Jawwad

fact

centuries

Ages of

two

of

326).

a man gets

with

through

1949:

works

that

le marque

(Jomier,

sa vie,

and 9th

homme

un

that

Jomier's

l-qaryah

regoit

[The training

of

possible

He claims

the

of

Middle

--the

Khalduun.

de son enfance,

anndes

8th

the

of

centuries

que

he learned

what

scholars

and 15th

al-Qaabisi

from

help

kuttaabi

Taha

Hussein

(The

Days).

guide

as

at

a very

would

be

the early

rather

subjective.

For

this

el-Jawwad description reque

(p.

reason,

who is

11trOas complet,

des bons et 327)

for

he opted

[very

des

complete,

the tr6s

mauvais very

first

"guide", tr4a-s

objectif, c6tds objective,

de

professor franc

116ducation very

frank

dans

Abd sa a

quIII in

his

15

description

good and bad sides

the

of

The ultimate

aim of

to Jomier,

according

to

those

who

attend

learn

how to

read

how to make a prodigious of

the

Qurlan

because,

he

recitation

enable

the

memorize.

Qurlanic Jomier

the

is

It

excellence. school

and

it

especially

learn

to

order

learn

to

is

obligatory

an

the

as a teaching

Qurlanic

Copier,

apprendre,

r6citer,

tablette

ce que Pon

poss6de

nouvelle

tranche,

how

wooden in

aid

to

school

pas que le m6thode

a d6jA

souvenir

slen

pddagogique

cinquante

ans,

par

write, method

pedagogical

dans

vue

une

r6citer,

auparavant

pour

ne

voili

donc

la

il

employait,

dcoles

la

6crire

la

estompe;

que Pon les

de

coeur,

ya (Ibid:

coraniques,

330)

CCopy, learn, what learn

recite, by

one possesses it,

recite

erase

it,

heart, review

from

the

write what

one

wooden a has

slate

new

slate

order

read,

6ffacer

Papprendre,

ce quIon

is

That

follows:

repasser

text

the

properly.

includes

learning

of

used

the

write,

is,

school

Qurlan.

pupil

summarizes

and

prayer

instrument

the

schools,

1uH) par

from

Qurlanic

the

recite

Muslim

ritual

fragments

to

he received].

education

of memory in

effort

and be able

states, of

In such (the

by heart

the

of

bit,

already

to and as

16 in

seen earlier dim.

is,

That

in

was used

a big

of untiring

Badawi

kutta:

the

it

time.

of

ago].

Qurlan

or

child

learns

the

stresses Arab

He writes

by, (a) and

(b)

a

the

and Muslim

He only

imparted

Qurlan

as

centred

of

the

or 1979:

(Badawi,

Saudi 106).

Qurlanic

of

However,

Maktab

he does not

general

Cie.

around the Qurlan and the child

to read it

and learn

it

by heart.

only

the

education explore

conclusions

as follows:

The curriculum

the

racial is

Pakistani

gives

its

in

of

law,

uniformity

world.

in

stage

as

curriculum

Nigerian,

is

first

that

of

the

thing,

the

regardless

school

same

enough depth.

the

of

language,

An Indonesian,

that

world,

doctrine,

same.

in

years

education

study

Muslim

the

composition

methodology

that

the

states

Qur'anic

the

present

religious

the

hand,

other

to

Throughout

throughout

method

to be characterized

school text

get

not

fifty

schools

on the

Ue.

education

up to

What Badawi

will

pedagogical

Qurlanic

the

on the

b) has adhered

curriculum

memory

repetition.

(1979),

formal

Islamic

the

Qurlanic

the

of memory based

effort

method

then,

he holds

In short,

that

order

He

kutta:

b3...

was taught also

learnt

its about

17

to read,

write

the Muslim

world

literature

so as to enhance

the Holy

involving

Qurlanic

of

the

is also

the

Advanced

Islamic

higher

level:

at

Dodge (1968) notes argues

that

Muslim

of

the

to

be

during

of

Prophet. by

sometimes

rota the

at

108).

basic

the

that

agree

drills

The

prayer.

The method central

madrasah

Dodge,

to

of

so

child

such

an

and repetition.

1962;

Muslim

education

deal

with

Islamic

1968;

Ahmed,

Hossain,

foundation

are

1979;

in

Khan,

rotates

medieval

times

and

the

Qur'an.

He

round

that

was the

at

1985.

education

as a whole

education They

or mosque-university.

and Ashraf,

Bilgrami

discusses

The Qurlan

aim

Qur'an

the

to memorize

Muslim ritual

few researchers the

1930; 1981;

appreciation

Education

hand,

El-Tom,

and

(Ibid:

seem to

involving

other

1981;

language

had

how to read and write.

Muchrif,

Arabic

and repetition,

properly

On the

mainly

of

Tradition

understanding,

it

end is memorization

1.2

some areas

is to enable the child

education

taught

and in

his

learning

the

of

researchers

he can recite

that

and the

drills

expense

all

was taught

Qurlan deal

A great

Thus,

and calculate

stone

of

Muslim

18

We cannot

education. unless devised

by men, but

God. In

fact

Qurlan

basic

was devoted

but

subjects

its

that

and their

to

method

being

was divine

knowledge

which

sway from

held the

Spain

important

throughout by the

fact

the the

core

it

he goes on arguing the

lirreligiousness'

wrong Muslim

vision student,

a better

understanding

the (Ibid:

that

such

considered

whose foremost

them irrelevant

as it

which to

"That

Islam. Islamic for

this

statement

Islamic.

was the

However, result

result

and unnecessary his

has

education

so much the

aim was to understand

Islamic

advanced

than

was not

sciences

by heart.

contributions

of

other

was

what

education,

of

He accounts

resistance

Consequently, since

of

system

sciences

secular

aim

main

whole 43).

has resisted

of

which

the

of

centuries"

that

(1968),

the

of

to be learned

needed

made

was to attain been

learning

to Afganistan,

to Ahmed

always

30).

Islamic

According education

of

secular

revelations

(p.

medieval

Renaissance.

the

include

not

that

European

to

Qurlanic

the

life

everyday

important

Dodge concludes

did

explaining

was an all

However,

teach was

curriculum

memorization taught

to

2).

to studies

application

by

revealed

to the Qurlan were

secular

1968:

things

with

truths

with

education

(Dodge,

education,

He claims

too

culture,

niDt deal

unrelated

Muslim

children.

did

rather

subjects

as being

regarded

it

that

we realize

Islamic

understand

of of

to

religion

a the in

19

to be able

to abide

by it

Ahmed (1968)

discusses

in

order

the

mainly

at

length

the

(1)

advanced

level.

But he did

(hearing), a&4'efficient (a)

ways:

the

class,

of

the

teacher's

or

(c)

the

It

from

(3)

of

have his

will

(dictation): as "the of

this

best the

Ahmed claims

that

in

was

following

from

teacher,

listen

them:

of

the

memory out

reads

teacher,

the

memory to

students

being

to a lesson

student.

from

the

teachers

his

Muslim

knowledge.

transmitting

way of

dictating

most of

by

regarded

was

method

and safest" teacher

from

much

scholars,

book or

by the

or

a copy,

as

with

few out

his

of

appointed

to him by an appointed

consisted

memory.

book,

out

adopted

on three

by

was carried

reads

a student,

teacher

al-limlaal scholars

teacher

has been

focusses

Islamic

of

system

discuss

not

opposed It

method.

the (b)

to

presented

(2)

although

class

he claims,

He mainly

teaching.

of

life.

his

of

the

which,

as-samaa-

three

length

(circle),

methods

regarded

facets

all

Halqah

the

education:

in

book

from

or

dictating

preferred

memory.

(licence

al-Iijaazah teaching

or permission) after

material

acquiring

consists

of

licence

a

using for

a particular it

its

from

authors.

These were study

which

the

deals

prevailing with

Islamic

methods education

that

Ahmed

up to

the

mentioned Ilth

century.

in

his It

is

20

that

such methods

encouraged and hence

teacher,

and on the

However,

Ahmed argued

among the

students

dictated.

Early

lesson.

Muslim

teachers

debating

Also,

unnecessarily.

On the (Ibid:

In early are

Talking

Ashraf

(1985)

Islamic

and paved

the

teacher

and

had

been

during

the

education,

about

that

Teaching

did

"proper

writing lesson

the

while

lesson

the

after

was going

interrupt

not

should

on

lesson

the

were welcomed

questions

teaching

or

at

the Prophet]

of

in

the

other

methods

from

on

the

Bilgrami

and

The after

company,

the

Sahabah heights

attained

Prophet,

the

21).

seems are

depending

long his

of

company of

hand, which

life who

1985:

and Ashraf,

on the

the

as

lecture.

teacher

profit

time

methods,

the

the

with

by

limited

short

teaching

with

from

by remaining

Khan (1981),

be long

and would

[Companions

(Bilgrami

were not

end

remain

inspiration

taking

lectures

Islamic

not

would

lecture

only

could

early

write

the

the

with

tolerate

not

teacher

hand,

other

both only

The student

A lecture

students

Islamic

memorization

91).

today.

topic.

but

would

the

with

was regarded

time"

discussion

that

was encouraged;

as impolite.

they

thought

critical

neglected

on

"plagiarism".

way for

any

both

reliance

excessive

still

to

be

of

critical

influencial

in

the some.

21

In his

countries.

words,

The methods times,

require

memorize

without

thought

or

inherited

El-Tom especially in

to

listen,

read,

them towards

encouraging

towards

taking

even modern

Islamic

education

standards

are,

class

of

in (Khan,

school,

is

various in

of

its

Muslim

Muslim

standards;

"related

to

"related

turn,

to

Muslim

to

tend

nimbleness

to such

uncritical

mind accepts

him.

From the

very

know

things

by

understanding intellectual

an

of Muslim He stresses

education.

of

whatever

rote

value

may such

that

extent

he

the

the

pupilts

is

promised

to

is

expected

to

than

rather

and critical

he

the

education,

intellectual

discourage

beginning

initiative

talents

the

education".

education,

schools

qualities

low

very

ways,

seems to be even more critical

contemporary

contemporary

in is,

which

character

(1981) of

critical

interest

an

beyond

and

17).

system",

any

precolonial

or

low

examination

from

outside

1981:

For him,

even

students

self-education

and those

teaching,

of

through

Desire

appraisal. is

withheld

from

have

are

wasted.

as self-reliance

him

for and Other

and moral

fact

that

22

courage fare

are

he is

that

killed

also

lethal

by the

educational

(El-Tom.

made to swallow,

1981:

41).

is

El-Tom schools.

satisfied

They are

"niggardly" goes

not

not

he

enough,

and ineffective.

social

argues,

His

they

Muslim

today's

of

criticism

found

when

and

Muslim

within

activities

are

schools

follows:

on as

Muslim for

schools the

religious

They

have

deadly;

for

their

an

with

with the

lethargy younger

to face

with

on the

now steadily into

a

between

slumbering

the methods

as

a

or

41).

El-Tom,

educationalist, more

less

the community

(Ibid:

solution,

of

no

their

of

wane.

sort

is

which

a

beings.

inner

their

slipped

stands

education

He deals than

now face

and the problems

primarily Muslim

is

in

the

among

indifference

understanding

rather

faith

and which

the quest

are

gradually

devil-may-care

educationalist.

rampant

can

personality

man. Laziness,

vaccuum in

spiritual

providing which

social

inner

are

when

activities

the

Our youths

Their

contemporary

niggardly

social

the

with

generation.

Although

of

effeteness

yawning

also

and train

conjunction and

are

sort

strengthen

methods

the

with

sociologist

consequences themselves.

of But in

criticizes than

"bad" the

as

an

teaching end,

he

23

to

seems

be signalling

days".

This

religious

of

education,

and "profane

The mosque was the days,

great

from

scholars

into

brought

term

such it

in

includes

The impulse Muslims

the the

water,

led

paved (Hossain,

the

'profane

as the

study

by the

bidding

Qurlan

nature;

the

properties

of

of

birth

and the the

to

the

most

the

and

inducive

great

between

of

precincts attracted

and

was

education There

was

no for

sciences', activities.

them to

among observe

fire,

air, death,

the

of

day

of

alternation earth,

"the

the

was created

The study

use of

way 1979:

like.

in

name

of man's

sphere

whole

mysteries

them to

sphere.

to scientific

the

the

and decay

Hossain

religious

phenomena of

and night,

All

of

in

Islam

its

age

quarter.

Islam the

the

of

highly

separate

not

the

to

welcomed

every the

of

deserved

knowledge

the

all

that

effective

methods.

mosque

He writes

it it

the did

university

and since

university

speaks in

want

teaching

he argues,

sciences".

we

effective

imparted

education

system

have

educationalist,

another

liberal

if

thing:

major

we must

(1979),

Hossain of

one

institutions,

educational

system

to

method

and growth Qurlan which

discoveries,

modern

101-102).

goes even further

claiming

that

"the

great

professorS

Of

24

those

universities "the

and that

he does not teaching

studia

both

Madrasahs:

(1930)

institution,

made,

is

in

the

Europe

were

growth" be,

came to he

as

of

Europe",

modern

just

imitations

(Ibid:

102).

nor

of However,

does he deal the

claims,

the

with

Islamic

early

university'.

state

Zeituuna

the

Mosque of

the

and after

Tunis,

Tunisia

colonization

the

on in

teaching-

regulating

20th

19th-early

late

the

of

decrees,

before

this

Tunisia

of

those

examining to

related

a few articles the

teaching

within

those

method

adopted

decrees, at

Mosque.

8,

by

1881.

worth-while

particularly

teachers

the name of

official

issued

French

Article

that

at

Beylical

of

Zeituuna

that

exposes

teaching

centuries'

It

how all

"deserve

were

name and free

their

methodology

Muchrif

light

in

Madrasahs]

of mediaeval

explain

institutions

the

Cie.

Chapter

II

of

the

decree

of

1875,

26

December

en

commenVant

stipulates

that: *

Le

professeur

la proposition

cours,

se fonde, autres,

et en

difficile....

[The

expliquera,

teacher

pr611minalre

passera allant (in

shall

facile

plus

Muchrif,

explain,

Iaquelle

graduellement

ensuite du

sur

1930:

son 11 aux

au

plus

beginning

his

455)

when

the

25

lecture, bases

the himself;

As is the

difficult...

]

obvious,

such

but

teacher

he would

that

10 of

who fail

particular

proceed

to

the

the

out

point

most

the

as to

to

syllabus method

that

syllabus.

goes

further

his

as to

teacher

thoroughly

understand to

explanations

the

tell

what

those

students

should

have

them entirely.

12 indicates "aim"

only

students

repeat

he

to

guidelines

that

his

that

He should

to grasp

Article

him with

same decree,

the

gradually

easiest

do not

teaching

make sure

them.

the

decrees

provide

use in

he should

he teaches

also

better

Article

by

beginning

others,

then

and shall

which

on

proposition

preliminary

that

each

"method"

and a particular

taught

subject of

It

teaching.

a

stipulates

that:

devra

Le professeur et

la mdthode

(Ibid:

456).

[The

teacher

and method

A first discourages

quick critical

de la

should of

look

toujours

the

at

sclence

always science

article

thinking

avoir

en vue le

qulil

enseigne

keep that

in

sight

he teaches

15 may make the

or, criticism

of

the

but

the

aim

I

reader

think

that

already-established

it

26

Muslim that are

in

But,

scholars.

be hasty

not

one should thoroughly

It

studied.

Nul

qui

examen

p6ndtrer

116crivain

et

de

of

the

one another are

from

to pick

out

the

(Ibid:

study,

show an impartial

best

to

give

up such

However,

side

has

been

with

cette

in

the

the

to

and that hasten

not

under

writers

should,

meant by the

until

to

analysis

transmitted

during

this

do

one's

and open mind,

this

dire

recherche

One should

writer,

a mature

teaching

method

that

student

of

the

memorize

whole

and

study. ]

after

and demonstration, encouraged

impartial;

to generation

of

is

dans

Voulu

scholars

one

what

research

by side

on explanation

the

contrary,

penetrate

A

pas

6crivains

et

to engage

mistakes

On the

they

456).

generation

study.

fact

et

devra

apporter

quIa

ce

to science.

established

before

Age

en

des

large

that

the

principes

ne

au contralre

be allowed

principles

des

On

renoncer

mOr examen,

works

fautes

esprit

de

[No one will

Mosque

les

s'6fforcer

qulapr6s

others'

d'Sge

science.

on devra un

out

that:

transmis

de relever

to

points

A Ilexamen

A la

examine;

cet

criticizing

se sont

acquis

stempresser quIon

in

article

stipulates

savants

sont

this

se livrer

ne pourra

que les

itself

fact,

works;

seems to the

base

Zeituuna and

this

27

be continuous

memorization

should

the

Look at

teacher.

de

leurs

616ves

A apprendre

leur

donneront

[The

to

learn

from to the

demonstration

qulil

reciter

et

au

being

during

of

great

encourage

their

by heart.

number of the

They

pages

week and

shall they

that

a

at

recite

day. ]

even further,

memorization at

the

memory the

il

coeur;

d6termin6

should

some texts

memorize

traditional

dictation.

teachers

should

mainly

encourager

par

semaine

memory,

them a determined

To enhance

words,

of

the

grande

458).

assign

fixed

addition

dans la

exercising

students

des textes

un nombre de pages

(Ibid:

importance,

d1une

by

class

same decree:

the

devront

professeurs

apprendre

fixd,

of

dtant

m6molre

les

jour

recite

la

in

checked

III,

Chapter

importance,

devront

Mosque,

26,

article

Llexercice

and regularly

certain

Qurlan,

teaching Islamic and

of

method

course,

long

adopted

instruction,

at was

which

poems or

a

long

Zeituuna compromise

between

Zeituuna

the

during

required

the

of

student

material

assigned

institution, plain

is

stage,

primary

the

exams be,

could texts.

In

to in

other

Mosque,

as

between

clear

explanation

a

and

28

To conclude, with

the

could

traditinal

hardly

Islamic

be

found.

without

literature

does provide

the

which

might

their

"strange"

educational help

teaching

methods

brief them

an overview background

him understand study

most

through

discussing

against--

about

literature

of

However,

to such methods

referred

the

no research

habits.

of his

in

enough

the

of

criticism

the

his

Arab

Arab

students

language

students; better

None

literature

reviewed

Nevertheless,

foreign

deals

detail.

--whether

thoroughly. for

here

reviewed

an

for

or this

teacher overview

and cope with

29

CHALE: "rF-F,

rrWO

'

THE ARABIC-ISLAMIC

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

For

this

verses quoted. points

the

purpose

Such quotations, that

in

be raised

will

Holy

the

among his

fellow

following

Qurlanic

author's

later

about

is

Apostle

VII:

in

nor

--as

a writer.

chapters,

(Arabic

the

unlettered

who

to

(Qur'an,

the people

are

111:

of

unlettered

plural

His

Apostle,

VII:

158).

the

Book

[the

the

to

and

Arabs]...

20).

He Who has sent from

and

amongst

among themselves...

the

the. Unlettered (Qurlan,

an LXII:

it, known

was

who

157).

God

be

will

support

revealed

Prophet

a

Qurlanic

and memorization.

was

a reader

Apostle,

Prophet...

And say

(Qurlan,

best

opinion,

Prophet,

some

Muhammad)

Prophet

Muslims,

of

the

believe

unlettered

those

thesis,

we read, ,

(Qurlan,

So

the

plagiarism

suwar,

Prophet...

It

the

to be neither

Those who follow

...

of the

of

Book

Meccans

suurah)l

...

part

to an illiterate

claims--

ij, p-

first

(sayings

and Traditions

The Qurlan, itself,

of

In

the of

30

2).

From the together

history

though

tells

literacy

writing,

Prophet,

their

with

rule.

And after

all,

trade

purposes,

is

is

Maybe that to

the

mere reading

in

Read!

and thy (the

taught which

witnesses

the

the

The verses and enjoin

it

mentioned

here.

of

Lord

use of)

he knew not,

in

reported to

the

the

word of

the name of

man out

created

repeated

which real

of

the

on the

is

by

of

Most

Bountiful,

Pen,

(Qurlan,

history

strong

urge

for

Qurlan

which

Ahmed (1968)

The accomplishment

are

writes

of

likely the

of

to

the for word.

revealed read:

blood. Who that

man

the

word

Gabriel

three

'read'

was

times,

which

literacy.

the

numerous

necessity

and too

the

and the first

time

of

well-known

that

the Qur'an

Muhammad was to awaken for

than

1-5).

emphasize too

and

verse

--He

--taught

that

Angel

reading

created,

congealed

XCVI:

the

Muslims

Who

clot

the

Muslim

Prophet

Islam's

a

sense

followers

Lord

thy

and

was

first

very

was a command to him and to his

Read thou

is

first

very

in

nation;

rather

exception

and writing,

by no means literacy

why the

Prophet

It

the

of

capable

were

Arabs,

the

that

understood an illiterate

a few Arabs days was

those

is

basically

were

us that in

it

verses,

above-mentioned

Prophet a livelY

learning to be

31

interest

among the learning.

of

not

the privilege

it

that

(Ahmed,

led

pressure,

to a desire

1985:

persistence

the

of

Hadiths).

"the

of scholars"

pursuit during to read

of

the Holy

and write",

claims

about that

that

rather take

could

that

Qurlan

Hadith

and

without

Islamic

any

world,

external --a

desire

(Bilgrami

and

and write

Qurlan

the

Muslim

to

"seek

would

(MaJali,

"the "the free

learning

of

if

that

the

blood

of

of

it

the

made to

cradle in

of

Islam

martyrs",

China"

teach

equated "the

and

He, "The

who could

was

were

Prophet

worship".

encouraged It

from

knowledge

a captive

1976:

reverence

and learning.

even

act

Prophet

and their

knowledge

knowledge

with

the

but

time,

out

to read

of

with

Wars,

an

everyone

the

was reported

knowledge"

Talking (1968)

It

undertake

2).

"seek

and to

that

the

pursuit

true

every

(Prophet ink

point

exercised

believe

the grave"

(1985)

over

was

28).

-A the Muslims,

spread

it

that

to

that

which

power

The Muslims

duty

in

the spiritual

Ashraf,

the

1968:

and Ashraf

that

with

a few

only

was something

part,

Bilgrami

of

the

clear

as was the case at

education

Also,

They made it

art

for

of Arabia

common people

Prophet, ten Muslims

2).

learning

and knowledge

among early were

so revered

Muslims, and

Ahmed classes

32

were

so holy

"In

that

to greet

the

disgrace

knowledge"',

caliphs

orientalist, in

Islam.

(Ahmed, Hadiths

father

than

valuable

gift

* It

better

is

for

in

charity.

in

Article

4 shawwaal

est

vie,

qui

elle

constitue

prier

Dieu,

[Learning

est

a

in

Chapter

(Cf.

is

which

constitutes

III,

importance

of

no

to

prominent education

more

the

Beylical

decree

de, la

occupations de

pr6cleux

1930:

l'homme; de

mani&res

485).

most noble

best

Sal

we read:

occupations

most precious

the

a

Tunisian

meilleures

Muchrif,

an

202).

1912:

the

nobles

des

secure

he bestow

that

1912),

une

man's

should

of

le plus

one of

want

a

child

Goldziher,

blen

one of is

his

man than

une des plus le

not

up

following:

the

child

(quoted

43,

get

Goldziher, the

stress

did

not

a good education.

that his

92-93).

upon

1330 (16 September

L'L6tude

life,

are

can confer

education

of

which

Among such Hadiths

'they

They said

1968:

did

the scholars

cases

or ministers.

quoted

*A

Also,

a number of

of

possession.

ways

of

It

worshiping

gog].

Therefore,

learning

for

Muslims,

as

can

be

deduced

from

the

33

above-mentioned worship.

But what

learning

or

This

is

quotations,

in

later

or

in

Islamic

'Qurlanic

Arab

Republic

it

basically

to

society,

(Wagner

and not

more

scholars,

schooling, deal

or all

"Qurlanic"

of

their

many time

on

is

designed

right Islamic Yemen

students learning

in

Islam 112).

For

world

by Western

such schooling

because

are

Morocco,

the

reason

them,

to

refers

the Muslim

As described

term,

specific

They

in

explain

education.

in

Islamic

them,

out

1983:

education

education

millennium.

Muslim

'Islamic'

education'

was based

propagate

implicitly

"Islamic"

term

traditional last

and

and Abdelhamid,

they

of

that

school

maintain

article,

The

carried

for

Qurlan.

research

Qurlanic

primarily

'Qurlanic'

upon the

They argue

traditional

'Qurlanic

so because,

their

most of

and Senegal.

In an earlier

it

worship?

a good deal

out

it

call

religious of

act

of

chapter.

current

to

choose

an act

just

an

who have carried

and was mainly

education,

the

call

but

extent;

it

Is

is

It

religion.

constitutes the

They call

schooling'.

to a certain elementary

education,

has been centred

education

in

(1983),

Wagner and Abdelhamid reseach

that

general

be investigated

will

their

of

mean by 'learning'?

do they

learning

part

was often

over and

some

given

education spent

the

a or

a

the Qurlan

great and

why they

34

other

(Wagner

subjects,

1980:

Abdelhamid,

and

238).

(1983)

Wagner and Abdelhamid from

understand well

in

as

practically (By

writing. towards

the

late

the with

literature

the

the

'early'

half

period

of colonization)'

taught

separately

teaching

of

In the only

early

reliance

could Gulf

the

took

oral

an

on

know the Qurlan out

be claimed area where

education Islamic

as

concerned

was

and

reading

Islam

of is

meant the subjects

were not

to

the

so

because

the

Islam.

But

were complementary

late

they this

period,

was essentially faith

by heart. exact

are quite oral

and

Arabs

mainly 'Qurlanic' 'protect'

men and women, and Unfortunately,

is

still

during for the

Islamic non-Arab

However,

Yemens

the

.

has so far

no survey

in

mainly

of

even

number of such people.

a few,

tradition

backbone

the

as

,

the

direction

written

a

among

time

the

at

were than

rather

Arab,

new faith:

the

memorization

to know the

had to be

education

the

as

Many an illiterate

In the

we

early

appearance

and writing but

was to spread

nation

Hence,

been carried

the

and by 'late'

century;

own right,

in

mere

and the

of

period

6th

Islamic

objective

system

Muslims,

their

period,

educational

education.

Qurlan

for

extent,

history,

Islamic

Even reading .

for

illiterate

the

education

the

of

the

Islamic

of

meant the of

to a certain

the Qurlan.

ultimate

a mainly

phases

is

second

that

teaching

right

are

and

it the

maintained.

the

19th

one major Muslims

Islamic

century, reason:

against

to preserve the

Western

35

invaders early of

and their

period,

the Qurlan

and as had been the

Therefore,

culture.

Islamic

education

and the

teaching

of

to

restricted

was rather reading

the to

writing

and

case in

the

teaching complement

it.

This

state

characteristic

It

colonization. following

fragmentation

schooling

beginning

level,

of

period

political

history

Islamic

him how to

teach

completing

this

if

their

could,

(Qurlanic

'the

as

and still

together

with

if

great L6

were,

the

For most North-African

then.

(student) Arabs

boys) it4

allowed

kuttaabs

madrasahl

or to

available

in

conditions madrasah

could

go to a the

On

A

only

or

were mosque

mosque .

to and

(mostly

fathers

in his

and Muslims,

Qurlan,

prayer).

children

the

primary

calculus

(Islamic

and their

above-mentioned

achievements

Taalib

the

schooling,

from

the

memorize him basic

of

(Islamic)

religious at

Salaah

type

major

especially

to the

mosque) which

Finally,

4.4

moving

school)

primary (the

Jaami'

conditions

by

been

and to teach

Qurlanic

economic

further

it

pursue

basic

to

the

with

associated

rituals

learner

and write,

read

had

such education,

the Arab

the

century,

the Arab world

The main aim of

was to enable

20th

the

of

in

available

education.

the

period

and

shattering

known in

World,

is

the

centuries,

previous the

the

which

of stagnation'.

Up to the

the

the

education, even before

existed

Andalusia,

of

the Muslim

of

Islamic

period, during

existed

decline

the

period

late

the

of

in

affairs

of

the

towns. fulfilled studies,

university. J1 -1 Lut ';

36

Zeituuna was the the major the

Mosque which It

one.

only

is

great

majority

to go beyond

kuttaab

the

Arabs

the

was

capital

But it

then.

and even in

country of

the

indeed.

meager

in

However,

Only

the

the

since

Taalib's

the

rural,

was

and

branches

Algeria.

today's

Cairo,

Tunisia,

of

had various

then

were

in

of Al-Azhar

equivalent

Tunis,

available

the

of

in

situated

university

towns

to be the

used

chance

lucky

few

(the

Bey who

managed to.

This ruled

under

modernizing

(a)

led

situation

the

then

'Protectorate')

the

French

the

kuttaab,

the

(primary

which

Tunisia worth

remunerated

both

that

action

known in

or

attempts

two major

reasons:

started

the

rural

at

aiming

a

with

student

this

Tunisian

shuyuukh

(scholars

took

language

local

the

16coles

French

to attract

by the

to

the

of

more

place

as

and

children; of

and faith. a

primaires'

Islam)

of it

But

is

than

reaction

a

initiative.

was to be reinforced Tunisia

by the of

make

and provide

spreading

considered

a threat

education

(commonly

equivalent

were

noting

planned

Free

schools)

they

for

government

education.

elementary

to counterbalance

thus

to

apparently

to make them more appealing better

local

Tunisian

'Instruction

today's

The muladdib

%.

as the

oA,

of notes

muladdib

&0114 was

middib)

publiquel

Ministry (cf

and the

(Public

to

Instruction

Education). no.

4 and 5) would

be

organizing

be --an

37

a 'modern' comprised

Arabic

(modern

course

the Qurlan,

by

those

hygiene,

ethics,

reading,

the Arabic

language and grammar, drawing,

fanaashiid

(Arabic

(Cf.

plural

times'

arithmetics,

writing,

recitation,

i bj

of

that

standards)

I.

and

lunshuudah),

J-1

chants,

Louisa, 1953).

Louis modern

highly

speaks

kuttaab

in

French

11 faut

le grand

Coraniques

Modernes,

quelque

m6c6ne:

culturel

arabe,

en

Publique,

intdresser

domaines,

tant

[We should

Qurlanic

by parents generosity Arabic

pupils

Public

here

the

themselves some

of

fields,

dautres que

realized

were as

a in

how the

often

to

safegarding knew, in to

under relation

the the the to their

attract

scientific

by

created

result

and

in

A

effort

they

Instruction.

to other

l'Instruction

31).

patron:

an instructor,

de

direction

scientifique

which or

les

patrimoine

la

616ves

great

heritage,

of

le

avec

1953:

les

g6ndrosit6

sous

11ordre

dans

schools

cultural

management the

note

su,

leurs

(Louisa,

litt6raire...

modern

ont liaison

en

maltre,

la

A

par

crdges

souvent

sauvegardant

elles

par

r6alisd

effort

dues

ou

eux-m@mes

realized

effort

He says,

ici

parents

d1un

tremendous

Tunisia.

noter

Ecoles

the

of

as

well

by

the

38

as in

After

leaving

depending

on his

made possible before

the

of

Only

university Taalibl

In

which

would

age

the

cf.

be

from

kuttaab,

them for

held

note

in 6)

no.

or

and some questions the

does the

Tunisian

town

madrasah

child

was i. e.

this,

have

to

used

University.

respective

madaaris

consisted

theology,

(Louis,

or

the

the

'title'

acquire

this

mosques

of

could

Zeituuna

the

their

child

Before

children

14

to

1950's,

the

exam. the

11-12

of Tunisian

the

a special

prepared

entering

Zeituuna

of 1953) Mosque

of

.

the

latter

institutions,

university, Taalib

note

no.

--cf the

Tulbah

7) were

the

of

siyar

and

in

Qurlan;

etc. ),

of

the

taiwiid the

d. -JJ%Jk.

miiqaat

= the

Arabic

art

grammara

the

taariix manT! q fadab-ul-baHth

arithmetics;

the

of and =

of

subjects

Qurlan;

= the

Hadilth

mosque

plurals

Islamic

to

addition

the

or

Arabic

the

= interpretation

the

Hisaab

town madrasah

and the

the

Jurisprudence,

the

(one of

taught,

tafsilr

and modulation traditions;

i. e.

.1

qiraiaat

history;

the

(Starting

of

which

;.

times;

*.

about

passing

courses

the

(e. g.

1.

and intelligence,

after

madrasah;

upon

at

University.

jurisprudence,

grammar,

kuttaab

modernization

Such courses

sphere.

assiduity

only

preliminary

(plural

the

Zeituuna

the

enter

literary

the

=

the

reading Prophetic

knowing

prayer

Literature, geography logic;

methodology; handasah

the and the the

39 i

the

geometry; misaaHah

'-_-h hay'ah

= geodesy,

After

the

towards

the

etc.

reformation 19th

L-Lk.,

cycle,

primary

cycle,

secondary

1

(3) higher

cycle,

As is but

the

mentioned

emphasis

instruction

The

for

remained all

he wished

and if

(a scribe),

on

religious

subjects.

tl

a national

become a J"--. . umuumii

;

called

passing

were also

c

primary 11

cycle

not

want

(a notary),

a mu'addlb,

etc.

to av

taught

pure

The

sciences

language

of

Arabic"

was

'al-'ahliyyah,

exam. He who obtained

he did 'adl

Standard

then,

was,

the

.

students

the

of

lal-'ulya3,

the

subjects

termination

certificate after

above,

'iyyah,

lath-thaznawiyyah,

lal-marHalah

3 years9

lasts

which

cycles

3 years.

L-LkjII

elmll

'al-'ibtidaa

lal-marHalah lasts

which

three there:

career

studying

Mosque

4 years.

lasts

-A L-L&'ýýLl the

1930),

Pal-marHalah

jII

Zeituuna

the

at

(Al-Muchrif,

Taalib's

which

(2)

if

studies

century

the

within

-oJ=yll .

the

-of

the

end of

were distinguished

the

astronomy;

=

j

the

sanctioned

the this

proceed

merit,

obtained

certificate with

JA& 'ý.Z,

by

his

could, studies, kaatib

a

40

The Termination

of

L--

called

_--a-az

in

become

could

also

oji

had

Taalib

"repetitor")

the

between

choice

'al-qism Literature,

Arabic

'ash-shar'ii,

the

section

diploma

gets

to

wishes lustaadh,

teach

at

wakiiI,

These though for.

Taalib

reforms

relatively Those Zeituuna

attor

that

ney.

the

important, students

the

Ae

(1)

(Islamic high

a

V--&Lb-A

muHaamii,

not

expressed

Jurisprudence) diploma

him to high

as

were

he

If .

pass a munaaZarah.

entitles

at

Ta: lib

the

becomes

thus

obtains

teaching

of

section

-a1iimiyyqh'1

J;

such

magistracy,

country's

has to

which

the

cycle,

branches:

successfully,

shar-

'adliyyahl"

U

higher

the two

Mosque and

again,

the

successfully,

studies

studies

his

once he completes

Mosque,

Jurisdiction.

.6-

Zeituuna

he,

professor,

a

Pal-qism

Islamic

Literary

them

of

Zeituuna

lal-ladabii,

called the

few

V

of

his

once he compleus a high

(2)

and

passing

of

the

at

When entering

a munaaZarah.

after

exam. Very (plural

mu-ilduun

the

diploma

this

usually

a competitive

literally

passing

after

holding

Those

diploma

a

before

called

administrations,

tMA

assistant,

mu'lld,

.

various

munaaZarah,

a

12

be

to*

used

taTwii')

by

was sanctioned

cycle

(which

ej-6-

become clerks

could

second

taHSiii

6

reformation,

the

Zeituuna

the all

that

their

the

posts

called in

the

qaaDii,

judge,

advocate,

etc.

Mosque students

dissatisfaction

underwent, aspired with

the

41

limited

scope

They

felt

culture"" the

doors

their

of

unable

to

for

various

the

better

to

and felt

studies

double

of open

would

(Louis,

jobs,

administrative

candidates

exams that

competitive

future.

their

about

"Tunisian

the

rival

unhappy

them

1953).

I The Tulbah from

starting went lasted

decade

strike

which

was

Louis

(1953)

a whole

year.

Däs 1920,

les

l'histoire

the

exactes

pddagogie

rajeunie,

cycle,

par

llenseignement

leur

d'Etat"

nlapporta les

Depuls

de

la

la

entendu,

de

d6bouch6s,

Volci dloctobre

plus

Nosquge de

moderne

llintroduction

des

philosophie,

une

ä partir

la

(33).

ä

La

l'enseignement,

de ä leur

prdclsderent, fut

points

des

de

ceux

riforme

se

revendications

du

revalorisation

que peu de satisfaction

modernisation

modernisation

Grande

assimilation

en 1948 un memorandum en seize ri6clamant:

1953)

that

une sp6c! alisation bien

et,

des diplömes

1932-1933

et

lieux

remis

d'dtudes,

garantie

des

etc

les

paragraphes

1950:

strike, 1949,

In

(Louis,

reports

et de la gL6ographie,

on

century.

reported

de

went

often

current

enseignement

sclences

ddsir.

of

dtudiants

"un

rL&clamLarent

second

Mosque quite

second

the

on a general for

Zeituuna

the

of

importants

de

Paccord

to

they have

42

4. Ddveloppement exactes

llenseignement

physiques

et

A cette

Crdation

7. Recrutement

de

Direction

de

dans les

sciences

[Since

A la

de

disposition

1920,

the

1953:

for

the

the

course,

them

(33)15

education" brought

but

studying, guarantee

the

to

those

The

reform

the

modernization

the of

modernization

prospects,

etc

sciences methods,

1932-1933 their

since.

was handed

of

the

by State

the

of to

of

and,

diplomas

of

ever

and

cycle,

the

of

points

exact

second

satisfaction

sixteen

History

educational

new

became clearer

memorandum of claimed:

.

little

claims

of of

revaluation similar

Mosque had

Great

the

teaching

from

a specialization

making

of

introduction for

Philosophy,

langues

des

35)

students

"a more modern

for

and of

Penseignement

(Louis,

Geography,

Their

(sp6cialis6s

musulmans

exactes)

de

vivantes.

for

L'Instruction

Grande Mosqu6e.

Institution

asked

diffdrentes

sections Ahlia.

de professeurs

13.

degrd

au

du dipl6me

Publique

la

of

la

par

sciences

moyen.

fin

aprAýs llobtention

des

naturelles,

et au degr6

sup6rleur 5.

de

In

wish. 1948,

over. places

teaching,

a It of the

43

Here are agreement

the

physical

well

as at

Creation,

to

this

the

However, teaching

in

shortage

But it subjects, In other rich the

is in

early

subjects. all

it

Islamic were For its

the

of

mention Islamic

stress

of

modern

still

teaching

them,

the word

the to

able

which

was,

anything e-IC are

maybe,

the

teaching

study the

sciences

sciences.

was not

reach

of

greatest other -ilm

mentioned

the

were

not

due to

partly

of

a

scientific

a common practice.

every

science,

on

remained

such

education,

In fact,

against

exact

This

that

within

few were

derivatives

disposal

the

teaching

teaching

of

period.

the

deserved.

was not

lucky

(specialized

be at

The so-called

they

traditional

Public

]

capable

worthy

words,

and the

Muslims

with

a staff

sections

the

of

professors

of

subjects.

much weight

as

Mosque.

alleviated,

Islamic

of

that

given

though

..

various

of

who would

13. The institution languages

advanced

levels.

management

of Muslim sciences)

the

sciences

diploma.

Ahlia

by the

Great

the

of

exact

at

end,

the

Instruction,

of

of

intemediate

the

7. Recruitment,

exact

teaching

and natural,

getting

in

paragraphs

1950:

the

of

both

after

important

October

of

Promotion

5.

most

Only

student.

during

especially majority

than

Orthodox

of

purely

(knowledge

or

abundantly

in

the

religious science) the

Qur'an

44

than

means nothing purely

heresy,

it

and therefore,

this history;

educational and went

emphasis

subjects,

which

plural

appeal

and were almost

during

the

As

of

were at

late

far

the

decline (1987)

in

Nasr

always

(Nasr,

1976:

historian madaaris

that

for

specifically

big

to

61C.

However,

the

And the

scientific lost

their mainly

centuries,

that

are

sciences been taught the

the

curriculum

been

the

in

all

few

past

the

of religious

17-19).

and sociologist, (plural

.

during of

spread

itself

gradually

states

always

especially

has

relates

'aallm"

intellectual

have not

subjects

'sciences'.

(1976)

Islamic

and greatol

cities

neglected

madrasahs

education

to

of

stage

restricted

completely

The mainstay

the

were big Le

centuries.

of

but

appealing,

the madrasahs,

An eminent

of

scope

leading

scientific

start

they

sciences,

the

outside

particular

religious

the

as

was

innovation,

of

r

centuries.

concerned,

spread

there

upon the

rested

a

subjects,

i. e. where

Arabic

at

teaching

religious

agglomerations, - ulamaal,

change

and the

alongside

false

knowledge'

had to be forbidden.

did

view

of

any subject

bid'ah,

However,

the

them viewed

as

'seeking

the

science;

Some of

religious.

religion

real

religious

Ibn

of madrasah) during

the

Khalduun but 15th

to

testifies laments

century.

the Pedersen

45

In Andalus,

Muslim

the

decline

after

in

education

decline

This

political

Muslims'

required

rooms in

Some still

studied

fikh,

1987:

mental

the

the Muslim

reach

of

every

the

vitality

Leo

by

Africanus large

were

them

attended but

few

very

half

second

embraced

student,

provided

tremendous

was

the

of

countries

This

capability.

with

became

357).

mainly during in

...

affected

Cairo who

the

fascination

was

numbers

education within

lacked

time

the

lately,

was only that

lecture

level. soon

1517 A. D.,

In

(Pedersen,

the arts,

the

of

and

Kairawan,

learning

scholarship

but

were small.

had the

in

the

and pleasant

and made it

in

conditions.

that

says

century,

was on a low

interest

out

and

the Maghreb

international

and

dying

was Kurtuba

of

The learning

general.

It

culture

all

sciences, he/she

that due

to

the

advance

of

the

perhaps

technological

current

West.

However, world

real

of

they

trained

responded

the Cairo

1AJ1j13 propagandists

To meet

followers

in

university

type

spread to

was attributed

Al-Azhar

sect.

the

of

the

threat,

the

major

by opening

their

the

of

Fatimids. was built.

for

their the

sect

It

was

house sect:

schools.

schools

Islam: NiZaam

where shii

e-:A-W sunniyyuun the

;

lal-mulk

the

of

knowledge,

of

that

rule

the

Oj of

built

Muslim

the their

under

They also

'al-'ilm,

daar

throughout

madaaris

(

ah the

....

sunnah)

and

SalaaH

46

'ad-diin

(known

of

sunni

leaders

of

countering

But

the

the

was behind

on Philosophy

the it

into

students;

and certain

dal

; by

famous

Arabic

rather

that

a-&-e Caliph

the

institutions. translation

the

was

were made so large

avowed aim

institution,

century

most

founding

and Science

madaaris

of

9th

examples

Fatimids.

lal-Hikmah

the

among

the

educational

Bayt

around

are

with

the

of

distinguished

founded

main purpose

thousands

many madaaris

Fatimids.

the

Baghdad,

The later

proper. hold

in

books

Greek

than

as Saladin)

subversion

as a

of wisdom,

tal-malmuun However,

theological

madrasah,

earlier

house

books

history

Western

who established

the

the

existed

in

than

teaching

some were said

had many madaaris

cities

of

to at

one time.

and development

The creation a source

of

universities

inspiration

for

on their

model.

The Muslim European

gowns

(worn

Egypt), graduate (GlassC-,

If

the

aim of

the

which

provided

seemed to have been

division

faculties,

into and

for

the

came

such black

collegiate

disputations

learned

in

Fatimid

undergraduate much

more

modern

that

writes

the model

of

wearing

its

established

From the madrasahs:

the at

madaar-Is

(1989)

Glassd

university. as

the

Europe,

madrasahs

traditions

of

and

besides,

1989: -254).

the

Islamic

elementary

school,

the

kuttaab,

was to

47

equip

advanced

school, a better

attain the

Muslim

the

core

with

the

madrasah

whole

system

Mosque

Islam.

of

the

aim

university,

has,

That

Islamic

of

faith,

of his

the

and

understanding

the

of

basics

the

child

in

the

of

to

was

fact,

been

always

the

throughout

education

centuries.

(1979),

Badawi illustrates

this

thought

The first

in

the maktab

or kutab

curriculum

[the

regardless racial

formal has

which

the

of

Throughout

of

language,

or

1979:

106).

Talking also

learns

child

Qurlanic

about

the

schools

same

in

to

up

the world,

of

law,

the curriculum

is

Pakistani

or

school

Nigerian,

the same. An Indonesian,

this

to

Muslim

the

doctrine,

religious

composition

Saudi

Qurlan]

(Badawi,

things,

North-Cameron,

Santerre

that

argues

Le

musulman

coranique selon parents 13).

la

ne

pour tradition et

celle

met

pas

Ilinstruire, immuable,

Penfant mais qui

de ses proches,

A pour

fut

that

was

education

adhered

best

university,

He maintains

education.

Islamic

study

time.

present

Islamic

about

stage

at Al-Azhar

and taught

who studied

116cole le

celle

(Santerre,

former de

ses

1973:

(1973)

48

[The

Muslim for

school form

is

they

sciences

'irreligious'

were

wrongly

viewed

The following resistance

took

counsel

and started

He also

tried

this

Later

AI-Azhar by him in

the

attempts

were

people,

reason

renewed

and various

the

also

of

et

which

can also

al,

1985:

explain

were

Muslim

sciences:

welfare their

and

law.

sciences

the people.

to

eagerness

were

the

had

student.

shows

secular

the

attempt

strongly

(Bilgrami

of

his

improvements

curriculum

(1985)

of medicine

in

Isma-il

Egypt

al

followed

contempt

they

Muslim

the

some European

the

aroused

Khadive

Europeanize

a school

because

to

in

education

so much because

was not

so-called

teachers,

to introduce

only

the

interest

its

Islamic

as

et

of

great

favoured

of AI-Azhar,

but

and that

Bilgrami

tradition,

that

sciences

introduction

the

fact

the

to

rather

and relatives3.

and unnecessary from

quotation against

for Islamic;

as irrelevant

but

own parents

Qurlanic

the

immutable

the

(secular)

Muhammad All

Another

to

than

in

child

instruction,

sake of

I can account other

his

put

of his

that

perhaps,

resisted

the

him according

which

This,

does not

to

reform

introduced These

colleges. opposed

by

the

28).

the

Muslims'

attachment

to

49

the

sole

study

Islamic

of

is

sciences

by

given

(1987).

HIT

the

It

says:

In

consequence

inflicted

non-Muslims and seven

centuries

invasion

from

from

West

the

their

devastation

upon the

ummah in HiJrah

the

the East

and they

sought

they

became

to preserve

their

and most precious

possession,

Islam,

by

all

advocating

It .

Sharia'ah

of

major

source

They

declared

Shari-ah

fear

of sect

and

that,

'going

again, if

astray'

the

--Muslims supposed

to have been

from

the

created

works

1987:

they

venture

into

a

of Muslims Path'. shield

it

an

16).

for

as

the

undesirabale

account

'Straight

the

of from

might

was seen as an example

who deviated

Treating

innovation (IIIT,

the

law --iftihad.

any departure

every

and condemnable,

reason

in

declared

they

the

the

of

abandoned

closed.

gates

, and

letter

the

they in

perfected

innovation,

A third

that

creativity its

as

ancesters,

(sic)

was then

viz.

innovation to

adherence

a strict

nerves, their

identity

proscribing

invasion

Thinking

doom,

to

six Tatar

their

themselves.

consigned

the

--the

lost

leaders

in

which

Crusader

and the

Muslim

overconservative

The shii-ah

terrible

of

confidence

world

Muslim

the

of

this

is

the

secular who

were

Many madaaris against

the

orthodox sciences. misled were shii-ah

50

(see

propaganda

About

above).

this

matter,

Bilgrami

et

in

Baghdad

(1985)

al

write

that

1067 CE Nizamul

In

great

college

Islam

and

Shiah

knowledge

beliefs

current

In of

the

students

Tunis",

the

century, be

jurisprudence. of

Tunisia,

century

to

to

to

control

to

et

1985:

al,

that

to

first

the

sole

role

followers.

and up to

the

29).

decades

three

four

or

the

Islamic

studies

at

of

discussing

to

Penseignement faire de

les

sont de

de 116tudiant

la qui

Penseignement,

islamiques.

Cela

Grande

a parcouru un

signifle

Mosqu6e?

savant que

les

tout &S

decades training

Great

Mosque

de de

Clest le

and

and

"the

caract6ristiques

the

religion

says

Quelles

of

propagating

Mosque. was confined

teachers

Islamic

shackled

of

first

a

Sunni

according

among its

(1930),

its

provide

and

reasons

the

Zeituuna

professed

Muchrif

up

it

faith

Islamic

current

was intended

major

century

and reduced

the

19th

13th

the

century,

preserving

the

perhaps,

from

after

(Bilgrami

a

Orthodox

Nizamiyyah,

Islam

of

for

model

propaganda

and practice,

These were, education,

named

The college .

revolutionary sound

erected

became a

which was

founder...

Mulk

cycle

sciences

connaissances

51

que 114§tudiant sept

quIll

ann6es

apprend

1930:

443-444).

[What

are

Great

Mosque? It

the

of

scholar

the

to seven

years

the

whole

student

of

and at

It

education.

might

safeguard

Muslim

European

settlers.

However,

Tunisia

during

the

generally

been classified

knowledge

derived

from

this

Tunisia,

been from

first

of

education,

the

student,

during

a the

that

means

the

five is

DjamA Zitouna,

the

juridical.

is

What is

Islamic

the

the

institution well and not

within

just

a

'threatening'

cultural

two major

centuries basic sources

of

Islam,

categories. of

Islam:

confines result

narrow

protective

two

the

have been the

religious

a

golden

into the

at

the

Zitouna

the

in

over have

(Muchrif,

of

This

loi

la

as jurisprudencej

education

Protectorate

French

quIon

education

cycle

at

dogma and jurisprudence-might

Islamic

Ce clest

can acquire,

he spends

dogma as well

keeping

of

sciences.

taught

sont

Zitouna,

to make out

theological

principally

the

is

Islamic

knowledge

mainly

of

characteristics

ä

cinq

Zitouna,

jurisprudence,

et

through

who went

This

ä la

dogme

musulmane,

Djamä

jurldiques.

et

principalement

des

au cours

ä la

passe

thgologiques

surtout

law,

aquirir,

peut

of

view

of

measure

to

influx

of

sciences First, the

Qurlan

the

have basic and

52

the

(the

sunnah

acquired

by means of

Avicenna)

such

ibn

former

his

Uc

-11M

rIP

-aqM

r,

such

as can

going

back

to

Muslim

philosophers

to

concepts

West

the

as

muqaddimah

JUA

categories science) What is

science).

meant

into and by

is

category

be

learned

the origin

the

the

to

case of the

of

by

only

ultimately

and in

science

of

(transmitted

(rational

two

system

above-mentioned

naqIii

-'ilm

i

famous

these

1979).

and Ashraf,

the

reclassified

N.,

the

in

a

(known

siinah

knowledge

But,

by different

(Husain

khalduun,

(Prolegomena),

through

ibn

as al-faraabii,

Second,

experimentation.

described

and al-gazaalil,

Later,

--.

and

been integrated

have been variously

and thinkers

Prophet).

the

of

intellect

have always

categories which

Tradition

the

transmission, founder

of

sciences

religious (Nasr,

Revelation,

the

1968:

63).

and

what

was

intellectual

by

the

latter

was

the

philosophical

sciences

such

Later,

meant

as can be learned

the

use of his

Mid:

63).

in

the

history

innate

of

by man

naturally

reason

and

Islamic

education,

through

intelligence,

this

classification,

and

53

unfortunately, the

meant separation ie.

second,

secular

'stagnation'

This of

led,

as a result,

Islamic

education.

the

two categories

was declared

sciences, incompatible

therefore,

and,

sciences.

rational

of

with

the

of

science;

by Muslim first,

as has been discussed

and

orthodoxy

ie.

religious

ealier,

to

as

the

54

CHA.

PE

'r HE Rt'B F-

F- 1:K

THE TEACHING METHODS IN TRADITIONAL ISLAMIC EWCATION AND THEIR TRACES IN TODAY's ARAB EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

The traditional had to

students "instruction", teacher

the

for

lectures. the

learn

to

this

method,

Through

in

Lecturing "dictation". This

method

a one-way

flow

the

that

Islamic

was text

during

method

especially is

That heart

only

restricted

to Hadiith.

limlaal,

as

method

was

the

for

far

as

the

exact

matter.

But

Pedersen

(1987)

that

The literary

subjects

philologists grammatical who dictated

not works, from

same

as for only as for

linguistic

Hadith,

Tafsir, to

used

example

memory 30,000 N

or

folios

The

etc.

dictate Ibn

their

Duraid on

or

everything

because

was not

a role

received.

writes

the

of

the

a test

soon became

student

the

was

to make it

seem to play

he had previously

and the

the

memorize

Later

education

concerned.

from

order

later

not

a receiver.

what

dictates

did

talqiin,

called

in

the

which

information:

of

and

student

of

established

the

was

down notes

re-produce

Hadiith of

method

take

traditional

the

was

of

phraseology

claims

only

The teacher

teaching

'imlaal

than

other

classroon

This

lectures

by

was

was based on repetition

It

student

an exam, he would

down.

involves

student.

the

teaching

of

by heart.

which

to

possible

in

method

lugha

...

the

this

55

but

...

(Pedersen,

Such

help

1987:

Traditional

libraries.

or books.

notes

teachers,

dictated in

in

Also,

the

about

widespread

education,

Bilgrami

One of

the chief

was the ability are

gave

after

birth

memory played mind

and

students,

fact,

Tunisian

in

former

et

in

There

who

could a This

once.

education,

the

training

personality 1985:

muladdibuun

traditional

period

memorize.

only

of

the al,

in

modification

to it

part

shaping

(Bilgrami

to

muhaddith

system

a great

the

of

of

the

that

out

point

slightest

to a new

of

363).

(1985)

listening

for

on memorization

the people

the

who father

on verses

Mid:

instances

without

tradition

al

328),

or

shawahid

characteristics of

numerous

repeat

327

reliance

et

that

300,000

isnads,

their

moving

memory without

the mosque and his

of

were

were,

from

relates

and 120 commentaries

with

it

as

(d.

al-Anbari

knew by heart

the Kurlan

poets

dictated

Pedersen

one part

another,

Kurlan

Again

b.

the

of

363).

Islamic

Abu Bakr

In

text

They seemed to have always

of

Islamic

the

also

where of

the the

of

21).

used

to

tell

their

students

the

56 1 Lp.

that:

I

wa laysa

r-raas book").

one main

be kept

in

acquisition

on books

than

in

books.

knowledge, 'ilm

if

to make a constant

urged

is

saying

above

mind,

is

saying

that

memory

was

reliance

be put

into

so far

in

the

exercice

the

uniqueness

of

the

rather is

which

be

thus

would

lectures.

their

of

to

it

on

students

as

to

wanted key

all,

at

the

should

they

be

practice

in

-ilm

the

should

fi

not

that

what

revision

that

the

words,

and that

extent,

in

In other

was

was to

l(al--ilm is

this

of

saying

to a certain

positive

the

interpretation

this

of

"Knowledge

1-kurraas,

memory not

through

stress

LIJ-J

ý.,, -J fi

IrIs

in

implied

Also

goal

in

method

of

as

memory

seemed

the

teaching

itself.

Worthy

Islamic

traditional apogee

travelling

and the

example

of

such

revered

in

the

life

of Arabia

This

order

et

classes

under

al

that

(1985), this

is

its

Imaam Bukhaari, a scholar

from

one place

Hadiiths

the

method

is

among others. large

to

of

discussed

Hadiith

throughout

the

by

classes.

much

the

his

desert

Prophet.

Dodge

Dodge distinguishes

and small

An

to have devoted

said

another

of

transport. of

a scholar

who is

hardships

the

means of

the

for

desire

great

despite

then

the

world,

method:

by their

during

ie.

days,

golden

of miles, of

to collect

unique

earlier

Bilgrami

he writes

Muslim

travelling in

thousands

primitiveness

people,

of

driven

when people,

travel

would

during

education

of madaaris,

learning,

entire

is

of mention

About

(1962)

and

two types

of

the

first,

57

In

the first

by large sat

of

students.

on a low chair,

leaning

facing

groups

Makkah, the help

with

of his

floor,

paved

dictating

column

assistants.

The students

the

mats spread

an irregular type

was

his

students were the

on

out

popular his

of

members

and

Even

semicircle.

and discussion

questions

encouraged

a

teacher

to

hundred

have several

against

the

he dictated

this

of

attended

As a rule

on straw

forming

a scholar

finished

while

to sit

accustomed

if

were lectures

there

place,

enough

to

class,

he

he

after (Dodge,

material,

had

1962:

7-8).

From this teacher,

though

teaching,

he,

from

his

As for

excerpt,

limlaal,

using all

we

the

more,

understand

that

dictation,

as

the

basic

his

thinking

encouraged

traditional

early

method

feedback

incited

and

students.

the

second

type

of

a circle,

which

teacher

to explain

his

and to

encourage

lively

students the

teacher

interest pupils,

in

was small

in

the

social

so that

and

the personal

way

while

the

questions.

If

took

nature

as

the

an intimate

and asked he

it

allow

discussion,

was a good man, moral

to

enough

subject

down notes

took

Dodge describes

classes,

a

fatherly

life of

of this

of

his form

58

of

instruction

education.

pupils

in

a mosque or in

did

Dictation lecturing

small

were used

instead;

(Ibid:

held

to

in

students founder

the four

in

them than

18),

1968:

Abuu Haniifah,

the

to

used

encourage

he would

himself

in

face

the

disputation

later

Ahmed calls

this

this

founder his

home,

in

which used

always

fiqh,

Islamic

of

schools

(with

once said:

to

more useful

to

them directly,

of

the

,a

opponent),

an

is

their

encouraging Ash-shaafi'V1

themselves.

their fact",

of

sunni

(quoted

Hanafi

to discuss

students

became one of method

discussion"

lessons,

,

was

in

60).

supervise of

teacher

the

and "lively

teacher's

the students

of

sympathetic

further

CinunaaZarah],

my lecture

Ahmed,

the

for

sunni

the presence

in

duruus'?

went

think

My disputation

always

intimacy".

of

scholars

one of

his

when

explanation

3 J U- -3,

"an atmosphere

and

and

method

a mosque or in

to discuss

home, but

the

Thorough

traditional

of

be

and such in

meet

7-8).

seem to

classes.

were norrally place

not

his

valuable

might

intimacy

of

atmosphere

especially

The teacher

of

understanding,

Some

an

method

an

take

it

made

discussions. comments the

teaching,

with "It

Ahmed

(cf

school one is

basic

principles

the

munaaZarah,

surprising

of

61) his

no. and

another;

not

(Ibid:

note

"that school".

an institution.

59

He argues

that

The institution

of

but

modelled

influenced of

between

Disputations

their due to different

schools

They soon

realized

other

no use.

were

argumentation.

This

the history

the Muslim

of

detailed and

necessity

on the one hand,

by

a

the the

on

and

logical

of

means

indeed,

was,

of

each other.

without

were born,

defended

partly

scholars

with

their

the schools

of

the

dogmas

prove

of

indeed,

was, that

that

were of

possibility,

clear-cut construction

were confronted

to

argumentation

they

It

institution

this

principles

as logical

systems.

respective

different

of

necessitated

as well

argumentation,

and

remarkable.

scholars

thought

of

schools

thinking

sciences

well,

as

only

way of

whole on their

is,

system

educational

the

impact

Its

the Muslims.

not

al-Hunazara

in

mile-stone (Ahmed,

culture,

Ibib:

70).

This

particular

have couterbalanced of

discussion

Argumentation

and

variety the

way of

confronting

method

of

teaching

heavy

with in

Islamic reliance

thinking

critical

was not

of

only the their

among

schools

educational

of

thought

on memory by the

by the

accepted, other

schools

students Hanifites,

but

was also

institutions.

seemed

to

encouragement and

scholars.

as a legitimate adopted

as

a

60

The Halqah, the

mainl.,, y at actual

or

to

seating

would

the

students

front

of

the

debating

with

regarded

as impolite.

the

norm with

end of

lesson

the

In early teachers (1968)

writes

for

the

his

the

of

lesson.

however,

was

education,

was not

encouraged,

tolerated

and

interrupt

to

not

welcomed

who tend

at

to

time,

leave

some time

to promote

in

self-reliance

lessons.

behind

standing

during

notes

not

want

lesson.

the

that

nobody

throw

such

a person

students

to

teacher

had a

A certain

the class.

watch

the

students,

that

the

at

still

and discussion.

taking

did

and

is

this

that

was

lesson

the

any

saying

goes without

today

even against

during

in

sit

and

appreciated

lesson

were It

questions

Some teachers

wall

teacher

would

number--

or

the

to

Sometimes,

in

small

a circle

of

back

sides

to

referred

shape

a part.

was the

questions

Islamic

were

during

teachers

most

class

leaning

is are

class

The student

the

after

take

education,

a semi-circle.

in

teacher

this

on both

sit

teacher

forming

Yet,

unnecessarily.

would

Islamic

of

of

would

when they

discussion

system

on a cushion,

the

of which

teacher,

Although

the

sit

--especially

preferably

which

The students

a circle

class

The name

arrangements,

a pillar.

forming

level.

advanced

The teacher

ring.

was the

circle,

His

made notes. out

of

duty He

his

write slave

was to keep

a

was

allowed

to

class,

who

dare

Ahmed

61

write

that

say

that

argue

first

hearing, method the

that

had read

though

this

This

consisted

of

(to

other

people in

class

with

a

scholar.

his

the

as

wiJaadah. which

one

having

without teaching)

Ahmed

in

unknown

minor scale

some ideas

adopting

them

was not

Another

was called

method

use

samaa-,

on a so large

not

to

method

the

permission.

of

teaching

of

education:

be able

them in

w1jaadah

or notes

the

when

methods

major

but

methods.

some books

a licence

discussed

it

that

in

or

lecture

92).

Islamic

to be practised,

used

says

about

in

making

the

write

1968:

two other

licence

afore-mentioned

for

Islamic

were

lijaazah,

also

having

of

there

to

and only

(Ahmed,

dictated,

be They

while

listen

to

cannot

knowledge.

of

attentive

attention

distinguished

and the

Ahmed (1968)

asked

is

be

three

full

limlaal,

could

be

class

a

matters

one cannot

with

lesson

that

the

They say one should

notes.

Besides

in

writes

one who upon in

relied

have gone so far

Some theorists

anything.

nor that

relates centuries

early

education,

limited

a very (sic)

use of

it.

of

theft

accused teaching

This

method

guarantee

some

number of In most

unauthorized

over

cases

these

[plagiarism] texts,

was discouraged control

did

scholars

or (Ibid:

perhaps what

was being

for

really

made

scholars at

least

were of

99).

two taught,

reasons:

(a)

ie.

syllabus

the

to

62

and (b)

to bar

up in

taken

the

In brief,

the

a lesson

to

lijaazah

next

the

down, where out

way for

the

the of

a licence

acquiring

in

both

the

(1972)

to

external

learning,

from for

for

major

with

the

uses

which

teaching

methods.

long

as

he

to

join

The

after

manifested The

had

the

scholar adequate Majali

any circle.

for

as long There

part

reasons.

in

First,

or

course freedom

the

was

process

of

free

to

4).

The student as he liked

was or his

was no age limit

studies.

teacher

the

Academic

and determination, his

the of

content

1972:

schedule.

do so.

capability

proceeding

reads

memory.

teacher

freedom

besides

who took

(Majali,

studies

him to

from

or

a

was free

evaluation.

was no regular

were

two

of

by all

enjoyed

his

notes

authors.

as

authority,

formulated

the method

continue

taking

be

that

out

himself,

There

that

and the

student

will

whom he appoints,

book

academic

subject the

his

its

total

any

Likewise,

points

from

curriculum

teach

No

there

it

apparently

proficiency.

wise

material

plagiarism,

minus

or a student

teaching

was

was free

limlaal

from

for

point,

below).

practically

students

There itself

is

4.3

himself,

teacher

consists

(cf

chapter

samaa-

This

plagiarism.

nothing

Time was not the

for

degree

teachers

bar

could

was

saw As long

studying.

the

stop

the

or it as

student

important

factor

the

ultimate

not

63

objective Second,

the

of the

major

and fervour

for

to

relying

almost not

textbooks

if

extended

from

died

only

teaching

from

only

but

textbooks

were

to

pass

exams.

Thus,

the

Holy

Book of

Islam

and the

Prophet's

and

commentaries

education

to

what

to whole

memorization Radiiths Holy

the

on

was

and rigid,

often

very

they

books

of

compelled

were

ever

man-made

on it.

eagerness

was dry

adopted

Students

on memorization.

former

quality

learning

restricting

chapters

the

and

depend

not

that

century,

out;

of

did

was thoroughness.

system

14th

The method

totally

livelihood

his

earlier

the

of

gradually

religion.

memorize

ordinary

turn

scholarship

began to dwindle, related

the

aim of

by the

However,

because

student,

was to

Book

and

Hadilths.

The Ottoman further

the

shattered

advanced,

by those

standstill.

For

confined

to

and its

rule

momentum of

times' five

teaching

As Europe

literary, the spirit

of

hundred Qurlan

and Islamic

learning verbal

inventive

drive

and religious

dogmas,

sciences,

(Majali,

the

1972:

the applied

6).

a

and

academies

reiterated

and

was

the which

unknown and

and old lost

and practical

the

world very

complete

education

achievements

Eastern

into

to

rule,

merely

adventure

it

that

theology.

Arab

Near

thp

this

of

Arab

the

system

brought

and

on

in

education

an educational

years

capitalized

of

of

standards,

contributions, centres

neglect

was

64

While devising

the

a modern

technological past

West was 'venturing

the Arabs

the

colonial

times,

require without

thought

or

1981:

and is

but

he also

related

to

chewing

their

the

educational

from

precolonial

to

listen,

read

them towards

taking

Muslims

system

on

and

critical in

interest

an

or beyond

the

criticize

(Khan,

school,

Islamic

based on memorization the

criticizes teaching

system

method.

Throughout

the

examinations

life

now, secondary their

primary

was

era,

as

placed status,

school

students examination

prepared

students

were for

which

on understanding, is

that

also

todaY,

on

passing practical Then,

equipped college,

for

teaching

which

while

and work was ignored.

entrance

schools

says

of

than

examination

He rightly

and acquiring

for

training

method

rather

of

colonial

importance

utmost

pass

actual

of

even

encouraging

outside

only

still,

the

the

17).

Khan does not was,

way to

with

busy

was

that

writes

towards

self-education

and

criticism

actual

students

memorize

the

paved

In

teaching,

of

unknown'

themselves

their

of

Khan (1981)

times,

which

it.

upon

backwardness

The methods

the

contented

themselves

and priding

blaming

system

educational

era,

into

entrance

as to and to

closely

65

the secondary

'examination

became

system

The dead weight the

to

curriculum,

of

succeeding

by hook or

of

Facts

are

any quantity

name of

Khan does not the

on

"overstresses" also,

dominate stating

teaching

the

entire

system

1981:

of

on as

such

texts

of

of

the possession that

guarantee to go

by

the

17-18).

alone

detriment

Arab

the

of

"examination

on the

more,

but

method

on the

stress

memorization

inefficiency

the

of

The types

deserves

alone

the

spirit

education,

does not

(Khan,

memorization

and perhaps

facts

education,

adopted

the

indispensable,

which

blame

the

overstress

of

curb

lifeless

and

place in

to

stereotype

by crook.

administered

understanding,

system

to things

or wrong

facts.

to

to discourage

unimportant

usually

tend

mechanical

and

education

ridden'.

promote

experimentation,

entire

examinations...

teaching,

of

the

initiative,

teachers'

methods

Thus,

schools.

of

method

--this

system"

which his

various

Cin

the

whole

examination to

ways the

(Ibid:

18).

Muslim

system.

the inherited

low

standards

World] But

class

that,

are in

character

of

education

related

to

turn, of

is

the

related

education,

but seems

argument

that

In

which

"understanding"

He concludes

education.

educational

to by

66

Though being

made to yet

not

image of

the

Western

it

though

to

the

incentive image

trying

in

in most Arab school,

of

into

education

West.

Western

the

today's

has by

case

in

country have

to

but

it

Muhammad Ali his

copied

in

also by

undertaken

spirit Muhammad to

results

government

the

and

the army

of

the

However,

though

influenced

the

as

it

teaching

is

and the

by the

make

a

overall

real spirit

'secularized'

traditional

learning

and

in were

countries

to be

said

been a

system

educational

era

past

large

has indeed

most Arab

so,

modern world. World,

their

in

was due

colonization

By doing rut

World

Arab

to modernize

remains

as far

the

of

West.

the

countries,

for

constructive the

revival

Arabs

the Arab

least

at

the

away from

turn

break-through of

that

of

to

to

cited

under

form

still,

system,

said

change

and to

fact,

are

1976).

the

of

Egypt

in

and

most

education

in

the

limited

educational

impact

the

of

only

positive

1966 and Majali,

Thus,

the

produced

not

However,

principally

was

(Qubain,

1986).

al,

et

system

The of

He was,

were,

educational

standard.

a system

West.

the

educational

(Jamaluddiin

system,

in

that

Arab

the

of

World

was that

to have devised

the

major

status desired

the

Arab

the

and educationalists

who was said

part

the

reform

reached

historians

Ali,

throughout

attempts

Islamic methods

are

concerned.

Most

teachers

overcrowded the

teaching

classes field

in

the

Arab

and timetables --or

perhaps

World,

either

or because because

of of

because a lack both--

of

their

of training

tend

to

in give

67

information

and pass knowledge

feedback.

In other

words,

get

to

this

method

in

the

acquisition

who quickly passive

used

participants

interaction

is

information

follows

as sender

process

to

121)

put

That

xaTilrun

Though

knowledge

the

prevalent

in

some Arab

phenomenon. this

Arab of

It

stage,

than

a few teacher teacher

for

the

is

this

that

where

however, for

evidence

strong

type

teaching

it

that

teachers.

quantity

in

in

the

such probably rather

than

most Arab

still

a

recent. be easy,

not

is,

That Arab

But

a large though

number

there

countries,

the

are

effective

World.

because quality,

is

is

impression.

this

is

teacher

of

would

competent centres

dangerous

is

approach

really

is

(1986:

al

bl-duuni

education

modern

the

of

even more dangerous").

such

one-way

it

J+tju

11 Ignorance is

the

is

future

I-Ma'rifata

--

of

teaching

nor

et

seems to be producing

The situation looking

and

as Jamaluddiin

responsibility

countries

lacking

i. e.

the

enough,

presently

is

flow

student,

system

training

training

teacher

khuTuurah

now

World,

find

to

the

real

no

and the

not

laakinna

Wa

be admitted,

should

educational

teachers

Arab

Thus,

Limiting

is

become

Cýjj

without

in

to

students, soon

classroom,

teacher

is-because,

result,

dl

impression

the

the

Pakthara

takuunu

the

encouraging

their

knowledge.

of in

a

as receiver.

of

naam

dwindling

at

job

ý6J:

but

student

as

and,

the

without

'spoon-feed'

knowledge

as the

it:

masluu1iyyatin

from

students

to

place

'dictating'

concerned.

(fa-l-jahlu

indeed,

one way:

as far are

tend

take

and the

just

effective,

they

to

allowed

teacher

learner

their

to

the in

Arab

view

of

World the

today

shortage

is of

68

teachers

it

is

In other

words,

by the

There

now in

profession for

"quantity"

In Tunisia, the

fact,

the is

Arab

their

of

that

World

will

higher

the

to

needed the

the

Arab

fill

for

the

many

system.

the

teaching

of

the

in

educational

situation

change

level.

educational

better

once its

need

satisfied.

some Arab

staff

are

expansion

indications

seem to have

teaching

many of

sudden

at

mainly

more teachers

still

gaps opened are

from,

suffering

in

teachers

countries, reached

particularly a certain

some educational to

other

Arab

degree fields, countries.

Egypt, of

the

Sudan

self-sufficiency

and are

now 'exporting'

and in

69

CH-ALE"rF-E;

L

FOUE;

t

THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER IN THE ARAB WORLD PAST AND PRESENT

4.0

Preliminaries

Not only the

student's

the

student

the

of like

just

he is the

Arab

the

teaching

(if

educational

system.

(In

earlier

can make his encouraging learn,

not

In the

not

THE

In other

deals

if he

this, in

the

and the way

he

has a share

memorization)

the

with that

and suggests

students

Even if

them to

profit think,

how to store

Arab World,

the

he is

words,

from

it

the

the

viewed

syllabus by

and by showing

fundamental of

constituent) backbone

teaching

to

the

the most

one of

fundamental

most

approaches

process).

just

relying

is,

That

exams and if

for

3 above),

chapter

influence

that

courses.

chapter

been considered

Such approaches

teaching

whole

(by

studies

This

and present, (cf

method

has always

constituents

teacher-centred.

past

his

and prepare

to blame.

alone

teacher

plagiarizing).

The teacher

fact,

in

and performance

teacher

student

(by often

writes

not

the

also

on memory to study

relies

way the Arab

but

method

habits

study

plagiarizes, status

teaching

of

are

teacher is

education. to

said

as the

'bad',

any

axis

of

be the

a good teacher

interacting

with

them how to

use

them, what

by they

it.

teacher

has

always

had

a

very

special

70

status,

which

learning the

status for

account

4.1

this

in

of

the Arab

Islam,

the

duty,

religious

and the

fees.

When institutions

found

a way to

duties to

--the

available.

At

teachers by rulers

the

teaching

the teacher

the

he went

was

of will

of

The teacher

interesting

century,

when until

Al-Azhar

received

19th

was

money,

were

recognized the the

for

its

their

object.

Talking out

10th as

teachers

sake,

a of of

acquisition

own

a

point

the

rather

Those

given

gifts

ensured

(1985)

of not

were

and

World.

from

century,

no salary.

and teaching

to earn

was,

student

universities,

mosque

thus,

the

stages

endowments

endowments

that

note

Al-Azhar the

college,

knowledge,

to

elementary

and Ashraf

Bilgrami

from

the

and

jurists

specify

payment

(and Muslim)

Arab

the

to

Direct

where

by large

for

provided

accepting

Muslim

appear, and also

to

madaaris

from

a

as

regarded

barred

fees,

of

only

and

throughout

is

came

restricted

level

of Al-Azhar,

than

survey

present,

was

to

and student.

and men of wealth.

It

a brief and

the

and

the Past

was therefore

payment

kuttaab--

were often

teachers

past

profession

learning

of

however,

education

wherever

of

in

Teacher

teacher

legalize

and rights

teacher,

teaching

Perhaps

World,

Arab

the

the

way

argument.

The Status

Early

in

teacher

the

of

the

conducted.

currently

are

processes

for

accounts

probably

who

living about that,

71

were well-off

Others

properties. was

a

as began

Al-Azhar (Bilgrami

to receive

salaries

that

that

they

the

twentieth it

teachers

at

E6 a month,

of

Hadrasah

the

at

professors

were so

or al-mudarris,

frequently

were

It

28).

who were known as al-lustaadh

regarded

jobs.

that

1985:

their

were made to get

university,

writes

from

the

of

attempts

and Ashraf,

Dodge (1962)

NiZaamiyyah, highly

beginning

when serious

recognized

income

on

to do part-time

used

the

at

only

century,

Also

to live

used

diplomatic

to perform

chosen

missions.

Ahmed (1968)

by the

so respected this

Muslim did

than

community

that

claims

the scholars

of

was immense.

They were

and interpreters as of

that the this by

influence of

business the them.

caliphate

of

last In

It over

the caliph

'the

the

disappeared

important

times

guardians

this

as reason

of

but

in

matters crisis

the sovereignity

well that

over-ruled

They had no share

the government,

the

community

community

himself'.

word in

the

doctrine

was for

influence

that

accredited

theological

of

the Shari'ahl.

'their

over

education

had more

they

He claims

rulers.

Islamic

early

that

community

the

The influence

in

teachers

spite

in of

was spoken 'when (sic)

the often

were on

72

lay

There

in

Nevertheless, social

as is

In Tunisia, World,

Arab

the

almost

by the

among the

common people.

certain

problems

might

his

advice

would

say

was,

like

the no.

knowledge

case

for

7),

though

about

teaching

arise

high

a

and

partly

he

'words

of

teacher

has always

he

God'

much mainly quite

was

to

solutions

People

community.

question,

without

very man,

propose

local

his

within

and who stood

'learned'

to

the

partially

a

was

that

of

rest

pedagogy

a

or

and opinions

the

profession,

disputes

the

quite

enjoyed

He was so much respected

that

statement.

above

number.

and was seen as

settle

follow

the

religious

note

the

to

would

in

knew anything

community

to

resorted

often

(cf.

of

respected

their

certainly

who hardly bottom

lowest

of

small

muladdib

teacher

educated at

the

196).

no doubt,

teachers,

relatively

1968:

exaggeration

because

partly

their

of

some

Muslim

early

status,

because

be

seems to

(Ahmed,

hands',

their

because

all

holy

taught,

he and

unquestionable.

As a matter esteem Shawqi,

in

the

of Arab

almost

fact, World.

elevated

the

A famous the

20th

teacher

14

Wj

qum li-l-mu'allimi kaada

1-mu'allimu

C)J.

L-

waffihi 'an

the

?

rank

fool

j, -Wl

()I

Egyptian

century

to

4-Jj

r-i 3u

t-tabjiilaa

yakuuna

been

rasuulaa

of

held

in poet,

a prophet:

great Ahmed

73

[Stand For,

Scholars

up in

common that

their

children's

parents

would

bad conduct.

les

Parfois

aupr, as du maltre

une sentence 1949:

(1949)

conduite

ex6cutait

about

muladdib

se plaindre leur

de

privde de

was

that

writes

eux-meme venaient

comme un juge

qulil

the

to

complain

It

teacher.

the

of

rendait

paix,

(Jomier,

aussit6t,

332).

[Parents

themselves

and complain

would the

about

pass

a

go to

often

a judge

like

just

he

which

sentence

teacher

the

conduct

personal

The teacher,

children. would

honour

often

de la

le maltre,

fils:

in

Jomier

parents

teacher;

a Messenger]

many Hadiiths

relate

quite

is-almost

teacher

the

the

to

veneration

of

their

of

peace, execute

would

immediately].

Parents knew their

to

a

muladdib,

phrase: s-sikkiin the

child

feared

was a sort

ýLji "he could

is

the

to

resort

children It

parents. over

would

of

in

teacher

him more than a custom

he

would

ý-- -Aj

as the

they

do

so

with (huwa

the knife"), saw

fit.

they

feared

actually

§,--h

muladdib

because

cases

when a father

that

the meat and you are

be shaped

such

handed the

their his

son

formulaic

I-1aHm

wa

lanta

meaning

that

Talking

about

74

Islamic

primary

in

education

North-Cameroun,

(1973)

Santerre

parents

qulil

le

honme

complet...

et

jamais

dans

slopposer dans

clest

Nul

societd. faire

[Parents

"give"

1973:

the

he may socialize of

for

in

confidence would for

example,

this

system

should entrusted

the

to

is

the

No one

to him3

]a faut

qulon

lui

so

that

teacher

he may make out

"gift"

the

an act

this

of

is

educational

why

young

they

process,

representative knows

child

absolute

The teacher

punishment.

him

the

of

and that

venerated

be done to mould

de

qulil

ce

the

parents

in

besides

maftre

v6n6rd

that

teacher;

to oppose

Le

caract6re

This

intervene

never

society.

the

pour

145-146).

child

man...

represent

nlintervenaient

ne sait

him totally,

him a real

would

lui

au

absolue

exemple.

jeune

ce

repr6sentalt

repr6sentant

que

mieux

un

dIdducation

par

le

est

(Santerre,

confie,

ils

processus

forger

pour

Ilenfant

pour fasse

en

de conflance

chltiments

ce syst6me

maftre

qulil

pourquoi le

aux

au

de

un acte

that

particularly

that,

llenfant

Ce "don"

parents

maftre

and

totalement,

socialise

les

Africa,

argues

"donnent"

Les

pour

Black

better

person

that

in of what is

in

75

is

It Arab of

high

this

and Muslim

the

social

World

1960's

and even the

school

teacher,

Commenting

on this

1970's,

early

dream of

instituteur

Etre

Ctunisiens], dans les

est qulil

Lyc6es

sans

exclure

blen

bdn6ficie

elle

become a primary

studies

Sadiki

or at

stable, of

school

educator

devotion.

it that

prestige kind

of

the Lycdes

of

ou

stable;

est

d'6ducateur ddvouement; tr0as

prestige

grand A

islamique

course,

especially Islamic

teachingl'

is

teacher whether

or modern

Mosque.

and what it

the

6tudes

A Sadiki

d1obscur

youth,

the Great

without,

the

every

at

jeunes

tout

1953a: 19). '

of many a [Tunislan3 their

Tunisian

leurs

vocation

tradition

a

the

des

profession la

up

that

modernes,

du

(Louis,

of

This

the

dream

they

began

Colleges,

profession

excluding

the

comprises

of

enjoys

a

Tradition

in

at is

vocation obscure

very holds

high for

the dream

ultimate

mu'allim,

conmenc6

La

surtout

enseignement,

[To

de bien

comporte

la

quFattache

r6ve

le

entendu,

quIelle

ce

writes

ou Coll6ges

Grande Mosqu6e.

a

(1953)

the

enjoy

recently,

majority

aient

4 la

avec

the

Louis

matter,

very

becoming

to

used

a teacher

Until

students.

was the

teacher

made becoming

that

of Arab

majority

the

position

to

the

primary youth.

76

A

(Boldairdairderlishriaresot is tte critimll

Even until partially

educated)

mu'allim

school,

the

*. *

Ele

affectueux (in

Muchrif,

I...

and

to

the

repeated

of

the

Tunisia.

[the

mudarrisuun, the

Che

for

the

the

Beylical

for

the

teacher.

decree

we read,

se

montrer

spirituels.

show

affection

seems to have given

special

should]

children]

education

This

relationship. the

following

Article the

end of

14,

teachers, this

Article,

- sa

term

Chapter the

at

'spiritual

decree

Beylical II,

of

4 Shawwaal the

regulating Great

satisfaction

aux pour

attention is

children'

Mosque

we read,

t6moignera

professeur]

travailleurs

1875),

accounts

of

devra

teacher

spiritual

once more in 1912),

teachers)

professeur]

teacher-student

At

(about

the

at

1930: 456)

Islamic

(16 September

holds

profession

school,

best

community

envers ses enfants

his

towards

fact,

II

primary

those

even

teaching

the

This

university.

1292 (26 December

et

the

at

traditional

10, Chapter

28 Dhu-l-Qa-dah

In

the

in

anyone

teaching

or at

reverence

In Article of

call

still

(and

Tunisians

uneducated

most

he is

whether

secondary special

today,

[61,6ves] stimuler

of

1330

situation Tunis,

77

Pardeur

des

proc6d6s

bienveillants

llardeur

des

dMves.

(Ibid:

spirituels,

C [The teacher] hard-working

the

ardour

all

benevolent the

father

To the Just

like

to

reverence hand of whenever the

Moroccan

who are

day.

support men of

learning,

Leading deference streets;

shaykhs

points

hands

keep

wise

the

ardour of

counsel

and obedience.

a

habit

is

to

the

learning

with

was

the

until

remarkable

that

and it

kiss

theology)

the

through

he,

showing

common

treated

walked

were kissed,

still

of

fact

publically as they

Islamic

about

activities

of

would

of

talking

the

habit

Moroccans teacher

whom

godfather

'strange'

a

a

children]

respect

This

out

were

and respect their

for

utilize

is

and

and respect

stimulate

teacher

(1978),

Eickelman

of

help

teacher.

meet him.

to

He will

spiritual

adopted

(scholar they

lazy.

his

to

order

that

owes great

community

and wherever

in

the

student,

"shaykh"

enfants

satisfaction

lavish

'traditional'

their

their

present

popular

on those

the

sages

ses

sont

his

who are

He will

father,

a real

qui

students

processes

Arab

les

prodiguera

witness

those

of

maintenir

.1

480).

students.

Muslim

In Morocco,

Il

will

the

nature

les

tous

emploiera

de

d1un pLare A ceux

conseils

of

il

paresseux;

the not

and

for

78

for

unusual

be

gifts-to

(Eickelman,

townsmen and villagers,

For many Moroccans, kissing

hands

carries

on saying

respect

and offering

but

gifts

1978:

500).

does not

shaykhs further

goes

pious

stop

only

Eickelman

this.

than

at

that

indication

As another

and craftsmen for

their

of

by

them

offered

of

respect,

regularly

the

religious

participation

would

few of

them could

which

they

many

follow

despite

circles

felt

they

merit

were

lesson

attended

bring,

merchants

such

fact

the

that

(Eickelman,

presented,

in

Arabic

the classical

Ibid:

500-501).

high

This

teacher

faith

Islamic

4.2

(cf

The Status

Although has lost authoritative

his

gained

knowledge

religious

teachers

of

can be accounted

quotations-the

esteem

of

the

today's

some of

his

religious

for

the

high

in

obvious from

mainly

community's

and (b) chapter

--as

is

a religious

learning

is

above-cited perspective: of

(a)

his

alloted

in

the

because

respect place

the

2 above).

Teacher

teacher earlier figure

Today

is

still high

in

respected status.

to whom people

He

the is

would

he

Arab World, no

go for

longer

that

(religious)

79

and for

advice the

knowledge

but

'human'

meat" of

is

the

corporal

teachers

demand for

well

of

"the

knife".

that

their

'divine'

and

'unquestionable'

the

teacher's

is

pupil

Parents

words

are,

children

object

might

face

'blamed'

or sued for

education

all

the

often

level.

This

situation

over

at

and with

it

the

teacher

is

still

for

one

the

expense

caused

the

status

of

to any kind at

of

good

increased

the

training

and

educational

student's the

school.

it.

World

Arab

"the

longer

no

today

have been

very

come low,

problems.

the

education,

teachers,

academic to

of

teacher

The expansion

status

no longer

and

and therefore,

level

punishment

Oftentimes,

high

is

Also,

quarrels

'holy'.

no longer

primary

local

of

and 'imperfect';

the nor

settlement

he carries

as a result,

At

the

teacher,

as

socially

as financially.

However, be)

to

used

authority,

attention utterances

mainly least,

at

'master' because

today's

of it

i. e.

exams, is

is

in

the it

to

are

what taken

carefully

his

them.

the

says

down as notes,

that

come in

will

and corrects

no way

his

he is the

ready

class. for

the

exams

Consequently, in

he

as

preserved is

It

students.

teacher

in

which

he who knows what

is

he who proposes given

reason,

major

eyes of

(but

respected

much his

All

memorization

when exam comes.

In short, who represents

to

the

the

Arab

family's

student, authority,

the

teacher guidance,

is

a and

surrogate support

parent in

an

80

institution.

educational like

in

those

books,

ones to be used in question

of

as many other

4.3

Plagiarism

Although

dishonesty what

perhaps of

fact,

students;

This

exam.

4.3

(cf

seen in or

the

write

or

be linked

cannot

it

although,

'All

this

11 have

pleased bits

Arab

on an this

I am here to me that way I put

books

the English',

for

respect

African

and

the as

from

student

in as but

alone

I cannot

to me

and do not from

say better

that

I

think

for

much books in

the

is

not

He

all.

at

good

my

copy

large But

myself. and it

books

seems

than

the of

because

I have not

good

command

(quoted

in

1986:

xi).

Valdes,

in

London a

students.

answer

of

Agatha

with

mournfully,

not,

trust

passage

which,

students

Akibombo

said

to acquire

it,

of

form

a

as

more common among Arab

perhaps

they

the

is

it

do,

student

'phenomenon' Arab

the

me. He says

of

as

Arab

accused

to

following

Death

questions

out

of

a sign

been much disturbed,

at

discussion

are

just

words,

memorized

the

thing

The

morning',

professor's

and

of which

say.

with

is

to

the

of

better

understand

leads

his

and

Student

rather

Dickery

Hickery helps

is

It

down

below)

context

fraud.

noted

a "dishonest"

is

plagiarism

followed

students.

overseas

and the Arab

scholars

Christie's

the

is

advice

carefully

are

plagiarism

well

however,

His

matter all

81

It

be deduced

might

because

plagiarism because

of

because

they

not

notes

typical

of

Eastern

part

to

Arab

the

the

of

'glorious'

for

from

days

Arab

of

that

in

writings,

language,

or

student

is

the

where

on books

rely the

and

classroom

mainly is

--which that

particularly

the

of

to

from

teach

their

They were required

teach

by anyone. which

acquired

Muslim

early

during

been

had

that,

only

obligation by

put

had ways.

specific in

the manner

and be most honest

the

they

which

in

teachers

their

was

nor The only

to specify

had learned

i. e.

teachers,

education,

forced

was to

1968:

to

tradition,

the

supervised

(Ahmed,

but

teachers

Islamic

scholars,

they

English

the

of

their

and

world.

teacher,

a

scholars

to

resort

students

tradition

himself,

educational

neither

teaching

for

command

his

that

preceded

an educational

claims

were

on

good

think

he gets

Ahmed (1968) the

a

come from

encouraged

on the

of

what

a reverence

of

a lack

from

in

which

teaching,

186-187).

* Boldvriting andunderlining aresine.

The quotation system. he taught

The teacher

above

reveals

was free

to

WHAT he had been taught

much teach in

about

whatever the

the

Arab

he wished

SAME way

as

educational to as long he

had

as

been

82

it.

taught his

Perhaps, but

syllabus

educational the

so in

not is

system

teaching is

is

student, teacher

the

it

the

The

are

system

Arab

whole far

as

memorization-ridden

of

choice

as

Hence,

concerned.

outcome.

then,

saying,

knows about

in

teaching.

of

examination

a "dishonest"

not

method

basically

still

an expected

goes without

had some freedom

teacher

and the

method

plagiarism

It

the Arab

that

practice, it.

and accepts

for

plagiarism, is

nor

fraud,

it

the

Arab

since

the

by basing

it

He even encourages

exams on memorization.

Talking Buthana

--one

"to

high

the

them for

their

or a final

It

to

43)-of

accuracy

in

front

the

of

L2

their

the

reproducing

assign

the

and then

grade

would

stories,

either

assignments

said

or

in writing

during

then,

teachers

included,

class,

entire

the

of behaviors",

writing

teachers

poems or short

memorizing

behaviors

writing

her

that

claimed

(1989)

used by Schiller

subjects the Ll

whether

Egypt,

test

a

exam.

is

the

students,

during

tests

being

as they

to

to

'plagiarize'.

or exams, got

it

'act'

This

Ire-produce'

without

any

'produce'

to

exhorted not

system,

educational

students

as accurately

Ire-produce',

Arab

Arab

encourages

not

study

in

experience

educational

were similar

task

in

ie.

orally,

Arab

determine

1989:

students

school

five

ESL participants

(Schiller,

are

the

of

who intended five

her

about

but

to

Ire-act'.

system what

They do

that

requires

they

have Arab

alterations. something

which

themselves not

seem

learned students but

to

to

be

83

how to quote

taught

To conclude, the

mentioning and (b)

the

Arab

(cf

4.4

Newrization

rotates

arount

Eastern it.

be it

memorized,

educational

quoting

means

without

been taught

have not is

system

sources.

based

do

to

almost

so

entirely

below).

part is

It

students

they

Student

seems to be the

Islamic

traditional

(a)

their

and recognize

Arab

and the Arab

Memorization the

for

because

source

because

especially

references

plagiarism

on memorization

4.4

their

of

clear

education

religious

in

education

it19

The .

that

memorization

where or

of

axis

whole

is

system from

inherited had

subJect

"Even

otherwise.

world,

educational

every

almost

Arab

the

Maley

now",

the

to

be

(1986)

that

writes

The most Arab

widely

is

countries

teacher, order student

or

the

view

accepted

text-book, it,

to acquire to commit

it

is

it,

that

has

learning

of

in

most The

memory-based. the

it

is

to

memory,

knowledge.

In

for

the

sufficient (Maley,

1986:

105).

Such memory-based foreign

language

approaches

teaching

in

the

to

education

Arab world.

are Again

even Maley

applied argues

that

to

84

to language

Such approaches the

provide

with

student

and draw his

vocabulary

teaching, a

of grammar,

taught

into

a series

rather

than

a vehicle

wide

of

being

be

to

conundrums

of finer

the

language

the

for

they

range

to

attention

transform

points

though

solved, (Ibid:

communication,

105).

Maley Eastern of Middle his

has apparently

students. Eastern

that

the

foreign

students)

is

liable

to

habits

r'-IL. "Ie

foreign

want

to

gerundives answer

simple

lives.

They

rarely

they

will

methods

Mid:

time,

Such reaction are

dictated

of

to

is

be

Middle

the

teacher and

approaches

on memorization

--

as

between

themselves

items

capable

often

regard

the

foreign

and

of the

and learning

idioms

which

using less

to

able

the

in

hours

gerunds,

being

without about

spend

will

students

difference

questions

vocabulary

will

based

with

(i. e.

such

regard

are

participles,

will

teacher

teacher's]

the

and

experience

that

language know

abstruse

which

--

He goes on saying

misguided.

teaching

some

He holds

learning

students

had

their of they And

appropriately. directive

teaching

teacher

as

who are

a

waste

of

105).

expected

from

students

them and that

they

should

memorize.

used Maley

to

rules should

that not

85

be surprised his

Arab

teachers

who "dictate"

the

(cf

memorization

note

the

English

sixties

years

materials

drills He says

methodology.

up.

In

Arab room

The

end of

that

introduction

kuttaab

strong

reactions

Heads.

Thus,

when

constant

language]

as modern and

oral

from

the

traditional

teachers

addition, with

the

sixties teaching

authoritarian-type the

Tunisian

techniques

directive

to

give

teaching

was

there

were

administrators

teaching

the sixties,

'scientific',

trying

repetition,

school

major of

were

that

styles

was

style then objected

and [of

the

projected to

by

the

school of

traditional

in

sixties

affecting

the

at

of

method

problems

writes

(sic)

for

as a method

minimum.

the

of

learners

for

to

allied

English

to

much

Tunisia

to

reminiscent

--precisely

the young

left

(1980)

and memorising

conducive

styles

used

North-African

the

in

strongly

were fashionable

were

more

that

The over-learning that

by

as an educational

Foster

as

are

the

to

production

seventies,

seen

memorization

discussing

and Heads reacted

repetition

not

of memorization

language early

has

been reduced

In an article

and the

the

In Tunisia,

schools.

administrators oral

last

the

were probably Tunisian

19).

they

of

system

has today

teaching/learning,

For

particular,

no.

are

methods"

who "direct".

those

educational in

teaching

time".

of

and not

and Tunisia

countries,

directive

as "a waste

students

However,

in

"less

his

that

the

86

different

widely

kutteb

traditional

memorization to

used

The following

11) at

statement. (cf.

texts

the

Zeituuna

Notice

the

following

The last

portion

"Demonstrate

reads:

The first "Analyse whether your

do you

think

his

view

of

in

this

author

opinion that

memorization

obvious was still

in

in

(cf.

exam

this

to

attest in

first

the

[statementj

that

independent

and

questions

It

Arabic

the

exam texts).

question

the

from

or not;

in

question view?

the

of

level.

primary

1951b)

stress

page own

(naqlan)".

it

Arabic

second

and in

your

using

about

these

Arabic

page and

paragraphs

show

justify

case,

either

reads:

matter".

Could

to what you know of

seems

of

question

the

underlined

referring

It

of

second

view

underlined

you share

The third

Arabic

the

not

1951 taHSiil

June Louis,

photocopied

did

Tunisia in

did

and what has been said

the aim of

p int

(in parts

the

school

reasoning

the

underlined

your

(aqlan)

reasoning

as it

of

Mosque

of

in

memorization,

extracts

of

202).

education

level

secondary alongside

encourage,

thinking. note

the

at

1980:

Islamic

Even pre-independence

Koranic

or

(Foster,

methodology,

reminiscent

as

groups

from there,

his

the

you approve

exam

was not

page reads:

or disapprove

poems and his

these it

Arabic

second

moral

life?

axis

of

it,

".

that

questions the

of

"What

the

though teaching

; ]I

j,.'il

i iG

Ulý :

ul ju -MJ-. I.; G

-

ýu

ii

4uz

Z,. 4>C. 4 u 3

r.. l!

kt

- JVI

Let.o -)J" U., Sl Ji ig Jl 4: I 3LJ 31 :a -j.J. Xt s kttý ^ x. t.; ).3UII -; . a, V.

)

4-;

C-n

J,

41

j

7-")

3U

)

a

S'ýl

AL

-ýýl

_ýJl

a1U, U. A ka.; ,eA:

4-A

jA411

UJI

0

A-!a -k L.

4jUJ

;

Cjý LY*di

t-ýL

111.

A_j

Aj

r

lij -0 l» *--*2. --*llil

J-7-t .,.

'47-ý J-ja^U.; 1i*T- -',.

0

'%izl ' it

--

zu

4-3

u.

411ýiol. 00w0%.

c-;,

Z-,..

ýi

ýt

c;,

1,

j*

J-Iji

j'

j

;,!

1;,l A

ýk,

Ic. '248

1-'

NI-

46ý

.. La

Aj

j

44--,

-,

6.,%

-

,----

kY

U

65&

4k

)I,

."u.

ý1.

.I,

I.-ar. ; .-. G.;-

Ai

Li

ý

tj 0

-.

%0

157ý -

Ati.:

Zia

. 01

ý1 ýA)

IIIL-0

q.. v

-,

0

.%

ýaU, UOj 'Luo

lt.

--2-5-v

ah ý» t- (% zj%)

;, 41

.

.. 0

xh j1.9.

j%y/ tix

n/> -,

in -Ul

NW

%-

r I! ...

.

1 ýý

f

2.0

cl

-250-

+ 0

ýi

*, e

87

method

as was,

still,

as is

and has been,

decree

studying

at

Great

Llexercice

leur

jour

de

donneront

fixed

oral

learn

textes

regulating

encourager

par

et

ils

coeur;

d6termind

qu'il au

r6citer

is

memory should

great

of

their

encourage by heart.

They

pages

number of the

grande

458)

1930:

some texts

during

at keeping

because such

des

the

in

as expressed

aiming

subjects,

1875),

week and then

will

that

should

recited

at

a

dayj.

Memorization,

is

Muchrif,

them a specific

be memorized

devront

la semaine

teachers to

assign

That

dans

exercising

students

Tunisian

the

of

d1une

un nombre de pages

(in

importance,

III,

6tant

m6moire professeurs

apprendre

CSince

exercice

la

les

fix6,

Chapter

However

countries.

1292 (26 December

616ves: i apprendre

devront

Arab

other

Mosque,

importance, leurs

in

26,

28 Dhu-l-Qa'dah

of

the

case

by Article

stipulated

Beylical

the

he

as the

the

usually Qurlan

the

student needs

or

above

decree,

memory power it

when

jurisprudence,

is fresh

dealing which

viewed

as

and

awake. Islamic

with

require

an

verbatim

mastery.

Another much-criticized

factor

which

reinforces

exam system

in

the

the Arab

use world,

of

is

memorization particularly

the

the final

88

Both

exam.

teaching

formidable as

final

well

heavily

hoping

memorization

In

exam. And in the

as

this

system

in

general

system

of

all

desired is

memorization

teachers

the development

of

as to accommodate of for

factual

the

device

to be learned

1989:

134).

Eastern

its

rest

of

still

strongly

(1983)

who concludes

that

highly For

so

encouraged vast as as a

amounts a

means useful

a useful

and necessary

own right,

(Schiller,

the the

felt

good

of

particular,

was regarded

in

countries,

method

was

a

alike.

in

to absorb

than

North-African traditional

as

mother

grades),

as

students

skills

task,

Arab

"rote"

is

the

unlike

good

and writing,

rather

skill

In Moroccco, like

this

reproduce

students

the need

information;

achieving

mnemonic

such

the

exam

that

regarded

track

sciencelmathematics

to

Arab

the

as being

(with

and

success

resort

particular,

the development

was

this

results.

accurately

that

skills by

students

on

were rewarded

understandable

of

commenting

writes

who could

product

desirable

in

countries,

students

importance

vital

satisfactory

Egypt

of

towards

geared

curriculum,

(1989),

and that Gulf

the

of

loaded

Schiller

Arab

Since

view

be

to

seem

to guarantee

regard,

it

learning

and

is

and

countries teaching/learning

investigated

by

Wagner

89

While

conducting

modern

schooling

(Wagner,

their

by heart

Arab

factories

(Muhammad, 1991: Arabic

"notorious" by which

final the

rather

"As a natural acquiring at

the

end of

did it,

of

Glossary)

and

of

seems to have become the

result",

the

level

being

is

of

encouragement

except

the academic

"the

as linked year",

situation

with

(Ibid:

the 13).

original' (a)

the

criterion

and on (b) 'dictation'

the of

investigation.

and

does not results

the

only

the

research

student

have

on

measured,

has become

concern

he argues,

this

claims

memorization".

and

photocopy

blames

in

memorization

institutes

high

exam which

than

others

and

'dictation'

accompanying

whose main

the

Muhammad (1991)

institutes,

only

academic

end

even university

He

student

knowledge

the

students

universities

cf

of

all

article).

teacher

university lessons

13 --

newspaper

(cf

of

the

180).

and high

of Arab

to

even

on

were proud

1983:

"talqiin"

about universities

into

turned

their

some teachers (Wagner,

"The majority

that

and

fact,

Morocco

everything

lessons--

In

of

complain

to show up word-for-word

same thing;

today's

in

memorized

the

about

admitted-that

were not!

effects

would

lessons,

the

examinations!

professors

Complaining

students

text,

remarks

the year

of

young

tended

teachers

school

--the

teachers'

the

on

on memory development

1978),

me that

which

research

think

about

he needs

to

get

-7 6L,, 4k (370)

. 1.11L;, -ý-9

1991/12/13 LL&. ýJl 0

0

13 tiJJ I

iL-

LIfl3

*ý

Ail

wb

40. U.

AAUL,

ýj

(J;.

Lll

jLA

""6j 4 (,Wl Jut

jI W. 16. cj;jl

J-j

VI

jit. jALLIj c,6ýL-ýJl Z,. tieý

jl-ý-"' Z,- &zj v .? L. XýPL. ; 1U. Ji a-*L . rý'

LZjlýtl J;j47, J -; L. 01 v ala js

u Cý,

L, Wl

Z,l

--Llj

Vil

z. 111. ztv. A! JU

V,

: 14; Jl

Zl"

JI

f. A C.... Ml

Aýl ý"-i c, 16 .. JUJI ja .

L

Zl I

&V

I

J-ýj ; L 4-ýýj ---t. VýW144--C! "Ib

UJIo

tjwl 4-ý`*fJ

&. =I,

&q.; ri 14-11t-i l4f

AA4, Z,- q? a-VI 4

'J.tf " a.ql

te=l

4t; hýý

1.411 ',!

Owl -L"-ili

t#.. 01, L A j-J, r6JI J6; r, ýjJl

jc

im

ilizlii

a>L.J

rjwl z,-

k=l

V

tl"

01(11ýP ýIýk

i

PUI

J.

LAZ'

I klý .. -ýj -'-

lt=' liePl jý, ku ýw, b-, j, ZJj-ii rý4 4-, L-11 ; wjýJI 5j GK A :. .:,ijallj .Z-

twl

olýJ ti-ij

tirj,

ji j; e=I rjwl ý4", i 4e>. ýrtAl JI

J 4-4-1 V-4-»JIJ

#,$. k"

Vit.. naiil

90

This the

persistence impact

strong

modern Arab the

modern

viewed

by the

textbook for

It accept great

with

a passive

such a role

because

on their

a fairly

of

Arab

the

factor

socio-economic the

in

case

learning lies

in

the

needs the

In brief, memorizes educational

studies

are

than

by a quest

days.

it

is

and then system

the

not

This time

Arab

the

as a whole

learning to

or

content

teacher.

learning

is

to

a 'decent' their

studies

'materialistic'

the

more by used

--as

a Job

Consequently,

governed

knowledge

otherwise,

depends,

and that

by the

for

then

and

seem

future

their

and effort

to

the be

towards

attitude

to change;

and the

who is

to blame

change

educationalists.

Arab

plagiarizes,

first

of

process.

status--

towards

still

source

a good means to get

social

in

is

reliable him

on

teacher

scholar,

willingly

that

controlled

considexable of

think

student

olden

hands

whether

--as

respectable

on exams which

attitude

they

the

students

learning

the

has

still

indispensable

two

Arab

students,

a from

only

in

role

that

former

the

'learn'

to

Thus,

student.

Arab

and enjoy

like

seemingly

seems that

extent,

depend

Arab

the

themselves

there

--the

being

The reason

shows

education

education

as a "know-all",

students is

Arab

modern Islamic

traditional

Arab world,

the

The student

the

sources

the

system.

in

school

knowledge. from

that

educational

mainly

in

of memorization

student it

that

is

alone

mainly

should

his

bear

teachers

most

of

the

if

and the blame.

he Arab

91

CONCLUSION

knowing

that

foreign

the

language in the

language

language

learner in

the

learner

this

progress

in

their

Western

which

are

into

isolate interaction,

interpreted

outside

in

with

the

primary most

(if

if

British task

social

original

or American of

providing

instruction

theypossess

act

they

are

and cultural

--the

breakdowns

and

English about

and

attitudes

students

in

barriers

to

understood

or

as

contexts.

who

example,

EFL learners

some knowledge

way

themselves

for

institutions foreign

not

academic

of

and foreign and

others

particularly

and medium of

instrumental

from

result

beliefs,

by Arab

the

student

between

occur

customs,

classroom

them

their

EFL teachers,

tool

the

the

the

does

he

culturo-educational

Arab

the

foreign

understand

The

usually

which

bridging

the

of if

learner--

language.

are

Many of

in

ensemble.

the

universities

teachers.

often

of

foreign

the

communication

brought

charged

as that

can help

component

--especially

and inhibit

meaningful

are

EFL teacher

the

foreign

the

to

background

confront

often

Western

tout

of

culture

and particularly

process

teaching

the

helpful

cultural

cultural/educational

helps

cross-cultural

general

language

approaches

which

in

learning

same culture

problems

of

such

be obvious

should

indeed

background.

can be invaluably

learner,

the

about

it

chapters,

previous

educational

language gap in

Knowing

the

The introduction

teacher.

cultural

belong

the

about

foreign

the

in

discussion

From the

with

language-the

their can be

cultural/

92

background

educational

and frustrations the

that

learning

alien

dictating

in

used

down complete used

to help

reduce

such

may help

by (a)

how to

down ie.

for

exercices

language. will

encouragement study

This concern learner

provide

himself

own ways of

the

they

are

the

thesis

only

as a mere

with

Arab the used

them their

on

reliance as train

them

expressing

themselves

in

and

systematically,

as well

learner

the

with

'interference',

ie.

the such

opportunity

the

to

and

pressures,

of

should

not

to back home.

suggests language

'background'

teaching

Teaching

exercice.

reduce

carefully

applied

to overcome

of

lessons,

Arab

among their

writing,

of

and

situation.

and by (b)

writing

this

lesson.

the

of

'plagiarism'

help

in

dictation

new learning

the

take

hardly

are

teachers,

main points

also

dictation

If

habits

part

may

their

they

the

reduce

them to

allow

summarizing

as a first-step

the

does not

EFL

interactive

the

at

by some occasional

cope with

of

teachers

their

to

used

their

demands

environment.

Furthermore,

'guided-essay'

notes

in

up to

can help

intensive

confidence

foreign

as it

alienation

the

frustration

student

paraphrase

take

teachers,

Arab

the

EFL teachers

them how to

build

hand-outs

of

is

alien

are

notes.

It

to

frustrated

feel

universities,

down.

students

who

the

reducing

adjusting

as the

as well

them would

British

in

in

face

students

notes

Again,

the

to

learners)

and well-structured

distribution This

latter

taking

to

case,

the

Arab

lessons

method

these

approach

instance,

For

of

that

EFL teacher

the

and consider which

has

a

the low

culture priority

of

the

in

his

93

concern,

EFL learners.

To

in

of

hoped

the

that

Arab

of

the

to attain

which

teaching

their

is

part

with

of

basic

can provide method

a satisfactory

that

do,

but

tool

of useful

suits

EFL performance.

Arab

his

why

his same

low rate

of

habits.

and writing

culturo-educational It

EFL teaching.

has presented

study

him with

in

of

the

at

their

the

about

knowledge

best

question

studying

a necessary this

the

way they

habits

study

on memorization,

knowledge

some

first

the

'foreign'

and their

the

about

ask himself

reliance

EFL learners

students

background

EFL learning

class,

conclude,

background

of

about

thought

he does not

approach

complain

interaction

is,

That

EFL learners time

little

and stimulates

their insights

the

EFL

is

teacher

culturo-educational as to

EFL learners,

if

the

choice

they

are

El

A%, Et.

'r

ýr

w0

Eý, ELc-- lcr, - 3rc3ýxricl

"Learning language is part another process of a complex of learning and understanding ways of other people's life, ways of thinking and experience" socio-cultural Buttjes & Byram (eds. ), 1991: back cover.

94

INTROMMON

is

English it

Teaching the

Arab

to

ranging

English

language

from

and

depending

on whether

and

prior

eight

communicate case.

is

What

ranges

Most

to

between

to

university this

the

reason

is

teachers,

as

and who have

use of (Khama

the

language

and Hajjaj,

(In

Tunisia,

Arts

on

exposure between

is

not

as a means of 1989k2).

if

any,

always

the

and to

genuine

communication,

six to

whose

trainees

to

learner

Arab

the

teachingllearning little,

average,

pupils).

the

this

university

week

limited

cases

English-as-a-foreign-language situations,

on

English,

teachersof

most

years,

because

primarily

language,

the in

it

Is

then?

in

experience

However,

efficiently.

eight

on average,

enable

in

one

countries,

theory,

world.

from

per

or

ranges,

education

are Arab

teachers

Arab

most

in

hours

Sciences,,

decades

before

years

four

to

for

week.

per

four

the

slightly to

six

in

world.

varies

hours

only

the

of

four,

eight

are

should, and

rest

learning

three

in

case,

the

be

the-pupils

fluently is

in

starts

the

years,

has been a tradition

Can

four

learning

entrance,

as

It

another.

language

spoken

language

English

average,

English

language

and indeed

countries,

country

If,

most widely

as a foreign

Pre-university Arab

the

one of

95

Or, it

from

apart

a problem

inherent

vary

second

disparity

studied

and

a teaching

ONE)

English

language.

This

learner

Arab be

should

if

methodology

Arab

linguistic

language:

the

cultural

and

and English into

taken

problem

The

the

as

the

of

a

rather

well

is

language,

process?

as

those

the

it

teaching

foreign

or

between

carefully

preparing

from

considerably

student's

linguistic

PART

foreign

the is

or

language

(cf.

background

background

to

attitude

methodology,

foreign

the

educational

Arab

teaching

of

in

learner's

the

when

consideration

to

are

results

more satisfactory

be

to

needs

be achieved.

Furthermore, having

after at

Arab

learner

starts

been exposed

to his

mother

the

schoo 121 . Naturally,

learning.

(As

performance

language. to

there

which

Arab

the at

to

attention

--the

will

be in

paid

to

the

methods

the

scope

of

contrasting

improving

source

It

also

the

of

both

interference-the

sentence

English

seeks

and differences

similarities

major

latter.

beyond

this

to

and

language English

teaching/learning in

which

performance draw

and English. with

foreign

the

thesis

between

and text,

home 20

and French.

Arabic

and performance of

years

his/her

language

foreign

many

on English

competence

level.

advanced

by both

the

at

learner,

Arab

many other

is

this

both

tongue,

two-fold,

both

However,

learner

tongue

are

affect

investigate

Tunisian

the

English

have a bearing

will

be affected

will

Of course, problems

for

this

learning

the his/her The

seeks of

the

learner's mother interest

more attention

96

first

Guided to Arab

students,

second

by

from

English

identify

by the

English

totally

in

eradicated. between

exists

The belief language,

is,

there

will

culture

his/her

performance: way he/she

cultural

behaviour

the

always

in

is

of

the

under

how fluent

in

traces

native

language.

"minimize"

is be

can disparity

linguistic

in

is

a

This

foreign

from

interference

of

both in

be manifest

will

himself/herself

expresses

In

language. interfere

unavoidably,

will,

learning

in

difficulties

learner

a

foreign

to

attempts

study.

remain

the

work

word

and

cultural

the way he/she

writes

The

,

university

face

no way such

two languages

and his/her

the

This

the

view

this

them.

teacher

studentS22

Tunisian

students

university

there

no matter

his/her

linguistic

because

here,

by

literature,

a way to minimize

and suggests

used advisedly

in

Arab

to university

written

available

as EFL

experience

beginners

absolute

difficulties

the

reseacher's

present

compositions

and third

students,

that

by the

other

words, language

foreign

with

and

behaviour.

may not

after

language

he/she

language

and culture

studies. is

That rather

The second-language knowledge of

the

his/her

between

differences

cultural

of

if

be negative

all

is

the

the

strong.

Kaplan

learner

not

the internal

second-language

tongue

mother

because

is

student

and the

(1977)

only

theorizes

lacks

and

a logic

of

of

foreign between

relationship

(phenomenological) system

made aware

the

that:

97

sociolinguistic

constraints but

culture, realizable

he

comes equipped in

range

his

alternatives terms

of

constraints

on

the

(both

in

further

the

students foreign native the

the

in

set

implications,

of

as

a

culturo-linguistic is

among

choose

because,

non-

system

of

of

the

unaware

since

alternatives in

(Kaplan,

language

his

different

a quite

carry

is

He

system. to

ability

probability

the

sociolinguistic

language

he

in

and

language

target the

his

stylistic

the choice

as realizable

system

all

the

he

Thus, and

of

the syntactic

of

alternatives

68-69).

1977:

words,

Kaplan

is

trying

to show that

culture

and language

related,

that

the

former

is

in

latter,

is,

may apply have

will

language speakers

foreign

in

language,

target

latter

statement

native

in

In other

that

his

participant

implications

closely

and

alternatives

those

terms of

realizable

the

rhetorical

he

realizable

language).

range

inhibited

(though

the

of

the

of

language

a knowledge native

of

awareness

the second

arrangement)

realizable

are

in

with

superimposes

lacks

also

range

the second-language

of

in

in

way,

to many foreign encountered some form,

and have

language

some

read

culture.

this

reflected

shaped language

the

former.

beginners,

culturo-linguistic

particularly some literature Since

by

the

this

if

Kaplan's

but

advanced of

the

taught

by

system they

and other encounter

are

materials usually

and

from remains

98

in

unclarified likely

the

rhetorical the

represent

in

"easier"

comparative

themselves

criteria,

then,

accepted

than

and is

not

imposed

different terms

language

would

the

two cultures,

language

do

so truly

not

foreign

the

of

speakers

all

on it. languages

of whether

no doubt

in be

may not

easy

languages

other

than

languages

some

"ease"?

that

tools

statements

What

situations.

certain

this

the

of

The question

make easier is,

in

than

use

comprehend.

That

in

for

account the

do.

others

his

right, to

culture

and

languages

certain

be

may

anything

language

between

some languages

that

ie.

What

is

his

objective

ensure

languages.

consider

everything

communication

part

of

The point

it

itself,

language

that

after

that

though

is

more easily

common means of

it,

that

things

does he use to

to

respect

native

argument

out

between

Each language

in

find

comparationis,

comparability

by

relationship

"easier"

things

express

with

the

adjective

certain

tertium

argues

Kaplan's

how he came to

about

in

systems

foreign

the

to say certain

Although

others.

is

later

any language,

makes it

in used

as

the

of

is

discourse

resulting

1983).

(1986)

Kaplan said

system

the

student,

mixture

patterns

(Harder,

language

the

mind of

be a confused

to

that

the

that is

says since

that

one

something

in

terms

the

described

is

part

describes

it.

"easy"

that

language

is

community

of

"ease" the

is,

but

culture

an uses

it

is what

explain

cannot of

that

That

culture.

say about thing

anything

the

within

community's then

about

rather of

the

99

If is

we take

seen that

textology

field

the

as English

English

is

the

the

is

part

and fall

perhaps

formulate

equally

intelligible for

this

in

it

Language,

the

of

is

are

their

respective

and falls

with

scientific Arabic

their

than

Arabic

formulations

be

may

texts

scientific

would

(Labidi,

communities in

that

a sentence,

both

However,

and

than

English

concise

that

$science

rises it.

as

mean

rather

culture

in

seem

not

today's

speaks

more

available

does

believed,

formulate

would

freely

is that

community

a paragraph. to

that

language

English

the

however,

1988). in

written

language.

either

language

Because for

of

does

This

but

technological

and

not,

it

example,

scientific

field.

a

language,

What English

equivalents.

it

such

formulations

and technological

Evidence

in

language.

Arabic

rise

is

a 'better'

technology'

handle

can

for

and technology-,

flexibility,

relative

flexible

of

Arabic

though

with

-science

of

a foreign

and culture

language

culture.

This

language

culture

language

and,

is

are

learner

so since leads

to

know

to

consequently,

a

better

to

a better

the

about

necessary

foreign

language

of knowlei Ige of

amount

a certain

is

it

inter-related,

in

performance

foreign foreign

the

of

understanding

the

foreign

that

language.

Brown foreign language, at

all.

"fruitful"

(1986)

language

culture

for

to

if

importance

a

better

a better

and therefore He adds

the

stresses

all

foreign

that language

of

knowledge

knowledge teachers

in

it,

is

which of

the

of

the

of

understanding

performance a

some

be

to he

the

foreign reached

judges

commonalities

as

100

between

the

language

native

language

For second

fruitful

for

learning world

language

learner

does

general,

all

The EFL teacher's

is

because

language,

is

language, not

have

over

again,

(at

least

to "think

students

not

a

in

simply

a formal

(Brown,

of

of human

own part

speaker

follows

characteristic

of

his

sounds, also

words reaches

which Every

rules. social own

repeated

unacceptable.

interaction,

individual

assimilates

47).

it,

language

certain

in

think,

therefore

system

into

to

constantly

puts

structures;

its

is

of

language

second

Tunisia)

in

another

degree

1986:

(1986)

and syntactical the domain

a

can

culture

in

think

learn

to

we

us together

considerable

English"

as Osterloh

to

but

in

expressing

and

bind

learning

require

that

of

of

different

views,

language that

properties

may

mastery

both

be

to

language

of

world

the

of

total

ways

upon one's

The act

or

that

the

of

we can recognize

through

recognize

He suggests

appears

the

different

and

some universal

to his

While

depending

one world.

language

understanding

views

reality

languages

two of

process.

language.

a knowledge

teachers

features

universal

foreign

the

between

commonalities

also

and

for

native

experiences

culture.

These

advice That

101

inhere

experiences communicative

in

which

accumulates

concrete

abstractly

and which through

partners

rules

statements

to

according interpreted

are

valid

are

their

obtain

interpretation.

through

significance

Each society

that

statements

among communicating (Osterloh,

common usage,

1986:

77).

For

this

into

take

are

somewhat

for

will

different

socio-economic

in

foreign

lesser

language

as the

as

difficult

For it

is

linguistic

the

for

each other's with problem

cultural

an EEC language)

be

will will

which

problem,

that

societies

the

these,

its

to

structures

learning is

it

should

language

links

socio-economic

as

(if

learners

and

EEC countries,

structures.

learning

than

magnitude

with

such be

languages

teachers

bond that

strong

societies

related, not

language

the

consideration However,

culture.

foreign

reason,

of

a be

always

there.

An Englishman, social

for

experience in

acquaintance social

of welcoming which

depending

on how closely

While

the

French

short

expression:

wish

for

the

might related

welcoming "Bonjour,

well-being

of

to

comes

French 23 . But

repeated--

--mostly

it

when

experience

does not

example,

is

it

need to acquire

so for

not

sometimes

a series require

the welcomed for

person

includes (Osterloh,

The of

is

has a

an

Arab's

expressions

to

minutes, host.

the

the

to

shrunk

and

greeting 1986),

new

welcome

several

person

instance,

ga va! " which

to

an Arab.

someone entails

process,

the

how

learning

a totally

the

Arab,

a

102

however,

Thus,

complete

a

an Arab

learn

should

even more important,

said

The same is

next.

as congratulating expressing everyday

functions,

Arabs,

Arabic

if

is

is

contrary.

Moreover,

he asserts,

cognitive

and other

effects

merely

by excesses.

his

Shouby's

than

and "exaggerate"

is

as important

fact,

surely

that

of

about

in

all

the

Arab

everyday

one says languages,

behaviour

is

certainly

Arabic

and

himself,

analysis

of

life,

(Parker

et

but

the

to

exaggeration

general

there

He, an Arab

as what true

habitual the

He

be taken

seems the

nature

1986).

of

believes that

any

imply

the

produces is

of Arabs

some

in

truth

Arabs

are

to

"overassert"

more

of Arabic.

how one says al,

are

types

all

exaggeration

will

the

on

"Arabs

that

almost

for

such

language

to be misunderstood.

the

Although

as regards

is

in

argues

and

oneself,

and repetitive.

Arabic

the

such

expressing

ritualistic

exaggerate

judgements

factual.

comes

is

what

functions

to

matter-of-fact

characterized

language

little

of

fact,

it

300)

so that

in

excusing

techniques

with

is

good-bye,

of

wish

is,

everyday

(1951:

do not

they

which

The thing

to

language,

of

greeting

important

When

effect

statement

evaluative

tongue

mother

formula

a short

can be quite

and

so filled

argument,

his

initial

other

Shouby

overassert

communications" that

the

on

is

saying

Arab

the

the

of to

of

and happiness.

In an article

forced

true

only

the

what

someone,

anger

psychology

not

that

a Frenchman:

to

consequence

in

ritual

same intentions.

the

communicate

but

develop

must

This

Arab, sometimes

something is, pays

in more

103

to how he says

attention rhetoric Arabs

the

the the

speaker, in

Parker

true

nations

the

the

sentence

For African of

the

African

structures.

learner

countries,

this Arab are

in

of

This

because

in

is other

many

expression as to

considerably,

often

hardest

the the

to

task

conventions

peers levels.

are

They can find

for

North

the the

rest

because

endowed

with

North

stronger

been exposed Arabic,

unlike

African

Middle

is

not

have. already which,

of

rest

as it

course

of

North the

the

be as hard

or they

in

those

Arab

East,

to

is

closer

students

at

enjoy

least

a few lexical

a

at

the

cognates

words.

they their

statement

language to

Probably

is

(French)

their

and lexical

because

The

new modes of

need to adjust

may not

Thus,

loan

vary,

indeed,

many respects.

alphabetical

However,

task

and language

over

the

the

more intelligent

an advantage

beside

and,

but

culture

English

is

learners.

abilities,

European

the

eloquent

their

with

of

eyes

writing.

students

cognitive

to

discourse

Tunisian

students

love

have to cope with languages

academic

Eastern

in

the

more

may be applicable

this

and English

the Arab

English

though

are

the

in

he can be.

more convincing

English

of

and

and

because

of

Arabs.

only

Arabic

speech

Arabs

that

extent,

learners

confronting of

(1986)

al

and not

Arab

and the

clearer

et

the

importance

Hence the

to say. language,

the Arabic

more rhetorical

to a great

since

in

and eloquence

he wants

what

may still earlier

face exposure

a

confusing

to

French.

lexical This

problem

also

is

what

problem

104

labelled

comparativists instance,

North

a

"confidence" French

African

with

equivalent for

equivalent

Consider

the

the

an Algerian

"les

as

student

its

French

for

the

following

"confidence".

ALGERIA

is

from

to region

because

of

is

desertiE (in

surfaces,

by

written

an essay

university:

in

contains

the English

the

from

extracted

(sic)

of ALGERIA which

word

While

"confiance",

is

For

English

the

confuse

The weither region

friends).

"secret".

sentence

Salford.

at

may

word

is

word

(false

amis"

homograph

English

French

student

faux

about

2

regions,

the Big

surface

km2

000

and

mountains

1988:

Labldi,

381

different

very

and

,

green

37).

*Tie kld-ujtderlijtiAgis size.

Note

that

the above

bold-underlined

words

"surface",

The word

are

(desertic)

morphological

whereas

being

English

the adjective English

both

form

part in

it

is

of

the noun

not.

the adjective

and phonologically:

"desert".

both

the English

the

Only

the

"desert"

in

appropriate

in

and noun forms

Such homographs

the

fits is

French are

French

word

"area"

word

from

and

However,

The and

French. lexes, of

context in

French,

here.

While

"desertique",

identical will

is.

surfaces)

by interference

languages. is

it

as

(surface,

lexical

caused of

both

"surface"

sentence,

in

wrong

choices

can mean the same thing the above

has been reproduced

sentence

cause

in

graphically confusion

to

105

learners

French

Advanced difficulty

But

EFL

in

stages

irksome

The trouble

system

itself

the

blame

for

from

the native

language

blame should

interference

What is

language

be totally

No matter be able

method

will

not

how hard

to dissociate

speaking

already

language language

which

for

the

early level.

sentence the

at

text

English

language

learned

text

pattern:

that

is

because

is

from

few no

on the

in

take

the

is

more,

language, but

the

stages

early

that mother

also tongue

mother

since

especially

different

how

language

native

by

caused

the foreign

of

English

an

cases

matter

all

undergo

to produce

that

once

to

not

of

any

of

foreign into

tongue

be of much success.

he tries,

or processing

the

foreign

a foreign

late,

many years

language

evident

i. e. at

language

student

will

his

native

language

text.

This

from

completely

particularly

quite

any

the

quite

does not

in

sentence:

methodology,

here,

find

to

is

laid

himself

discussed,

in

expected,

implied

teaching

consideration

native

pattern

naturally

the

inability

is That

part.

not

is

learning.

foreign

it

text

on

language

frequent

foreign-language-teaching

on the

is

Its

because

the

the already the native

although

interference

while

to

Also,

beyond

is

so much relate

learner's

the

text,

cohesive

the

does

mostly

French.

of

hardly

others,

That

rests

lies

does not

language.

native

focus

the

as it

or

sentences.

difficulty

level.

the

whether

constructing

learners

as to English

as well

students,

learning,

of

the

English

of

after school.

if

having

he

starts

been

will

be,

not

as

learning

a

to

the

exposed

106 One cannot attain

to

others, into

results

while,

this

his

with although

text

as

demands, Joined

by

pattern

than

Arabic

drawing

teaching foreign

or

language

text

to

any other of

the

native

Tunis

necessity

of

including the

teaching

many reasons,

mainly:

made

translation of

ellipsis,

he emphasized

text

learner

- that

necessity when

--mainly

differences

the

logical

more the

-

between

the

at

the

language.

translation

(Tunisia)

not

explicit

(1982) and

orderly

language the

text

sentences

needed

Johnstone

language,

to

more

Arabic

chauvinistically

more

foreign

it

make

some places.

made it

'mature',

is

English

where in

many

it

read

grammatical,

the

meet

and

realized

was To

joining

him and later

researcher's

de

by

order

translation--

Universit6

technique

expanding sentence

and the

The present

for

the

attention

writing

to

rearrange

before

and indeed the

Arabic.

-

When he

text

like

English

an

"quickly"

they

among

divisions

1).

read

English

of

1982:

translated

as he claimed

(1982),

sentence

wife,

the

(1982,1989)

(1966)

same

and

neglecting

translating

was

not

the

Williams

Kaplan

of

text;

changing

Although

text

-

English

the

even

to is

that

and in

as did

did

he had

acceptable,

native-speaker

time,

same Williams

(Williams,

English",

sentence

a whole

the

preserving

Arabic

every

language.

translation

or

the

when he

conclusion

the

as

composition at

mother

"while

order

through

and

language

student's

Arabic

sentence

that

the

reached

text

the

foreign

satisfactory

reference

of

teach

EFL writing

teaching him as

more a to

experience convinced

of

the

useful

supporting

undergraduate

students,

very

107

a) The students

enjoyed

b)

enriched

It

obviously

greater

than

speed

the

it

and found

translation

quite

EFL lexical

students'

'inward-looking'

ordinary

motivating.

repertoire

at

a

language

foreign

teaching.

the

c)

students'

Arabic

awareness English,

and

helped

classes,

text

from

acquired

from

interference

them minimize I

composition-writing

between

differences

pattern

they

which

English

their

result,

the

of

translation As

Arabic.

a

improved

capabilities

considerably.

The present class

at

level)

and is

performance

part

between

Arabic

levels,

with

is

for

of if,

that

the

all,

satisfactory

results

at

in

EFL

the

EFL

undergraduate is

interference

language

native

in

translation

(particularly

learning at

use of

students'

writing

to be achieved.

attempts

to

and English more focus

advanced

concerned.

stage

be necessary

to be reduced

area

suggests

an advanced

would

This

study

examine at

on the

EFL students,

both

the

major

mainly

differences

micro

and

macro

linguistic

as being

the

most

troublesome

the

latter

linguistic

as far

as writing

compositions

108

P'rF-E;

CH-4,

L

FICN71E

LITERATURE REVIEW

5.0

Preliminaries

Given

the

thesis, area

the

review

Arabic

fashion

the

with it

stages

nature

Analysis-and English. historical

As early

Its

Fries

the

It

however,

will,

its

the

realized

teaching

materials.

As a new linguistic

Second World efforts

economical then

War in

were

recognized

methodology,

the

combined

methods

in

foreign

in

the

United order

and techniques

and subsequent

linguistic to

the

works a

summary

area

and the

present.

of

discipline, teaching

States,

where

to work of

component contrastive

foreign

language

CA emerged was aroused

unlimited

funds

teaching of

Contrastive

which

the

out

that

role

crucial

preparation

language

as a vital

in

deal

this

specific

Establishment

play

in

a

contrastive

major

establishment

(CA) could

interest

to

to

the

of

part

second

limited

be

will

Analysis

a great

this

of

and only

from

Analysis:

as 1945,

topic

background

has gone through,

Contrastive

the

of

literature

the

of

--Contrastive

involving

5.1

specific

(Fisiak,

foreign

studies

most

out

by the

and

language eventually

huge and

effective 1981).

of

CA

was

teaching followed.

109

(1945)

Fries to have to

the

laid

the

role

expressed

based

language in

a

parallel

description

learner,

(Fries,

language (1957)

assumes that

in

of

language

language

Mado:

It (which might

was this later

in

1957:

expounded

that

the patterns and those

by comparing

and

that

that

culture

of

will

systematically

learned

to be

will

the

with

the

student,

vii).

'systematic

comparison'

came to be called

be considered

later

was

native

difficulty

key to ease or

the

learning,

and culture

language

native

the

of

on the assumption

and describe

difficulty,

the

the

of

comparison

The same assu*ion

book rests

the

difficulty

cause

lies

a

with

language

the

the

that

we can predict

not

is

are

of

compared

the native 9).

who wrote

cause

carefully of

learning.

The plan

as

teaching

that

description

1945:

foreign

the

with

first

the

assumption

language

those

are

scientific

to be learned,

foreign

by Lado

materials

language

basically

foreign

to

ie.

statement:

effective

upon

CA

of

initiator,

fundamental

CA. His

modern

following

the

The most

Fries

for

ground

and relevance in

to have been the

can be said

as one of

the the

of

Strong primary

the

Ll

Hypothesis causes

of

L2

and of the

patterns CA)

which

controversy

110

CA that

over

the

clear to

in

ensued

assumption

foreign

foreign

language

quite

that

be simple

will

for

different

foreign

the

better

provide

learning

The

the

be equally

that

teacher

who

language

2).

of

a source

are

know and can

are

(Ibid:

them,

with

will

problems

differences

research

it

language

student

learning

well

into

the

showed

that

both

prevailed

of

elements

a foreign

teaching

a

difficulty

in However,

sixties. similarities

and

in

learning

another

language

that

learners

tend

transfer

troublesome

1981).

Implied forms

in

the

assumption

and meanings language

the

of

above

their

language to grasp

as practised

by its

and act and

is

language

native both

and culture

foreign

when attempting culture

for

of of

real

language

might

(Fisiak,

speak

what

contrastive

differences

foreign

better

language

subsequent

the

language

that

those

and

studies

Those

native

be difficult.

will

the native

view

to his

him,

with

features

made

was

difficult.

extremely

Lado

contrastive

contact

some

similar

has made a comparison

This

find

will

are

in

of

"assumption"

This

came

easy and others

elements

are

who

same book.

the

application

teaching/learning.

the student

in

Later

the

underlying

language

that

19601s.

the

productively, in

its

understand

natives.

and

the

culture

when

culture,

to

and

foreign

to

attemting

the to

receptively, language

and

ill

CA defined comparison

both

on the

(a)

discipline

a

liguistic

the

of

determine based

as

systems

differences

their

following

concerned languages

two

of

the

with

in

(Fisiak,

and similarities

order

to

1981),

is

assumptions:

difficulties

The main

liguistics

of

interference

from

in

learning

first

the

a new language

caused

by

language.

(b)

These difficulties

can be predicted

(c)

Teaching

can make use of

materials

are

by CA.

CA to

the

reduce

effects

of

interference.

CA is language

to have been more successful

said

(Richards

areas

a fresh

given which,

not

impetus did

only

al, the

make it

1985).

possible

for

it

also by

foundation

than

phonology

its

In

Chomskyan

but

and precise,

theoretical

a more solid "language

by it

made more explicit

et

in

years,

early

in

revolution language gave it claiming

in

other

it

was

linguistics to be

comparisons what

seemed to

be

the

existence

of

universals".

In short,

early

CA basically

transfers

from

predicted

by juxtaposing

the

the

native

claims

language the

of

identified

can be incorporated

the foreign

the

descriptions

two languages.

subsystems

to

that

of

Information into

pedagogical

language

comparable about

negative

potential

the

materials

can

systems contrasts

be and thus

and imparted

112

to

foreign

language

interference from

5.2

source

Contrastive

By the external

leading

minimized

(Fisiak,

Analysis:

Its

Criticism

was

19701s,

CA

grounds

(of

empirical

(1971)

to wonder

(Selinker,

1971: for

quiescence"

in

mainly

heavy

attributed

to

Dulay

were

foreign

language

little

4.7% of

arising

errors

to

CA was still

and "at

thriving

to

foresee

especially

from

"a

a

is",

as to what it

exists

(1970)

grounds

defensive,

on the

advocates

both

on

attack internal

and

confidence

the

of

period

and Spanish

Some of

the its

observed and Krashen

of

native

in

their

acquiring

predictive

power did

They

interf-erence, in

English

of not

CA

was

occur

of

claimed

due

to

have

to

claimed

be

menacing

majority

were

a

only could

those the

study

(1982)

language

errors

that

developmental.

children

predicted

that

were

who

performance Among

who argued were

errors

Burt,

language

second

those

They believed

setting.

interference.

(1974)

errors

proof

More generally,

in

language

learners'

unequivocal

limited.

of

open

whether

language

and Burt

Dulay,

among Chinese

its

criticism

deviances

native

critics

interference.

of

a second

number of

only

incidence

language

negative

it.

negligible

that

the

already

1) and Wardhaugh

CA came under working

crisis

potential

validity)

leaving

Selinker

this

1981).

foundations),

when a serious

period

and

early

(theoretical

that

so

be de-activated

can

the

teachers

for the

seen

example

USA.

shown while

Ll

to others,

be

113

it

which

did

not

interlingual others

low or no contrastivity

Most of from

a number

essence According ie.

the

the

branch.

of

criticism of

its

CA and to him,

existence

critics

within

it

in

his

from

results

in

place

most

He proceeds

a number of

methodological

studies,

and

and

different

by

of

between theory,

studies,

the

and errors, learning.

contrastive 1981:

and

studies 6).

the

as

clear-cut theoretical

1968;

Fisiak, of

their been

has the

relationship

psycholinguistic and the

Some confusion of

misunderstanding

(Fisiak,

the

the and

of

theory stems

relationship linguistic

CA,

applied

CA critics

of

a

formulation

of

an

contrastive

of

confusion

language

the

of

[attitudej

interference

of

status

This

contrastive

second

from

a

factors

(Stockwell,

precise

aims.

aggravated

theory

a

"duality" and

attitude

by such

between

the past

of

the

lack

the

branches

and applied

between

from

in

branch

the

linguistics.

of the

come

of

misinterpretations

created

peculiar

distinction

field

a theoretical that

has

misinterpretations

to percieve

argument

some

whereas

(1981),

Fisiak

broad

the

failed of

misunderstandings

1971)

and

misunderstandings

high

of

contrary.

CA, argues

against

learn

to

the

proved

items

some

to be easy

proved

contrastivity

of

Again,

occurred.

predict,

114

To Fisiak, branch--

applied be made,

may be valid, branches

does not

practice)

former

statement hold

improves

criticism

to meet the

its

claim

for

the

language

Sajavaara

(1981),

objectives,

but

languages",

major

criticism Fisiak theoretical

of age

and

was (1981)

wrong

critics the

and

two

application

former

the

and

and

for

reasons.

two in

stage

contrastivists

the

results

is

the

been

19501s,

ie.

information

today",

clear did

not

writes its

meet

wrong.

went

really idea

basic

Firstly,

classroom.

of

CA is

against

language

by

in

necessary

where it

language

refuted

it

has

it

that

analysis

foreign

learning

early

"It

the

was

fact

the

all

tell

raised

native

To use the

But

contrasting

of

44).

1981:

the

results

CA

separating

on the

for

set

contrastive to

criticism to

use

juxtapositions an early

not

were

planner.

difficult

(Sajavaara,

Another immediate

early

is

What was definitely

which

course

"that it

feeds

to

6).

of

theory

on the

to provide

was able

foreign

CA dwelt

of

objectives

it

that

latter

the

Obid:

of

For

unfounded.

is

progress

assumptions

necessity

and the

latter.

on the

The heaviest unable

and is

inseparable:

are

the

about

further avoided"

comment on the

critical

his

"if

separate

branch

theoretical

controversies

meaningless

Fisiak's

CA --the

of

be kept

should

and

although

(or

two branches

the

CA

it

that

foreign

language

confuse

the

As Sanders

(Contrastive

puts

at

But

(1976,1981) to

claimed it:

Analysis)

no

certain

differences

learner.

Sanders

CA never

of

ie.

classroom,

like

is

such and

use

its

115

trawl

in

the in

customer

is

it

Secondly,

educational

and linguistic

CA

However,

And,

seventies.

differences

learning

5.3

Analysis:

Contrastive

During interest

the in

This causes. the

the

of

the

scale

of

end

language

of

analysis

abandoned

reluctantly

followers.

Its

Revival

few years,

past

there

has been substantial that

foreign

students.

to

language language

native

writing

age,

the

that

and CA was

approach

to help

order the

the

the

CA as a teaching

sensitizing

the

till

assumption on

was seen as unreliable; its

between

based

the

learner.

the

of

applied

of

to suit

selected

its

as a consequenc_e.,

by even many of

and

results

defensive

the

on

the

even

background

remained

language

foreign

that

be carefully

should

studies

a

ingredients

the

with

presenting

1976)

argued

contrastive

like

rather

a restaurant

(Sanders,

a recipe,

is

classroom

them improve

and the their

can be

language,

foreign

foreign

language

CA is

attributable

in.

efficient

very

differences

linguistic

the

renewed

and

is

and this

performance,

in

'notably

performance.

revival

of

confidence

James (1980), criticism

misunderstandings

in

among others, been

challenged

that

has

levelled

appear

to have been dispelled,

to

the

a

variety of

validity

against for

some of

CA.

example

of

the

Some false

116

that

assumption least of

the

main cause

contrastive

indicate errors

areas

potential the

are

result

making

For is

the

language

The value

is

of

interference

lies

believed,

as other

in

the

or at

importance

its

to

ability ie.

interference.

not

all

Psychological

factors

extralinguistic

sole

and

errors,

and

language

native

few years,

but

firmly

CA has no longer

time but

to

(error

(eg.

contribute

to

defensive.

It

incorporate

controversy

seems

possibilities

and

analysis

and

components, nature

of

1981:

210).

seems to

stronger

in the

imply

its

0).

limitations

task

learner's

that

and more confident

along

with

CA has come out proper

other for

accounting

its

the

contrastive

the

(Sridhar,

performance,

of

the

clarified of

of

in

anything,

have

to

or

analysis

If

place,

the

approaches

contrastive (..

methodology

that

1978),

implicitly

and Interlanguage)

analysis

foreign

from

Wode,

alternate

of states

appearing

1874;

of

field

the

confidently

keep

Schachter,

the proponents

explicitly their

of hope'

been on the in

stand (1981)

Sridhar

time

even

its

regaining

'messages

Not only

1970's

difficulty.

it

teaching/learning.

Sridhar

was either

errors.

past

gradually

of

as well

of

interference

learning

of

studies,

and pedagogical the

language

native

of

the

crisis

and important

of role

the in

117

foreign

language

teaching/learning.

(1981,

Fisiak implementing learning.

was

in

validation

of

CA in

recognized

that

some

empirical

backed

practical

areas

the

language classroom

required they

otherwise,

of

principle

foreign

of

findings

CA

manner;

need for

the

came to be justified

and learners

teachers environment

Added

available

for

difference

in fact

is

remain

would

which

are

the

such

practice.

Indeed

countries

where language

in

a foreign

language his

acquires in

restrictions limitations

is

the

time aims,

situations language

the

not

native

of

classroom

unrealistic

a

language

errors,

special

linguistic

errors them

of

parts

teaching

sophisticated have

the

the

to

connected from

others or

overgeneralization

many

teachers

child

learning,

foreign

identify

as

language

of

classroom.

and to distinguish

factors

a

language

to possess to

creating

teaching

foreign

Most

of

pedagogy

efficient

more

numerous

foreign

explain

required

interference

ability

language

foreign

devised.

be

motivations,

outside

him/her

enables

that

language

the

to

grounds

in

this

learners'

To be able

on

the

that

foreign

that

communication

learner

to

CA based

could

lack to

similar

language.

and the

the

on

and materials

methodology

foreign

therein)

conjectural.

Furthermore,

other

articles

findings

the It

entirely

and the

the aids

privilege

world, are

teacher

the

training

which

mother

tongue

peculiar

inefficient

to

some

classroom in

even available,

of knowing

or

developed not

linguistics

all to

118

be able CA is

to make their therefore

and

a valid

follows

It

effort

sizeable

which

at

the

levels

various

languages.

Such

a comprehensive

of

language,

of

it

the

of

is

the

believed,

workings

is

it

the

of

a

practical

descriptions,

native

can

time then

of

systematic

of

the

reducing

language,

through

possible

descriptions, view

findings

the

implementation

the

warrants

is

This

in

assist

a foreign

teaching

or

contribution

CA investigations.

CA can

practical

learning

of

to

procedure.

if

that

A reference

own explanations.

foreign

and when

offer

combined linguistic

respective

systems,

What emerges is

still

belittle

from

these

its

and despite

significance

have been narrow

in

the

CA centre

in Yet,

opponents language the

specifics value flaws

procedural contrastive

Thus,

of

scope

such have

that are

its

perspective

majority

of

contrastive

sentence

boundaries,

suffered

some of

the

despite CA

that

are

studies

avoided

if

might of

misguided

lack

sound

to

claims

possibly

validation.

indication

their

CA

of

claims

Most

implications

is be

fact

field

the

to

possible

and

reliable

to be produced.

CA had to undergo

widening

to

1980)

that

studies

claims

that

view

implications.

or whose practical

of

studies

the

and practical round

the

(James,

justified

theoretically

is

arguments

development

a significant

beyond

the

research and consequently shortcomings

sentence have the

been entire

attributed

which

level.

In

conducted discipline to

sentence

aimed

at

fact,

the

within

the

of

CA

has

grammar.

119

is

Among such shortcomings inter-sentential device,

cohesive

language

findings.

organization,

As

functions

rather the

isolation)

are

is,

however,

might

contrastive (1966,1967)

the

context,

his

investigation.

prove

(Gleason,

tenets last

analyst studies

were

decade,

is

1968:

the

very

little

a suitable

in

Contrastive

for

investigating

interesting

that

of

of in

the

Gleason

the

hearer

58).

at

with

than

to

signalled

This

that,

than

in

words,

inadequate.

the differences

problems,

not

other

rather

framework

to be the most

language

sentence

In is

level

the

the

Much earlier

discourse

analysis

discourse,

not

dimension

be a better

organization

reader,

the

of

is

Ue.

in

a new one.

CA at

contrastive

But Gleason's till

focus

it

1981),

structures

act

not

that

way that

indeed

linguistic

the

what may well

or

(Riley,

pragmatist

text

and

the

of

flourishing:

now

are

of

better

a

reach handling

discourse

a pragmalinguistic

or sentence

all

domains

levels

higher

efficient

more

new

communicative

suggested

the word

the

than

CA without

suggestion

a

including

development.

to

order

of

problems

languages,

CA to include

in

pragmatics,

For

which

him,

and

for

account

and textual

of

mandatory

consequence,

Rhetoric, 1980).

expansion

language

a

(Hartmann,

grammar,

was

of

Contrastive

(1968)

paragraph

analysis

understanding

for

exhibited

the

to

by different

relations

a demand for

Then,

inability

its

time

not

and

substantiated;

has been done to provide

modal Rhetoric

of

Kaplan's

investigation. (CR),

on the

the

other

hand,

120

though

for

criticized its

widening

together

same level,

are

1966,

born

Kaplan

grammar,

and interpretation

determine

language

He concludes earlier

that

learning

the

organization

speaker imprint

of

he lives largely

through

that

before

the

is

the avenues

language,

(Kaplan,

language

native

pronunciation,

they

that

in

any

a

the

native dominant

culturally-coded

bound

world to

available

1972: 1).

in

which

interpret to

him

of

their

English.

started

assumption

carry

of

conception

do because

not

study

interpretation.

written

who

is

the

CR was

and

his/her

way they

the phenomenological he

the

rhetorical

a paragraph,

will

and

on

His

CA.

learner's also

individual's

and which

native

but

from

language,

that to

orientation

level,

language

of

that

discourse

the

by any individual of

to

and its

departs

premise

language

his

different

carried

dimension

language

write

arguments

to CA

He claims

structure

EFL students of-a

the

of meaning

text

(1972)

Kaplan's

CA at

foreign

the

studies,

Dimension

discipline.

only

foreign

of

His

by

section.

further

a

CA

revitalize

sentence.

following

a Further

undertaking

as a new language

the

subsequent

the

added

does not

the

in

Rhetoric:

the

encouraged

other

with

helped

scope,

beyond

reviewed

Contrastive

In

narrow

perspective

conclusions

5.4

their

in

121

* Underliningof 'be' is in the original.

This Hypothesis speakers

is

view

which

from

tendencies focus

is

of

argument

in

quotation

above,

is

thought,

quite

readily.

rhetoric

is

to patterning

The basis

word),

of

which

Consequently,

universal. from

the

offers

his

user

large

number

a

students

who came from Oriental,

in

of

various

popular

is

not

is

interpretation

(1966)

English linguistic

Romance and Russian

say, yet of

undertook

compositions background (cf

diagram

an

itself

sense

of

the

it

is

not

but

universal,

to

one

is

lends

ie.

culture,

a

the

It

that

any language,

Kaplan

conventions--

analysis.

the

the

as follows:

writing,

That

a ready-made

assumptions,

studying

of

rhetoric

can be expressed

concept

(in

logic

to another.

one culture

in

used

out

evolves

of

unit

general

besides

assumptions,

basic

the

its

CR --where

writing

can be summarized

of

unit

languages,

various

the

on

speculations

basic

the

for

predetermines

culturally-determined Its

artificial

as Semitic,

in

attention.

The paragraph

To test

(1966)

structure

Sapir-Whorf

old

and interpretation.

observation

most in

contained

language

that

Kaplan's

on contrasts

has enjoyed

(a)

modes of

the

of

reiteration

stipulates

certain

Starting

a

somewhat

varies

although each the

language

world.

the written

which

any

he

below).

task

of

by

ESL

grouped What

122

did

Kaplan

English

published

His

focus

to

of

to

Thus,

into

grouped mode.

development,

he noticed

two major

These are

language

the

in

schematized

ways

one language

from

and (2)

below

(cf

he

which

reasoning

of

mode,

diagram

within

patterning

varies

modes

a linear

the

group in

arguments

rhetorical

he argues,

(1)

language

each

their

with

families.

several

modes:

compositions

that

concluded

was mainly

analysis

Paragraph

students'

way and presented

their

paragraphs. another.

He then

texts.

were unique

those

compare

a different

in

saw reality that

was

next

non-linear

a

1966:

Kaplan,

15).

ENGLISH

SEMITIC

ORIENTAL

RUSSIAN

ROHANCE

ol .41

In diagram

the

linear

mode of to

exclusive

begins

with

this

topic

a topic

Kaplan,

is

English, sentence

sentence

exemplifications. basically

reasoning,

and

The expected

the

which rhetorical

followed

sequence

patterning

by of

to

according

by a series

supported

a Platonic-Aristotelian

is

of

of

Kaplan's

a paragraph

subdivisions

illustrations

thought

in

sequence

English, acquired

of and argues from

123

Greek

ancient later

philosophers

Western

On the Semitic, takes

various

it

is

imperfectly

on a series

point

will

apparent

to

and suited higher of For

Arabic

level

the

Arabic

purpose

However, criticism

Kaplan's

that

it

had been used.

are

projected

upon

as follows:

directly.

In Romance

1966:

--through

its

the

direct,

most

scientific

paragraph

and text.

It

triggered

research

on English

with

in

the

CR hypothesis

This the

rE. 'A

ta.

2-. %

29

El

b21

"R

* =-r

0 :30

L-A.

'-4

OQ

z

OR r5!ýýý-Rr n, CD

WK::

ew

Eý. .

><

ci

wi=.'* ,Z'g,-" 0

ZE =0

3x0

-0

Im

wle.

cr

4* :E '2 e. -. 0., il ö tr.0 tü :E r- =r -0

cl 0.

ei

z. >

=

0 ý. 5 2.3' (A Z, 0 ou 12. ;:ý -omr»

0 EI 0 06 =

z -4

0 El a CL :2"V,

00

:1-,

%<

Cb

:E ti

0, =- g-2, .-c-, 9e:- rý. )4

0

g

;; --.

:3Z:

2.5ý 1 2. 00qn ,2-2: =. " -, m cr 00nF!s 0; =ýL :1 =r s, 'o :r

?r

ca

-

7ý. :o0<

"m "

mi «o tr 0 Ab nz

Co g» c2.0 --10m --lr lp"Ir03ý; -0 c3.92. ý5mg-Mp0A. --> 0 -n 0 cý '0 0-2 00

'% m

000W=3M

pr,

0

.-0

0

g»

-i

ýI

EL :r5 fb (b

--") 0

3"

E; ,00"

ýJ ýa ZE au

=0-"0.,

4 !ýK e-,

127 5, r', c". cl. EI<

to 7 :r ýz --Z0 >

E'r nw

'C%. Z<

0<

gý

a9

0a

t- Ze ;ý z5> >:-3

12. -p*0-

Z=B:

Fr Z..M0

=*

e,

Im zr :,n 2.

12

(b %-.

< l<

E-

o-n, z '!

CL

cr

r ý90

. :qnp;;,

el

ýw0r,.

0-

-

L,

IL)

; g, S. -- A) -- so r- 5 '4 w "--4M. Vn. IFW0cwm'a 0 :r-, 0 ew rV"

Or- !!

rw R: n

;. mn;;

I.Q

0n

C-

0

10

5-

=-

0, i3

j;

cr C. 0

W

4.

nnw

=r 2.

AM009t!

,42

.0>A50 ro, '04 w r- C.*"

e% :00-9"

ýr

'-

12 C* C3=. to -,

aq

:Z* ý

moo0

0.

0 ý

'I -ý S 3-

00n

CL

S0

ei

Q"-,

, -c

0

:r0,0 CLI-

40

O'Q'

ý0-

2'

C2W-.

-d

n

EI

jr tý e0

;1c?.

Im, >

5 sý 2:--,

"

ýO,<

V.

c

-

ýq

02P ei,E:= 2-,'-n

- 2eg, :;-

:3A

-

eb X2

"9

:1

?,

Vl

cl.

50,92

-- Nq>,, -ý

g>

; 7- zr j2

0 -ý :3 .,. o

L2 2Pp

IZ2

cn

..!

:3-,

z: r-

r- :i

Fý- -.

00 Z 9ý

"

:3

9; Gý rl, F4, sý, lonvtp

.0E.

>

-Z ý. m. -

3 0 -ý c

:' ,z2

,pý"9 rr

1.

tz

8

CL

t" ä 'i. Zg g- a.+-+, peq C,

--

ir

:3

-0 0

:0

n 1:

I', > e, lb l< n r: ä c7-ý.

4

w 00

r:2 Co,

0

c. 0

el 0

n

:2 "ý4 ::ý

'

c? ,3

.w503

=, i. : ýp

eb

4) 0

'! -

-NýZ.

ir

0'

rb rm=< "P

Cb

g. , 2 5: eb

Ci.

:g'

t'n

9, coi 91 Ei, u =&tu (" -c eb Z%-

ýO, so M

0p5:

=-

-

r.

-,

ýý:ýo ,

0

n03, C

=

m-ý;

2; , --, c2.b->

=* =,

-

Z-':,

Cb

PA

ZC

!L --

-

Ci. Z; - 3-

0 2e. --5.

kýq

;; 0, cr " nox

sag

, g 'P. ý, *, v. . a. ý., C) g -,, lor SF, ,,:, P. k r I,, j% ., npa. ",, * 11 , : aq trsol grcr I-'. 4 1. tz 5K". a r-cr = El -09 4 a. 0 ýi oý ff, , -. ;; C'.- L: . 1 =- E- -0 CIR ý-r 91 ýit ý 55: N- K (DSa IN0,g-0,El, ?:9:t! ý :r Ei M-W g.,q ýgýC. rr ,. R. 41ý R z "" F; ."::; ý. ' :rm3e, rE. 4"S. o e.; . :300. R. 0.03I . w. 030Q. tz ". ev .". -) I a2::. CA " i3 0 gaa

a) Q (A 000.

-0m

q

n.

:r-0ý , Uu : 3.0

:0 :FcE:

:0ý

tl

: 3.9

W "" Z: 2. a = 6a-, cr.Q""P.: -g C) E: pc rr, CR 0wB ý. r ;-00,3ý7sg .2. Eý3. r-4

o 'TJ

FL

1-0. ý-a.,

>

.0A-IA

5.2 ýýP,

-oI-,.

5; 9

I a.

:3

14 ý :: Pq 03 11.. IAN-, : e Cý ,"0

eo

a

d'

C'.

g C:Cl. a. Ej (n

F0 F0

-b

p

,.

0

09

C',

,ý

.

R

,

4.9

r.

Or ý"(1ý1-, '. 0 5 ý

.,

F.

'8

g ýg.

ý

-0,

L7

oe

:34:1, a-

f, F, c L: 4 G. 10 =

wl

ca

IV

In

0.

=-

CA

CL

R

r'40

-

r

QnS.

If

Z, a

=-:c

S'

0 R. R 5ý ,,, rsC, 0 16) -4

.0

90) (P

:r "I

M8

1:6 p 12 0 N$3

8

:3, aq 0

:3X

8.

R,

,0hR.

::4.ý-, I- ". F.C', 12 5. la

aq

"'

cn z 8 ýl r: 3c a0ýI wa, V, an

11 -

"I

-:3

5 :ý C. '. A=5, 5,

-o0n0

Q'Q

P-

wj EW;

V,

Rm0 04 18 Oj

.0 a0a 4

r-

-1 aq 0

1.9

a.

F; ,ýV;, .42 0N. 10 co

R,

5ý 'o

":r

9::,- ,

:3--

ZIZ Z

P-g

M. 0 co CL

'o

w m

Er

:3-

:1.

-h

r- o0 CL :3 -1

n :33

n= 91.0

F

--

$5 .4402.2 A%C, - re: 0 :ý0-r

co .1

rA

4

aq

n

Eý 5=

00.9nco

to

01 aq a Vo . "Al w, 1,0 "', All co S-n

14 aq

=- !;. -, a2ý 92.0 -, A (Z

ft -C El. ý QQ

-0-. -

C) CD

W: o ,:0=.,. 4 0 tv

r

.

R,

=. E, -9. a- c,

-

5- cr Z Zn 0 co

a

-4

Cl- aq

r,--ý=0 r -'R a,

a* '. -r- C5.o-S. .2tv.. o

ým"" :3g.2 E3 8

ý"

v! C'.

EL

A

04 ý; - ,q-, Fxy,9 =. 6 04 '4.2-12 "1

-0 r" p,n402

aýV.

:ý*

7.1: ý el 2. ,a:: ", a0":: rC) :r, -n

n

91

.0

cn

ý, 0- 0, *c vi,

w

c, w

90=.,,

ý-,

=o U) -.

aq 03 ,

91

;jvRF.

aq

Q.

co a00El ClSý ý3 r, 11 C4 ih A r-

cl. I.

p

r, Ip

5* ý

:ýn

9 t3 "', ý, :I= :0, 0

74

0o-

'9

:z2

oq ý' C,

Cr a.

a aq

aq

;rW021 2

je r- r =,

-

-.

7-

tö 93.

c2.

AE ir

r-Z>, :i OK,

flbl-015c;- 15

S. -

C).

(A

.n

CT

ä

102 Ei l'

ý

CM6

:1'

ýer.

bi

ts

, ý, 0 :jZc. f" ir 0, 0", -" -ýgv; 3,2-'-, =n ' =i, -< .. 1-1 e cr = »r

9 --r g, ZIZ CD.q -i Ei 0 0- tr ,r- ob Z. -, , . =. ö; o:. q zr a. g9

0

-c, :e =O"-

Im n rjq

Ci. ::r n

lu

r. --

.L

93 :j<

Im cj

;;

i

-">

21

ýr

141 331.11 -,1>

äc

' -Z,

e,b P -1 ew&

' t' 0' 5>2» rb 4 cr

2. ff 5-gL;;:,- ý ',r-t '? ýi- 0:e-9:, n*

cr uq 3

,'2:

--

00ec-2c.

CD

0.0M' tz. :r0.0

t: 6

3'j;

:1$r.

SU

e-

b 0.

e' .

g8

ll

9:

4

u0

ýAýý-'-" cr 00=-.. :e Ano s* c251

9.0.

A5

Q, r3» 0:g0, mm

ý- C25F, ci , : q

1-

cn

5

:j

5.

(A

2q

01

Ici

2.

2 Cä. =r = ci. --t

t.

B-i

1L5

9

g. gq

ýea.

<

2

=. C,

5

c2.

ýr

3% :E

5:

f) Z' ll V)

ci. gý. Iä

v

g*

e :0

&

-3 w

92w00

-1

2

fb :0 '2

a.

Z cn »2., -bä :: r

-

0=

--%: l. :A

12. :r ", p,

n 5.

---%

r' 'ýZ.. ;2=2n cj Qc cy. -. cl. Gn r; :j2j,

'-»2 ""

!L

:i,

8=r. '--

-

c=

a

0

-t

0-0,

%ä -0

"' 00p= l< rb

fA

;7

Il>

C) r-

bb i

=:. ZA

oq

n*

cr

5,

n

e>

c0

E.

;;

0104 :1g. :j. jýebe p (0 x. -rZ;

KA

a.e, ä

bb in Z;

2 r-

wZ

z;

XNe ', M0

--.

50

7.

bä 0m =mM0

rb

eb%g

Eý

- -% _NI eb ci.

CA 0 EI

r,

l',

>

.

:E7;, ;ý, a.

M n

;; 2 *ci eNL3 3-5-9, Mý ný0 ý e -. -(-:

p)

M.

Sk

:, ýt

0t

-n

Gn m-Z

Z

gý 0

-1 c7.rA

!LA

3-

»

--1 . (A

In, ' tL

:E m :gý4 -0 1- c- 8Q r-

91 Z0 l' 91. R,

me

=,

-.

B1

zr oq "

LIoq 2E -

g

gl. n Qq fl,

ý r:1.=oeb5»0B

e,

=.

tu

:eZ.

ii.

:eC.

?* 5- ý x- Z, -. :9

Yp

0

(r

un

'cr

4p

= 4 2'm %0 la, n -.

rb !L

ýb 0

c3.-

E- "

'2.0 A1 m eb cr Er th ei 00 5.ý,

fb

IL 0 'm N oq

:r-3 "'

:02Zo3

- ýr

r- ýZ » MZe=.

j

:i

:l=,

0

5. -b cr 9

Inr,:ev

..

2.

ic

'-'j

=. oq S. -. ;; r. g

-. l',

'

2%'=.

-,

g tL p-

r) 0 9-. p

! 12

:r-c:

. E' ;10A"m cn :i

c7* am4

9, - J'

E* 0a

Ck. zr, " W eb

M01.11

f*

cg,2 Z. g

M gz.. zr eb .

.0

0 C

*3 g ..

-Br. r-, --

r: -r

Ectj,

t, zr

Z'm 2 5, -1 oq "e=-3Z. We =. 2 li A: Z93Z. ý !'r. 2. :j-Z. E-0 Wm 0 » 0q C ,

uq nn =- .

lkä

=' zu ,

ý2

:e

CL 5b p.e 5- :1 eb Z 0

Gn

\ 5.

Co

M-10,

10 1

g

03 "m=. ro

,cC:

:eýý. 19. it

5-5i

Iso

5.

000 E,

oq

: 1-0 -: ;; * .0 N

0-

C7.0

ýz a0 D (, ýj .

CAFl a- 0g0nwU;, 23 N0, 03

(r

om :

2.0 -,

=1

L

E. 0E3

-0 !j

C:

'"og S, 9 'R C:

"

:ý0

.0g. .4ý2. '40

cr :ý r-

:.; CL 5-

= -0 M, .A

m

0

--ý

0V,

QQ

0

aq W) M--.

:rI <

-i

:imv.

Ci.

oý .o -ä- ,

re

ýc2.0

9

Z0

plP

a

0 n ,P m Ei

cr

DM

Co,

9-0 ''0ý9agg0 ý M. ,0 ý Ei w9,9, ý 2. g, 2'' m'

.

5* a

f)

>CI n 2 Ci. S.

ýlo-,

p

9n 5N . l* 7m 0< 8 cm n< 91.8

0

Z n.

(b

Ný

Z-, Z

0

Q1

E-

, '01

uoq

t7.3ý

'm

22

.m' P

m

1

< cr, 00 1011 r) 9 .Zý.pre ý,ri 2 v.ci. 3% P, ý-01. 9c c7, c, -Or, 0

h

9ý

E' :j0,0 c2-

ý-

0< 2'10 -< 000 .2ý zi

0ý lu ýr11 >O

P

>O =-

pi

'n'> E' ýýýg n2 g.

mnnC,

(b

81

CYcr

e-,

F-

:1:Z. 0

or) In

r, >emPn,

p

< Jr

Di3Et, -. (D -C -5 E ,u 2ý>

0 6,

lu

u

ýur.

ch

ce

ilcl

u,. 69 C=00u-.

V,

eg bn'ä &. fi :3

9ýec:

eN .4J.,

d

2

>EU

ý

:Zuß. >ý r. . r.

w. uu = >,. t)

rA 0 j-0

10

=

-2,3

.u. b-

5.m9uC.. tt", ek

4) -0 ja Im

-cä. -u

mir

bo ug1

uý-e8

-ru

>.

bE

>ý

:iC

r=-0-Ci=AEr. (4 >, 0-4

1; it =

-C

b0. J'. Cä. sý

-9

JE--02

.-dEE

et

-52 c

:1=

,

g:

to 2 bo rr. 0 ->b a's '0 c "a lo

(4)

er cq c

'tot t

c3 b. 10

A

t. 4 :m0 ar.

80u

g, lý 42 -0r.

*Z C , et r.

j0 t:tt

.2

.-0 e>ýU -3-8

En 2, tz

.2r.

.4

>, t..

=

e: z i

4w

., bg

0uc: e, ý9vZu

d

ct

-2 -4. .4 .1 bb

(A

0 ..

:j

w

El :

>ý

ý.

.E..

: .ýcl0,o .

.96,0

10

m

.8e.

As

(n '10 .0.

.MC r_ 4) . rti

a

=U

.> >b

0>

41

8

M

t_

Z

-0

le

u9

0.

t

4)

r.

050

bo

0'1>c:

UV.

co týo

CVa 91. bO

a

r;

%

65

V

C: o0 "

bO

Ei 2>r.

cl -m

cr

*u

W. -4 10

ý

U

-m W-4 -0 vi r cz ...

z»

j--

4)

_.;

9ä-5.

5N =

U

r.

NO

4M

r.

ix:

it cz:a

m

>

s.

& ti-

19

9Msýr.te

!: -.

ce

bJ3

C

.Cr.

Ic

4)

%t

m

t;

4-.

8-.

:3>.

ýC

8

s. 4 2.4.u8E4, s

1

1=

..

re E ji

:1 10

*u eýEb

t

-9 -12 93

>

Z) >

w

.8K

Jl. lu

9 lo

ct

bo

t

9

-5 O> 924 >,, w.

ca

S,

:Zu

'u T

C:6 0

22.

b0

r,

18-0

u02

94. >%

Z-

@0

A

;N !l it

'E

:2,

:D9,

.

.-

tt

-0

tt

m.g

-(4 et ig u ý. (A ý cl Z m

b.

-Z

aj 'AM

-v

-5

-4-@e-?

M.

g

t bo 0 :D,. ig Ei 5

944

5

10 Ivi

le'.

9U3

8

blji=

q..

%l

bo >0.

24 -. ic ý -s .0 -ý ' -0g:!.

4ý

24

u

c:

.-0

a. 2 -a :ev90

ic

20 -0

4)

'oý 22, =Oý«w A8-« -,0EcE

49>r-3 * w lu 3 20 .. -9 2 >; *. c b0 M N-M -IC et '; 93

r.

e1«,

.iý

C t>J bd3"0 ý5ý:

>

j

ý

4ý

U

4ý r. M0. ýr -5tk; ý -. u

uaý

tz. be

lý.

U

-3

3.

Ei CA

&0

Z

j1

-Z

ti

c:

'0

1-

t-C. Ei

*äT3. 25

c:

r- -Zj

IM .s9

r. w=r. ýfi .6

tö

0

10 u

.= .8

ic

QN4 bli r

.Wc: EL--zu> jC. ,C) -0

r.

r. C)

- r)

.. A

bo

CO u

E.

0g,..

. .21.

93 >% Z "ä

9.5

c:

u

i e

cm-. ,9 E

-s'

-'-,

14

wM1 Agb.

ga tt

.wXe

.-03:

0.

-

'0

X

cý

a

u >%p 'ä-Et; b.

x

5

qm -u

c" r. :D2Z

bo t2 -

be Z

8

Co b:

21

s0Z

bi) r,

r,

Ee

2

Z)

C:6 r, ba >%. v

2cJD tu j-

-

-12w

gj ;A-b. .-m-ac: (_A U> 4,

(D 2U e5

bo fi

ur

-0

bo

-u

OJ

Z-

0.

ti

B2

-CZ 0u

r-

-

's

to

ce

iK

IM t,

2

"ý 2 -,. E 5 r. i> -4,1o -5

ýa C jl. 5403 141),

el 'U r.. bo n,

m.

- f..

c«.

61 (4 u

Go

01

r.

fi

.E0

At to 0

rr-* Ij

m :2 ;pu mo bO: . Z ý2

E ta

,0U22

AD cn

t.

-9

tz-

u

EuuZ:. --r -0

00t,

t` .2E8

Cw

:e

0,

5- m

r= -0

:0

ýa

0

0

:10

ý,

te :Z

E

r-

jeJ,

tü

-c: 00U :. -, w .-==-,. --s as -0 -0 .N28 bh 4.) J--

5u

i Al ecc :s

0: M=5

ba

.-:.;;

*rj

%* 8. . ;21 ob-#

:12E4,. -0 .E

>O -= e, it M

ru

bol

ba bo A-

2=uce1m.

4,j=

m

2 3w-

'IN.t; oSE9t!

In!

-r m 0Z TO -2

>A .-2.

to

116 o -s -g ý 13 0 g C.. c: .10 8gg J4 3 0

leD a =--9:

e, 6

-ci

-> 8ý r 15 -5 b4

u CD- -, tü -rl'-, r. C:6, -4) *U

r.

-F3

.

t"

..

'"""'

" """".

""

"

""""

b4 to

4) 44

s. 0 09

>,

4)

0 .J

ro14 1e-? -5 , -, 1

t-

,"*jup

10

&Z to

t! s-2q

8

c

4)

0g

tr

15

bE

,0 r>

-v-c '8- ý

g a> 4.

b-4

0u=

-5

gn

14 rl

brO

M 'm

*

mu Ei

-,0.

dý8

= u0u5-r.

4a C,

l= c

1-

ic

92 ý

bögl zt4 Ei Ajg tA

bo r,". d' ,

bö

5,..

ý:

u

*Z r- -v c:

.

r. IK b-4

r.

94

43

-d

!aj"

0e

"0

u

, '0.0 .

172 3 ýy -1 to . *e.8a, 0: -Z. Z - r' u-., -. cl s 18 Ei LU-. Z

i1,,

>OO %Z'-, 5... s. 13

45

b-i

2. «

fi

>

ý5

U-5 JU

2

15 S '0 -0 2A-

5 1Mgu3 ic 13

.-0F

lp';

bo -v

9

be

:15

.r

du OW0

c*U "0 f, j

r- m>-, .2, 13 4,b 4 z5eäee--s2s-E, cg em e.

c-

:2=

EN

4r-

S

8 .. x > 2a'

ic 0 is ic lw 09>

bb

ic

32 0

.-«t,

t6o qs

'0

-.

C)

cz

9

bö

-9

%b

u

9.

-,3

ýa

c

C 0

:-

"f'

:'

4ý

r

-

--:

-:..

b.

UN

N

if9

2.8 0 1

C-3

-

-g

""ja i:t,' ir

.8C

-MI"

2

10 >,

0 -

1xes

4)

zi (D

cf.2 06

44 0

9...

eM0M

bo ,i lu E -a

:1 0 bo

ti

-5 Zg% bo r-

4) ic -5

0 -. C JW rr. ce

-0

e*-0

ct

bö C0 1- 1

"' E-t2 0 28 :2

0, r. t_u -b. A2

0=B._äg

-

FA

.5

(1 mg

-t! JD

2:.

et

c-t

fA Uý0

.-

J2

t: 0 t2 t -u

c:

'U

W,

uu r42

te

-B

j2=G

9.8 >2l! 9,6 u

';

M ei

(A -::

r-

z! v2

. -13

ci

-2

EI 2u *0

t: K. s>0 42 -s

*0 lu m

4)

m

0,5

-r-

8=0 tz Je iie"I l! -ýc

ý,7,2

ce

92w E r--ce

>ý

r-

rj

Z

CZ

0C

.Ec;

tý ID U

2c rOJ

-d -0 c r-54

b.=u

bE r- z»

bo tt

(A ß.

E0

gM-. JD

0

42

bo ý cr ýs

's

A bb

151

.0.

zi

..,

(4 0, ;;,. ý

14 -M . ý.

t: --

r.

E5

'>ý

IM =81.

.-

C "ý gt 2c

s- 2 !euUa

cl

E=

='

fi 10

ýn 0ý2.

4) 00 Zg! ..

-

Em2.29 di gl.

g.

s-82g!

te

-a 0

E.

M"Q

-Mr",

(D

E,::

90 "3

ýc -. -u >O

-

4)

-9 .-x .28.

ic cr52

.0

«sg lu

Cu

,E21.1,2

12

ba bo r.

jo -ý ic

c8x0

0

l- 2

t2 C- >%.

2-ur.

.5

>,

cl

10

E 10 - 12 ce 0 (4

2ic. -2Zi5

9ý

mC

4.0

EI

co

>u

.

= .;

ýC Ei ,je u

&ý

.uc

.

$-w

ri 4.)

b.4

20

' ',

-ti

>% 0

Zmu0 r. IL) Z r.

10

12,

Cw M.

2

0,

>u

ce

%A

4.)

bo

:103.

. c: M

cj

te wrE0

0

,0:,

Q

4)

--4

E (5

-0 -

In,

-

="2

b In zn ct te t*I, eu

e to *

ei a

8 X. i-. u ;:,

0-

264

sometimes

begins

photocopied successive

two or

pages

or Williams Prominent

language do,

usually

photocopies

in

"and".

wrong.

They should

The students

a sign

of

tell

sentences

1.

with

this

they "and".

2.

the property

And

science

by creating least control rather

in

of

all

than

to learn

English. not

they use of

less

no

is

built

into

the species;

transformed

the

world

it

which for

the its

create-in

it

thus, 12)

to live

than

are:

becomes,

at

species

to

environment,

harmony

with

it.

are is

across

coordination

(p.

in

"and"

come

as

never

teachers

English

detect

they

possible to

their-

But if the

students,

human beings.

an environment

--indeed

two

certainly

sentence

today's

views

code of

the

prove

in

pattern

has indeed

theory,

begin

Johnstone, in

their

Arabic,

will

Here

evolutionary

tell

not

always

--who

the DNA, the genetic is

would

connective.

immaturity--

beginning

And

and others

them that

(1987)

by Kaplan

style

"and"

unlike will

used as an intersentential article

Kaplan,

of

had better

English,

rather

like

use

(Cf

299 and 318).

pages no.

linguists

of

to

"and"

English.

teachers

that

with

recent

with

D. H. Lawrence

"immature"

or

with

He even used "and"

comments

like

novelists

begins

not

the

sentences

be on such Arabic-like

would

English they

(Cf

what

deficient

write

successive

95,120,149).

no.

paragraphs

One wonders

three

a as four

265

13)

3.

And

excessively

number

slowed

implications,

of

speech most

rate

carries

them

of

a

negative.

14)

And sort

of

make it

In such students answer

the

left

to

However, it

is

so in

sentences, read is

accessible?

easily

how would

In

because

Arabic

7.3.1.3

Repetition

Llarabe

est

r6p6tition profit.

Il

est

20).

teachers begin

not

sentences

fact,

many

do

teachers

their

fait

"and"?

with

this

tradition pour

notice

such

say so or because Then,

textbooks.

uses

"and"

with

not

connective

intra-sententially

la

their

convince

The

linguists.

voue A Ilinsistance, , oO

(p.

to

required

begin

which

both

is

do not

their

from

apart

English,

to

does

what

available,

language

afore-mentioned

English.

compared

English

sentence

students

from

obviously

most

the

mainly

is

manipulation

English

Arab

any English

information

rhetorical

a case,

that is

the

once

this more

they

llinlassable

voit

toujours

lloreille,

pour

English hardly

interference excessively

and inter-sententially.

A

because

un la

266 diction,

la podsie,

lecture le

A haute

Porthodpie,

r6citation,

la

116loquence,

voix,

la

thdAtre,

la

(Monteil,

radio,

la

conf6rence,

1960:

269).

* Underlining is not in theoriginal.

[Arabkis

in which

repetition interest.

It

This his

there;

to

Arab

the

comment about

"untiring"

take

it

is

repetition

uses

diction,

reading,

Ln

shown

always

up one point is

It

character.

or exaggerated, Arabic

loud

untir:

poetry, eloquence,

and radio. ]

theatre,

attempts

section

has

hearing,

orthoepy,

lecturing,

and

tradition

made for

is

recitation,

insistence

to

given

yet

its

But

in

Monteil it

is

fact

is

Whether

repetition.

to be proven.

as one of

by

raised

the

characteristics

of

textual

development.

According considerable,

to

mainly

occurs

in

on all

levels

to

provide

intensification key

to

their 1983a:

the

in linguistic

rhetorical 47).

this

Clexical,

can

repetition It

texts.

persuasive

and in

syntacticj shown

(1983a),

Johnstone

morphological,

a number of guises... far

more

than

Arabic

prose;

rather,

cohesion effectiveness,

of

the

and

Cand3 is . ornamental it texts

is

the

and to

(Johnstone,

be

very

267

Johnstone argumentative

them,

a key to mainly

there

Whereas

in

In other

words,

development

textual

it

English,

is

persuasion, "by

them

in

she is

saying

in Arabic.

linguistically

to

achieve present

clothing

and

(op cit).

cadences"

to

linguistically

claims

paraphrasing

Arabic,

that

argues

recurring

in

Also,

cohere

linguistically

and

them,

repeating

that

structural is

repetition

Arabic,

is

repetition

discoursely

unacceptable

its

makes

persuade. discoursely

and

redundant.

Two Arabic

themselves,

repeat speaking,

are

which

proverbs often

worth

might

for

account in

exceedingly,

the

writing

as

Arabs

why

reason

well

in

as

here:

mentioning

(Tunisian

ýIJ.Ljl

a)

Dialect)

iddwaam yunqub irrkhaam EPerseverance pierce

b)

kathratu

about not of

getting trust,

absorbing

or

I

sense

Is, -,

t-takraar

[Frequent

The Arab

the

of

repetition)

can

marbleD

a,

jj

(in

tu'allimu

when writing

his

message

for

that

a message

through.

matter, from

1-Himaar

can instruct

repetition

learner,

jljS-111

or speaking, This

might

underestimates just

even a donkey3

seems mean that his

one hearing/reading.

to the

addressee's

be

anxious

Arab

does

capacity

Therefore,

the

268

he

means

judges

suitable

judging

from

to

his

guarantee

is

delivery

message

repetition.

Again, seems to of

put

his

all

home and secure

is

This

it

statement

purpose, text tool

both

consider reference

a

an Arab

for

that

he did

not

Therefore, . he should

to

insist

the the

are

he

,

all

his

slow message

repetition

addressee

of

the

invite

to

an

he

has

to

on

it.

Otherwise,

his

perhaps

only

mean it

but his

assure and

use of

like

would

example,

think

not

few

familiar

quite

guest

invitation

the

repeat

his

repeat

intended

LOOMA"

with

as it

the

language.

It

from

it

linguists

L-*-Jl JLJILAL--ý#

persuasion, the

is

Qur'an,

serves and

there

as

LCL-il

0-9

it as

a

seem to for

a

serves powerful

assurance.

Let

being

primary

and grammarians:

OLO

might

Linguistically,

Rhetorically,

emphasis,

Arab

Arabic,

in

linguistic.

and

examples for

"redundant"

not

and coherence.

book

If

insist

assertion,

of

to assure

one:

and

rhetorical

cohesion

behind

reason

times

is

repetition

who are

they

to drive

repetition

52

proverb

times.

several

Thus,

second

same scale:

few

good intentions,

his

those

another

courtesy"

of

out

for

only

or dinner,

would

guest

the

intentions.

to him a

intended

of

yet

lunch

to

invitation

said

is

sincere

friend

Arab

however,

There

addresser's

he opts

the

understanding.

not,

in Arabic.

in

on the

addressees

Hence,

understanding.

implication

the

!ýý"

the

us

269

1 jj -. ,. --a r--i . -

-c)-ii,

JILe ji L.4, 2-

11

--.

4"

1

4-ul

U Jl

I

(Qurlan,

VII:

berth.

Say:

with

my Lord

alone; but

time,

and the

well-informed only

is

structure

of

of

chapters

is

used,

idea,

the

value

verse,

yaslaluunaka)

repeated is

of

main

A."

the

will ask

Ij

to

is

not

you

it.

most people

of

theme in

both "Say:

^Ir

L. 51 J-S, &.

It

is

obvious

emphasize

"their"

but

you

were it

of

the

as well

In most cases

in

in

the

limited

as in

the

context

where

this

device

stressing

a

certain

home to

the

subject.

"They

ask

knowledge

of

linnamaa

qul that

is

know)SS

a word or a name, bringing

phrases the

heavens

used

lie

its

you

though

do not

only

at

on

repetition

seems to

repetition

is

"The knowledge

Say:

of

when it

it

come

as

laayah)

effect

and

twice.

intended

in

suwar).

the

this

it

verse

the

In

reveal

type

ordinary

the

none shall

God, but

impressing

listener"

of

with

an

of

He. Heavy it

They

suddenly.

"The knowledge

it

earth;

(Doomsday),

Hour

the

about

shall

proper

This

)54

187

C They ask you

JL-0

U-L -.

the habit

it

is

-ilmuhaa

repetition of

dL'jJL--l

you"

repeated

only 'inda)

of questioning

with" are it about

270 the "..

time

"the

of

Iga 1.:, c *

1- L. J-i &L-1

the

answer, listener

only from

gets

M:

38-41) is

yaa qawmi)

rests

the is

verse

solely

phrase

it

is

final

the

one

that

result

God,

with

the

context

of

the

feeling

and

nobody

times

to

(I

( O1j__Ax

--. j

,

J1

of

five

repeated laali

is a passionate

"the

passionate

effect

suuratu ,

(191-194)

verses

how

the

rabbanaa)

;U, Oj

(v

express

as

appeals,

passionate

"0 my people"

people was. Similarly,

Chapter

four

in

phrase

three

repeated

Lord! "

just

used the

where

such as "0

within

Hour"

this

other that

answer:

Clearly,

in

the

of

the

answer.

repetition

also

mants" appeal to his

III

" reinforces ..

"the

of

is

Repetition in

the

repetition

Prophet.

even His

else,

The

possible

any knowledge

that

Hour".

vocatives times

'imraan)

in and

heart-felt

and very

prayer.

Sometimes, within Examine

a string the

is

repetition of words,

last

segment

be it of

C...

11:

and fear

has absolute

the

to

the

following

sustenance

or

a sentence

Ul

4-ul

(Qurlan,

crucial

of

Qurlanic

a

verse"

verse:

-(--Ul

I

282)

God ; knowledge

God

teaches

of

everything]

you,

and

cohesion

God

.

271

The

"God"

word

(

4__JJj

Allah)

,

substituted

by the

pronoun

"He"

(,

would

be the

same in

this

case,

never

loosened

cohesiveness repetition It

of

helps

make it

to stand

on its

contexts.

Also,

which

the

and its

own and, the

and the

the

each of

word "God"

have

the

(or

phrases)

for

various

is

a semantic

the

message

Allah)

its

value.

another

separately

to

effect

Moreover,

sentences

be quoted

essential

the

would

has

three

4

concept

but

lost.

Allah)

be

simply

verse

weight

11.,

eventually,

a basic

constitutes

(4

for

possible

could

huwa),

rhetorical

"God"

word

here

item the

of

Qurlan.

Similarly, to

the

the

repetition

as the

as well

semantics

the

of

rhetorics

06-ý (Qurlan,

"with

word

this

of

is

Truth"

the

crucial

verse:

&L-ii..:Il 105)

XVII:

4, E With the Truth it

the Truth

The effect

(L3-&-JL--ej

Truth" ( A---ej will

will

be lost,

says

, wa

throughout

the

with

Qurlanic

other,

bi-l-Haqq)

al-jurjaani

has special

case

be reduced

The grandeur,

word which

key

down, and

with

has descended-3

greatly

bi-hi). wa ,

We have sent it

words

be the

(1978).

significance text

should

the

the

and its

repetition

such

4

as

the

and , "Truth"

Besides, in

by

substituted beauty

Qurlan. is 11

"with

second

"with

intended, (God),

it"

solemnity is

It

the

is

a

key present

as is aa-dil

the

272

(guidance),

(mercy),

faith

Islamic

The intention

etc.

punishment),

revolves,

(reward

'euAil'3 is

that

be

should

such words, in

engraved

the

on which the

memory

and whole the

of

listener.

Another

type

the

of

of

the

It

false.

sense There

believed

is

two words

of are

common in Arabic

very

synonymous

so-called

al-mutaraadifaat. (in

repetition

the

that

the

the

and

same

the

,

that

assumption

as expressing

repetition

I ;-,

words:

sharing

no such words

is

synonymy is

meaning)

exact

same thing.

-1 It certain

be the

might Arabic

perfectly

unless

overlapping,

the

all

the

words,

Consider

assembled.

are

that

In such a case,

overlap.

words

clear

however,

case,

the

J-;

U-i

semantic

the

is

meaning

which

are

following

example:

L-Oj

(Qurlan,

a Prophet

godly

people what

weakened the

jm2UnA...

111: 146)

[Many

for

l

4 -Ulj

patient]

have smote

nor ,

has

there

fought, them

did

they

been,

with

and they in

God's Xj±ld

whom fainted

way, ;

and

many not

neither God

not

made

semantically

L;

4.

of

spheres

loves

273

is

It

difficult 1j.

wahanuu;

Ix

-

exact

synonyms,

not.

In English,

giving strength,

to

device,

the

is

However, in

writing even the

it

English,

the

this

this

question

of

repetition,

Arab

learners

of

English.

piece

repetition

with

"redundant"

without

devise Examine

simple

an efficient the

of

following

it

this

verse

research,

the

way to help examples:

the

is

i. e.

absolute described.

there

device,

a

it

a

elaboration

people

It

same type

to serve rhetorical

adds power

in

and

perhaps

one of

their

of

the

Arab

mastered

And even if

English

they

the

compositions,

shed some light big

teachers notations

yet

when

English?

would

core

repetition

own language?

the

is

of

who have not

from

Composition

exploring

an

carries:

redundant.

fit

system

marginal

are

amplification, is

of

effect,

their

of

which

They

earlier.

a few examples

to

Rather,

by students

rhetorical

of

unnecessary

to use the

techniques

Arabic

not

examplified

particularly

An examination available

is

are

redundant.

are

on behalf

semantic

acceptable

rhetorical

does

the

to

two

s takaanuu

discourse-cohesive

as

as is

to meaning,

not. that

then,

can serve

_

an

and resolve

in Arabic,

It

is

meaning

or an enhancer

impact

it

steadfastness

a purpose.

seem

words:

-I ý5j,

last

the

might

the

that

IJ.

therefore,

in Arabic,

Repetition

did,

Da -ufuu;

this

strength

here,

assume,

-*- ,

and

But

tautology.

to

headaches

usually like

problem students

on facing

respond

"relftitious" nor get

to or

trying over

to it.

274

. *.

husband

is

basis

of

society

I pick

important

be perfect. the

of

are if

J-0 "4%.

taTlubu laakinna

the

for

divorce

think

are

the

in

Tunisia.

I

divorce

"husband"

probably

rendered might

having

before

.

is

which

causes

for

very

The students

ones below

family

society

BO

the words

because

is

to our

from most

BO

examples,

That

the

(Appendix

two which

out

but

B5)

on the

of

ones

(Appendix

The repetition

.

a lot

husband

threat

a serious

has a bad effect

which

her

(Appendix

as it

There are

Arabic.

from

refuses...

But divorce

and second

help

she asks

1

have jotted

and "society",

a result

into

thought

these

of Arabic

them down in

z-zawja

sentences

like

English:

wa

yarfuD.

tpwl

6-Qj L_Aj

ýr-h

wa

V-7AJI

laakinna

khaTiiran

T-Talaaqa li-muJtama'inaa

yushakkilu limaa

tahdiidan lahu

from would

zawjihaa

min

first

sentences

ýmýJ LM6! et31 ze-4i.%-cl----19A1L 1-musaa-adata

the

interference

of

Arabic,

in

min

275

kabiirin

fasaasu

1-mujtama-

here

Repetition meaning

In

first

the

and,

to

It

sentence,

by

the

),

--which

which

and parcel

part

is

in Arabic.

alright Arabic

the

done have

could the

of

the

been

)

Cj_)

part

second

of

(

word

the

within

have

could

second the

cohesion

of

to

emphasis

more

repetition

Thus,

is

adds

the maintenance

be (

emphasis

hiya

.

as a consequence,

been substituted

1-latii

1-lusrat!

rhetorical.

necessary

without;

would

is

and is

sentence.

'ala

ta'thilrin

sentence But,

rhetoric--

the would

have been lost.

As to meaning However,

the

university textual

very

in

development

frequent is

compositions nouns,

the

its

error

lets

or causes

.

is

people

(Appendix

there

a

great

the

and increase

of

the

rate

is

English

words,

following

upon

against divorce

whether

examples:

B3)

of

what

contrasting

students'

ponder

disapproval the

through

synonymous

Consider

or other.

...

Arabic

the

altogether. this

and

of

of

lost

not

English;

in

repetition

Nowadays, rise

if

aware

discourse

Tunisia

reasons

made

and English.

immediate

in

in

Arabic

adjectives,

Divorce

be

fit

Otherwise,

necessary.

ambiguated,

does not should

is

repetition

much

repetition

students

Another

verbs,

be

would such

example,

second

in

276

(Appendix

Tunisia...

That's

true

that

but

survive

immediately

neighbors

coordinated

makes her

definition

structure

of

1) x is

AxB

a coordinating

"and",

but

it

2) A and B are i. e. words

rather

actions

than

or near-synonyms

has one referent.

AxB

to

the

to

to a single

refer

two

temporally

or

as "pairs

as

of semantic

51).

Then,

lexical

major

the

she is

couplets

a

criteria:

connective

additive

"or".

disconjunctive

in

(1983b)

Johnstone

that

usually

less

tha t

notice

1983b:

three

be the

have more or

used

roughly

meets

negative A3)

by

termed

and says

which

to

us

A6)

(Johnstone,

can occasionally

that

is

structure

see and

conjunction,

synonyms

3) The structure

.

more rigorous form

the

land"'

with

its

(Appendix

she defines

which

couplets".

has

is

repetition

for

mean

(Appendix

he has...

of

a

certainly

and we'll

type

"lexical

it

and results

everything

is

progress

consequences

...

This

B9)

a non-technical

sense,

same meaning.

In

other

object,

words, action,

logically

discrete

this or

state

objects,

or states.

Such structure,

the

pairing

of

synonymous

words,

is

highly

frequent

in

277

and it

Arabic,

is

for

there

ladda -mu

'aS-Sabru I :-,

(obstacles linking depending

is

on the

In English, only

in

on the

"law

couplets,

they

Johnstone

(1983b:

52)

productive

semantic the

for

substituted lexis.

words

For

(excepting

other

example, third,

the

interchangeable

That

(though

words,

four

which

is

to

a

can the

lexical

for

I -%J

'ad-da-mu

less

(support

if

and aid);

translated

into

a

couplets).

the

of

or Arabic above

mentioned couplet)

be

can

words:

e. g. d-da-m;

wa

(support ?ad-damu

encouragement);

is

interchangeable

other

wa t-tashjii-

as

productive system

richness

couplets

frozen

Arabic

a few frozen be

"ways

are

structural

are

used

and

couplets"

are

lattalyiidu Ij J 2.

However,

they this

Arabic

Ij "0

1-musaa'adah

is,

rare

Unlike

lexical

there

substituted

or

(or),

"law"

couplets

such

of

couplets

thanks

the

The

discourse.

are

couplets

Arabic

Arabic

making

and

-aqabaat

wa

and occasionally

idiomatic

But in

strategy

(and)

and foremost".

them.

together.

glued

is,

"first

calls

,

lexical

"frozen

are mostly

Hawaajiz

common in Arabic

Examples

contexts.

(patience

.

hand,

and order";

and always

"wall

of use"

other

&

are

etc.

usually

context

limited

very

and means";

That

j-h.

and obstructions); conjunction

1j.

and disapprove);

s-sulwaan

wa

as

backing);

and

(denounce

wa stankar

such

couplets

(support

lyild

t-ta

wa

naddada

consolation);

Lexical

emphasis.

and Wa

etc.

English

as two synonymous

words,

these

278

lexical

Arabic

couplets-

unacceptable.

Arab

when writing

English

would

students

always

the

all result

fairly

and quantity to stretch to get

long

than

their

they

student.

He says

Egyptian

in Arabic for

thoughts

science...

you're a paragraph

[but]

to

talk...

you have

and introducing

that

Arab

reason,

them with

grade

you

is

the

of talk"

the

teacher

a teacher

according

graded

"fill

from Arab

an

is

it

still,

he/she

limits

the

is

to

students

of

length tend Anxious

topic.

as confesses

an

that

when they

you have

For

compositions

but

many if

often

they

Arabic.

though, today,

couplets way,

Yet

Arabic.

are

beyond

just

your

writing

Until

this

students'

especially

quality.

compositions

good grades,

Arab

language

the

Compositions

rather

case in

the

from

compositions,

language.

Arabic

in

background.

cultural-educati-onal

the

found

from

not

as is

lexical

in

that,

therefore

and

to produce

assuming

interference

of

repetitious try

often

emphasis,

repetition

interference,

prefers

very

sound

compositions

add more semantic

But not

would

they ,

because

you're

writing

a

...

got

(quoted

in

to

a line

lines

to make twenty

for you're

or

have

so you

grade

writing

not

column...

you only

it,

don't

write... of

...

Schiller,

ideas talking 1989:

137).

Under background

the (Cf

still-felt chapters

influence 2-4

above),

of

the

the

Arab

traditional student

educational tends

to

think

(

279

that

even if

good grades, the

length

composition

in

case

length,

either

length.

Yet,

so anxious

the

English

(e. g.

teachers

is

Tunisia) lines

Arab

keep

they

realizing

it.

Consider

student's

composition:

Too many

the

Either

he marries

his

part

and not

the other

, and from

to marry which

this

are

not

based on love result

in

do

that

the other

from

of

the husband

based only

divorce.

them together

their

formal

link

They lack

on from

There

is

emotionally of

marriage

the

important

from

love

this

and

we have from

decides marriages

those

side

who

very

,

not

when

who

These

or

one

beauty

especially

.

love

but

and not

the part

a so

after

undergraduate

person. love

is

one partner

that...

perhaps,

Very often

frequent

or

without,

another

person

is

girl

sometimes

her

there

are

often,

link

which

they

break

the

emotional

praise

length,

that

for

attention

do not

an

marry

for

language composition

of

from

this

binds

quarel.

themselves

the girl.

love

with

is

from

about

who he doesn't

his

for

also

marriages

love

normally

any love

good behavior

can be said

they

with usually

English

that

example

a girl

she catches her

quotas

Tunisia

having

without

or for

set

paragraphs,

in

person

because

often

following

people

as is

true

repeating

rewarded

mind brevity,

seem to be anxious

students

that

in

and

is

It

very

or

praised

does not

teacher

compositions.

in in

highly

a merit

first link

280

which

can endure

(Appendix

keeps actually study. circular points

very

long,

is

certainly

It

It

standards.

is

proper

that

one of

the

redundant, but

no purpose

the

the

main

languages,

all

is

composition

is

This

by

to guarantee

the

same is

repetition

Arabic

the

under

definitely

to

coming

same angles. even

student

compositions

keeps

connective;

However,

type

the

repetition

of

is

form

(Kaplan, of

1966; ideas

language length.

composition

in

a

device

clauses

of

Kaplan

constructions development

paragraph

A

parallelism. of which

can

1981).

parallel

clauses,

pairing

most common syndetic clauses

parallelism

substance,

through

Unlike

repetition.

in

particular.

for

syndetic

of

Johnstone,

features

characteristic

one the the

further

building-up

hence, is

as a

and Arabic

is

coordination; structure

viewed

of

Parallelism

t'wall.

from

his

organization

The student

almost

which

repetition

suggests

Semitic

of Its

talk".

of

fact,

In

longest

the

this

expression,

Parallelism

repetition

is

broken.

easily

awkward

and again.

"full

serves

Parallelism

the

indeed

and therefore

unnecessary

is

again

and again

again

often

cumulative.

and not

7.3.1.4

very

himself

repeating

be

can't

B6)

to his

In addition

and

are

linked

connective occasionally

involving

often syndetic

together in be

parallel by means

Arabic paired

being

of the

without

281

hence,

coordination; is

structure

asyndetic

one the

clauses

of which is

Such structure

connective.

An

parallelism. linked

are

thought

asyndetic

to

parallel

together a

create

without

a

forceful

more

effect.

According is

Arabic, elevated (1)

to

quite

(Beeston,

styles"

19744tl35) (poetry)

shi'r , (oration).

khuTbah

He further

(grammar,

parallelism

are

of great

avoiding

the

inauguration

1.

Caliph

an

of

Z, .

L

early

early

following, the

and

1..

0.!

6A,

e11-9

of

which

(op cit).

khuTbah

that

this

exhibits

labuu bakr

by

at

-%-j z. ýi

9

be

would

alone,

given

thus

subtlety,

Muslims:

g. ox

"2

,

delicate

1

aj %33--. Mu

ýl

L--

features

various

form

effect

G-ii #4.. >-»i--i cý2,-r. liul

the

to

parallelism

the

distinct

quite

based on parallelism:

are

the

compexity

of

is

"two

early

and semantics)

monotonous

example

as the

that

khutba

by straight

parallelism

which

notes

the

patterns

One typical of

in

particularly

prose,

and (2)

acoustics,

employed

created

Arabic

He distinguishes

parallelistic.

the

aspect

(1974),

Beeston

ML

1

13

. 4-»ul OL--,

4-ý, 4. oi OL. -21

.

his

282

'll 4-ul

4-21

)L+-*Jl

V-i

e,3j

Jl E. *11I&j ri-i i LA,.%LA. ý,, ISU

4jp...

'ij 'JIJL-?

::. L 6f c_Ul R.

jj

V.:,JA"

; ýU JJ -CLJD (quoted

1.0

2.

If

I am not

the most

you see me acting

you see me acting

3.

Truth

4.

The weakest until

is

faith

command over

assist correct

and the strongest

of

you

I can exact

until

you,

is

and

me;

if

me.

betrayal.

of you in my regard justice

jj

of you.

rightly,

and untruth

I can insure

weakest,

in

worthy

vainly,

tJj,,

27)

1978:

I have been placed

people, but

-imaarah,

in

C-Le I

is

for

him,

in

my

the strongest, God

willing; is

regard from

justice

him,

the God

willing.

5.

No nation than

God strikes

ever

lets

it

fornication

God overcomes

6.

renounces

ever

it

Obey me so long

with

with

jihad

in

the path

disgrace;

spread

within

scourge.

as I obey God and

and

no itself

of

God

nation than

283

His

Messenger;

Messenger,

but

if

I

no obedience

is

What can be noticed

in

divides

into

two elaborately

because

this

balance

is

part

5 are "fa"

word of

coordinated (then).

relationships

(4 and 5), Besides,

equivalence. is

parts)

further /kum/

of

it

(e. g.

word-pattern

the

structure

for

in

1),

and

6, on

the

In semantic

between

the

(1991)

fact,

C) /n/ style is

between

the parallel

units,

and

they

meaning

relationships

between

the

units

function

is

parallel

units.

the

more It

function than is

the

from

I to with

coordinated

meaning

remaining

relationships

'; j in

2),

two of

units

(or

/tu/

and

similarity eloquent

and

parallelism

is

more

(Greenbaum,

a

balance

pleasing

in

parallelism

providing indeed

a

provide

of

pairs

what

structures

is

the

sentence

Parallel

this

second

that,

writes

and contrast,

the for

(e. g.

this

monotony

function

the

the

makes the

no

emphasizes

contrast.

in

In

is

parallelism

(e. g.

which

is

sentence

by some rhyme

sentence

word of

number 6

alliteration

Greenbaum

equivalence

If

All

His

each

There

syntactic

balance

3),

that

and in

emphasizes

the

is

every

pair

more rhetorical.

Arabic.

you.

2 and 4,

only

strengthened in

due to me from

parts.

part.

based

are

which

sentences

first

1,2,3,

In

In

meaning

"wa";

with

and

balanced

in

the

Him

khuTbah

this

varied.

balance

an exact

corresponding

is

disobey

such

1991:

balance of

Arabic

as

168).

English,

pleasing

essence

emphasize

in

Arabic

its

between

the

rhetoric

and

284

eloquence

where

important.

form

as important

is

Examine

this

simple

as content,

even more

perhaps

from

example

straightforward

the

Qurlan:

2.

J--.

N

L--AL&ju-

Is]

U1.3

f.

J,

Ij

3.

4. 5. (Qurlan,

1(a). (b). 2(a). (b). 3(a). (b).

e

--.

morning

brightness,

By the moon when she follows By the day when it

By the heaven

(b).

and inspired

and That it

him,

which which

extended

to lewdness

and godfearing, it,

is

(b).

and failed

has he who corrupts

first,

The j

answer

a

(oath), qasam , which to

the

consists oath),

he who purifies

semantically subordinate runs

from

one

it.

sentence which

clause, verses

1 to 8.

made

over

two verses:

9-10.

of

The second,

The

two

of

up

consists

jawaabu

of runs

it;

it,

shaped

prosperous

are

it,

built

which

5(a).

verses

him;

enshrouds

and That and That

By the earth

him;

displays

when it

By the night

By the soul

main clause, (the

By the sun and his

4(a).

These ten clauses.

XCI: 1-10)

the

I-qasam subordinate

a

285

is

clause up of

the of

qamar

Lp-__A.

(moon).

Likewise,

"shaping

it

the

is

soul"

through

achieved

through

and that

of

Also,

sun).

that

they

first

of

for

where

parallelism

elements.

Such structure

the to

chapters)

the

in

simple

any

semantic furnish

utterance

parallelistic

actually

This both

is

1,2,3,

is

what 5

is

(the

the

act

it

l(a),

In

in

I(b),

act

of

is

through

fifth

the

with

and

following

verses

in

mind with In

the ultimate

suits

in many verses

it

catches

the

nature

as well

as aid

the

kind

of

other

of

words,

is

This

contrast

association

and

short of

attention the

so, in

memory

because a

simple

which

And

alright.

memorization

four

Qurlanic

this

a

calls

first

the

completes

relations

for

taken

(196051

Kaplan

and suwar.

and grammatical the

and 4 are

prevalent

suspense

those

structure

as an oath

if

rhetorical:

memorable.

parallelism

f'.

balanced

are

element

very

and retain

parallelism

pairs

which

by its

reader/listener take

between

on

(sun)

talaahaa ,

second)

a

climactic

(or

In 4,

and 5.

an equivalence

brightness);

(i. e.

parallelism

and 5

part

suwar

I

type

j--&jjl

each other.

complete

This

four

and

made

through

achieved

2,3,

it

is

pair

between

)U

first

the

every

one is

in

"inspiring

morning

I

of

(sun)

balance

the

equivalence

and

in

lash-shams

achieved

an

(moon)

balance

the

is

DuHaahaa (its

the

and each element

ýJl

between

hand,

other

pairs

For instance,

a sub-pair.

a contrast Pal-

four

made up of

makes simple this

is

of

"wa"

aim of the Qur'an.

is

particle

further (at

by the

strengthened the

beginning

of

the

repetition

first

seven

verses)

286

and a coordinating between the

9 and 10).

verses

repetition

Of relatively following

to

strength

simple

this

(I

is

and

rhythm

h) at

parallelistic

nature

1,5,6,7,8,

verses

The regular

/ha: / sound

the

of

adds further

(within

conjunction

(Qurlan,

1(a)

If

(b)

end of every

verse

the

also

parallel

in

structure

the

)U

ý *, J-91-j

4-JJI

Here, The first

touches it

and if

He touches

balance

part

(1a)

is is

parallelism in items

both

is

affliction,

He

good,

achieved

through

two

a semantic

contrast

of

is

parts,

substituted as antithetic

and semantic

nature.

the

which

substituted

described

grammatical

straightforward

you with

simple

are

(affliction) is

with

none can

but He;

the

contrasting

'01

is

powerful

everything.

--conditional--

it

you

remove

makes this

li C)

17)

VI:

God

over

obvious

the

by

witnessed

structure.

14j

Hence,

rhyme

example:.

4114-J ^" L-. -!

Durr

and

for

the

the

same

Only

the

namely

by

khayr

contrasts

What

structure

them identical.

one another;

parallelism

(lb).

second

of

repetition renders

hypotheses.

contrasted

(Cf account

(good).

note

no.

for

its

59).

Its

simple

287

The Qurlanic on the

is

which

to

also

and form,

word

due not its

Until

the

the

parallelistic,

difficulty

the

artistic in

relying

heavily

the

Qurlan,

translating

of

language

the Arabic

use of

significance

is

still

1967;

Bateson,

1981,1983a,

1982,1984t,

Arab

the

but World,

Muslim

and

1983b,

draws

"A reader

on the

Arabic

with

little

very

Classical

Arabic

it

has as

which

beautiful

to of

expression its

validity.

in

which

this

the

koine

poetic

the

important grammar as

a

work

where

Arablc3 things

of

is

seventh 56).

On

more

this the

the said...

written art,

1983a:

of

language .

language

(Bateson,

is

elegant

as evidence

are

the

of

read

being

of

may be taken

an idea

She says

connotation

--indeed,

point

modern

way:

retains

[Classical

inflectional regarded

still a

it

put

to

(Johnstone,

Williams,

Qurlan.

the

of

1975;

that

claims

can learn

and more significant

carried

often

structure

trouble",

(1967)

Bateson

same subject,

(1983a)

Arabic

of modern standard

1987;

Ostler,

Johnstone

of Arabic

1974b,

1973,1974a,

1984,1987b;

heavily

feature

a characteristic

Beeston,

1989 among others). Arabic

century

basically

1983a).

1966;

Johnstone,

that

to

only

now, parallelism

(Kaplan,

literary

hence

special

(Johnstone,

is

structure

The is

1967:

80-81).

The rhythmical

balance

between

the

sentence

elements

within

the

288

text

is

which

prose)

is

a special

still

(Johnstone,

feature in

retained

1983a).

style

contemporary

In other

quite

But why is

right.

Why are

parallelism? feature the

of Arabic

nature

of

is

still

Arabic 1987; Modern

Standard from

the

basically 1989). Arabic,

high

influence

one.

esteem

She for

discourse?

Perhaps

(Beeston, language

An examination at

its

form

on

and

Arabic

modern

patterns

taken

on

in

both

rhetorical

an oral

the Arabic

discourse

56),

old

languages

Semitic

Williams,

parallelism

written

written

emphasis

that

saying

this

such

its

1983a:

from

difference

significant

Arabic

discourse,

and in

she is

words,

(rhymed

a tremendous

exerts

(Johnstone,

'as-saj'

that

written

form

specific words,

contemporary

She claims

The saj?

11,

of 6

of

random,

is

to

a

the

because 1970)

great

is

this

or

perhaps

(Johnstone,

1981;

-(C)

( 'ar-rifaai,

1990:

inseparability

Lb -LC

9)

Ostler,

shows the

the

L

of

because

from

JAI , m2g .AJI

part

an example

Ls, "

for

characteristic

style:

J1

no

extent

balance,

rhythmical still

has

style

so-called of

289

[I

tried

to present

(Arabic)

calligraphy

life

of Arabic

the the

forefathers

on the

appeared

in

Parallelism set

between

runs

this

--except

-.

(a)

made to play

of

which heritage

State,

it

as

(c). ]

history

i. e.

nature,

These units three

pattern

see

skill

a tripartite

and c).

in

are

times.

balanced is

It

it

is

by the

a pattern

as follows:

1

where

here

functioning

b,

same structural

I? in

is

era,

righteous

noble

Ottoman

of Arab

of

could

our

the

and

the

scene

(a,

horizontally

&JI

to

passage

units

the

of

repetition that

three

(b),

we

(great)

the

types

golden

which

(a),

offered

that

so that

fineness

enjoyin

they

which

history,

reached

were

important

most

known to

of

extent

they

the

the

'ism

,

of

(a

demonstrative

(extent) madaa ,

L_ a

as jL__,; role

lishaarah

(a muDaaf ,

%

a demonstrative

pronoun)

which,

possessive pronoun

though

noun),

by being

is

balanced

by two demonstratives.

'ism

(a noun).

'Ismun mawSuul (relative

V-i 1-maaDll

(a triliteral

J-x-i,

ZU verb

in

the

fi-1 past

pronoun).

thulaathii tense

form).

fli

Silghati

290

5.

faa'il

(a subject)

same for

which

is

the

units

is

as follows:

three

all

units.

Thus,

the

structure

of

the

three

(a):

Unit

12345 VL---a

Z--YAJI

V---:

Jl

( L+.JJ) J.

C-JýLjl

0',

,aI

--

I

(b)

Unit

J--b

jrw,

i-tLe-oilýr--l-jl ("'as-salafu SaaliH"

S-

which is

also the subject of unit

(b),

is by

substituted an

implied

subject

pronoun

"huwa")

Unit

(c): j_js

,t,jll

JAMJI

Oi-il

(C)

oc

44

J-Lu

291

("'as-salafu

S-

SaaliH".

which is

also the

subject (c),

of unit

by an

substituted

in

Parallelism runs

vertically:

function

11 in

Z--M nouns;

j-2JI

etc.

Therefore,

three

the

parallelism, in

to

careful

Arabic,

message

statement)

En&lish

that

is

units

is

a at

choice

of

the

text

and making

also

also

it

and

Such

core

words, conveys,

effect

(c)

all

are

all is

which three

units. 1984)

indeed

development.

any

In

a further

or

existing

cumulative

type

of

effect addition weight

to

argument

(or

fundamental

to

the

strengthening

(e. g. are

(c)

in

balance

the

adds

also

units

in

by all

semantic

this

thus

other

parallelism,

textual

which

(Al-Jubouri,

where

of

"huwa").

repetition,

shared

and

pronoun

41---J1

a partial

1981)

structural

more

the

parallelism

total.

the

M.

subject

the same grammatical

-6!OJVI

a subject

(Johnstone.

produces

which,

is

There

*complete* a

parallelism

between

the

).

in

and

in

---LJ1

S-Saaliff', is

it

"listing"

the

(a).

"'as-salafu

of

(b),

in

implied

a repetition

shares

elements

ij in

demonstratives, that

in each unit

corresponding

(a).

involves

thus

passage

each element its

with

this

is

persuasive.

uses parallelism.

However,

it

is

not

292

its

development

textual

difference

text

of

students'

in

in

rhetoric

argues

that

(Ostler,

1987:

Arab students

that/heavily

parallelistic.

composition

of

a

As a result

to such

often

come

Examine

up

compositions from

passage

Tunisian

undergraduate

second-year

influence

strong

following

and Arabic

their

of

of (1987)

in English

English

with

the

patterns

Ostler

writing

presence

Arab

influence

the

compositions,

the

reflects

176).

rhetorical

about

the

of

Arabic,

and

the

Talking

English

Unaware

English

even when they are

still

from Arabic.

Arabic.

to reflect

culture.

writing,

conditions,

culture",

tends

on Arab students'

"Their

test

English

in

case between

the Arabo-Islamic

Arabic

under

the

organization

writing

esteemed

as is

a

student

of

English:

husband

the

...

does not know how

(a)

(b)

circumstances, money,

(c)

(d)

held

it

is

there having

passage

repetitive

is

in political

how

know

she

with

In

particular

how to

how

to

spend her

educate deal

to

does not know

guests

wife

or with

with

how

to

strangers.

BI)

not only

both

are more than three

(e)

conversations

(Appendix

This

does not

problems,

serious

does not know know

his

that

behave

to

does not

children,

discover

may

In form

three

parallel discourse

parallelistic and

strings

strings which

is

but also

repetitious,

i. e.

Such

parallelism

where

content. is

typical

usually

of

Arabic.

a maximum, and

aims at convincing

the

In

English,

found

listener/reader

mostly of

293

a certain

viewpoint

is

This

a typical

have been thinking that

such

student

the

is

statement addition it

is

persuade the

impress

the

of

reader

real

the

him through

producer

and text discourse

Parallelism as well receiver, the

and can have

in Arabic

same time

reader attracting

such

is

that

to

or hearer,

hand,

not

no the

because

needed

his

country he

this

in

reader

a

rapport

persuasive

device

is

not

eventually text in

effect.

which

is keeps

viewpoint

it.

could

recurrent

to

to

he

between

It

new material

out

Arabic

and

text-building. a particular

to

and

pointed

way,

the

parallelism

to

structure

employed

of

a structural to

other

causes

that,

impress

of

in

the

is

type

a high

necessary

that

normally

a parallelistic

divorce

of

parallelism

This

instances,

is

there

is

not

itself.

establishment

receiver.

as cohesive, be it

the

"does

realizing

the

the

passage,

three

after

on

thought

also

last

such a case,

argument:

but

text

this

must

realizing

times:

English,

Arabic,

causes

because

teacher,

persuade

Arabic

his

In

the

student

without

five

In

in

for

He perhaps

causes.

to cohere

only

on the

emphasis

English

perhaps

verb

opted

obviously

student

his

pronoun , in the

the

pattern

In

subject.

interference;

English.

and that,

embedded in

strong

place

a

a subject

actually

This

are

without

in

pronoun,

missing

or party.

in

base form)".

as a subject

something

of

fit

the

to one side

writing

same structural (in

know how to + verb

there

but

Arabic do not

structures

he added "she"

of Arabic

example in

repeated

him over

or winning

rhetorical the while

text at

294

To

Arab

undergraduate They hardly

organized, sentence. (English

students,

grammatical

beginning

usually

As a matter

the

corpus

are

corrected,

essays

of

Therefore, the

perhaps

teachers

then

in

learn

to

to improving their

The following

present effective.

(1987)

term.

teach both

researcher's method

first

the

chapter

teaching

1987:

attempts

method

which

experience,

translation.

in

ease,

micro-errors to

use

problem

that

the

appreciate

and

students,

intricate

this

cultures

distinctions,

reading

the

who argues

different

in

(Ostler,

a

is

to

these

students,

and last

(1987)

to

ESL

an

relative

all

quite topic

which

"foreign",

to

solution

rhetoric

distinctions",

This

sound

by Ostler

need

even if

still

most appropriate

differences

these

Ostler's

one suggested

EST

of

would

essays

and with

be

defined

teaches

normally

Yet,

to

seem

devices

syntactic

well.

and spelling

clearly

correctly

analysis.

and later

the

teacher

fairly

under

these

(1966)

Kaplan's

teach

the

as a Second Language)

seem to have employed

they

all

fact,

of

fairly

a

of

fairly

English

essays

most

with

majority

Even lexical

errors.

Further,

the

in

write

generally

few.

very

indeed

and

student,

make serious are

mistakes

is

this

summarize,

and

as an writing

aid

skills

169).

to

suggest is, both

a

method

"to

to

the

according motivating

and

295

CHALP'rF-E;

L

F-I: C:;Hr

TEACHING EFL WRITING SKILLS TO UNDERGRADUATEARAB STUDENTS and Conclusions

Recommendations

8.0

Preliminaries

The focus suggestion teaching it

is

based

of

on the

in

form

is

culture of

various

teacher

write

in

They

need

the

expectations;

sensible

to undergraduate such

Arab is

approach

as

almost

as on his

the

to

the But,

students.

as EFL (English

as well

is

entirely Foreign

as a

own insights

as

a

Linguistics.

to consciously

said

functions

foreign to

be that

language made these

of

learn

EFL students

that

necessary

that

chapter

and EFL Writing

Culture

Since

Applied

judged

own experience

researcher's

and Translation

researcher

the

English

again

worth-mentioning

Language)

8.1

in

composing

of

concluding

approach

pedagogical

a

this

within

attention

of

--

aware cultural

is

English of

expected in

the

differences

the

(Purves,

writing

what

both

affect

the

of

it

1988), them

case of Arab

differences can be an

and

content

in

when

is they

students. cultural

obstacle

for

296

those

learning

who are

influence

the

of

and 5),

they

culture

in

particular

the

variety

EFL student

be able

to devise

because

in

stigmatized

the

foreign

(b)

the

the

discourse

is

differences

language;

foreign

an appropriate

in

of

his/her

suit

language

of

in

is

that

style

is

necessary

for

it

to be able

to

teacher

write it

foreign

the

teaching

both

needs

EFL students.

is

That

may be disregarded

one culture

a

to be organized.

and the

method

best

that

needs

kind

the

2,3,4,

included

be

to

are

The student

may be valued

what

of

norms that

cultural

the

skills

writing

chapters

discourse,

and EFL teacher. in

(Cf

the

manner

the

of

more appropriately

language

the

Under

own culture

of material

of written

Such awareness

to

kinds

and (c)

appropriate,

from

language.

foreign

a

their

norms within

may deviate (a)

in

to write

or

even

another.

I first

Among the language

that

He noted

but

different.

the

wa

they

the

It constitute (Purves,

is

The problem it.

wrote

content ie

content,

that

However,

was expected.

with

on his

and culture (1966).

Kaplan

EFL teachers

the

these "The 1988:

as it

to

the

note

EFL students' his what

was not

did

wrote

with

In other

words,

was with

the

in

was not

what their

form:

not

they problem

the

first

the

of

performance

EFL students they

effect

English

was

in

way

write

the

necessarily wrote

but

was not

organization

wrong,

of

with

so much the

text.

two aspects surface 10).

That

--content

and

manifestations

of

is

because

these

fom-cultural discourse

which,

together,

differences, aspects

(be

" it

297

oral

or

unconsciously, is

Arabic kind

the they

not

taught

(Arabic

intrusion in

structures

student's

not

on an Egyptian

preferred,

their

...........

due,

the

learn and

a "florid

usually in

and to

part,

a great

idioms

student's)

and

Allen

composition,

had the

In addition in

1970:

to the

quotation

the

problem

previous which

the

as in

occasional

use of

of

chapter,

deserves

vocabulary, oral

was circular

the same point

different curious

personally

feeling

that

I,

or as a was

nothing

round

going

two

so that

angles,

and

and

round,

94).

impressionistic"

as to

organization

we were just

happening;

and

he came to

from

times

(Allen,

florid

his

cumulative,

reader,

personally

is

written

rather

best

English

student's

was

style

three

this

not

is

even

students

are

acquired

composition.

impressionistic,

in

which

(ie.,

the

where

Arab

that

The result style,

artificial

world,

proper.

part

most

that

writes

with

Arab

the

and use them in

composition).

His

dealt

the

to memorize

of

Commenting

in

and expressions

impressionistic"

personally

(1970)

forms

style

are

as a technique

encouraged

linshaal

in

particularly

of

are

the

discourse)

written

style.

organization, there

amplification. Arab

structures,

discourse.

is

This

is

writers

has already

which

important

another It

is

tend

the

"florid

to be very

and idioms

in written

apparently

due to

been point and choosy

as well two

major

298

The first

reasons. the

is

language.

Arabic

When writing cautious

or to

not

colloquial, language,

the

variety

is

making

formal

dialect,

Arabic

dialects

Arabic

--be

it

public

in

distinct

speech"'

"What

only,

used

or oral--

knowledge

the

or hearer.

in

the

being

is

because

the

at

by

Arab

this

reinforces

simplistic,

the for

only,

illiterate.

as

a

everyday is

why

journalistic

to be directed

is

attitude",

spoken

That Even

supposed

colloquial

of

usually

as

or half-literate,

from

is

Arab

an

writing.

is

which

reader

and

used by the

never

illiterate

majority

That

there

and great

speech,

been looked

language"

written

impress

dialectal.

is

almost

to

language,

everyday

which

are

therefore

a

has always

as "the

communication,

.

The second

a word,

language

of

one's

use in

and,

literacy

to prove

to

formal

quite in

form

used

argue

Kharma and Hajjaj

a

and

everyday

(1989),

is the

the

fact

literary

fainter

Hajjaj,

goes without

the Arab

student's

Once

thought

of

in

the

in

saying, attitude

hundred

years

degenerated flame

the Arab

of

and genius

empire resorted

writers to

order

their

1989b.. 186)61

few has

and fainter,

language

shallowness

It

of

last

style

flowery.

among leaders

flowery

the

Arabic

become very

to get

for

that

conceal (Kharma,

thoughts,

began to the and

.

then, towards

that

this

writing

state in

of

English.

affairs They

affects have

a

299

tendency this

to use rare impress

would

is

because

in

Arabic.

is

It on the of

not

of

demonstrates schooling

their

interaction

in

thoughts

related our

very

are

that

that

EFL

that

they

should

of

this

discourse thesis

means of section.

foreign patterns suggests,

translation.

the

that

govern

ways in

clearly

as a

bring

to

part

of

Therefore, which by

text these

each of

She

have acquired

done that

communities

influenced

written

works

particularly

communities.

strongly

one can

we express our

experiences

specifically language

our

the

and

aspects

within

contexts.

and cultural

They have

their

and with

generally

In order

forms

in

others

these

they

styles

the

communities.

each of

discussed,

writing

own social

development.

this

with

conventions

appears

its

discourse

already

discourse

with

from

compositions

of

communities,

Appalachian

the

children the

their

various

That

good marks.

write

findings

the

that

assuming

get

do when they

one recalls of

students

vocabulary

and consequently

actually

if

with

that

as is

they

what

(1983)

Heath

and unusual

teacher

surprising

writing

argue,

their

is

this

expressions

students be made

write

effectively

aware

of

to become familiar language

but

also,

and conventions. through This

is

not

a contrast a topic

its only

and more This with

in text

the

structure

specifically,

with

be achieved,

native

to be discussed

and

linguistic

the

with

can best

it

English,

in

language the

following

as by

300

8.2

Translation

EFL

as

Technique

Enhancing

of

Writing

the

Performance

defect

The chief

used bad grammar

its

is

nature

(Catford,

controlled,

That "old

that

suggest advanced sets

to

with

a view

the

of

to

chose

translation)

119).

the

of

reminiscent

the

translation

notorious

as

a

(in the

section

our

the

attempts

to

devise

for

an

at

It

English).

case,

process

utility

to

referring

pedagogic

at

teaching

translation

of the

One of

was,

language

of

"un

teaching

teachers,

biggest

as Cristea

has

of

Latin

in

(1987)

put

which

it,

been being

Lavault

(pedago&ical des

Can exercice

inherited

from

particularj,

(Lavault,

1987:

for

shortcomings

as

de Penseignement

hdritd

du Latin"

long

perhaps

p6dagogique"

exercise

dead languages,

the

technique

Grammar-Translation-Method

principalement

of

teaching

"traduction

call

consisting

mortes,

criticized

potential

by foreign

suspicion

with

langues

when This

learning

its

carefully

language.

The use of

(1987)

(1965)

looking

ways of

to discovering

foreign

viewed

language

foreign

various

explore

use is

can be an effective

translation

provided

viii).

teaching.

translation

of

stage

1965:

made by Catford

was a remark

bad days"

and its

understood,

--translation itself

in

technique

it

was that

and bad translation

a dangerous

not

universally

'Grammar-Translation-Method'

condemned

is

the now almost

of

which "...

it

surtout

was

heavily

dlempfther

301

Papprenant la

de se

langue

C...

base"

himself

d6gager

depends process;

this

and

distinction

should

professional

purposes

It

is

conceived notably of

of

the

at

enhancing

(1981)

in

between

made

at

doubt

stage

otherwise,

argues

value stage.

in

(Catford,

that

detail

1981:

means

language

advanced

stage

of

a means both

to

explor

at

is

translation potential

an

of

of

two languages.

that

translation, devise

pedagogic as

Arab

technique

a

Catford

students. in

foreign

that

is

there

no is

taught,

a

knowledge

difficult

to attain

16-17).

itself one's

refining

for

technique.

a student's

even translation

and an important

a

translation

of

He argues

properly

of

learning

translation

of

it

of

Moreover,

can serve of

first

lack

language

useful

learning,

developing

the L2 to a depth

it

freeing the

or

thesis

performance

translation, means of

this

where

an advanced

of

use

can be a very

great

schemes

specified.

the

to

writing

from

an EFL teaching

as

level

the

that

valuable

He later

use

way,

At an advanced

of

its

introduction

the

to

teaching

be

be

learner

foreign

de

conceptuels

efficiency

the

should

English

out

in

function

a certain

the

its

But use

undergraduate

points

language

its

and

in

argued

conceptual

113).

of

et

the

prevent

and

1987:

function

the

on

to

especially

(Cristea,

language],

linguistiques

sch6mas

linguistic

the

of

des

learning. and

is

a

valuable

knowledge On develo

of the the

a other

skill foreign hand,

linguistic

302

(1987)

El-Sayed important

place however,

Tunisia,

the

at

that

claims

its

undergraduate

level

is

negligible,

place

not

a week during

the

first

two years

a week during

the

first

or

though

it

is

problem

that,

a specific for

subject the

purpose its

significant writing

It

is

it in

role

the

year

during

the

the

first

taught

EFL

hours

two

second

an In

hours

and three

The

cycle.

seem to be taught

language

English

of

being

two years--

as a major

promotion

occupy

universities.

the

of

not

Arab

does not

it

treated

not

in

"cycle")"

there,

own sake within

hand,

other

least

--at

(first

second is

does

translation

'but

for as

On

curriculum. that

subject

can

performance,

a

play

a

notably

the

has

been

it

was

as to

the

performance.

is

known that

made use of

in

the

the

throughout teaching

of

translation

centuries,

languages

(Catford,

1981),

that

language

teachers

and

only

in in

the nineteenth Western

examining

Catford

as of

items

the

a second

translation

and

language

teaching,

(Catford,

1981:

only

in

how

of

safely they

dissatisfied for

technique

a

how far

talks

became

Europe

translation meanings

century

it

Instead

itself be

might

rejected

the

presenting

language.

process

with

it

of

to

see

used

in

entirely,

1).

the

"how far"

and the

"how safely"

303

of

the

"why",

is

not

it

is

the

or

at

it

translation

itself

is

which

in

"misused"

to

serve:

it

to

learn

the

to

achieve

reference 1983:

it.

of

"when",

or

the

should

be noted

that

it

the

way

also

ineffective,

but

in

discredited

Grammar-Translation

that

goal,

system

in

To be fair,

the

did

"It

to

is

so

rather

the

first

of

how horrible

this

is

texts little

language study

and there

is

the language",

(Richards

and Rodgers,

This

method, as is

primarily,

is

texts".

That

learned

Arabic do in

pronounce

the in

proficient it

then,

has and is

cited

above,

its

to

why we do notice through West)

the

properly.

But

the

second has

method

the

language

insure

and, the

as

language",

(Stern,

been

in

the

of

eyes

situations

focus

foreign

of

knowledge

speaking

its

serving

of

quite

can neither though

well speak

it

may be

literary

Arabists (which

Method and it

is

which of

Western

that

Grammar-Translatiom Arabic

purpose

"understanding

the

nowadays

"Consequently,

learner

198,6: 4).

still

they

it

maintained

primary a

the

for

literature",

is

need for

do understand

grammar.

its

read

in

was set

C4n Western Europe3 in

used

literary

which

foreign

language

acquisition

still

where understanding

"to

translation

used translation

use of

the

enable as

it

that

function

the

serve

order

"the

No matter

critics,

was not

language

foreign

and

teaching

Method

was used

455).

old

language

foreign it

that

the

of

Grammar-Translation

still

It

talk

the

and

be used.

can

One can

teaching.

applied.

Method

its

language

behind

which

in

translation

The main defect

but

foreign

purpose

learning

of

stage

in

translation

use

they fairly

are fluently

true

who

nor to

say

304

that

Grammar-Translation

the

(Ibid:

no advocates",

Therefore, "the

"the

how",

are

satisfied,

is

is

and "the

when",

not

in

the

why"

it

is

can be

translation

(and even speech),

writing

widely

practiced,

use of

translation,

still

it

has

4-5).

deficiency

the

is

Method

an,

verbal

in

such

conditions

of

productive

form

effective

a mere direct

not

If

used.

but

That

substitution.

because

the process

of

but

an

rather

is

to

service at

discourse

with

to

match

language

language

here,

language

notably

of

if

at

in

the

is

learning. the

This

levels

writing

which

of

render

is,

is

way,

an

should

sentence, this

in

translation

matching

in

a

medium",

to

the

of

When approached

productive

another

process

itself

translation

organization.

become a form

attempt

a key word,

foreign

levels,

all

substitution

103).

and if

be a success

verbal

1987:

(El-Sayed,

'Match'

direct

dynamic

with

action

not

in

exercice

mechanical

is

translation

effective

to

effective be

sought

paragraph,

and

translation

linguistically,

will on a par

composition.

When teaching enhancing within as to

the the

their

translation composing

English choice

language of

to Arab skills

(since

curriculum),

appropriate

EFL learners

texts.

translation enough care

The type

the

with is

a

of

of

subject be

should

and length

aim

the

taken text

305 to be translated the

students

practical

can

be it

the

to

they

addition,

Thus,

the

the

about (prior

to

translation

the

which

context)

enables

composition,

1981:

words,

ie.

the

into

pick are

"the

out

relevant text

in

from

question

a

as

mere in

its

analysis

those the

and

to

the

same

way

which

the

source

(after

text

the

that

texts

operate

to

in

language.

of

target

and target they

if,

co-text

respective

and the

textual

stringing

the

a well-structured of

enables

of

teacher

and

and train

can

features

of

selection

of

items-in

-text,

18).

situation

student

to know

source

approach

a co-text,

maintains

which

source-language

(Catford,

In other

of in

to

student

the

(1981)

study

the situations

situation

change

process)

Catford

A systematic

the

will

a systematic

translation

process),

of

of

structure

This

EFL

the text.

conventions

necessity

pre-translation

text

text.

source

into

a rosary,

a

that

so

(and similarities)

and sentences

into

into

Language)

from

exercise

discourse

the

the

consideration

two languages

the

of

of

sentences

threaded

are

guided

guidance

translation

into

satisfies

text

proper

be

differences

the

interpretation

appropriate

Talking

get

serious

or an English

and development

organization

of words

an Arabic

identify

into

(Source

SL

the

of

development,

beads

successfully

analysis

students

be taken

should

hoH

to

in learn to say

which

the

text

how to stick what

,

when

operates" to

the and

topic

(or

the

of

his

where

in

306 foreign

the

language. for

who --perhaps 5, and 9)--

are

there

English.

foreign

their

differences.

They will,

covert will in

for

between

that

realize English.

is

It

thorough

is

what

organizations

led

which

the source training

of

our

of

of

misunderstanding surface of

cues of Junction

these

cues

to

were irrelevant events

Arab

students

(and similarities) awareness,

alongside

(El-Sayed,

should

between training

Arabic in

of

a

text

transfer

though

as

they

independent the

within

the

lack

so

Arabic

the

of

connecting

and

they

inculcated

the

be made aware

the

and

that

Arabic-English

1987:

contrast

English

and

In

text

such

9);

the

the effective

target

that

necessarily

best,

and the negative

situations

the

chapter

not

when

language,

appreciate

hindering

function

additives

and

boundaries,

the

first

(Cf

to believe

in the

more clearly

cohesion

is

at

bush"

the

of

Arabic

students

lies

translating

or

(1987)

the problem

3,4,

realize

system

the

of

El-Sayed

to

in Arabic

absence,

analysis

contrastive

chapters

to

system

English

the

(Cf

their

learn

be able

acceptable

perhaps

Arabic,

Arabic

and notationally-codified

students

round

and

instance, overt

Arab

can learn

they

way,

language,

linguistically

the

this

differences

and English,

between

In

for

reasons "beating

for

criticized

linguistic

are

important

specially

some culturo-educational often

compose in

they

is

This

sentence

109).

the

linguistic

English.

It

of

ways

these

two

differences is

indeed

this

languages

deal

307

cohesion

with

suggests,

for

text of

its

The role respect, between

the

certain

features,

that

two languages'

each has its

them and,

for

language skills. exercise

knowledge is

basic

This

is

of

those the

of

the

so that best

achieved analysis.

contrastive

Language

of

learning

when

it

is

use,

or

universes

in

associated

linguistic

and

cultural

mechanism

students

can

through

likely

to

boundaries,

share

be

first

their In other

their a

writing practical

it

puts

words, foreign

the

of

to

able

that

be successful areas

particular which

contact

practices

as

(1979)

this

must

to

improve

translation

As Widdowson

discourse,

as

language.

linguistic

of

they

intermingling

foreign

with of

so

avoid

more

problem

in

linguistic

and

students

the

the

locus and

though

which,

the

SL

the

of

teacher-translator,

own literary

is

language.

the mediator

consequently,

with

practices

an intimate

He is

cultures

need to be identified

language

language

EFL source

analysis

overcoming

foreign

they

translation,

any attempted

in

thesis

when

the

and appreciate

student the

with

important.

equally

internalize

the

this

as

students

and comparative

assist

foreign

the

of

is

An individual

interference

read

which, Arab

the

before

value,

indeed

tongue

mother

them to

experiential

will

to

value

Getting

importance.

great

texts

respective

a great

English.

and TL texts of

be of

will

compose in

their

within

cut

of

across

(Widdowson; 01

1979:

In

this

Ill

regard,

).

the

present

study

subscribes

to

the

belief

that

308

translation,

conceived leads

interpretation, the

enhances

of

techniques

method

to a deeper

students'

as

well

as

to

sharpen

their

in

language

of

increases

analysing language

about

for

feeling

their

foreign

the

and

complexity

language

perception

which

inter-lingual

and

develop

ability

appropriateness

communicative

intra-

of

awareness

can be an incentive

It

contrasts.

as a

language,

(Titford,

students'

knowledge

1983).

Besides, of that

language

foreign

the

translation

makes it

researcher

(who draws has

textual

they

accurately,

and from

the

in

not

that

will

language,

important

use of

translation

because students

the

with a couple with

to

the

1986).

indicate

itself

Another

confused

be unable

thing

of hours' array

of

produce

that

of

skills

the

the

nature

of

the

present that

to

teaching

competence in

of

through be

proper

transmitted inter-lingual

effective in

a

language

translating

also

be kept

in mind

teaching

activity

should

translators.

professional

that

which

to

66).

should

translation

given

experience)

able,

ability

1976:

as a language training

are

message

significant

" (Nida,

in

play

However,

to

seems

teaching

SL

Also,

competence

it

students the

matter.

problem-solving

to

role

interpret

(Ulrych,

communication, "does

to

analysis,

the

Unless

EFL students.

undergraduate

that

language

background

his

valuable

a

in

activity,

a motivating on

the

test

progress

which

and

to

foreign

on the

have

already

translation

and their

builds

translation

students

can be used

translation

a are

is

that

not That

week

cannot

provide

needed

by the

professional

be is EFL

309

It

translator.

in

translation

be

should this

clearly is

respect

therefore,

understood, to

a means

an

end,

not

that

an

end

in

itself.

Before (1987)

is

this

concluding worth

La

traduction

de la

616ves

les

langues.

deux

traduction 116tat

fois,

logique

Les erreurs

commises

La traduction

dans

1987:

le

A

la

fonctionnement des

616ves. de-

professeur

I el I es

puisqu

l1explication au

de

pr6alable. professeur

un

Mavault,

cours,

123).

CTransiation language of

entre

l1exercice

cours

de son

moyen dlauto-dvaluation

faisant

diff6rences

au

donc aussi

offre

guider

et analogique

propre

des lacunes

rdwalent

alors

et

permettent

son

perfectionner

peut

A appr6hender

des connaissances

du ralsonnement

langues

part,

le professeur

aide

deux

les

D'autre

le

Clest

comparative,

et

outil

les

oi)

une rdflexion

analogies

un

6trang6re.

le professeur

vers

ressortir

langue

du cours

en contact:

sont

incontestablement

est

moment privilggM

les

by Lavault

quotation

considering:

d'apprentissage

les

following

the

section,

the

is learning. class

an indisputable It when

is the

the

tool

of

most opportune

two

languages

foreign moment are

in

310

to

way it

this

contact:

the

guide

thinking

hand,

as the

of

translation

Lavault

indisputable

tool

enseigne,

part

of

a language

In conclusion, Titford,

1987;

El-Sayed,

a

a few)

discipline

under-estimated,

remains

study

1983,1985; 1987;

they

explanation. teacher

a

means

"translation

learning", peut

rester

la

in

the

moyen,

langue

que

fundamental

the

a means,

an

eventually,

qutun

dans

conversation

is

she,

Pentretlen be but

lends

advanced alone

that

its

support

to

1986;

Atkinson,

1987;

Tudor,

1987a,

the

sense

Ulrych,

Lavault,

who believe

let

allow

language

that

those

(Catford,

1987;

Cristea,

is

124).

this

in

and

since

that

ne

cannot

course

(Ibid:

taught],

1981;

traduction

" [translation

logical

course]

language

6tant

the

committed

the

argues

de langue

du cours

Pon

name but

"la

the

knowledge

of

preliminary

his

On

helps

own course

offers

of

foreign

that

clear

his

also

similarities

their

The errors

strongly

of

the

state

of

the

self-evaluation

Although

Pessentiel

gaps in

the

comparative

exercise

functioning

to improve

teacher

two languages.

the

students'

reasoning.

teacher

Thus,

the

the a

out

translation

as well

reveal

being

the

apprehend

the

makes it

between

teacher

analogical

toward

make them bring

that

for

possible

students

and differences other

is

language rejected.

If

and value teaching

the

all

1987b, of

1988;

translation

should

bathwater

needs

to as

not to

be be

311

to his/her

devotes

Since

degree

is

wishful

its

adequately into

L2 texts

of

training,

a

translator.

and

select

methodically

that

concerns

teacher

and explained

This

together

the

sensitize differences thus,

it

characteristic

8.3

Brief

will

the

of

largely he/she

a

first

help

them

features

of

the

language

to

foreign

Summary and Conclusions

skills

can

years

of

would-be do, learning

both

greater language.

again with

Ll

foreign

texts be

intensive

professional however, that

of

the

be

only.

is can

language

contrastive

and the a

is

can render

selection

careful

develop the

many

effectively

language

course

(English),

to

student

the

only

students

It

planning.

language

after

of

competence

pecularities,

by means of

with

university

between

depends

translation

Translation

can areas

problem

be illustrated approach,

success

language

careful

enable

mastered,

What the

overzealous

and energy

the

stylistic

alone

goal

foreign

target

equivalence.

perfect

let

assimilated,

time

the

so as to

systematized

as on the

without that

semantic,

structural,

class

to assume that

effective to presume

thinking

wishful

the

The overall

language

students'

thinking

can be satisfactorily

as did

material.

the

of

19601s.

the

as well

it,

with

foreign

the

teaching

the it

varies,

in

flexibility

teacher's

on the

in

Method

translation

use of

be thrown

not

Direct

the

of

advocates the

baby should

the

changed,

best work.

texts,

will

similarities

and

language;

awareness

to

of

and, the

312

Effective

lexicon,

grammar,

(and

language

one form

is

The strategies

of

communication,

of

languages

in

the

due to

a transferance

to

foreign

the

in

suggested language

is

between

interference

will

language

will

across of

the

one

strategies

communicative

properties

the

the

problem

and foreign translation. language

native

to

students

see

differences

culturo-linguistic

and successful

this

through of

greatly

strategies

linguists

work

allowing

languages.

two

to

solution

juxtaposition

the

communicate

communicative

language

thus

to

seems to be

many applied

alongside

the

fail

otherwise,

language

native in

performance

and

foreign

the

be achieved.

has set

study

seem to considerably language.

the

strategies.

ethos in

failure

This

appropriate

contrastive

persist

not

The present

foreign

An

themselves

similarities

general

might

native-language

language,

and for

practically

the

makes possible

foreign

the

of

thesis,

teachers,

Such approach and

language.

foreign

language. this

learners

language

foreign

the

of

communication

own

differences

to of

of

systematically

the

its

of

and language-specific.

be culture-

might

As a result, effectively

aspects

as certain

in

lead

to another

as compared

community

vary

or

processing

its

has

communication

The differences

and languages.

cultures

form

spoken

rules

the

Any

of communication)

language

of

the

involves

It

knowledge.

as linguistic

as well

cultural

knowing

on more than

phonology.

and

(whether

language

a foreign

depends

communication)

written

in

communication

Arab

affect First,

to

the

investigate students'

culturo-educational

two learning

major of

factors English

background

that as

which

a is

313

ignored

totally

almost language

learning. though

which,

as the

Second,

more

second

factor

major

linguistic

the

researched,

(or

no

foreign

affecting

appropriate

factor

tongue)

mother

solutions

are

yet

provided.

influence

Due to culturo-educational of

this

language

in

seem to

rely

part

in

their

Arab

thesis--

same way they

the

For

plagiarism,

a practice

them alone,

firstly

teachers

should

Arab

to

young

children

stop

at

the

from

a

to most

this

it

educational

which

escorts if

not is

teach

them

critical

a student

will

to others'

who is

age

they

them up till

one of

them to accept analysis. not

thoughts

trained when

orally

to

Its to asked

that

it

does

particular and

extends on

flaws

in

the

limits

the

students*

things

as they

major

to

suits

over-reliance

it

think

and

training

level

this

that

earliest

(Qurlan),

taught

biggest is

Arab

and

the

basically

is

It

the

drawback

from

university

them.

upon

blame.

itself

confine

of

laid

system

and

are

and

accused be

not

Though such

memories.

They

language

often

the

of

instructed

does it

language.

educational

young

subject

of

are

should

portion

are

major

and inures

plagiarism: resort

all

indeed

Its

system. thinking

nor

they

foreign

the

foreign

the

first

the

approach native

of

blame

the

very

major

study

reason,

biggest

kuttaab,

stage,

the

The Arab

on their

and the

subjects,

memorizbLtion

creative

the

heavily

Rather,

subject.

than

rely

which

undergo

stage,

trained

for

this

and totally.

students,

educational

not

in

to

their

approach

on memorization

essay-writing.

tend

students

in

with

--dealt

are,

Arab

rather

consequence for

produce

is

himself/herself a

piece

of

314

writing.

In fact,

one;

class

is

and students

are

said

their

is

fact,

what

educational

a dishonest

not

does not

his/her

students'

lexical

and idiomatic

gradually

and at

Memorization students

put form

not

the

to

have

read

content.

and add things.

exercise.

And if only

on themselves with

in

compositions

and the

an insight

than into

to

for for

In

this

them, they

taking will

and for

regularly,

of

but

it

to

an English

three

be asked

can then liberties have

with

or

at

both

to the

to

paraphrase,

through

such

a long-enough

will

EFL

teach

presented

by helping

students

memories,

structure

they

trying on it.

twice

can be achieved

Many benefits

the

be

their

while

reliance

minutes

a while,

way,

in

few

exploit

develop

exploited

instance, a

them for

reproduce

on their

be also

mean time,

read

heavy

the

with

can

language,

their

reduce

can,

confidence

foreign

matter

do.

does

to

as

them,

as a

teacher

so

the

of

to

repeated

build

EFL

the

not

For

to

as it

teacher

creative

students

is,

learned

have

--memorization--

They

them away and try

the

it

an

preparation

plagiarism?

Rather,

they

However

same time

the

for

or

a

in

how can Arab

case,

to do.

with

knowledge

can,

Once they

change

will

habit

composition.

ready-made

rest

than

to memorize

blamed

thing

as a whole.

system

the

composition

rather

what

be done and what

should

The solution

times.

to be told

be

a

world,

a memory exercise

and how can they

plagiarism

Arab

the

of

Such being

exam essays.

plagiarize,

of

most parts

in

written

essay

for

in

also

period,

them

an it

rely

more

provide

them

composition.

315

However, over-reliance foremost,

on

second

Influence

at

language

aspects

This

level

of

it

is

the

in

problem of

a

advanced

undergraduate difference language,

major

sentence. foreign of

However, level

some is

as

student

compositions.

between

their

English,

as

native to

word

serious

and

structure.

the

macro

Arab

foreign

considerable

language

two

and knowledge

the

at

not

from

of

in

interference

is

stages

later

as is

the

and

until

level

Here,

word

with

this

which

foreign

early

at

norms of

due,

the

interference

level.

text

the

language

as persistent or

of

away.

foreign

learning

levels.,

fade

and their

and

system.

on the

to

from

of

influence

the

starts

a basic

and sentence

first

it

due to

formation

and

language, is

familiarity

students'

evidence

Arabic,

Native

during

appears

problem

itself

macro

that

this

educational

thesis-manifest

the

is

language

increases,

language,

to

seen

Arab

the

foreign

this

of

and

seem to persist

likely

very

micro

As the

language

of

is

such a level

by actual

proved

the

of

entirely,

affecting

part

which

learning.

foreign

factor

to

solution

depends

re-evaluation

second

language:

of

The micro

the

the

language,

native

effective

memorization

major

in

with

--dealt

levels

and most

on a serious

The

the

best

the

students language.

to get

learning.

not

level,

native

rid

That

of is

because

it

are

discourse from to

shown

be

interference,

a very is

the

deviations

language

even at

as ie.

grave

make

Such deviations

to

part, easy

often

is

advanced

basically

a level

inherent

316

in

the

that

cross-linguistic between

obtain

differences

and cross-cultural

language

use

any Ll

and

between

and indeed

and English,

Arabic

of

any L2.

The second and textual

the

deviations

been shown that and textual is

although might

system

languages

cultures

and

languages

thesis most

to

if

of

the

which

differences

and,

mother

them enlarge

It

with

in

the

differ is

question

nature

of

the

has

It

rhetorical

ways

rhetoric

systematically

across

even more systematic

are

these

of

background,

languages,

all

language's

taxonomy

universal

can

should

problem

of

approach applied

textual will in

tongue

is

contrastive

appropriate

awareness

their

this

suggests

Such approach, awareness

of

for

obtain

the

has

It

if

the

the

Arabic

and

to

reach.

Neverthless,

English

and cultures.

The solution

the

foreign

Such difference

and cultures.

languages

from

and linguistic

some sort

rhetorical

major

and English.

students,

cultural

dealt

is

used and text

this

Arabic

and their

Arab

of

part

the

to Arabic

deviations

most serious

norms on the

textual

pertaining

characteristics

investigated

has examined

thesis

this

of

part

language

work

teaching

composition

those foreign

their

of

that

that

an

language;

an

linguistic

success

between

exist it

and idiomatic

the

develop

general

Besides,

language.

EFL lexical

eventually

composing

as

to EFL students.

students

the

to

translation

foreign

the

of them

sensitize

through

help

will

pecularities

and the

be stressed

easy

methodically,

particular,

more quickly

not

in

will

help

repertoire.

solving

this

317

problem

does not

teacher

has a

big

and problem the

in

to

written

areas

the

English

needs

The present

A world indeed

in

reduce

technology

is

one single

technology.

communication

understanding

ethnocentrism.

big,

distance

of

of

human

to

part

effective

smaller

today's

The achievement

of

such

nature,

of

world.

way

a goal

helps

communication

helps

It

humanity

steadily from

and

revolutionary

nations.

away

of

and smaller, a

guide

should

means

in

same

EFL

the

development

the

to

the

and

EFL course.

the

thanks

in

of

students

communities

town

assess

them to specific

EFL

'to

becoming

between and

of

these

of

Greater

on the

an

speech

and misunderstanding;

reduced

intercultural better

into

as

various

very

although

part

contribute

teaching/learning

transport

prejudice

to

of Arabic

students.

teacher

and promotion

success

the

EFL

effort

on the

errors

observed

by alerting

A reasonable

typical

have been

Tunisian

EFL students

attempts

study

shrinking

progress

the

which

EFL

his/her

transferance

the

the

.

features

salient

to weaknesses

The

indeed

is

students'

how

can help

suggested It

his/her

and

response

between

which,

solution.

undergraduate

issues

to

the

approach

has addressed

of his/her

language

communication

is

of

attention.

lead

the

levels,

and a positive

effectively

with

with

contribute

these

deserving

foreign

in

study

and macro

to

teacher

This

compositions

sensitivity address

share

areas.

micro

features

entirely

to be familiar

responsibility

at

rest

increase towards

arrogance

a and

318

No,

rus

Traditional in the Arab world or elsewhere education whether in the Muslim world has always been labelled Islamic education. For this it has kept its label throughout this thesis. reason,

in

The term 'Middle is used here to refer East' to Arab countries, but the authors Middle East say that they "are not concerned with been exposed to Western education, students who have already either 'A' levels [Britain], in this through the process of taking country in the Middle or through such genuine enclaves of Western education Universities, East such as the Israeli the American Universities of Cairo and Beirut University the Petroleum and probably of and (Dudley-Evans in Dhahran", 1980: 91-92). Minerals and Swales, 2.

The translation that of A. Y. Ali,

3.

Most escaped

4.

few During this beyond very period children could proceed not so much because education then was expensive primary schooling, family. as because of the economic condition of the average Muslim free Education, then, was basically Islamic institutions as the by (Islamic Hubus V.. were sustained endowments) and from local Muslims. What the student donations have needed to was his own pocket money. Even his food was provided for, by the either institution local The problem or, in most cases, by the people. (a) comes from a large family then was whether the student and thus his work to support the family (b) was not needed; whether he was among the elder ranked, as far as age is concerned, or the younger father. or whether he (c) has a permissive of his brothers;

of the (1983),

of the Arab parts the heavy yoke of

Qurlanic verses quoted (cf note no. 55). Islamic or colonization.

worlds

in

have

this

chapter

actually

is

not

(a) and (b) are inter-related. The first two conditions If the among his brothers and did not come from student was the eldest a he stood almost no chance to further family, his education. wealthy That is because he would be much needed by his father help in to he would be doing And consequently, the support of the family. the the same job that same job as his father, was being transmitted from generation In fact, to generation. there two well-known are best for Tunisian this sayings Arab which account conservative mentality:

Carry *

UAO -Af; -dLr-; on your father's

-..;

L-A.;

Job lest"you

be disgraced.

319

The progeny

of mice

are

(like

their

fathers)

diggers

by nature.

is The 'moral' that these sayings to children that communicate fathers they are recommended to follow the footsteps of their and forefathers before for their them. These sayings may also account the conservative tendency among the Arabs, to a tendency reject If the novelty and hardly accommodate changes. student was lucky (not and have three or more elder brothers enough to be born later in because women were not supposed to work outdoors except sisters, do-- help with the the countryside where women used to --and still have land farming to and if he was lucky enough a and the crops) father, he would stand a greater further his chance to permissive education. further But generally to very few proceed speaking, education from families. is That coming wealthy even among the students job-oriented. because Islamic It was not essentially education was knowledge for the sake of out and one's self rather carried become Although a few students could at some stage satisfaction. '.. &-d middbiyyah (Tunisian for colloquial plural Zj jai_d is Arabic the plural of which muladdib, mufaddibuun . it i. e. than financial, this post was more prestigious educator), than financially. rather socially was rewarding In short, unnecessary

Islamic further education luxury. intellectual

was

then

regarded

as

an

5.

(plural kataatiib) of yL_ýLA . kuttaab was (plural known as maktab of also y_zL_A_j Z7fttsically the same thing. It is a one-room which makaatib), building to a mosque, but it is not necessarily attached always the 'elementary was a sort of case. The kuttaab school' where to memorize the Qurlan children aged 4 to 11 were taught and mere The kuttaab is known in Tunisia teacher as reading and writing. (Tunisian for the middib colloquial S -in .. in the Arab world, he might be called Elsewhere mufaddib). so or IIaý k-4 a faqiih, mulallim, , A ... _; is '- muktib. The muladdib, who was very or mukattil . Zeituuna Mosque, Taalib both the of an was often old ..--JLJ= in his kuttaab. He had a free the headmaster aýd the only teacher but also the timetable, he choice of not only the curriculum which first, his time to then the often quite suit, changed and children's.

6.

developed institution The : as madrasah was an &.., d .. distinct from the mosque; the latter being primarily of a place 'a The madrasah was created for to be worship. specially place lessons', its literal from Arabic as is understood meaning. However, it grew alonside the mosque and was closely associated be But kuttaab, the to with it. unlike was supposed which

The

320 to, or constitute the attached a part of, the mosque. madrasah It is it the to was different. mosque which was attached or feature Another the constituted a part of it. characteristic of institution. madrasah is that it was a state 7.

11 -1110 !"fal-munjid AL-Als According 4, to . . --i (1986), fi-l-lughati language dictionary, wa 1-la-laam an Arabic in different four Taalib the word can be pluralized &&JL6 . (b) (c) Talabah, Tullaab, M ways: (a) .01ý--6 ýl Wof 0 (d) is Talab, Tullab. There no mention of is However, TUAah. this type plural which almost unused It old religious schools. might nowadays, was common in Tunisia's form of the Standard Arabic word, Talabah. also be a colloquial

8.

have, in fact, Arabic always been part and grammar and philology because they are tools subjects, among the parcel of the Islamic for Qurlan, the the to of understanding necessary especially lal--arab non-Arab Muslims and the so-called *-&Jl &a. (the arabized lal-musta-ribah Arabs, thoiý who were not originally Arabs, but adopted Arabic as their mother tongu4.

9.

Today's Tunisian that It is worth noting secular educational is from the the contents, copied system, excepting country's University traditional system adopted by the Zeituuna mainly at the The educational beginning century. of the current structure and the The only teaching methodologies are quite similar. and testing is today is that each of the three cycles major difference made institution. longer and is carried They out in a separate are as follows: ad

96-

the

primary

school

where

'al-madrasah lasts education

'a! -'ibtidaaIiyyah, 6 years.

'al-ma-had (usually followed by the modifier Path-thaanawii, 'UJI to the secondary, as opposed lal--aalii, high, i. e. high school which modifier itself is part of the Modern University). the secondary school, (a) (basically into divided the two sub-cycles, cycle short 3 to 4 years and focussing training) on professional which lasts is meant for the less intelligent, those who spend more 7 than lasts years at the primary school, and W the long cycle which 4 of which the pupils during 7 years, into the final are divided Arts Sciences the groups and the groups, mainly specialized groups. iii.

lal-jaamiah,

:v 'al-ma'had which field

AL+jj 'al-aalii, lasts education

of

expertise.

the 4 to

the

University

(or

9ii high cf . school; depending 5 years on

rjLr-j I A.A. L. "i I in above) the student's

321

10.

1950's, In the late from its independence Tunisia after got France, University the Zeituuna was closed down and restricted only (see New institutions to worship. were note erected above) and French was made the only language of instruction for all subjects, Civic & Religious Education with the exception of a subject called in Arabic for one hour weekly. taught Arabic was, of course, still but only as a language. However, in the mid 1970's, taught a slow ta'rilb, process of was started arabicization, JJJLz; &., --(primary levels mainly at the fi; st*iwo of education and secondary levels). But until today, all scientific subjects --as well as some human sciences level-in French. subjects at university are taught j

* from taHSiil the triliteral verb comes --*, :! HaSala things, get which means, among other attain followed by the achieve etc. mainly when obtain receive , , , LM eg. particle ! dL. -j6-1-t-alaa; -alaa fi-1-1ughawiyyaaU laqad HaSala majistilr "He got a Master's degree in Applied linguistics". t-taTbi1qiyyah: but RaSala does also mean acquir mainly when the middle i. IS' is doubled. becoming letter 'L HaSSala and is usually 1.0 1 fal--Ilm, followed by the word knowledge. We say Ial--ilma, HASSala i. e. I J-" He acquired 1---W 'acquisition (of knowledge. knowledge)'. Thus, taHSiil means knowledge Here, it means that the Taalib the basics acquired of level. that he is supposed to have acquired at this Oam it As for the word taMi-, the comes from Ta wa -a, ýin transitive render verb obedient If we say jI j'g--6 subdue , etc. under subjugation Ial--ilma, him Tawa'a we mean, "he made knowledge easy (for or He who gets for others) is the to acquire". taMi' called A-" is It diploma, to that the note muTawa-. Mosque of Tunis. taMi-, used to be issued only by the Zeituuna 12.

I1. 'aMmiyyah be The word to the must related e:! ,! -aliim (knowing, learned) from it is which noun deserves derived. be Thus the Taalib holding to such a diploma L-9 -aallm, 'aliim learned scholar, or man. It is called ethat very few indeed could get such high diploma. worth noting and indeed any diploma from the Zeituuna Mosque, known as j ga-4 1&-dLP1 lal-kahiir, Pal-jaami' (cf. Tunis, the Great Mosque of Louis, 1953).

13.

"A 1.1ag -adliyyah ja---j is related The word to the word ýddition 'adl 'notary', in to also which, mean 'Just' or 'Justice'. -adliyyah Those who hold those the are who have jurisprudence. in Islamic to some extent, reached, scholarship

14.

This tunisiens outside

is "candidats French Louis' term my translation of de double culture" to those who had studied which refers in Mosque in both French and Arabic, the Zeituuna schools

322

that

were

run

by the

French

Protectorate.

15.

For this argument, footnote: Louis gives the following ' (33) Cf. H. DE MONTETY, R6volution i 1'Universit6 moderniste dans I'Afrique Ex-Zitouna, 1951), trim. et PAsie, n. 13 (14"' de l'Islam, Tunis. p. 24-33 et Encyclop6die art.

16.

'aalim basically The Arabic means a scholar of noun P---JL9 .11. 'alin? a which Islamic It comes from the verb theology. " -aalim 'to -aMM know'; is or means and pJ1 0-..: .. 'scientist'. in It But somebody who 'knows a lot'. also means Arabic, the the field of expertise of a genitive noun, denoting 'aallm, is usually it. For added to the word -aalim to specify Iii 'a physicist' 'aalim is fliziyaa go-2--jý.-A g.JL-g example, .. by in Arabic. fiiziyaalli However, the word itself could also suffice.

17. da.rs,

-psi& ie. lesson.

dumus

is,

in

Arabic,

a plural

noun of

-Pis

18.

in is Sunni sect is It The Islamic the Islam. major sect fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) of ....... of four schools comprised interpreting details the only in minor concerning which differ founders. The four schools their are named after of Islam. practice found the Naalikite Imam Maallk school; Imam Abu Haniifah the Hanifite school; the Shafi-ite Imam Ash-shaafi-! school; Hanbali te and Imam Ibn Hanbal the school. PAiL., eJ1 .

19.

in North the African Arab The educational system countries (Tunisia, French Algeria, and Morocco) draws more on the system. is Islamic the traditional However, the influence of education is more apparent in Morocco, felt. Its influence mainly where still is For Islamic traditional education still existent. more (1978) information the reader is referred to Eickelman on Morocco, (1980,1983a, 1983b). and Wagner & Lotfi

20.

'similarities' between the so-called the two One might contest Arabic the one acquired and at home (the Spoken variety) varieties: (the Standard But, the one learned variety). at school as far as is concerned, there is almost no difference whatsoever, structure has proved the contrary. The major difference, and and no linguist learning, language is the this has no influence on foreign at (at least in levels the of case pronunciation and inflection Tunisian Spoken Arabic). Here is an example: a.

I aana nHibb nitghadda: Tunisian Spoken Arabic.

b.

lanaa luHibbu 'an lataghaddaa: Standard Arabic.

-:

4A

T

323 [I

would

like

Both sentences is no structural word order: SUBJECT

faana lanaa

+

to have

lunch]

mean the difference

that there same thing, and it is evident between them. Also, they have a similar

PREDICATE

+ nHibb nitghadda + IuHibbu 'an lataghaddaa

French In Tunisia, to the Arab learner would have been exposed In the mid 1980's (i. e. before English. when on learning embarking Tunisian the primary was afoot), some programme of Arabicization five four French after of unique or years started school pupil before formal that is, only one or two to Arabic, years exposure he/she Today, he/she moved on to the school. starts secondary just in the French in the third year, same way as primary-school did the generations and early of the sixties seventies. -1 had some teaching has 22. The present with experience reseacher in the Department Arab students English of samples of non-Tunisian from They were of Arts in Manouba, Tunisia. mainly at the Faculty Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, and Egypt.

21.

23.

itself, What is meant here is not the physical act of welcoming from that of its (the English slightly counterpart which varies but the of both cheeks), rather of hands or the kissing shaking its brevity the mainly performance, as regarding use of of language.

24.

Language that there to It is believed existed a Mother all languages. But, it somehow died out. For more discussion Semitic on (1929, in Arabic), to Wilvinson the reader is referred the topic, Kamal (1963 and 1972, in Arabic), and Anis (1965, in Arabic).

125.2 the term meaning all sunnah, is an Islamic from the Qurlan. teachings of Prophet Muhammad, apari known in English of the Prophet. as "Tradition" their of their and

and also

is Prophet commitment

26.

Muslims utter this invoked. It expresses towards his Message.

27.

in is EFL In Tunisia, a respected place phonology given University being taught the teaching, year at up to the second laboratories, in special by native and where it is taught speakers is it Therefore, constitutes an important part of the oral exam. briefly. worth dealing with in this study, albeit

phrase their

once the love for

sayings is It

name him

324 28.

A recent from the Gulf Crisis has it that anecdote a British journalist, happened the streets while walking of London at night, to meet with a group of Kuwaiti the "FREE KUWAIT" youths wearing badge and standing beside two luxurious They were cars. apparently "Are the getting ready to go to a disco. you Kuwaitis? " asked journalist, British "yes". to which they all replied with a proud (as he saw When he asked them if they would love Kuwait to be freed "FREE KUWAIT" badges), "Of them wearing they all answered, then? " he said. yes! ". "Why aren't course, you there on the front, "We are They immediately If British the replied, ci/f/ilians". journalist knew Arabic, he would have noticed that the way they "civilians" like the word Arabic the pronounced words sounded L'la-) (2 ) safalah (plural saafillin or of -1 "base and cowardly ul meaning people". -saafil) ,

29.

From his own experience Tunisian to as EFL teacher secondary (particularly those with little French to school students exposure to English), the present that the two researcher concludes prior in English EFL the phonemes /v/ and /p/ need a special attention during learning. the early stages classroom, especially of "veil" like "fail"; "views" Otherwise, sound will any will by some miracle, the "vowel" turn into a "fuse"; strangely may, is and this no doubt grow wings and become a "fowl", a serious "pear" language "foul". Worse still, into a sweet may change a "bear"; into a "beer turns suddenly a 11pier- glass" grisly glass"; in the Arab meter" --Oh dear! -- is a "barking and a "parking meter" be a troublesome business will that world, and thus "parking" the attention of all passers-by, attracts as being made by humans.

30.

S has one shape in all its word This letter positions Whereas in the Arabic it North African East, takes writing. in the it on its position word shapes depending and whether It takes the above shape if it is attached or detached. attached is in initial or middle positions; and it takes this shape is in final if it is detached and/or position. e. g.

31.

32.

(a) (b) (C) (d)

baraka malaka 'akala kataba

in two is or

(kneel down) (possess) (eat) (write)

Arab learners to whom English is the monolingual are those (the first foreign language This does not apply Arabs of the East). (the Arabs African Arab learners Western to the North of the part been before French to who have long of the Arab World) exposed English. have overcome Thus, they will difficulty that additional to English, the once they as far are exposed at leat as alphabet and a few cognates are concerned. The

For

more

details

about

j,

". n API

al-11shtiqaaq,

the

325

reader indeed 33.

in

AraLc:

chapter

10),

or

The two major schools the of Arabic grammar disagreed on whether (the stems from which all other Arabic words are derived are verbs school of Kuufa, school or nouns (the of 11"ja. defended Basra, J1 ). Each of the two schools its it with arguments. For more details theory and supported about 10). the topic, see Ya-quub (1982, in Arabic: chapter

34. 35.

is referred to Ya-quub (1982, any book on Arabic morphology.

is

It

Islamic

the

way of

greeting.

It is customary to use such with Arabs and Muslims in general These compounds as names for their names always male children. -abd, which is invariable for 'o consist of the first element all such compound names, and a second element, a variable element, in which is one of almost all God's 99 attributes as they appear So, there are names like: the Qur'an.

(a) (b) (c)

I M.O. A &___Ij J1zrx _&__L@. 6-iaI

-abdu-1-laah 'abdu-l-malik -abdu-r-raHiim

God's servant The Lord's servant The Merciful's servant

Likewise for a few female names which are made up of 'umm (mother invariable first word or essence of) and 41 second word usually denoting a good quality, eg.: (d) j (e). 1

: t!

lol

lummu-i-khayr

lummu-l-hanaa

i-11ol

the a

(the mother or essence of good) (the mother or essence of happiness)

It should be noted that in the Eastern part of the Arab World, the such female compound names are not used as proper names. as is " in but Arab World, kunlyah Western the the part of case as :!! 1 labuu, for males, and #41 lumm, (agnomen) consisting §--. of for females, followed by the name of the first-born child, usually the first-born male, eg.: Lial. -O

Mj (g)

j

(h) J1 W

labuu Saabir (Father of Sabir). *. Sabir is a male name. Lafdl lumm Saabir (Mother of Sabir).

-To. _.-11abuu laamaal (Father of Amel). *. Amel is a female name. AYol lumm laamaal (Mother of Amel).

labuu bakr is However, male compound names, like 'abuu -ubaydah, always used as a proper name and be a2 1d4 which is normally a proper name and can also . kuniyah. They are used as proper names because the first is after the name of the first Caliph, that of a and the second after

326 Muslim

well-known 36.

miltary

commander of

(iii) Patterns and (vi) spoken dialect and only in

the

early

years

in English are possible specific contexts.

of

Islam.

only

in

the

(iii) Sentence pattern could be an exclamation of surprise or dismay at a reported If A reports B that to Amel ate event. an apple and she was medically not supposed to, B would most probably beginning by the act (the predicate) repeat what A reported rather (the subject), than the actor with a likely pause between the two. (vi) Sentence pattern could be an exclamation If A reports to B that Amel at a reported event. knowing that Amel did not like apples, would most by the to him beginning what A reported object "an apple", sentence, which caused his wonder or 37.

of wonder or doubt B, ate an apple, repeat probably the of reported doubt.

There are two ways of pronouncing definite Arabic the article il depending it. that follows it is on the type of consonant /al/ is /a/, just either pronounced as it written or as the consonant sound /l/ goes mute because of the phonological effect of following letter immediately it, the becomes consonant which doubled, eg.: J1 (ii) -All is The following (lunar I-qamariyyah (solar sh-shamsiyyah a.

Lunar

al-qamar: al

in such al-qamariyyah

in ash-shams: such JI al ash-shamsiyyah a list of letters) and letters):

a

case (lunar

it al).

it a case (solar al). J6

is

is

called

called

al-Huruufu al-Huruufu

Letters: j

(15/28). b.

Solar

Letters:

(13128). 38.

In French, both number and gender.

"le" "la" "les" "un" trune"

is is is is is

a a a a a

definite and indefinite Here they are:

articles

singular masculine definite article. feminine definite singular article. definite plural masculine/feminine article. singular masculine indefinite article. feminine indefinite singular article.

inflect

for

327

"des"

is

a plural

masculine/feminine

indefinite

article.

"a" "la" in "le" "e" in in French are Also, the that and note vowels In such define dropped once these articles with a vowel. nouns beginning to their respective nouns with an apostrophe, a case, they are attached (the 11ange (the school) instead angel) of *1a 6cole; eg. I'dcole instead of *1e ange. in their in Arabic singular Animals and objects grammar are treated depending huwa hlya $--A form like humans by either or $&-Al be them, that However, the their represents pronoun gender. plural on hiya)exceptions, however_, is one: they males or females. UL-A __can_be Arabic and-in-the-Qurlan. _found__in_Classical is It is not a time 40. Sadad by itself word. The word it When it is a noun, both a noun and a preposition. means "nearness, 'My daarihi, Sadada daarii dJ1&an M OJIM proximity", in it means "opposite; his'. When it is a preposition, house is opposite bi-Sadadi daarii it front pla as -1 AJ12 Of " eg. have house'. It his in front 'My house is opposite/ daarihi, also can of of its use. on the context other meanings depending

39.

41.

is in this researcher The only research regard known to the present English (1987) done by Ouaouicha and compared that who examined of compositions with Arabic students of Moroccan university compositions American university students.

42.

Johnstone's does not only betray The sheer use of the term "Western" into languages two bias but also her unfounded division of the world (or the "others" of Western and non-Western types: -- with the exception West from the the language of Nazi Germany which she strangely excludes "others"). Johnstone's Thus, sounds the approach with and includes defends one's like that of a party who 'rhetorically' politician, rather fault the others', with and does one's best to find policies party's after only conclusions than that of an academic researcher who draws analysis. and objective scientific

43.

implied and It is worth noting that some of the above contrastivists is that subordination of a sign explicit made it quite some others (a by "maturity", that coordination analogy, means, which style in languages feature particular) and Arabic, of Semitic characteristic "immaturity". is a sign of style

44.

in first is from which this taken published The article was quotation is thesis 207-214. 5 (1929), The edition LANGUAGE, vol. used in this that of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS, BAKERLY AND LOS ANGELESv 'CULTURE, LANGUAGEAND PERSONALITY' which of 1966, entitled consists by David G. Mandelbaum. selected essays by Edward Sapir and edited

45.

Whorf's works that are 1940. However, the edition

quoted in this that is being

thesis are first is used currently

published that of

in THE

328

TECHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, OF PRESS, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE M. I. T. 'LANGUAGE, 1962, July, entitled MASSACHUSETTS, 1956, fifth printing, Lee essays by Benjamin THOUGHT, and REALITY' which consists of selected by John B. Carroll. Whorf and edited 46.

is Qurlan The is of Qurlanic text the unique. The structure of into divided is chapters It rather not punctuated. course in length, and each ( considerably vary which suwar) if--into divided i4l. its is, in turn, ( suurah) chapter --w J T can A aayah) al verse aayaat). verses :1 -----or a sentence, be made up of a group of letters, a word, a phrase, detail). for 57 (a more no. cf note group of sentences, a paragraph by Qur'an the text been the of have to Attempts punctuate made decide to depended on meaning Muslim who obviously scholars recent for They be signs used made. should where pauses, major or minor, the letters of Neither mostly the are which signs, such a purpose. inserted be agreed are they should the where places nor alphabet, they are however, since merit, These without not are signs, upon. the intended the modern Muslim reader with understanding to assist Qurlanic structures.

'that by is if sentence is a meant 47. true only what This statement by determined ie. full stop', a with ending words of string in for Arabic, hold true which If this not will not, punctuation. following Arabic Consider the is phenomenon. a recent punctuation "sentence":

b,

I jg--6. A r..JgL:zS L-&J1j.61j I

-S

1*---SLIJI

-T

A L-XJA" A-Wim. -J, Q%-J) 0-fa-ghasalat laamaalu baakiran wajhahaa wa 'aTraafahaa listanazat lila kharajat thumma S-SabaaHi faTuura musri'atan wa tanaawalat 1-madrasah. this string Punctuationally, But semantically and structurally, if independently they can exist can have: (a) (b)

(C) (d)

48. at

is one words of Arabic they are four sentences out. the linkers are left

J, -T laamaalu baaiiran listayqaZat IIj. 61j I-" -1 -I-I 'aTraafahaa wa waJhahaa ghasalat Ilid L- C...J§L.LU Al faTuura-S-SabaaH tanaawalat "I C-+JA -J-" ILjj lila-l-madrasah kharajat musri-atan These samples of sentences random by a quick scanning

sentence. because Hence, we

(Amel woke up early) (She washed her

face

and hands)

(She had her

breakfast)

(She hurried

out

to

school)

extracted are and paragraphs Much through novels. a few

almost longer

329

samples end.

might

have been found

if

more time

has been devoted

to

that

49.

For more detailed information to 'ad-daqr reader is referred Arabic grammar book.

50.

It is interesting looks like to note that though this structure 4611 (2 it is not at all is It one of addition so. rather J1 . "'A ( That is because if it continuation were addition, Na" following the be in the the second word should same form Na", the conjugational as the one preceding whether ' nominative, accusative, or genitive, e. g.:

on the (1986:

functions 429-433)

I A-Us" (Qurlan, larsalnaa wa laqad nuuHan wa libraahiima [and We did send Noah and Abraham] if the matter, word it to the word before have been in the accusative, as it above. For

that

of or

LVII:

the to

"wa", any

the good

26)

nuqirru were 0, a _ 41 __ L' it nubayyin is the the case with

added would example

51.

believes had Al-Jubouri The present that researcher an used (instead literary Arabic corpora of a journalistic one whose is discourse, it is influenced by its thought, Western quite for Arabic in this low the percentage cou4terpart), respect --quite The reason is Arabic that as it is-would have been much lower. This be relies very heavily connectivity. on explicit should not it shows the Arabic On the contrary, language viewed as a weakness. concern for clarity, a concern that leaves no room for structural ambiguity.

52.

The donkey, stupidity.

53.

It seems to be a custom among Eastern Arabs that once you happen to be (or happen to pass by) in their neighbourhood and they meet to invite you, they seem to feel an obligation you. If they repeat it means that "they mean the invitation statement and insist on it, (but it". If they say it once or even twice in the time second be sure that "they do not mean it". They quick faint voice, only say it out of courtesy.

54.

Note has Qurlan, that the as is earlier, no mentioned The commas used here serve only as pause markers. They punctuation. by Muslim the various to replace upon scholars pauses agreed facilitate Qur'anic by ordinary the understanding the text of people.

in

Arab

culture,

connotes

thick-headedness

and

330

55.

help I from Qurlan, seek the usually In translating examples (b) A. J. done by (a) A. Yusuf Ali, from the following translations Old I (Cf However, (c) Asad replaced M. Arberry, references). and for the English by today's those of English grammar and expression eg.: sake of plainliness, " "you" is used instead of " "You are" is used instead

"thee" or "thou". of "thou art".

That is "reader" "listener" instead random. at not 56. The use of of for Prophet the a be to to Qurlan is because the revealed was said basically orally. that messages received then-illiterate people for device the be to necessary a Therefore, seems repetition beyond in be the oblivion. to memory engraved message is. Qurlanic definition to verse is a what as 57. There no precise The verse ranges for sure is that it is not a sentence. one thing (b) 1, in 11: to letters one single (a) from as of a combination by followed letter as (c) phrase a 1, in LV: to single one word as in LV: (e) 12, in LV: to as (d) sentence a 1, in L: to a phrase as is (which 282 in 11: actually text 2, to (f) a paragraph as or a Qurlan). in Whole longest the the suurah longest the verse within 58.

In link

the Qurlanic eg.: at all,

CIn the

lexical

text,

(Qurlan, 1: Most Mercifulj

I zom-: *ýA[ AJJ name of God, Most Gracious,

ftý M. CYou are the

[And seek Merciful]

I-_.

10 11",

All-knowing,

forgiveness

from

4J,

-6 the All-wise]

God,

for

(Qurlan,

God is

appear

often

very

couplets

11:

Most

59.

Kaplan

(1966)

distinguishes

1. Synonymous_Parallelism: of the and the phrasing

four

defined first part

absence even

types as the by the

of

no

1)

32)

(Qurlan, Forgiving,

111Z$1 L--. JT J4 (Qurlan, LIV: lies folk. They [The warnings Pharaoah's cried came also to the We them seizing with them. seized so of all signs, ) omnipotent. mighty, the to Muslim scholars, According the structure makes couplets such more emphatic. particularly

with

IV: 6) Most + - '- Is* 41-42) Our to One of

"wa" of the linker rhetorical more

in and

parallelism:

balancing of part, second

thought and often

331

involves

the

use of

2. Synthetic Parallelism: thought part of the first the use or implication of 3. Antithetic first part is

conjunction.

a coordinating

Parallelism: emphasized

defined as the completion in the second part, and adverb. a conjunctive occurs when an idea in the through contrast

of an idea or involves often

stated second

in part.

the

is 4. Climactic Parallelism: a passage occurs when the idea of by its ie. the second the passage, of until very end not completed is similar to the periodic This type of parallelism modern part. is postponed to the very end, eg.: sentence where the subject Appended to undergraduate

thesis this students.

are

compositions

by

Tunisian

60.

differences that there are no structural It is worth mentioning former is the that Arabic, Arabic between written except and spoken level is difference the The of at only more oversweeping. in Arabic), (there is more foreign spoken vocabulary vocabulary dialects), in (e. dual is and the most spoken absent g. conJugation (e. Standard Arabic g. the consonants the pronunciation of certain /g/ is largely /q/ pronounced stop-uvular voiceless J --a in /k/ is the in Spoken Arabic as case or velar stop---a voiced dialects, cf 7.3 above). some Palestinian

61.

twentieth even century, A few hundred years back and up to early and rhythmical; the titles of almost all works had to be rhyming Examples did not match the title. of such the contents and often works:

! LO (OP4-&JI

Affiv,

Loa,

I-lafraaH bilaadi fli Haadi I-larwaaH by Ibn qayyim The Instigator of Souls in the Land of Happiness ). D. A. H. (7th/8th A. centuries =13th/14th centuries al-jawziyyah r, Al ., I Z#--iLj I J--U -; Ia lia JLJ 2, LA..; * vo; --j fii I-Iiijaaz nihaayatu in Ultimate Conciseness d-diin by fakhru Qurlan A. D. ).

0-! Ajj-J,

1-1i'jaaz diraayati the Understanding of Inimitability (7th century A. H. =13th ar-raazi,

a..-u 1) (of the century

;JT-

'uluumi l-qurlaan M al-burhaan by badru in Sciences Qurlanic Proof (9th century A. D. ). A. H. =15th century

d-diin

az-zarkshi,

332

ýA *aJl I JU 4--, g...; aJ qp6 1-manthuur ad-dir'ru Scattered Pearls d-diin as-suyuuTi, 1_ýj

I 4-.

ALj

1

J_

IlL

-_-4"-JLg

(oj.. %.AJI LL.. LJI apAJO wL:

'tli-u-ur bi-l-ma t-tafsiir in (QurlanicTExegesis by Tradition with Oth A. D. ). A. H. =15th century century fi

J11

.07.6,4

L-AS-AL-A

jr-A

jalaalu

-dL-J

I 2j-Aa. &J UJ I zoj..U 1)

faqwamu I-masaallk IaHwaali 1-mamialik M ma r1fati The Straightest State of of Paths for the Knowledge of the Welfare (13th Countries by khayru d-diin A. H. =19th century at-tuunisi, A. D. ). century This phenomenon of rhyming and rhythmical titles for It has been on the increase again. particularly or so. The following rhyming are examples of recent

Jig ,.

3T&-.LJI J,. to Wjizatu 1-larqaami wa t-tarqjjm Hiracle of Numbers and Numbering (1983) r-razzaaq nawfal,

T, pg _LiI

-

fl in

l-qurlaani Holy the

I-karijm Qurlan

ja

Om-jwl

mfgaum

-abdu

by

* oj*AdjJ"JL&Jls....

lughawiyyah f! Zilaali tadrilbat wa naHwiyyah l-qurlaaniyyah wa 1-ladabiyyah in the Shade of Linguistic and grammatical exercises by -abdu 1--aal Literary text saalim makram, (1987) aLul

(IlAr)

'II JI. _1i '_ (IIAV)

-Q,

is reappearing the last decade titles:

1-11

AN

-

I&

Lo----j

x

n-nuSuuSi Qurlani-c .

01

-

and I-mma

*

0 IAV) M taSwiibaat Rectifications - abdu 1-fattaaH 62.

fahmi baDi I-laayaat in the Understanding (1987). al-khaalidi,

of

some

verses

by

SalaaH

four years in Tunisia last Undergraduate which studies normally first into two "cycles": the are divided cycle and the second During the first ie. the first two the years, cycle. all cycle, (be in it Language the students an English same department Department, language Department, the etc. ) study same an Arabic during But, the subjects at the same time. second which cycle, lasts four two years, the students at least who share only major ' -Le-+j.MIzL-" ( 'iJbaariyyah) from courses shahaadaat , being the two among six, optional courses other likhtiyaarlyyah), have &-----'Jl shahaadaat , the choice to take first, of which courses no as long as they take more than four courses during the first year of this second cycle.

333 in (called "Compulsory Certificates") four major courses 1he Erq'ish Department five hours for the taught a week are Course, (1) The Literature into ea C11 ýIhey are subdividing dram-a The Linguistics Course, (3) The (2) ve..., and poetry; Anc, Translation Course, 'Stylistzcs subdividing and Translation, Translation Workshops, Int of and Er-LQ-1--sniz4zýaLbic; Contrastive Stylistics; finally (4) The and S into British History, American '-oiirse, 4-abdividing 74. Mass Media, As to the isc-, ýry cf remaining --iild EFL student ont', c).ý,a.,- courses, the should choose one course it, t I'Id T, EV ze-ated, t-, the Department and the other outside I i)&Larr. ment but ý,n the same faculty. "T" 11n,-ýýh 5eme oicner 03all'I -.1 1--rla n q7,; .1qeS

Eastern are

European classified

languages such , among the highly

as Polishinflected

64.12.

I. t is not is still nquisric controversial, "Jzsue Arabic There is. to ear what ae an compound are tvo main 1,! definitional to and they are both one is related itse1f; th-,I ýerz ttrkiih to the the other For a clearer idea the components posit-, on if of a compound. is referred the reader to Emery (1988b), about -h. L3 iasue as ýt is bavond the scope of this it in detail. thesis to discuss 5;".;

In discussion is more about asRect than c ara=ar, -krab-, The is referred in English 'to abcu-. j&. aILL. waDi as -Arabic is jRv3,tqct, -:tie milmri' to as imRerfect. while referred 1--wever, both future theytime. car. present, express past and . for a moze detailed discussion this is the reader about point, 58-77) (1974,1: 295to Cantarino referrea and Kharma (1991: 3031.5, ýe also thesis. p.., 39es 213 and 214 of this

is azJv-ze! pronoun also lha inanimate; masvu -,.Lr.Leý feminine plural and it remains in all three cases. U4J I I L: L-&ý zU AI q-W eq 'aBtjajubaa , aq,ta nasakhcu .1maqaalaaci .1-. IarJJ (I photocopied the articles which I need). 67 the though

should be noted that if the verb is it be in the must --alvays thu subject may be dual or plural, eg,:

used for the same

placed first in singular even

L-041

01 %, " 0-4 -. ( 3nis1, imaladu (3ms nom. . (The boy went to school) 101.0

L-J-41 )1.1z" dbahj, 'f-JI M (3=s)IjYtIadsjj2-i

1madrasah (pr. ph) .

L(m. dual. nom. ) Vla to school)

Jmdrasah

(pr. p)

f,3=:3)J"aY. Ia, tdu (3m. pl. nom. ) '11.1 ImIdrasah : The boys went to school)

(pr. p)

(The

two boys

went

ý33ct iv)

a4l

I plI C, _, Ail

JUJJ gt

,

Imadrasah YhahjAitJ (3f 7hJnru (3f ) '_iJa s. nom. s). ; (The girl went to school)

(pr. p)

-I-- hný -;. . dhabthitz'(3fs)lb-z'ntttpi (f. dual. nom. ) V14 Imad-ra.'rah (p. p) (The two girls went to school)

V)

%_, Ail

vi)

dhahjb. ot_i(3f s). Y)anajtu(3f )'J14 pl. nom. . (The girls went to school)

7,wdzvSJh ..

(p p) -

However, if then the the subject the verb precedes ' latter it in number as well as in gender, pust agree with (Cf egs. xi and is a non-human plural except when the subject In this case, the verb is in the feminine singular xii below). whether the order is VSO or SVO: 101ý I L-_. vii) Jz&J1'fJJ '11als a.7-maledaan. i(m. dual. nom) dbahitbaa(m. dual). ', i1a Imadrasah (The two boys went to school) k, viii)

ýAAJ

,il-

(p. p)

10 'A'ausul

%rJJ

.

'a vlaadu(3m. pl. nom. ) dhahabuu(3m. pl. ) V. 7h Imad-rasah (p. p) (The boys went to school)

I 6 ý[ I': -ne ix ) ; -434), -. 'A4 dual) dh. dual a. 1-bintaj. nom) vhaLjta, 2(f i7_z'(f (The two girls went ot school)

'11a

lmd-rasth

(p. p)

J1 X)-,

OJI

"Ll

'ZI

a.l-, banaatu (3f. pl. nom. )dhaha1wj( (The girls went to school)

3f. pl. )'J1, t Imdrasah

(p. p)

Xi)

(non-human pl. ) tvzh_z'ýru (3fs) rv tsh7: sa.. _7', (Trees blossom in Spring) X.1i tuz-Airu a-7- 'as-hg;2arý' (non-human pl (Trees blossom in Spring)

(3f B) fi

(p. p)

(p. p)

333b

Abbreviations

and

Acronyms

in

used

BRISMES

British

ELT I

Journal

English

FIT

Fdration

Internationale

IBLA

Inst-itut

des

IDELTI

Institute Teaching

Institute

of

IRAL

lAnternari-onal

NELC

Centre

RELC

Regional

TESOL

Teachers

Middle

Eastern

des

Traducteurs

Arabes

Development

the

Studies

Journal

Teaching

Belles-Lettres

(Tunis,

of

Tunisia)

English

Language

Iraq

Review

in

interested

English

of

Bibliography

Language

for in

this

of

teaching

Language

English

Applied

Linguistics

Foreign

Centre

to 'Speakers

Language

Culture

(Singapore)

-of Other

Languages

334

RNC;

I-TSH

-ANl:

)

IFPF-NCH

PF-FF-a]ENCF-S

Abd al-Rahim, Ali M. 1.1978. THE LITERARY SRUCTURE OF THE QUR'ANIC VERSE. Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, University of Edinburgh. Abdul-Ghani, Christina. 1985. "Crossing Influence Cultures: the of Arabic Discourse Written English". Third on Students' Linguistics Conference, Yarmouk. Abdul Ridha Kenlaan, Siham. 1989. "Word Stress in English and Arabic". Indian Journal 15/2: 1-22. Linguistics, of Applied Abdulwahab, 'Maison H. H. 1965. "Bayt de la Al-Hikma sagessel ou 353-372. D'Ifriqiya". IBLA, 28/112: Ahmad, Munir-ud-Din; 1968. MUSLIM EDUCATION AND THE SCHOLARS' SOCIAL STATUS UP TO THE FIFTH CENTURY MUSLIM ERA IN THE LIGHT OF Verlag. TAIRIKH BAGHDAD. Zurich: (eds. ). Al-Afendi, M. H. and Baloch, N. A. 1980. CURRICULUM AND TEACHER EDUCATION. Jeddah, King Abdulaziz University: Hodder and Stoughton. Alatis, J. E. (ed. ). 1968. REPORT OF 19TH ANNUAL ROUND TABLE MEETING AND LANGUAGE STUDIES. ON LINGUISTICS Washington, D. C.: Press. Georgetown University Alatis, J. E. and Crymes, Ruth (eds. ). 1977. THE HUMAN FACTORS IN ESL. D. C: TESOL. Washington, (ed. ). Al-Attas, Sayed Muhammad Al-Naquib AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. Jeddah, King Abdulaziz University: Hodder and Stoughton. Lois L. 1986. THE CULTURAL ATLAS Al faruqi, Isma'il R. and Al faruqi, OF ISLAM. New York: Macmillan. "The 1984. Al-Jubouri, Role Adnan J. R. in Repetition Arabic of ". Swales, J. & Mustapha, Discourse Argumentative H. (eds. ). ESP IN THE ARAB WORLD. University Aston, Birmingham: of Unit. Language Studies 1987. COMPUTER-AIDED CATEGORISATION AND OF CONNECTIVES IN ENGLISH AND ARABIC (BASED QUANTItI=ON ON NEWSPAPER TEXT CORPORA). Unpublished Thesis, Ph. D Birmingham. University of Aston, Ali, 1934. THE HOLY QUR'AN: A. Yusuf. TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY. Makkah: Iqraa. deviation, Ali, Salah S. 1988. "Symbol, and culture-bound expression in Arabic Babel, translating". as a source of error poetic 34/4: 211-221. Allen, H. B. 11970. "A monotonous monologue". (ed. ). TEFL Larudee, F. IN THE MIDDLE EAST. Cairo: in Cairo, The American University pp. 93-102. Al-Mutawa, Najat and Kailani, Taiseer. 1989. METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO ARAB STUDENTS. London: Longman. C. et al. 1984. "The Question Alptekin, in EFL Teaching of Culture: Speaking Countries". 14-20. 88/1: non-English ELT Journal,

335

Anani,

Mohammad. 1989. "Incorrect in the Case of Arab Stress Placement Learners 15-21. IRAL, 27/1: of English". Anderman, G. M. and Rogers, M. A. (eds. ). 1988. TRANSLATION STUDIES: STATE OF THE ART. Guilford, Centre for University of Surrey: Translation and Language Studies. Anwar, Mohamed S. 1983. "The legitimate Speech Errors". Fathers of Versteegh, H. M. et al (eds. ). THE HISTORY OF LINGUISTICS IN THE NEAR EAST. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 13-29. Arberry. Arthur OUP. J. 1982. THE KORAN: INTERPRETED. Oxford: Asad, Muhammad. 1980. THE MESSAGE OF THE QURIAN: TRANSLATION AND EXPLANATION. Gibraltar: Dar Al-Andalus. (eds. ). 1979. INTERCULTURAL Asante, M. et HANDBOOK OF al COMMUNICATION. Beverley Sage Publications. Hills: "The in Classroom: 1987. Tongue Atkinson, David. Mother the a 41/4: 241-247. neglected resource? ". ELT Journal, la 1983. "Les grammairiens Ayoub, Georgine arabe, and Bohas, Georges. H. M. et Versteegh, al et le bon sens". phrase nominale (eds. ). IN THE NEAR EAST. THE HISTORY OF LINGUISTICS Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 31-48. "Cultural 1982. Problems English-Arabic Y. Aziz, Yowell of 1: 25-29. Babel, Translations". "Theme-rheme 1988. organization and paragraph 117-128. in standard Arabic". Word, 39/2: structure Dar Ba-albaki, M. 1981. AL-MAWRID: ENGLISH-ARABIC DICTIONARY. Beirut: Lil-Malayen. El-Ilm its aims and 1979. "Traditional Islamic EducationBadawi, M. A. Zaki. day". Al-Attas, in the present Syed M. Al-Naquib purposes (ed. ). AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. Jeddah, king Abdulaziz University: Hodder and Stoughton. Manfred (eds. ). 1982. ENGLISH AS A Bailey, W. and G6rlach, Richard CUP. WORLDLANGUAGE. Cambridge: 1984. ARABIC CULTURE: THROUGH ITS LANGUAGE AND Bakalla, M. H. LITERATURE. London: Kegan Paul International. 1980. ASPECTS OF CLAUSE STRUCTURE IN ARABIC. Bakir, Murtadha J. University Linguistics Club. Indiana Bloomington: Barber, C. L. 1972. THE STORY OF LANGUAGE. London: Pan Books. " in Theory and 'Contrastive Rhetoric' Bar-lev, Zev. 1986. "Discourse 9/2: 235-246. Discourse Processes, D. C.: Bateson, Mary C. 1967. ARABIC LANGUAGE HANDBOOK. Washington, Linguistics. Center for Applied (eds. ). UBERSETZEN UND 1981. F-R. Bausch, K-R. and Weller, Diesterweg. FREMI)SPRACHENUNTERRICHT.Frankfurt: Language 1983. "Mother Tongue Baynham, Mike. Materials and Second 37: 312-318. Literacy". ELT Jounial, de. 1981. INTRODUCTION TO TEXT LINGUISTICS. Beaugrande, Robert-Alain Singapore: Longman. "Comparing in Texts Different 1988. A: Studien, Reihe Languages'. Linguistische 176: 1-12. Arbeitsberichte, Hutchinson Beeston, A. F. L. 1970. THE ARABIC LANGUAGE TODAY. London:

336

University

Library. 1973. "Coordination in Literary Arabic". M61anges de Saint Josep 48: 167-174. de 11universit6 , 1974a. "Parallelism in Arabic Prose". Journal of 5: 134-146. Literature, Arabic 1974b. "Embedding of the Theme-Predicate Structure Language, 50: 474-477. In Arabic". 1975. "Some Features Modern Standard Arabic". of Studies, 20: 62-68. Journal of Semitic Bentahila, A. and Eirlys, Davies. 1989. "Culture Use: and Language a for Problem Foreign Language 27/2: Teaching". IRAL, 99-112. "The Bialystok, E. 1981. Role Linguistic in Knowledge Second of Language Acquisition". in Studies Second Languag 4/1: 31-45. Acquisition, 1983. "On learning language form and 1naguage function". 7/1: Studies 54-65. Bulletin Utrecht, Interlanguage Bilgrami, H. H. and Ashraf, S. A. 1985. THE CONCEPT OF AN ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY. Hodder and Stoughton. 1987. ARGUING AND THINKING: A RHETORICAL APPROACH TO Billig, Michael. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Cambridge: CUP. "Rhetoric 1979. Blake, Cecil A. Intercultural Communication". and (eds. ). M. et Asante, HANDBOOK OF INTERCULTURAL al COMMUNICATION. Beverley Hills: Sage Publications, 1986. STUDIES IN ARABIC SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS. Bloch, Ariel A. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana "Pragmatics Elite. 1984a. and Olshtain, and Second Language Learning: Applied Linguistic preface". 5/3: 187-195. "Request 1984b. and Apologies: Study of Speech Act Realization a Cross-cultural (CCSARP)" Applied Patterns Linguistics, 5/3: 196-213. Bourque, Jane M. 1974. "Study Abroad and Intercultural Communication". (ed. ). Jarvis, G. A. THE CHALLENGE OF COMMUNICATION. Textbook, National pp. 329-351. 1968 [1904J. Bradley, Henry. THE MAKING OF ENGLISH. London: Macmillan. Brislin, R. W. (ed. ). 1876. TRANSLATION: APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH. New York: Gardener Press. 1986. "Learning Brown, Douglas. Valdes, J. M. (ed. ). a Second Culture" CULTURE BOUND. Cambridge: CUP. Brown, G. and Yule, G. 1983. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. Cambridge: CUP. 1983. Brumfit, C. J. AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING. London: Batsford Academic. Brunschwig, R. 1931. "Quelques remarques historiques sur les mddersas de Tunisie". 261-285. Revue Tunisienne, Bulos, "? Ismul-Mawsul 1960. Afif A. in Classical Arabic and the Relative Pronoun in English: Study". LANGUAGE a Contrastive 47-53. LEARNING, 10/1-2: Burhans, Clinton S. 1983. "The Teaching of Writing Knowledge and the Gap". College 45/7: 639-656. English,

I

337

1991. "Mediating Social Dieter. Languages and Cultures: the D. and Intercultural Restored". Buttjes, Dimension and (eds. ). CULTURES. Byram, M. LANGUAGES AND MEDIATING Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 3-16. (eds. ). 1991. Buttjes, D. MEDITING LANGUAGES AND M. and Byram, CULTURES. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. "Teaching 1991. Towards Byram, Michael. Culture an and Language: (eds. ). M. Integrated Buttjes, D. Model". and Byram, Multilingual MEDIATING LANGUAGES AND CULTURES. Clevedon: 17-30. Matters, 1974. SYNTAX OF MODERNARABIC PROSE: THE SIMPLE Vicente. Cantarino, University Indiana SENTENCE (Volume One). Bloomington: Press. 1975. SYNTAX OF MODERNARABIC PROSE: THE EXPANDED University Indiana Two). Bloomington: SENI'ENCE (Volume Press. 1970. OF ELOQUENCE: STUDIES IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL Harry. Caplan, Press. University RHETORIC. Cornell Organization L. 1984. "The Effects Patricia Carrell, on of Rhetorical 18/3: 441-469. TESOL Quarterl ESL Readers". , Text ESL Reading by Teaching 1985. "Facilitating 19/4: 727-753. TESOL Quarterly, StructuFe"'. "Politeness: H. 1981. Konneker. L. and Beverly, Carrell, Patricia Judgements". LANGUAGE Native Comparing and Nonnative 17-30. LEARNING, 31/1: 1980 [19653. A LINGUISTIC THEORY OF TRANSLATION. J. C. Catford, OUP. oxford: "Translation (1967)". 1981. teaching and Language (eds. ). UBERSETZEN UND F-R. ---B-ausch, K-R. and Weller, Diesterweg, FREMI)SPRACHENUNTERRICHT.Frankfurt: pp. 1-19. "Native 1981. Student Speaker Evaluation Kenneth. Chastain, of 65/3: Modern Errors". Language Journal, Composition 288-294. "Gender 1981. in Perception Arabic Mark A. Clarke, and et al. 31/1: 159-169. Language Learning, English". 1981. "Culture Structure". Journal Clyne, Michael. of and Discourse 5: 61-66. Pragmatics, in 1987. "Cultural Differences Organization the of German". Journal Texts: English Academic of and 11/2: 211-247. Pragmatics, "Analysing 1987. Argumentative Structure Cohen, Robin. the of 13/1-2: 11-24. Computational Linguistics, Discourse". (eds. ). 1975. SPEECH ACTS: SYNTAX AND Cole, P. and Morgan, J. L. SEMANTICS 3. New York: Academic Press. 1984. "A Study of Cohesion and Coherence in English Connor, Ulla. as a Papers in Linguistics: Writing". Second Language Student's 17: 302-316. International Journal of Human Communication, (eds. ). 1987. WRITING ACROSS Connor, Ulla and Kaplan, Robert B. Massatchussetts: LANGUAGES: ANALYSIS OF L2 TEXT. Reading, Addison-Wesley.

Buttjes,

338

Connor,

Ulla and Mc Cagg, Peter. 1987. "A Contrastive Study of English Expository Prose Paraphrases". Connor, U. and Kaplan, R. B. (eds. ). WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGES: ANALYSIS OF L2 TEXT. Reading, Massatchussetts: Addison-Wesley. Corder, S. P. 1975. "The Language Learners: Second-Language The of 409-414. Broader Issues". Modern Language Journal, LIX/8: 1978. "Language-Learner (ed. ). Language". Richards, J. UNDERSTANDING SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Rowley, Massatchussetts: Newbury House. Coulthard, Malcolm. 1977. AN INTRODUCTION TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. London: Longman. (ed. ). 1976. Cowan, J. Milton. DICTIONARY: THE HANS ARABIC-ENGLISH WEHR DICTIONARY OF MODERNWRITTEN ARABIC. New York: Spoken Language Services. 1987. "Valences Cristea, didactiques de la Teodora. Le traduction". dans le monde, 87: 113-118. Francais Crystal, 1985. David. A DICTIONARY OF LINGUISTICS AND PHONETICS. London: Basil Blackwell. 1988. THE ENGLISH LANGGUAGE. London: Penguin. E. 1987. "A Contrastive Approach Analysis to the Davies, Eirlys of Politeness Formulas". Applied Linguistics, 8/1: 75-88. "Textuality 1978. Deyes, Anthony F. Translation". through Nickel, (AILA-Band). TRANSLATION. Gerhard (ed. ). Hochschulverlag, pp. 25-38. 1962. MUSLIM EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL TIMES. Dodge, Bayard. Washington, D. C.: The Middle East Institute. Douglas, D. 1977. FROM SCHOOL TO UNIVERSITY: THE STUDY HABITS RESEARCH PROJECT FINAL REPORT. Khartoum, The Sudan: University of Khartoum. Dudly-Evans, T. and Swales, J. 1980. "Study Modes and Students from ELT DOCUMENT109--STUDY MODES AND ACADEMIC the Middle East". DEVELOPMENT OF OVERSEAS STUDENTS. London: The British Council. Dulay, M. K. 1974. "You H. and Burt, Learn Goofing". can't without (ed. ). J. C. Richards, ERROR ANALYSIS: PERSPECTIVES ON SECOND LANGUAGEACQUISITION. London: Longman. M. and Krashen, Dulay, H., Burt, S. D. 1982. LANGUAGE TWO. New York: OUP. Eickelman, Dale F. 1978. "The Art of Memory: Islamic Education and its Social Reproduction". Comparative Studies Society of and 20: 485-516. Histo , "Collocation: Emery, Peter G. 1988a. in Arabic/English a Problem ". Quinquereme, 11/2: 178-184. Translation? 1988b. "Compound Words in Modern Standard Arabic". fUr Arabische (Journal Linguistik zeltschrift Arabic of Linguistics), 19: 32-43. El-Hassan, "Aspectual Shahir A. 1987. in Distinctions English and Written Arabic". IRAL, XXV/2: 131-137. Ellis, R. 1985. UNDERSTANDINGSECOND LANGUAGE AQUISITION. oxford: OUP. El-Sayed, (Current Ali M. 1987. "Translation Device as a Pedagogic

339

in Arab Universities)". Translation Teaching Situation 13/1: 101-113. Linguistics, Indian Journal of Applied 1989. "Politeness Formulas in English a and Arabic: Linguistics, Study". Journal Indian contrastive of Applied 15/2: 96-113. Khan, M. W. (ed. ). 1981. "Education El-Tom, Basheer. and Society". King EDUCATION AND SOCIETY IN THE MUSLIM WORLD. Jeddah, Hodder and Stoughton, Abdulaziz University: pp. 28-44. Arabic 1985. "Basic Word Order in Classical El-Yasin, M. Khalid. and 65: 107-122. Lingua, Jordanian Arabic". "Connecting Ll 1981. L. I. Evensen, L. S. and Rygh, and FL in Wolfgang et Kiihlwein, Analysis". Discourse Level Performance UND (eds. ). LINGUISTIK KONTRASTIVE al OBERSETZUNGSWISSENSCHAFT.Kdnchen: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. "Perspectives 1987. Gabriele. Faerch, Claus and Kasper, on Language 8: 111-136. Linguistic Transfer". Applied , "Traduction traduction Fdal, Karla Ddjean le. 1987. et pddagogique issue, dans, le monde, special Le franqais professionelle". Aug-Sept, pp. 107-112. AND THE LANGUAGE Fisiak, Jacek (ed. ). 1981. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS Pergamon Press. TEACHER. Oxford: (ed. ). 1983. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS: PROBLEMS AND --TROSPECTS. The Hague: Mouton. "The 1969-1977: Tunisian Textbook Project 1980. Pablo. Foster, in Materials Projects Affecting Production". Problems Document Special, London: The British Design-ELT Materials Council. "Teaching 1990. in Language: E. M. Target Franklin, Carole the Language Journal, Learning Problems and Prospects". September, pp. 20-24. Fries, C. 1945. TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. University Press. Ann Arbor: of Michigan 1988. "Aspects de la Slote. Gauvin, Denis G. and Daniel pddagogiques 183-198. litt6raire". Meta, 33/2: traduction 1989. London: THE CONCISE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM. Glassd, Cyril. Stacey International. in Discourse Analysis Structure". H. A. 1968. "Contrastive Gleason, REPORT OF 19TH ANNUAL ROUND TABLE J. E. (ed. ). Alatis, AND LANGUAGE STUDIES. Washington, MEETING ON LINGUISTICS Press, D. C.: Goergetown University pp. 39-63. 1912. "Muslim Education". Encyclopedia Religion Goldziher, Ignaz. of 5: 198-207. and Ethics, 1987. "Contrastive Research". Rhetoric Grabe, William. and Text-Type (eds. ). WRITING ACROSS Robert B. Connor, Ulla and Kaplan, Massatchussetts: LANGUAGES: ANALYSIS OF L2 TEXT. Reading, Addison-Wesley. "False 1988. Friends: Granger, Sylviane Helen. a and Swallow, Le langage Difficulties". Kaleidoscope et of Translation 11homme, 23/2(67): 108-120. 1991. AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. London: Greenbaum, Sidney.

340

Longman. Greenbaum, Sidney 1990. A STUDENT'S GRAMMAR OF Randolph. and Quirk, THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. London: Longman. "The Implications for Greis, 1967. Naguib. Studies the of Contrastive W. Speakers". Robinett, B. teaching to Arabic of English (ed. ). ON TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES, 3, Washington, D. C.: Teachers Speakers to series of English Languages. of Other "Logic J. Grice, H. P. 1975. P. and Morgan, Cole, and Conversation". 3. L. (eds. ). SPEECH ACTS: SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS New York: Academic Press, pp. 41-58. CULTURE. Grunebaum, G. von (ed. ). 1970. ISLAMIC LOGIC IN CLASSICAL Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowits. "Notes Halliday, M. A. K. 1967. and Theme in English". on Transitivity 3: 38-81. Journal of Linguistics, 1982. Edward Arnold. FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR. London: 1976. COHESION IN ENGLISH. Ruqaiya. M. A. K. and Hasan, Halliday, London: Longman. "Inherent Cultural Values Discourse Harder, D. 1983. Bernhard and in by English Essays Japanese Students". Structures linguistic 16: 25-31. Descriptive and Applied , "Cultural in 1984. Attitudes Discourse Analysis". 29/2: 115-130. Journal The CanNdian of Linguistic , CONTRASTIVE TEXTOLOGY: COMPARATIVE Hartmann, R. R. K. 1980. DISCOURSE (Studies LINGUISTICS. in Descriptive ANALYSIS IN APPLIED 5). Heidelberg: Groos. Linguistics 1981a.

"Contrastive

Wolfgang Kuh1weln, et al UBERSETZUNGSWISSENSCHAFT.

Hatim,

Textology (eds.

).

Kiinchen:

KONTRASTIVE Wilhelm

Translation".

and

LINGUISTIK Fink

UND

Verlag.

1981b. "Equivalence in Bilingual from Lexicography: Relation Communicative to Strategy". correspondence Wolfgang et al (eds. ). KONTRASTIVE LINGUISTIK KUhlwein, UND UBERSETZUNGSWISSENSCHAFT.MUnchen: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. 1985a. "Contrastive Text Analysis Search and the in Bilingual Equivalence the Dictionary". tor K. and Zettersten, A. (eds. ). SYMPOSIUM ON Hyldgaard-Jensen, COPENHAGEN1984. TUbingen: LEXICOGRAPHY II, Niemeyer, pp. 121-132. 1985b. "Contrastive Textology Towards a Dynamic -Lexical Studies? ". Language tor Interlingual and 5/2: 107-110. Communicative, "Translation 1987. Equivalence Bilingual and Revista Canaria de Estudios View". Lexicography: a Personal 13-14: 55-66. Ingleses, for 1987. "A Text Basil. Linguistic Model Analysis the of from Errors: Arabic Discourse Contributions Linguistics". Monaghan, James (ed. ). GRAMMARIN THE CONSTRUCTIONOF TEXTS. London: Frances Pinter, pp. 102-113. Linguistic 1989. "Argumentative Cultures: Style Across ---Vo-m Kdlmel, Function". Rhetorical as the Realization of

341

(eds. ). BABEL: THE CULTURAL AND Rainer and Payne, Jerry Aberdeen LINGUISTIC BARRIERS BETWEEN NATIONS. Aberdeen: University Press, pp. 25-32. "The in English Hawas, 1989. Hamid M. Articles a and Arabic: Linguistic Contrastive Indian Journal Study". of Applied 15/2: 23-51. CUP. Heath, S. B. 1983. WAYS WITH WORDS. Cambridge: Japanese Hinds, Rhetoric: John L. 1983. "Contrastive and English". 3/2: 183-195. Text, University: Islamic "A Plea for Hossain, 1979. S. M. a Modern Sayed M. Al-Naquib Al-Attas, Resolusion of the Dichotomy". (ed. ). AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION. London: Hodder and Stoughton. "Linguistics 1982. Hoey. Houghton, Diane and Michael and Written Annual Review of Applie Rhetorics". Contrastive Discourse: 3/2: 2-22. Linguistics, Problems 1984. "Some Methodological House, Juliane. and Perspectives Linguistic Applied Analysis". in Contrastive Discourse 5/3: 245-254. IN MUSLIM 1979. CRISIS Syed Ali. Husain, Syed Sajjad and Ashraf, EDUCATION. London: hodder and Stoughton. Personal Arabic Hussain, Amjad. 1975. "Classical pronouns and English 4: 59-103. IDELTI, Compared". (eds. ). 1985. SYMPOSIUM ON K. and Zettersten, A. Hyldgaard-Jensen, Niemeyer. COPENHAGEN1984. TUbingen: LEXICOGRAPHY II, Ibrahim, A. A-R. A. M. 1978. THE LITERARY STRUCTURE OF THE QURIANIC Ph. D Thesis, University VERSE. Unpublished of Edinburgh. 1982. ISLAMISATION Thought MIT). Institute International of Islamic OF KNOWLEDGE: GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND WORK PLAN. Brentwood, IIIT. Maryland: 1983. HUMAN ASSESSMENT AND J. W. (eds. ). Irvine, S. and Berry, CULTURAL FACTORS. New York: Plenum. James, C. 1980. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS. London: Longman. Fisiak, Competence". 1981a. "The Transfer of Communicative (ed. ). CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND THE LANGUAGE Jacek Pergamon Press. TEACHER. Oxford: KUhlwein, in Contrastive Analysis". 1981b. "Directionality UND (ed. ). LINGUISTIK KONTRASTIVE Wolfgang al et ÜBERSETZUNGSWISSENSCHAFT.München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. "Perspectives Translation". Transfer 1988. and on 27/1: 45-48. Linguis , 23/4: "Learner language Teachi 1990. Language". 205-213. STUDY 1980. "Seminar Overview". ELT DOCUMENT 109-James, Kenneth. MODES AND ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENTOF OVERSEAS STUDENTS. London: Council. The British National Jarvis, G. A. (ed. ). THE CHALLENGE OF COMMUNICATION. London: Textbook. Some Definitions Johns, Ann M. 1986. "Coherence and Academic Writing: 20/2: Quarterl TESOL for Suggestions Teaching". and

342

247-65. Johnstone, Barbara. 1981. REPETITION IN DISCOURSE: COHESION AND PERSUATION IN ARABIC ARGUMENTATIVE PROSE. Michigan: Ann Arbor. 1983a. "Presentation Language the as Proof: of -Rhetoric". 25/1: Arabic Anthropological Linguistic 47-60). 1983b. "Arabic lexical couplets and the evolution 23/1: 51-61. General Linguistics, of synoilymy". 1984. "Repeating Yourself: Discourse Paraphrase and the GenFration Language". States Proceedings-Easter of (ESCOL), 1: 250-259. Conference on Linguistics "Arguments 1986. Khomeini: Rhetorical with Situation in Persuasive Cross-cultural Style and 6/2: Perspective" 171-187. Text, 1987a. "An Introduction". 7/3: 205-214. Text, 19874 "Parataxis in Arabic: Modification as a Model for Persuation". in Languag 11/1: 85-89). Studies , 1949. "Coup d'oeil Jomier, Jacques. rapide sur les institutions arabes d'enseignement: la pddagogie A I'dcole IBLA, coranique". 12: 326-346.

David. 1987. THE SEMANTICSOF FORMIN ARABIC, IN THE MIRROR in Language OF EUROPEANLANGUAGES. (Studies Companion Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Johns Benjamins series, vol. 15). Publishing Company. Kachru, Braj B. 1976. "Model of English for World: White the Third Burden or Language Pragmatics? ". Man's Linguistic TESOL 10/2: 221-239. Quarterl , 1981. "The Pragmatics Varieties of Non-Native of Engl sh". Smith, Larry E. (ed. ). ENGLISH FOR CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION.Hong Kong: Macmillan, pp. 15-39. (ed. ). 1982. THE OTHER TONGUE: ENGLISH ACROSS Press. CULIURES. Urbana: University of Illinois 1982. "Meaning in Deviation: Toward Understanding Non--Wa-U-Ive English Texts". Kachru, Braj B. (ed. ). THE OTHER TONGUE: ENGLISH ACROSS CULTURES. Urbana: University of Illinois, pp. 325-350. 1985. "Discourse Strategies, Pragmatics and ESL: Where 16/2: 1-17. are we going? ". RELC Journal, Kaplan, R. B. 1966. "Cultural in Thought Patterns Intercultural 16: 1-20. Education". Language Learning, 1967. "Contrastive Rhetoric Teaching and the of 1/4: 10-16. Composition". TESOL Quarterl , 1972. THE ANATOMY OF RHETORIC: PROLEGOMENA TO A for Teachers). FUN TIONAL THEORY OF RHETORIC (Essays Philadelphia: The Center for Curriculum Development. Justice,

1977. "Contrastive Some Hypotheses". Rhetoric: 39- 0: 61-72. 1986. "Culture Language". Valdes, and the Written CUP. (ed. ). CULTURE BOUND. Cambridge:

ITL, J.

M.

343

1987. "Cultural Thought Patterns Revisited". Connor, --=a Robert B. (eds. ). WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGES: and Kaplan, ANALYSIS OF L2 TEXT. Reading, Massatchussetts: Addison-Wesley. 1988. "Contrastive Rhetoric Second Language and --learning: Notes Toward a Theory Contrastive Rhetoric". of Purves, A. C. (ed. ). WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGESAND CULTURES. Newbury Park: Sage, pp. 275-304. Keith, Hugh and Mason, Ian (eds. ). 1987. TRANSLATION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGESDEGREE. London: CILT. Kellerman, E. and Sharwood Smith, (eds. ). 1986. M. CROSSLINGUISTIC INFLUENCE IN SECOND LANGUAGEACQUISITION. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Khalil, Aziz. 1985. "Communicative Error Evaluation: Native Speakers' Evaluation Errors EFL and Interpretation of Written of Arab Learners". TESOL Quarterly, 19/2: Khanji, R. 1981. "Error Analysis TEAM, 38: 10-18. of Arab Students". Khan, Mohammad W. 1981. (ed. ). 1981. EDUCATION AND SOCIETY IN THE MUSLIM WORLD. Jeddah, King Abdulaziz University: Hodder and Stoughton. Kharma, Nayef. 1981. "Analysis Errors Committed by Arab the of University in Students Use the English the of Definite/Indefinite Articles". IRAL, xix/4: 333-343. "Arab 1987. Students' Problems English the with --WeTative Clause". IRAL, xxv/3: 257-266. Kharma, Nayef and Hajjaj, Ali H. 1989a. "Use of the Mother Tongue in IRAL, 27/3: 223-235. the ESL Classroom". 1989b. ERRORS IN ENGLISH AMONGARABIC SPEAKERS: ANALYSIS-AND REMEDY. London: Longman. Kilani-Schoch, Marianne Wolfgang 1984. "Natural U. and Dressler, Morphology Tunisian Arabic". Wiener and Classical versus 33-34: Linguistische Gazette, 51-68. Kinnany, 1980. "Producing Abdul Haleem Khaldun. Teachers for Islamic Education". Al-Afendi, M. H. (eds. ). N. A. and Baloch, CURRICULUM AND TEACHER EDUCATION. Jeddah, King Abdulaziz University: Hodder and Stoughton, pp. 139-154. K61mel, Rainer and Payne, Terry. (eds. ). 1989. BABEL: THE CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC BARRIERS BETWEEN NATIONS. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. Kordes, Hagen. 1991. "Intercultural Learning School: Limits at and Possibilities". Buttjes, D. and Byram, M. (eds. ). MEDIATING LANGUAGESAND CULTURES. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 287-305. Kramer, "Teaching JUrgen. 1990. Cultural, Historical, the and Intercultural Advanced Language to Learners". Languag Learning Journal, September, pp. 58-61. Kramsch, Claire. 1981. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING. Washington: Linguistics. Center for Applied 1989. "New Directions in the Teaching Language of NFLC Occasional 1-13. Pape April, and culture". pp. ,

344 Kreitler,

"Meanings, Shulamith 1988. Culture and et al. Communication". 12: 725-742. journal of Pragmatic , Kiihlwein, (eds. ). Wolfgang et al 1981. UND KONTRASTIVE LINGUISTIK UBERSETZUNGSWISSENSCHAFT.Miinchen: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. "Pedagogical Kiihlwein, Wolfgang. 1983. Limitations Contrastive of (ed. ). Linguistics". Fisiak, J. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS: PROBLEMSAND PROSPECTS. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 313-331. Labidi, Abdelmajid. 1988. THE IMPACT OF INHERITED STUDY MODES AND EXPRESSION MODES ON ARAB STUDENTS STUDYING IN BRITAIN. Unpublished University M. A. Dissertation, of Salford. Lado, Robert. 1957. The LINGUISTICS ACROSS CULTURES. Ann Arbor: University Press. of Michigan des "Pour la traduction dans l1enseignement Ladmiral, Jean-Ren6.1981. humanitds". des Bausch, langues: moderne (eds. ). UBERSETZEN Karl-Richard Weller. and Franz-Rudolf, Diesterweg, UND FREMI)SPRACHEUNTERRICHT. Frankfurt: pp. 217-231 The American Larudee, F. (ed. ): 1970. TEFL IN THE MIDDLE EAST. Cairo: in Cairo. University de la 1987. "Traduction Lavault, Elizabeth. pddagogique et p6dagogie ". Le francais dans le issue, traduction? monde, special August-September, pp. 119-127. "The between 1985. Nominal Levin, Distinction Aryeh. and Verbal Grammarians". Zeitschrift Sentences According to the Arab 15: 118-127. fiir Arabische Linguisti , Always Has a Purpose". Lindquist, Hans. 1988. "Translation Anderman, STATE G. M. and Rogers, M. A. (eds. ). TRANSLATION STUDIES: University for Surrey: OF THE ART. Guilford, Centre of Translation and Language Studies, pp. 45-56. "Cohesion 1978. in Linnarud, Moira. Target the and Communication Studies 3/1: 23-34. Interlanguage Bulletin, Language". Pragmatics Littlewood, William T. 1983. "Contrastive Foreign and the 4/3: Personality". Applied Linguistic Language Learner's , 200-206. in 1988. "Personal Expression and Conformity Learning". the ForeIgn -Tanguage paper presented at Language Teachi University Symposium of on Arabic , Leeds, 5-7 April. les ftudes: Louis, tunisienne A. 1953a. "La jeunesse et effectifs, 11. IBLA, 16: 1-45. diverses orientations ... 1953b. "Sujets d1examen propos6s aux 6tudients de la Grande Mosqude". IBLA, 16: 247-254. "Language 1970. in Classical Islam". Mahdi, Muhsin. and Logic Grunebaum, G. von (ed. ). LOGIC IN CLASSICAL ISLAMIC CULTURE. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, pp. 51-83. Majali, A. S. 1976. THE DEVELOPMENTOF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE ARAB 1972). Lecture WORLD. (University Arab of Essex, Carreras London: Longman. Teaching Maley, Alan. 1986. "XANADU ---a the Miracle of Rare Device': (ed. ). CULTURE BOUND. in China". Valdes, J. M. of English

345

Cambridge: CUP. Markels, R. B. 1983. "Cohesion Paradigms in Paragraphs". Colleg 45: 450-474. Englis , Marsh, Malcolm. 1987. "The Value Ll Translation > L2 of on Undergraduate Courses in Modern Languages". hugh Keith, and (eds. ). Mason, Ian TRANSLATION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES DEGREE. London: CILT. Martin, R. C. 1982. "Understanding Text the Qurlan in and Context". History 21/4: 361-384. of Religions, 1987. "Text in Reference Islam". to and Textuality --S-e-meia, 40: 125-145. iFic-ha-el. McCarthy, 1991. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE TAECHERS. Cambridge: CUP. Mc Laughlin, Margaret L. 1984. CONVERSATION: HOW TALK IS ORGANIZED? Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications. Mohammed, M. A. 1985. "Stylistic Rules in Classical Arabic and the Levels Grammar". in Studies African Linguistics, of Supplement 9, pp. 228-232. Mok Park, Young. 1988. "Academic Background and Ethnic as Factors Affecting Writing Performance". Purves, A. C. (ed. ). WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGES AND CULTURES. Newbury Park: Sage, pp. 261-272. Monaghan, James. (ed. ). 1987. GRAMMARIN THE CONSTRUCTION OF TEXTS. London: Frances Pinter. 1960. LIARABE MODERNE. Paris: Monteil, Vincent. Klincksieck. "Arabic 1979. Moore, John. Derivational Morphology Lexical and from Theory". Papers Regional the Meetings, Chicago 15: 228-243. Linguistic Society, 1930. "La rdforme de l1enseignement Muchrif, Al-. A la grande mosqude de Tunis". Revue des Atudes. IslamiqueS, 4: 441-515. 1981. "WH-questions Mukattash, Lewis. in English: for Arab a Problem Students". IRAL, XIX/4: 317-332. "Teaching 1988. Murphy, Bryan. Translation Through and Teaching Translation". Modern English Teacher, 15/4: 12-15. Muskat-Tabakowska, Elzbieta. 1981. "The in Function Translation of (1973)". Foreign Language Teaching Bausch, Karl-Richard and Weller, (eds. ). UBERSETZEN Franz-Rudolf. UND FREMI)SPRACHENUNTERRICHT.Frankfurt: Diesterweg, pp. 73-80. Mustapha, Hassan. 1988. "Learner Orientated Materials: Case for the Arabic". Symposium Arabic the paper presented at on Language Teachi University 5-7 Leeds, April. of , Nakosteen, M. 1964. HISTORY OF ISLAMIC ORIGINS OF WESTERN EDUCATION A. D. 800-1350. Boulder, Colorado: Unversity Colorado of Press. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. 1976. ISLAMIC SCIENCE --AN ILLUSTRATED STUDY. Kent: World of Islam Festival Publishing Company. Nehls, D. (ed. ). INTERLANGUAGE STUDIES. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. Nickel, (ed. ). Gerhard. (AILA--Band). 1978. TRANSLATION Hochschulverlag. Nida, E. A. 1976. "A framework for Analysis the of and Evaluation

346

Theories Brislin, R. W. (ed. ). TRANSLATION: of Translation". APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH. New York: Gardener Press. Norrick, Neal R. 1987. "Functions Repetition in Conversation". of 7/3: 245-264. Text, Ong, Walter J. 1982. ORALITY AND LITERACY. London: Methuen. Osterloh, Karl-Heinz. 1986, "Intercultural Differences and Communicaive Approaches in Language Teaching to Foreign the Third World". Valdes, J. M. (ed. ). CULTURE BOUND. Cambridge: CUP. Ostler, Shirley "English E. 1987. in Parallels: a Comparison of English Prose". Connor, U. R. B. and Arabic and Kaplan, (eds. ). WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGES: ANALYSIS OF L2 TEXT. Reading, Massatchussetts: Addison-Wesley. Ouaouicha, 1987. CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC AND THE STRUCTURE OF Driss. LEARNER-PRODUCEDARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS IN ARABIC AND ENGLISH. Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin. Owens, Jonathan. 1988. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GRAMMAR: AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL ARABIC GRAMMATICAL THEORY. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Parker, Orin D. et al. 1986. "Cultural Clues Middle Eastern to the (ed. ). Student". Valdes, J. M. CULTURE BOUND. Cambridge: CUP. Patai, R. 1983 [19733. THE ARAB MIND. New York: Scribner's Sons. "Masjid". Pedersen, 1987. Johs. First Encyclopaedia Islam of 1913-3 5: 315-376. , Pergnier, 1978. "Les rapports Maurice. de la linguistique A appliqude la traduction Nickel, G. et de la linguistique contrastive". (ed. ). TRANSLATION (AILA--Band). Hochschulverlag, pp. 83-92. Pisarska, 1988. "Translation Alicja. Didactics Language and Foreign 19: 95-106. Teaching". Glottodidactica, "A. Point Polotsky, 1978. H. J. Arabic Syntax: Indirect the of Attribute". Israel Oriental Studies, 8: 159-173. Prosser, Michael H. (ed. ). 1973. INTERCOMMUNICATION AMONGNATIONS AND PEOPLES. New York: Harper and Row. Prothro, Terry k. 1955. "Arab-American Differences in the Judgement of Written Messages". Joumal 42: 3-11. Psychology, of Social Purves, Alan C. (ed. ). 1988. WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGES AND CULTURES: ISSUES IN CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC. Newbury Park: Sage. Qubain, Fahim 1.1966. EDUCATION AND SCIENCE IN THE ARAB WORLD. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press. Quirk, R. 1973. Sidney. A UNIVERSITY GRAMMAR OF and Greenbaum, ENGLISH. London: Longman. Raouf, A. 1988. "Why VSO is Basic in Arabic". BRISMES, proceedings 1988 International Conference Eastern of the on Middle Studies Held at the University 10-13 Leeds, July, of pp. 355-362. Redeker, Gisela. 1984. "On Differences between Spoken and Written Languages". 7: 43-55. Discourse Processes, Renwick, Goerge W. 1983. "If Australians Are Arrogant, Are Americans Boring? If Americans Arrogant? ". Are Boring, Are Australians

347 Smith, L. E. (ed. ). READINGS IN ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 117-123. Richards, J. C. (ed. ). 1974. ERROR ANALYSIS: PERSPECTIVES ON SECOND LANGUAGEACQUISITION. London: Longman. (ed. ). 1978. UNDERSTANDING SECONDAND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Rowley, Massatchussetts: Newbury House. Richards, J. C. 1985. LONGMAN DICTIONARY et OF al. APPLIED LINGUISTICS. London: Longman. Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. 1986. APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING: A DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS. Cambridge: CUP. Riley, P. 1981. "Towards a Contrastive Pragmatics". (ed. ). Fisiak, J. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND THE LANGUAGE TEACHER. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Ringbom, Hakan. 1987. THE ROLE OF THE FIRST LANGUAGE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Clevedon, Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Robinett, B. W. (ed. ). 1967. ON TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES, Series 3. Washington, D. C.: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Saladeddin, M. A. 1987. "Target-World Experiential Matching: Case of Arabic/English Translation". Quinquereme, 10/2: 137-164. 1989. "Text Development Negative and Arabic-English Applied Linguistic Interference". 10/1: 36-51. , Said, Edward W. 1980. ORIENTALISM. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Said, Hanan A. A. 1988. THE COHESIVE ROLE OF REFERENCE, SUBSTITUTION, AND ELLIPSIS IN TWO GENRES OF MODERN LITERARY ARABIC. Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, Texas A&M University. Sajavaara, 1981. "Contrastive Kari. Linguistics Past and Present and a Communicative Approach". Fisiak, (ed. ). J. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND THE LANGUAGE TEACHER. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 33-56. Sanders, C. 1976. "Recent Developments in Contrastive Analysis and Relevance their to Language Teaching". IRAL, 14: 67-73. 1981. "Recent Developments in Contrastive Analysis and --Meir Relevance Language to Teachers". Fisiak, (ed. ). J. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND THE LANGUAGE TEACHER. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 21-32. Santerre, R. 1973. PtDAGOGIE MUSULMANE D'AFRIQUE NOIRE. Montreal: University Press of Montreal. Sapir, Edward. 1929. "The Status Linguistics of as a Science". Languag 5: 209. , 1966. CULTURE, LANGUAGE AND PERSONALITY. Selected by David G. Mandelbaum. essays edited Bakerley and Los Angeles: University Press. of California 1970 [1921]. LANGUAGE: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF __SPEE H. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. Schiller, Janis Lee. 1989. WRITING IN Ll--WRITING IN L2: CASE STUDIES OF THE COMPOSINGPROCESSESOF FIVE ADULT ARABIC-SPEAKING ESL WRITERS. Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, New York University.

348

Margaret 1974. "Error Sue and Tucker, Analysis G. Richard. and English Language Languag Strategies Students". Arab of 69-97. Learni 24/1: , "A Brief 1971. Contrastive Selinker, Larry F. Reappraisal of Linguistics". Working Papers in Linguistics, pp. 1-10. 1967. "Their' Culture Robinett, B. W. Senior, Clarence. --and Ours". (ed. ). ON TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES, 3. Washington Series D. C.: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, pp. 123-127. "The 1951. Influence Arabic Language Shouby, E. the on the of 5: 284-302. Psychology Middle East Journal, of the Arabs". Memorization by Literature Students: J. N. 1980. "Habitual Sivell, a 51-54. 35/1: Help as Well as a Hindrance". ELT Journal, 1974. LIENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR EN TUNISIE. Tunis: STD. Smida, Mongi. Larry E. (ed. ). 1981. ENGLISH FOR CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION. Smith, Hong Kong: Macmillan. Language --no Room 1983. "English as an International (ed. ). -Tor I; inguistic Smith, READINGS Larry E. Chauvinism". IN ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 7-11. (ed. ). 1983. READINGS IN ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL -EMWAGE. Pergamon Press. Oxford: (ed. ). 1987. DISCOURSE ACROSS CULTURES: STRATEGIES IN Hall. WORLDENGLISHES. New York: Prentice "The Language Second Learner Anna 0.1988. Sdter, and Cultural in Narration". Purves, WRITING ACROSS A. C. (ed. ). Transfer LANGUAGESAND CULTURES. Newbury Park: Sage, pp. 177-260. "Contrastive 1981. Analysis, S. N. Error Analysis Sridhar, and (ed. ). Interlanguage: Three Phases of One Goal". Fisiak, J. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND THE LANGUAGE TEACHER. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 207-241. 1986. "Register, Cohesion, Margaret. Steffensen, and Cross-cultural 7/1: 71-85. Applied Linguistic Reading Comprehension". , H. H. 1983. FUNDAMENTALCONCEPTS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. Oxford: Stern, OUP. W. 1973. "The West: Michael Arabs Communication Suleiman, and the (ed. ). H. INTERCOMMUNICATION AMONG Michael Gap". Prosser, NATIONS AND PEOPLES. New York: Harper and Row. "A Relationally-Based 1986. Study Subjectof in Journal Standard Arabic". Arab Object PFo-perties of 4/2: 133-150. Language-Studies, (eds. ). 1984. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC H. Swales, J. and Mustapha, Birmingham: PURPOSES IN THE ARAB WORLD. University of Aston, Unit. Language Studies "Arabic in 1968). Errors the Interference Tadros, Angele Aziz. Structure Clauses in English". Sudan Teachers of of Relative 8: 24-27. English Newsletter, "Arabic in Written 1979. Interference the ELT Journal, English relativisation". of Sudanese Students: 33/3: 234-238.

Scott,

349

"The 1984. Deborah. Pragmatics Cross-Cultural of Communication". 5/3: 189-195. Applied Linguistic , 1987. "Repetition in Conversation as Spontaneous 7/3: 215-243. Text, Formuialcity". Taylor, D. S. 1987. "Non-Native Speakers and the Rhythm English". of Nehls, D. (ed. ). INTERLANGUAGE STUDIES. Julius Heidelberg: Groos, pp. 95-102. 1984. "Developing Thomas, Helen. Awareness the Stylistic and Lexical 38/3: 187-191. ELT Journal, of Advanced Students". "Cross-cultural 1983. Thomas, Jenny. Pragmatic Failure". Applie 4/2: 91-112. Linguistics, 1984. "Cross-cultural Encounter: Discourse as 'Unequal 5/3: Towards a Pragmatic Linguistic Analysis". Applied , 226-235. "Contrastive 1980. Thomas-Ruzic, Maria Karyn. and Thompson-Pan6s, Features Arabic English Practical their of and and in Applications". Colorado Working Papers Linguistics and 2: 120-128. Language Teaching, "The 1983. Karyn and Thomas-Ruzic, Thompson-Pan6s, Maria. Least You for Implications Should Know about Arabic: ESL Writing the 17/4: 609-623. Instructor". TESOL Quarterly, TRADITION AND MODERNIZATION Tibawi, A. 1972. ISLAMIC EDUCATION: ITS INTO THE ARAB NATIONAL SYSTEMS. London: Luzac & Company. 1983. "Translation for Advanced Learners". Titford, Christopher. ELT 52-57. 37/1: Journa , (eds. ). 1985. Titford, C. and Hieke, A. E. TRANSLATION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TESTING. Tdbingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Tritton, A. S. 1957. MATERIALS ON MUSLIM EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES. London: Luzac. d'Ibn 1981. "La logique Al-MuqaffaTroupeau, Gdrard. et les origines 28: 242-250. de la grammaire arabe". Arabica, "Guidelines for 1987a. Communicative Tudor, Ian. the Use of Translation". Syste , 15/3: 365-371. 1987b. "Using Translation in ESP11. ELT Journal, 41: --168-273. learning 1988. "Translation and acquisition". --between 87/4: 360-371. -I)Te Neueren Sprache , in 1986. "Teaching Translation Ulrych, Margherita. Advanced EFL the 14-17. Teaching Forum, 24/2: Class". English Valdes, J. M. (ed. ). 1986. CULTURE BOUND. Cambridge: CUP. (eds. ). 1983. THE HISTORY OF Versteegh, Cornelis H. M. et al. LINGUISTICS IN THE NEAR EAST. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Publishing Company. Kees. 1989. "'Early' in Versteegh, Grammarians Arab the and 'Late' Tradition Morphology Zeitschrift of the Hollow Verbs". --the fUr Arabische 20: 9-22. Linguistik, "Rediscovering 'rote: Wagner, Daniel A. 1983. and some cognitive W. J. Irvine, S. pedagogical preliminaries". and Berry, (eds. ). HUMAN ASSESSMENT AND CULTURAL FACTORS. New York: Plenum.

Tannen,

350

Wagner,

Daniel A. and Lotfi, Islamic Education A. 1980. "Traditional in Morocco: Perspectives". Socio-Historical and Psychological Comparative 24: 238-251. Education Review, 'Rote"'. 1983. "Learning Read by to Languag , 42: Sociology Journar international of the of 111-121. 1970. "The Contrastive Hypothesis". TESOL Wardhaugh, Ronald. Analysis 4: 123-130. Quarterly, "The for Students Weir, C. J. 1982. Problem Overseas and for J. (ed. ). LEARNING TO Institutions Wright, Where They Study". LEARN IN HIGHER EDUCATION. London: Coom Helm. Selected Whorf, Benjamin L. 1956. LANGUAGE, THOUGHT, AND REALITY. Lee Whorf, Benjamin an and with writings edited of introduction Massatchussetts: by John B. Carroll. Cambridge, MIT Press. Oxford: Widdowson, H. G. 1979. EXPLORATIONS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS. OUP. "Different Different Languages, Cultures, Wierzbicka, Anna. 1985a. English". Journal Polish Different Speech Acts: versus 9: 145-178. Pragmatics, for a crosscultural 1985b. "A semantic metalanguage in Language genres". of speech acts and speech comparison 14: 491-514. Societ , 1986. "Does Language Reflect Culture? from Evidence 15: 349-374. Language in Societ Austral an English". , in the Written 1978. "Problems Willcott, English Paul. of Definiteness 67-73. 33/1: ELT Journal, Speakers". of Arabic Williams, Malcolm P. 1982. A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF TEXT COHESION AND ENGLISH. AND M. A. DEVELOPMENT IN ARABIC unpublished University Dissertation, of Leeds. "Some Differences 1984a. Between Arabic and in Papers P-Unctuation". Working Linguistics English and University Phonetics, of Leeds, 2: 27-34. 1984b. "A Problem of Cohesion". J. Swales, and PURPOSES IN THE Mustapha, -H. (eds. ). ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC Birmingham: Language Studies ARAB WORLD. University of Aston, Unit. 1989. A COMPARISONOF THE TEXTUAL STRUCTURES OF Ph. D thesis, ENGLISH WRITTEN TEXTS. Unpublished ARABIL; A University of Leeds. 1982. "The Effects Paula. Winfield, Fairlee E. and Barnes-Felfeli, of Language Context Familiar Cultural on Foreign and Unfamiliar 66/4: 373-378. Composition". Modern Language Journal, Wright, J. (ed. ). 1982. LEARNING TO LEARN IN HIGHER EDUCATION. London: Coom Helm. Wright, W. 1986 X1898U. A GRAMMAROF THE ARABIC LANGUAGE. Cambridge: CUP. for Teaching "Practical Yorkey, 1977. EFL Techniques Richard. Ruth James E. and Crymes, Arabic-speaking Students". Alatis, TESOL, (eds. ). THE HUMAN FACTORS IN ESL. Washington, D. C.:

351

57-85 Zamel, Vivian. 1985. "Responding to Student Writing". TESOL Ouarter], V, 1911: 79-101. Zobl, Helmut. 1980. "The Formal and Developmental Selectivity L1 Influence Language L2 Acquisition". on of Learniug[, 30/1: 43-57 ADDENDA Agius,

Dionisius A. 1991. "Precedence of VOS over VSO in Modern Standard Arabic". Kaye, Alan S. (ed. ). SEMITIC STUDIES. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, pp. 39-55.

Fleisch, Henri, 1961. TRAITE DE PHILOLOGIEARABE. vol. l. Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique. Kaye, Alan S. (ed. ). 1991. SEMITIC STUDIES. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Kharma, Nayef N. 1991. "The Verb Phrase Translation Problems: English-Arabia". de la ljouvelles 281-343.

FIT,

3:

IIJJII

IJAJI .

41 jla: OL-.. J . kpiA

LWl .;

At.

:i-thwl

Ir.

Jsjl ý?

352

AW Amo

Lb..fill

vi

LI AW j,.:,A ,

xjjIl

J13

JJU.

croulial . ýVA Jt13. 1. hec jL0?.&71 V&WV>4jjl . L+aj

rja3jl

b

ijLU timal

1ml

Lh)u4zj

;

.

e3u

JL&!

I 0.41

"

Awl

J13

scr--&

UWLýc

jjwl . :

tI

M1.

r

a CAL% :JJ6j-l

41 ýýj

1W

Wl

4.&..:!. jb

uiJLkJt

Amt

a...Aul

.,,

IJ3JI

41.,, c .

LajJliAc, JYy

vib

VcUjJl

C'.01 ul

jA;

Ama

ll

AAJ

Vic

ýl svmaý.

Ji"',

JAII J13:03JIl"I.Oil ; ULUI

OJWI

AMT.

4"

jL, b

1.

ýIjAJI sw 11 ). . .

AJ Ce. . 1-

IL.

-

-

; 4.

Aj ._1,4

Wl " e.O. j13

gjä.

J-i

atl

4L.., LU y.

41

aL.,

A3, jl. %:y.

:L;*Lýýl

L.

1 AW -%"l

&3

lat.

xa. *-4

#J-»--JI

ý3

AVA

&, jL&c

353

d: «,.,

&1fJl . UWIq c. LjL. Ul AW 4AAJI jsWliýc vJLJ , JJ*il L2U1) 4, ý4 ja r SU

:l:

.'J'll It. liIJI : ejjJl

wi

ZiLi-. 01 jl3 AoAl

b

;VJLLtl Wo

U-o Lsjpoj

cv4jih L#&ajb

Ac4u A1 ;UL4

i

L-*

V kA41 453LO4.

-0ý)L 'ejJL4'

-iF-t'j

.

(va

E) Uiil

L.

Owl

; L. Jl

AT (ý Aily

VAMI AMY ýýLJI .

JU L.

kajiJj ;y ja,. j =Lmýpu MAY ýL. JUJI.%. ýc wi . I...

ýý

j3ll, 3

;L..

al

-I

cjoj., a.%Jl

;UL

.týl "L. .aj&WI .

AME flells

j13

J1 -,LidJl LL,! jb

Unl Xtl q'i Wi :"W. ý.e .; . L#. .

! iUl

wi

Mlý

I jjoll

dh5Ldba-. l

.(J.JL*JJ

'41

iiI b

Wo JUS,

V&. ý)ýJl

354 GLOSSARY OF ARABIC TERMS USED IN THIS THESIS

'a'daad

murakkabah

kýý

Aid

compound numerals. Oaf-aal

mu-tallah

defective faf-aal

U.-JLOjW1

verbs. saalimah

UL.

JL"l

sound verbs. 'al-lijaazah licence/permission:

a

method

teaching

of

in

Islamic

traditional

education.

OLAII

Pal-11mlaal (cf

dictation

talqlin):

a method

of

teaching

in

traditional

Islamic

education.

tas-samaa' hearing:

ELLA a method of teaching

in traditional

Islamic

education.

-a Tf addition. Damiir pronoun, Damiir

munfaSil

detached Damiir

mustatir

hidden Damiir

pronoun.

or

implied

J pronoun.

muttaSil

attached

pronoun.

faa-il

JLU

subject. faa'il

mulakhkhar

JCU

355 subject

behind.

placed

6w

fi'l verb. F4-1

V-

&hIV--4

verb

five

made up of

f! 'I

JAi

consonants.

J" j VCL-!

fi -1 rubaa -i verb

i

four

made up of

(quadriliteral).

consonants

0

J" VI)o

thulaathi

verb ghayr

three

made up of

consonants

(triliteral).

JiLt

'aaqil

j"

non-human

ju.

Haal circumstantial libdaal

accusative.

qjij

lughawi

consonantal

a form

substitution:

of

derivation

in

Arabic.

IiDaafah possessive

or genitive

case.

analysis

of words

'inshaa' composition. 11'raab grammatical

and sentences

in Arabic.

'ishtiqaaq derivation 'ishtiqaaq major

, ism noun.

Arabic. 'JA

lakbar

derivation

Ishtiqaaq minor

in

in

Arabic.

in

Arabic.

'aSghar derivation

356 'ism

-ayn

concrete 'ism

noun.

faa'il jCU

active

participle/noun.

'ism

lishaarah

demonstrative 'ism

pronoun.

maf'uul

passive 'ism

ýýI

Jim"

participle/noun.

makaan

place

noun.

IIsm, maWSUUI relative 'ism

pronoun.

taSghiir

diminutive

noun.

'isnaad predication. listilnaaf continuation. jam' plural. jam'

mulannath

sound jam'

feminine

mudhakkar

sound masculine jam-

takslir

broken jawaab answer jumlah

plural. al-qasam of

oath.

fi-liyyah

saalim plural. saalim plural.

ýI* LL" J

357 verbal

sentence. lismiyyah

jumlah nominal

sentence.

kalimah

mushtaqqah

derived

j%-iA ; X -*.

word.

kalimaat

murakkabah

compounds

or compound words.

khabar predicate. khabar

muqaddam

predicate

placed

in

front.

khuTbah

oration. kunyah

L..S

agnomen. 1uH

lawHah

;

wooden

slate

writes

verses

pen

of

made

mabnii

i4kii used

in

from reed

; ghar

the and

Qurlanic

traditional Qurlan

home-made

(for

reading

school and

on

which

memorization)

a

child

using

ink.

munSarif

uninflectable. maaDii tense.

perfect maf-uul

bih

object. bihi

maf-uul object

placed

ma'Iyyah

company.

muqaddam in

front.

JJS-L*

a

358 1-fahm

malakatu faculty

of

understanding.

1-HifZ

malakatu faculty

of memory.

manSuub in

the

accusative/objective

case.

marfuu' in

the

case.

nominative/indicative/subjective

ma'rifah

; UJAA

definiteness. maSdar JIALS verbal

noun. al-fi'l

mazlidaat derivative

JAAJI

stems

of

the

.:,

byja

verb.

mubtadal subject. mubtada I mu lakhkhar subject

behind.

placed

muDaaf noun.

possessive lilayh

muDaaf

4-ij

possessor. muDaariimperfect

tense.

munaaZarah term debate

in

used

and involving

who hold

different

or grammar.

Islamic

traditional

usually opinions

education

two people about

meaning

(and

some particular

disputation

sometimes matters

two of

or groups)

religion

359 muqaabalah

ýWa

contrast. lisnaadl

murakkab predicative murakkab

compound. mazJi

fusional

compound.

mutaraadifaat synonymous

words.

muthanna dual. naHt coining:

a form

of

derivation

in

Arabic.

nakirah indefiniteness. naSbah Arabic

vowel

which

changes

a noun into

the

accusative

case.

vowel

which

changes

a noun into

the

nominative

case.

na't adjective. qasam oath. 'ah raf . Arabic Saj, rhymed prose. sawfa particle shi 'rpoetry. talqiin

indicating

far-away

future

tense

in

Arabic.

360 "instruction": later

a teaching

became known as

tarkilb compounding. taskiin vowellessness. taSrlif

; Sarf

inflection.

tazaamun simultaneity.

method

11mlaal

(cf

in

traditional limlaal

above).

Islamic

education.

It

IPEIIENIDJECF-S -A,

361

ýAPPRNID]EX

IAL

by 1st-year The following written undergraduate are compositions DES LETTRES, ARTS during EFL students exam at the UNIVERSIA a final Wpartement des Lettres, d'Anglais, La ET SCIENCES HUMAINES, Facultd Manouba, Tunis, Tunisia. (It ie.

is worth with all

that these noting their mistakes).

compositions

are

reproduced

as they

are

Al. in have the same opportunities the Nawadays, girls as boys all do the idea that domaines. It's girls not should an old-fashioned because There that girls about was no reason service. military in the competitions and go to all other sorts of sport practice all for be trained difficult in them to the So it isn't countries. And about the military studies girls are able to work sport. military domaine. doesn't It in this hard and o become successful mean that like There there are some girls service. military are some who don't bear the weapons and wars. lazy ones who can't factor in In industrial girls are a positive military countries, to defy rivals who had gone to libanon the army. We remember the girls that in the armies of different nations so we can believe girls are Even in Tunisia men or more wisely. and they behave like courageous in different. We have military girls now and other Arab countries. human They beings. in higher and are military members ones. positions like men. They have the strength of the body and the brain

A2. Last week, as I was assisting a cousin of my mother in the kitchen duty, As soon came to pay us a visit. mine who is doing his military first flung himself he could he kitchen the he the chair on entered as in find in his way, after mingeled a voice which a pause he said envy you see I sometimes exhauted; and anger < am really exhaustion free from this duty>>. As you're military sordid you for being a girl, left why doing came up to my mind about me solemn thoughts my cousin is peculiar to boys. service military in this One of the outworn reguard reasons which people illustrate heavy is the fact that girls on the are not as able bodied to carry kind isn't But the of service as boys. of military requirements Indeed this that each sex receive concept? which created education doddles; from tender they ages to try to be pretty girls are taught lose shores not to of any exacting are often warned from any practice

362

the

beauty

of

their

body.

to the light, On this may get accustomed we may say that girls duties and parents with some awareness of accomplishment of tiresome divelopped by to the countries performed experiences educators, and be a roaring in military to involve said are services some girls kept being idea fact highlights that the away that girls are success, from doing military unabilities not as much because of their services social creeds. and especially political as because of certain to that women are too sensitive Regarding the argument that claims due in be time to and of any efficiency and service perform military to the same concepts of one may-here again refer coses of emergency; try to continiously the soft which the common trend of girls nature from to any side protest oppress any as so with necks coil girls' assigning situation and the way of which aim is to change the present what is seen as men's and women's duties. balking A problem that may make this of involving is the fact duties pregnancy of the comprehensible Generally these periods doing military of services. bad mood and physical which exhaustion occasional from any ability to make great physical efforts. But this problem women from pregnant their recover. after

too may military

in military girls of women whilst pregnancy entail prevents a women

by the immunity be solved merely it duty but to reimpose again on

to the problem Briefly one may argue that solutions is literally but duty what elusive very not are military to change a whole course of thinking the fact of trying impact has the that trend it's greatest the general all not minor views% as individuals

of them

of

women and is elusive because after lives on our

A3. in fighting the underdevelopment Different against are countries from fruit this the to be progress of enjoy and to progressed order to its extends. paying attention without it but is a mean for to That's us survive true that progress So what are they? has its negative and results. consequences certainly industrial by the some Let's talking progress of about start it by inventing looking machines, that are still after countries in for mineral looking factories, building some etc resources ... And this in the name of progress. progress the nature words killing in has become has also affected even materialestic more who people deprived be to feelings people see their surprised we won't soon and in case This is available from any sense and becoming "human engines".

363

its that human being race would survive and continue don't think of our with the invention so especially "the nuclear by people bomb", invented who were progress of their country. And I think that talk about progress

be afraid we shouldn't in this way because it

and I existence, destroyer future for looking the

future when about our is we who had wanted it.

we

A4. became a great problem that makes scientists and Nowadays, progress it. It the of sides and positive negative about philosophers wandering has advantages is not to be denied, our which changed that progress is is that It true live bettered progress also, our conditions. and human it besides the willing of and us power shows one-man expression, Thus progress being in creating as can be considered useful. something improve it in that the way of thing our sens a good and necessary the quality living: for example: the industrialization which improve it; besides little to aspects of time other take make of goods and dicovers different the life like: the sciences, new modern ... has its negative sometimes However, progress sides which make life bad threaten it have in which effects that the very sens unbearable which made Man kind. Among the nuisive we speak about polution effect, Progress the decided fermely to environment. saveguard very ecologist between built feelings human relationship people a and also change is the based upon matter than love regarded as most which rather built help it to feeling; a strong and sincere us and nobless abstract "the However ham do to others. thus any we cannot society, but does this rather seek opinion, share not of progress philosophy" ideas to make progress more for more strong and more and realistic efficient. I think that progress Finally, advantages of its severals spite is also a bad fact if it is not purposes%

in is not "always thing", a good before; so progress as it is printed for nuisuble used or used, well

A5. every is the ultimate of Progress and especially aim of everyone hard and sacrify But work to must you a progress such reach nation. I body. As can an example, things; your and even money, society many by is and step step take that of the third progressing which world the have of peak reached that of those already which countries the to be built resist But soil a sound on must progress progress. Is to bound ask: destructive So to exactly say, or more we are waves. progress always a good thing?

364

Such a question be answered negatively can't or positively as an it deals with, is fundamental ordinary one, because the subject and is concerning it If progress the person, concerns a nowadays' problem. is a good thing but in a such a way that it doesn't to be successfull hurt neither feels Everybody the environment nor the state as a whole. happy when he succeed in an exam or in the reach a high position hard but society, especially when it is due to working, when this but when this person, person becomes materialistic and and impress look down at the others, is unuseful because it harms such progress more than it helps. day day after In the case of the nations, many ones are progressing but the inconvenient is that they are losing control on their people; immorality has been spread, the violence everywhere and especially the unity of these countries which becomes more and more rude towards depend on them politically backward countries because these letters or has never meant power and tyranny Progress economically. and neglect had the chance to progress. who haven't Is progress It is a kind The question always a good thing? remains: To know how to towards the others. of consciousness and flexibility is the main success of the progress, deal with its consequences for the one and for all. Progress must be profitable

A6. for most of Progress nowadays seems to have a good connotation us. field in in People do like every and demesne and every progress bring with it happiness, Progress and facilitates many aspect of life. does it things, one. But when it is a technological stop especially there's there, and try to find out if or can we go beyond these facts that is wrong with it? something in first Let's progress our modern with the good deeds of start immidiately he has life, that notice see or everything and we'll brought to some extent, take and let's with it is new, and successful that the example of the different such as the cars means of transport they make the contemporary man much more are going along the streets, him from being than before and they save his time and prevent relaxed day to This true in many other aspects of life concerning overtired. day life, aspects of life especially and it is not true in many other invinted different kind of bombs and weapons when they have recently into bloody cluches, just to bring the different and to make countries for them carry many human wars, causing a deep pain on with foolish have from each other, beings, they also and scattering many families invented to the robot man, and many other man in machines replace for different fields they are seaching with the only argument that forgetting doing thing that provekes such an awful perfection,

365

in many families unemployment and causes is how progress the time this cannot all

sometimes be profitable

a

disaster. And and successful.

A7. is Progress previous state. from a situation for discussion. In fact have their also their

life the evolution regarding of humain being's It is the promotion and the of the individuals is a to a better of progress one. The notion Is progress or is it a bad thing. a good thing

their nation subject

is a good thing that progress there are those who think and have just they the opposite, reasons, and those who think resons.

because is a good thing For the formers, with progress progress The Many deseases have been realised. are removed. many good things kinds building in better living so many of with are people The means of Sanitary communications and nutrition. necessities. they are, facilitated the tasks of the people wherever with transport The discovery telegrams, quick ships and trains... telephones, planes, human beings. These are the is of the of progress a sign also of space progress as a good who qualify and some of the reasons of those thing. positive is (those who think the opposite), For the latters progress a bad has many negative on people results and nature. thing since it kills the the traditions of According people to them, progress and is destructive for human from their them progress past. separate if we talk beings and nature of the weapons and atomic bombs. Progress factories in These the beings humain mainly. are machines, as makes of progress. aspects some of the negative if there is is a positive I think that progress sign of humanity a if Also for the the traditions the communities. of somekind of respect ) is not destruct (weapon industry... to in used somefields progress don't history because I that think progresses and nature. people and have a straitforward and because the persons usually remain steady, So we have to accept progress as a good thing, vision of the universe. is because I features there think that its inspite no negative of its has is It in that this things everything normally world. perfect features at the same time. and negative positive

A8. to So, they men Women are the half are equal society. of the in duties. They in peace are equal towards their rights and society in is But and In the case of war very clear. situation and war. peace in an undevelopped problem women became a great society, especially

366

in defending since they have no way to paticipate the ennemy, they are in the Army, So the half be parallyzed not trained of the Nation will the burden is heaped on the shoulders and all of men. And since our world today makes no distinctions latters these women, are allowed and should in the Armed forces participate of their countries.

between men be encouraged

and to

The next war won't keep women alive, know how to so they have to defend. in the Army needs great Of course, some missions and courage be involved in but them, endurance so it is hard for women to at least, girls must be trained at nursing and doing the civil missions which are needed in war. have great numbers of Nowadays, all the developped countries girls in their in the Armies, and most of the movements of liberation world So, the uses women as well as men in protesting against colonists, from doing duties there is no need to prevent their towards girls their countries.

A9. Girls they call difference have the

for equality with boys. They are given what are always asking for. Nowadays they're There totally is equal with men. no between a girl the or a boy, they enjoy same rights and military service. same duties except for a point:

for equality, I think have that girls, since they are calling must They may say that they are physically impotent to do military service. body, I reply that even in some a strong requires and military service is necessary. Girls nowadays strength works they are practicing should because in doing so they convince fulfil the military service men that Girls have they are not only domestic to work or easy work. accept because equality that they should not be selfish with men is not only to go outside the home for work, or to go to cinemas and to enjoy a freedom. Equality complete must be in duties and rights, and if women Away they must have to go to the ask for equality military service. from any stereotyped ideas or prejudice, for I think service military is and must be compusory because a society in half the girls which ignores develop. If women go to service can hardly military military they may learn some principles them helping service which can afford invasion. men in case of war or a foreign for girls It is time, I think, to acknowlege that equality with men have because in nowadays it is must be everywhere men who should for their No one denies organisations calling equality with women. for that women are physically weaker than men but service military how to use arms, women should not be as for men. They should be taught how to assist men in case of war.

367

AIO. kind Girls, the are used to do all and women in general, of that men do. Yet they are not allowed That's to military service. for that privation we are usually asking ourselves best in have proved to do their service which of doing military

Although, girls they are restricted for all the boys.

The major reasons are that they appeared that they don't the mouvements and to support

fields, the all is an obligation

be sensible, to weak, do such difficult to men can carry.

girls are seen have the ability heavy guns that

in In deed, girls that people proved to be so sensitive that they could rely on them in a period of war. never believe In fact, and to kill.

I don't

think

that

a girl

could

work why

use a certain

general

arm to

to do military So, the reasons for the restriction of girls but, experience could prove the opposite seem to be obvious, in such field. they try to let them prove their ability

fight

service if only

All. is is gradually Nowadays, everything and it progressing generally is But can we say that progress from worse to better. always a good industry take the example of To begin let's thing? which saw great in due twenteeth the to the century mainly changes and progress in technology. progress but the industrial I won't tell progress effected only everything that is the condition the main thing, of industrial workers who have done became They with pleasure. activities previous no more their do monotonous they simply actions rather machines than human beings, being aware of what they do so they are no longer all day long without but imitating machines. creating feels the Once the work is over, and worker exhausted entirely could no more find any energy to read or to do any other activity. However, his attitude towards his family changes and he no longer takes care of it. in the work or at home can This, routine clear a little give either in industry on Man. of progress vision of the bad effect Finally

from

as simple

as my point

of

view

may be progress

is

not

368

alway

a good thing

but

it

can also

have

an unexpected

impact

on us.

A12. 'Should women work outside, in men's world? should they participate in which field to should they work? what services the can they offer in society? ' These and many other questions are still rising every to how this society and each answers them according thinks society and how does it look to women. One of the most recent is problems either to include her women in military affairs or to keep away from such services. Woman has been working that outside since she had discovered she had to offer to her society as she as much possible could. she knew that she had the ability to do what a man can do. She challenged and in convincing the society that she struggled and at last she succeeded is strong and simple enough not only to do housework works outside but also in doing hard works. She adequate to her physical abilities, do men's jobs to if could be physically and mentally able we kind of education to a certain is accustomed her from childhood as it is there given to boys. So, as she proved to be able and strong, no for her to take a weapon and to give military She objection services. in doing military to be initiated be can be allowed affairs to and If she has a strong be willing, needed at hardship. she will never defeated Her personality her keep to her will allow or frightened. And why not if a man is prepared to work seriously. help alliance to her and to be in her side in every doing. This argument is true to some extent ignore since we cannot that has some physical whatever weaknesses beside the a woman do, she still big responsibility that is still to be of her of household considered domain. she has naturally do some weaknesses that cannot allow her to ideas towards military services as a man can do. As world's women is be strict concerned, a woman will never be a man. If we want to and Besides, reasonable, need women's force. weapons don't nuclear a fact ignore, face that we cannot she will many problems and next be lost. generations will in military So a woman can be included beyond her. society and responsibility

field.

But she is

pressed

by

Al 3. The will of human beings high standard in their life, in progress. Progress

is

the

result

to improve leads our

of

the

their world

development

condition, to know a

of

and to reach a high position

technology

and

the

369

awarness of people. is Many people think it brings that progress thing, a good since different leads live in Progress to changes. people modern ways, if we take the example because it makes things transport, easier, of has a big role to allow people find to that progress travel, we-will know other In to and to communicate civilization. with each other, fact, helps people to reach what was beyond their progress capability factories help people with many years ago. Progress provides which improve industry, to them to their and avoid unemployment even leads many scholar the moon and know everything to discover progress inside it. But, because threat nuclear Progress modern situation.

has does not mean that this progress not negative aspects becoming the building which is make pollution a of factories in our modern life. Also the discovery the the of new army, is bomb which distroyed Hiroshima the result of progress. holds divides two parts: the part the which our world into better its to technology and army, and the other which tries

is not a good thing Progress as may people problems. our world to many future

think,

since

it

can lead

A14. have grown out of their Most societies restrictions on women. and for. is what many people: Many rights this women and men have called their conditions with those of were given to women in order to balance for both for equal opportunities this sexes, men. But when we. call Wars had urged governments to equality must be in all kinds of fields. but time of military service, what people to a fined we compel their is reserved to men rather than to service realize now, is that this why girls should not women. But it is said that there is no reason have to do military service. We can't must discuss

answer quickly this matter.

by "Yes"

or

"No",

since

first

of

all

we

between the age of eighteen twenty the Generally, or youngs are for one or two years of military service and so it's normall called for their that boys and girls answer government's order military for a specific interest is not provided This service of a service. duty for both but it's a national girls and boys. group of people, is Then why only boys waste a year or It that two. thought often is waste of time. their when girls carry on either military service is this fair? Girls up