ARCHAEOLOGY , TRADE AND SOCIETY IN NORTHEAS'I' SUMATRA [PDF]

ARCHAEOLOGY ,

TRADE AND SOCIETY

IN NORTH EAS'I' S UMATRA

A Thesis Pr esented to the Faculty of the Gr aduate S c hoo l o f Corne l l Unive rsity i n Parti a l Fulfillment for the Degree o f Doctor o f Phi l o s ophy

by John Norm an Miksic January 1 9 7 9

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ARCHAEOLOGY,

TRADE N�D SOCIETY

IN NORTHEAS T SUMATRA

John Norman M i ks i c, Ph.D . Co rn e l l Un i ver s i ty 19 7 9

By the firs t or sec ond c en tury A.D .

a se·t o f

inte gr ated p o l i t i c al and economic inst i tut i on s existed in many ports on a n e twork of mar i t ime tr ade ro utes wh ich conn e c t ed the coasts o f e as t Afri c a, west ern Asi a, and S o utheast Asi a .

India,

C h i n a indep en dently evolved sim i l ar

p r o c e dures and insti tutio ns in her d e a l i n gs with n om ad i c groups a lo n g her inl and front i e rs, f i f th century A . D .

and when in about the

th e ports in south Chin a jo ined in the

comme r ce of the Nanhai

(South S e as),

Ch i n a us ed many o f

thes e insti·tutions t o r e g u l a t e this corn..'11 e r c e a s w ell. M e r chan ts fJ:.·om the �ve st wo uld have fo und p r actices in Jche Chine s e p orts to be l i ttle d i f f er e nt from tho se a l r e ady fami l i ar f r om v is.iting o ther ports in the ne·twork .

This

s ys tem w as still f uncti oning whe n the P o rtuguese and o ther Eur ope ans b e g an trading in ·the I n d i an Oc ean in the sixte enth cen t ury . Indon esians probably p arti c ip ated in th e Indi an Oc e an comme r c i al n e twork at a p roducts such a s c amphor,

\ve ry

b enzuin,

e a r l y period. c love s ,

Indonesian

and p ep p e r we re

impor t an t corrunodities in Ind i an Oc e an marke ts.

Control o ver

f o r e i gn trade c ou l d pro vide enormous w e alth for r ulers,

r

and

l

··---

historical evidence shows

that memb er s

of

maritime South.east Asia a nd elsewhere were with acquiring wealth and exotic objects

r

elites in

deeply

to use

as

r

con cer n ed means

r

of main taini n g political power. Historical reconstructions indicate that Sumatran emporia were important conunercial

millennium

A.D.

centers by the early

r

first

r

The sources of marketable Sumatran p r oduce

lay in the highlands,

but t her e is

little

historical

r

information r egar din g the routes by which the commodities

v-re re b rought to the coastal

empo r i a f

an d the arrangem.ents

r

bet\veen hinter l and producers and lowland rulers �v-hich governed this internal traffic. is

to some extent the result of policies w hi ch

rulers

pursued,

in their

at t empt to

lowland

Ar ch aeolo g i ca l r es ea rc� still in Sumatrau

the initial stag e

can contribute to the study of the old commercial

system in tw o ways: coastal emporiap

by discovering and examining sites of

and by tracing the cultural1

po litica l and

economic relationships between coastal emporia and their hinterlands. in

The second goal

Southeast Asia.

of pre-colonial

has not yet been attempted

Studies of hi nterland-lowland

relationships 'Can contribute Indonesian

significantly to reconstructions

so c i e ty

,

r

interpose themselves

between producers and fo re ig n mez·chants.

in

r

This lack of information

and the

role of

r r r r l T

long-distance trade in the development of Indonesian civilization.

1

-----

r r r

In this s t u dy

,

of northeast Sumatra,

which focuses on the Deli Riv er valley

I use historical,

geomorphological

and archaeological informa·tion to discover

r r I

r r !

were important

in pre-colonial trade in imported objects,

and the extent to which the

11gate\lray city11

hypo the sis is

useful in analy z ing early Sumatran economic processes.

I

also make some suggestions for future research in Sumatra to test hypotheses fo rme d on the basis of this data., .and consider briefly some ways in which the study of Swnatran civilization

can contribute to the broader questions of the

role of long-distance trade societies generally.

r

places which

in the evolution of civilized

©

,John Norman Miksic

1979

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

r r

I

I

I

r

BIOGRAPHICAL

SKETCH

John Norman Miksic was born

Rochester 1 until he

New Yor k ,

1964.

and lived

After graduating

in

awarded his A.B.

29, 1946, in

the tovmship of Canadice

!

from Honeoye Central School,

at t en ded Dartmouth. College,

was

on October

Hanover,

r

New Hampshire, and

in anthropology the re in June 1968.

A month later he joined the u.s.

Peace Corps

r

and was

a s s igned t.o work with the Department of Agriculture in

fl.1alaysia. t'lhile working in he met

1970,

a teacher, in P en ang

Tho Heimun.

After

In

They were married in March

that year Mr.

gaining

International Affairs

st udy in

Kedah,

and b o t.h continued to teach in that city

,

until April 1972. studies.

the town of Sungai Patani,

Miksic began

a Master of Arts

from

Ohio

r

gr aduat e

degree in

University,

Mi ks i c went

the Department of Anthropology at Cornell

to

in

August 1974. The Miksic frunily r et urn e d to Southeast Asia in

19 7 6, and after

travels

northeast Sumatra. a son,

Ezra Yon, Mr.

and,

was

in Java,

began

fieldwork in

Near the end of the field research born

Miksic returned

in Penang,

on July

25,

to I t h aca in September

1977.

1977

with the assistance of a Foreign Language and Area

ii

r r I l l 1

Studies grant, wrote a Ph.D. Sumatran fieldwork. the John. M.

dissertation based on his

Mr. Miksic is currently employed in

Olin Graduate Library at Cornell.

I

r r

r

r r

l

iii

r· DEDICATION To my wife, my stad.ial and my artist--all

rod carrier, my pot-gluer

in one.

r r I

r r r

r

iv

l ]

AC1va s

s outhe rn

and

1 8 0 0 s a l s o impor t ed s a l t

the

r r r

A c eh Besar

the £1 a l ay P Em in s u l a

Indi a through mo s t of the 54 )

92) .

Iongh 1 9 7 7 :

the

O nnu z

and

r T n

s to n e o f a

e as t A f r i c a had

four t e en t�l c e n tury

(Lewi s

I

I

1 1 I .

T T T r r T r r

-1 1 3 -

very not

l ar g e

r

l

1883

In

I r

.i n s c r i p tion up on

of

the n a t i v e s "

s e a r c h w a s made

a

s e ems

t o ha ve di s app e a r ed

(if

1883 :

4 8- 4 9 ) .

l ar g e

ta k en

an d

l um�

to

Howe v e r , La b u an

batu

f i v e m.'ll .

45

de e p ,

x

l i v ing

thought

a

m e ans

w e re

to

be

f o und

d i s c o ve r i e s

c ar r i e d o ut ove r

r epor t s

of

S in a r

wa s

t hi s

in

T he

s t. o n e ,

un i n s c r i b e d

it

(N . B . G .

s t one w a s

found

l o c a l l y c a l 1 ed

s t one ,

i n d e n t e d by

anonymo u s

a

re c t ang le

No o th e r exc e p t

tha t no

o b s erver

since

1 9 72

of

1883

" Ko ta C i n a "

by McK innon ,

who

had

t h e vi l l ag e g r o und .

i n f o rmat i on

c e ram i c s that

ex c av a t i o n s

at

(NcKinnon

abo u t the

s everal

M cKinno n

o f the

lo c a t i on s

and pu.'b l i s hed

1 973 ,

l o c a t i on s

i n north S uma ·t r a ,

s i gn i f i c a n c e

four years

N i l n er ,

b ut

29 4 ) .

f r agme nt. s . o f C h i n e s e po t t ery over

comp i l i ng

o f C hi ne s e

1974 ;

1971 :

s e t t l em e n t . "

s c a t tered

hi. s v�zork

c har a c t e r s

f a c t e x i s ted )

c i r cums t an c e ,

rev i s i ted in

i:he next

ln

(An d e r s o n

l e n g t h and wi dth ,

the r e .

qui ck to per c e i ve

v i l l ag e

The

tha t n um e r o u s

M cK innon had b e e n

and

em .

c ur i o u s

s i te was

i n f orme d

He

53

11 f o r t i f i ed C hi n e s e

b e en

of

De l. l. . 9

it

for

it ,

o f Kota C in a we r e r e c o r d e d ,

Chine s e \ve r e thi s

a

( s tone mo r t a r ) ,

cha r a c ter i s t i c s

he w a s

r

w i th an

und e r s tood by any

The

r

s iz e j

1976 ,

19 7 7 ;

and S i nar ,

in

and

s ite . the

s ev e r a l McKinnon

in pre s s ) .

To McKinnon mu s t g o the c r ed i t for d i s c o v e r i n g and ------

9 'rhe s e ar c h o f Labuan D e l i

.�12 � .�E.9'.

l r r r -

I

a

s e E-illl.S to have d i s app e a r e d a s we l l ; in 1 9 7 7 coul d n o t r e lo c a te i t .

-11 4-

ex c a va t ing a n ear ly S uma·tran trad i.ng·

fr· om S umatl: a .

A.s

s ite ,

a r e s ul t o f McKinno n ' s

Deli River val l ey was

s e l e cted

a f avorab l e

as

at. tes ·ting hypo th e s e s dr awn

and geogr aphi c

sour c e s .

'rhe proble.m

to the hin ter l an d \·!as

center

Bron s on

for r e s e ar ch .

pa ttern o f An o ther

e videnc e

vi tal

s h o u l d be mountains ; eviden c e

cho s en

(1 9 7 7 )

a

a

sho r t

v i s i t ed

a c co unt

re conn a i s s ance

an impo r t an t

r

found .

tht:;

( Bronson

sites

Indon e s i a site

et a1:.. .

and Mclial ac c a a t the port o f the D e l i

r

r ive r

th ro ugh coo l highl an ds .

keep p i g s

river

r·

the

in c omb i n a t i on wi th mai z e

also

o f no rthe a s t S umatr a .

the

a n a r row ,

in

r i v e r K a r o vi l l a g e r s

the

Many Karo

vege t ab l e s .

Here

of

of

the

whi ch are

r i ver diked

l ow e s t re aches

is

t he D e l i R i v e r a r e

-. . ., ." .,. '

- 117-

1 navi g ab l e ,

tho ugh the

D e l i i n H e d an ,

is

I n the

the p a s t .

Sungei B abura , which ' f low s into t he

s ai d to have b e e n us ed by sma l l b o a t s m i d - n i n e t e e n th

r

f i v e ki lome t e r s ups tre am from

the modern p o r t at Be l awan ,

whi ch was c o n s tructed

Ri ver ap p e a r s

in 1 8 9 0 .

the n o r the r n extremity o f the

e as ·t S umatr an co as tal pl ain .

The lower c o ur s e o f the O e l i chang e s as

to have un dergo n e s e ve ral

th e

p l ai n has p r o g r aded through depo s i t i on o f s e diment in the S t rai t s ,

b ut the chan g e s have b e e n on a s m a l l e r s c a l e than

tho s e of t h e rivers

-r

c e n tury t h e ma j or port in

th e re g i on was Labuan D e l i ,

The D e l i p l a i n forms

l

in

in the w i d e r p l a i n

further southe as t .

No de f i n i t e in fo rma tion i s avai l ab l e f o r the s t udy o f the re cent c o a s t a .l growth in the D e l i p l a in ,

b ut the d i s tr ibut ion

o f s he l l midden s b e twe en D e l i and ·the 'I'am i ang River mouth , n o r thr;ve s t of Medan ,

d o e s furn i s h some groun d s for

re co n s truction of a f o rmer sho r e l i ne .

1 I I

At l e a s t ten to

f i f teen o f the s e mound s

e x i s t ed in the l ate n i n e t e en th cen tury .

stil l

S in c e then a l l

b u t o n e or pos s ibly two h a v e b e en d e s troy ed , mined f o r l ime and r o a d - s ur f a c ing ma t e r i a .l f o r the s ur r ounding tob a c co p l an t atio n s . the mourHls

1

Fortun a t e ly s eve r a l wr i t e r s d e s c ribed

so that s ome o f their gene r a l char a cte r i s t i c s

are known . The mi dde n s are spr ead over a d i s t an c e o f 1 3 0

r

!

r

ki lome te r s , in l and .

�------· ·

r

i

and mo s t are n ow ten t o f i fteen kilomet er s

I t i s p ro b ab l e

.

that

they mark a f o rme r co a s t l i ne

-118-

( van H eekeren 1 9 5 7 : Me retrix

�

71} .

1

In addi tion to s he l l s

2

c omp are l'l cKinnon 1 9 7 5 :

72 ) .

( S churmann

r!

pho togr aph and text ,

S ome o f the human long bone s f r om T am i ang had

b een s p l i t , p robab ly to r emove the marrow 19 5 7 :

r

and human ske l e t a l rema ins ,

s ome b ur i ed with hematite 11 in g r e a t qu ant i t i e s «<

pag e 4 7 ) .

r

and an ima l b o n e s the mi ddens

a l s o contained worked p ebb l e s

241) ;

r

she l l s , i-'lith o ther typ e s r e p r e s ented

� n sma l l e r quanti t i e s .

19 2 8 :

r

'l'hey are l a rg e l y compo sed o f

( v an Hee k er e n

P o t te ry has n e v e r b e e n found in any o f the

mounds .

Only f o r the T am i an g moun d s d o e s any s emb l an c e o f an e x cavation r ep o r t ex i s t .

T'.vo - thirds o f the m i ddens had

alre ady been remove d when S churmann went t o the s i t e in He w a s neverth e l e s s ab le to i dent i f y bur i a l s

19 2 6 .

a s s o c i a ted w i th hema t i t e ,

an d s p l i t huma n bone s in d i c a ting

c annib a l i s ti c p r ac t i c e s .

L'Unong th e shel l s were bon e s o f

e l ephan t ,

d e e r , b e a r an d rhinoc e r o s .

S churmann n o t e d th a t the wo r k e d e dg e s o f s ome p e bb l e s s pe c i e s c om p o s i t i on o f mo un d s i s g i ven by Hengeveld ( 1 9 2 0 ) for B u l u C i n a ; S churmann ( 1 9 2 8 , 1 9 3 1 ) f o r B i nj ai- T ami ang ) ; van Heekeren ( 1 9 5 7 , s umm a r i z i n g unpub l i s he d e x cava t i o n o f P . V . van S t e i n C a l l e n f e l s ) . S e e a l s o v an de r M e e r I'1o hr ( 1 3 2 7 , 1 9 3 2 ) i Wo l te r s ( 1 9 7 6 ) . 1

2

The s e pe bb l e s ar e f r equen t l y c a l l e d " Sum at. r a l i ths " in the l i t e r a t u r e , an d p r e s u..rn ab ly a r e r e l a t e d to the H o abhini an l i thi c c omp l ex f r om m a in l an d S o uthe a s t As i a ( Go rm an 1 9 6 9 ; G lo ve r 1 9 7 7 ) .

(.

� e

'! •.'..

·

were

p ar t ly

a l gae ,

c o v e r e d by

i nd i c a ti n g

depo s i ted

in

e s t u a ry .

The

un d e r ly i n g

s i tuated

in

One

s h a l l ow ,

f in a l

r e c o rded was

s o uth e r n

r e c o rd s

vi s i t e d

r ,..

i !

the

t he

and

b e en

edge

an

of

s t er i l e marine

s he l l - b e a r in g

l ime

l ay e r

s t r a t um was

not

for

repo r t s

on

As

pre s erved

v..rh i c h

in

a t O c - eo

the w a t e r l o g g e d

in

long ,

on

f o rm f ive

s ep a r a t e

and

th a t

me t e r s

f ew

of

the

d ur i ng

(1920)

and JV1j ob e r g Bulu

C i n a and

The

l ar g e r

h.r en ty me t e r s w i d e and 3 the mound

h ad

1/2

a l r e ady b e e n

an d Mj o b e r g w e r e a b l e t o

see

l ay e r o f b l ue - g r e e n c l ay

a

and

l ay e rs .

th e y w ere

are

t h e x:· e

Sungai D i s k i .

v i s i ted ;

e s t u a r i n e mud ) ,

·

the

Heus s e r

res ted

s uinmary o f van

o f d e s tru c t i o n o f mo und s

n e ar

it was .

r e s e ar ch ,

the b o undary

( p ro b ab l y

three

po s t s .

He u s s e r

.

th i r ty m e t e r s

h ig h w h e n

noted

i n v e s t i ga to r

f ra gmen t s

and v an H e e k e r e n ' s

unp ub l i shed

estates ,

the mo un d

ho u s e

had been

report

two mo un d s

wa s

of

two woo d e n

the

192 8 ) .

p ar t ly d e s t r o y ed

base

ne ar

i n fo rm a t i on whi ch

of

e xp l o i t a t i o n

T an d em H i l i r

th a t

o s t re a s

b r a c ki s h w a t e r .

they

th i s

e x c ept

c onune r c i al

meters

the

r em a in s

Callenfels '

o un d

f r om

d i s c overy o f

V i e tn am ,

Be yo n d

m

the

( S churmann

S te i n

to

p i e ce

g ue s s e d w e r e

soil

p e rhap s

t r an s i t i on mound

sma l l

the m i d d e n had p r ob ab ly

th at

s e a w at e r ,

the

of

a f ur the r i nd i c a ti o n t ha t the m i dd en w a s o r i g i n a l l y

s h a rp ,

he

r ema i n s

l7

ab ove m e an

tha t

the

shel l s

Hengeve ld v i s i ted ki l ome t e r s sea

level ;

in l and , he

app e ared

to

the moun d s , \vi th

the i r

c i te d t h i s

as

t

- 1 2 0-

evi dence o f a Quaternary marine t r an s gr e s s i on in t.he are ( H e n g e ve l d 1 9 2 1 :

151 ) .

Obd e i j n u s ed the d i s trib ution o f

the middens t o r e i n fo r ce hi s argmnen t s for the s i gn i f i c ance o f east S umatran c o a s t a l change in interpreting e arly S uma·tran h i s tory

(Obde .i j n 1 9 4 1 :

r· r

r r

197) .

Wi tkamp a l s o vis i te d the Bulu C i n a and Tan d em H i l i r mounds ,

and men t i on s that. smaller: mounds once exi s t ed o n

the I,udw ig sburg e s t a t e s 1 a n d n e ar P erbau.n gan .

'r hes e had

been comp l e tely mined for use in s ur f a c ing e s t a te r o a d s (Wi·tkamp 1 9 2 0 ) .

In 1 9 7 7 mining o f she l l mi ddens in L angkat ( at P ay a Reng as and Sukaj adi )

was s t:i l l con tinuin g ,

mos t o f the depo s i t s h ad by then b een remove d .

tho ugh In J anuary

1 9 7 7 a l ake 1 0 0 by 5 0 met e r s had formed in the ho l e where

she l l s had been removed from the S uk a j adi midde n .

G l o ver

has pub l i shed a photogr aph by McKinnon taken dur ing an e ar l ie r s t age of minin g , when the p i t had been excavated t o a de p th o f f i ve me t e r s during the dry s e a s o n 19 77 :

14 7

,

( G l o ve r

f ig ure 4 6 ) .

In 1 9 7 7 a t e s t p i t was excavated to a dep th o f

4 me 1: e r s b e s ide the mi dden . ha l t e d by

At

th i s depth d i g g ing w a s

s e eping wat.er ,. b u t the s tr a t i g r aphy i n d i c a te d

th a t a long pe riod o f mangrove swamp g r owth had taken p l a c e i n the mound ' s sur rounding s .

P i e ce s o f the

m an gr o v e

\•m od were p r e s e rved in the mud 1 and s amp l e s v1e r e t aken f o r . ,

1

po s s lo e C

14

1

an a y s 1 s . .

'

I

-

-121-

Druif ha s publi s hed a photograph of a midden on the Saentis e s tate , 299)

was

which ac cordi ng to van Bemmelen

6 1 / 2 kilometers inland and 6 1 / 2 meters th i c k ,

and res ted on a sandy ridge meter s abo ve sea leve l

(probably a b e a c h ridge )

(Druif 1 9 3 2 :

plate 2 2 ) .

It

pos sible that th i s mi dden accumulated subaerial l y , under water . inland ,

I ,

(1970 :

Als o a midden at Gohor Lama ,

apparently was

Be�nelen 1 9 7 0 : There is

I ,

three

1s not

2 7 1 / 2 k ilometers

depo s i ted on a beach ridge

( van

702 ) .

a s trong pos sibility that the Deli plain

has exper ienced recent tec tonic mo vement , shell midden s .

j udging from

The bas e of the Tamiang m idden , · which wa s

originally laid down s lightly be lovl s ea l eve l , is now about ten meters

above s ea level .

A similar phenomenon

has �een noted for the Tanj ung Genteng midden.

Van

Bemmelen concluded that the T amiang region has recently been uplifted by that amount In

( van Bernmelen 1 9 7 0 :

1,

299 ) .

the Medan area uplift has perhap s been five meters

the s ame

( po s t- Pleis t o c ene )

period .

in

S outh of Hedan

evi dence for any uplift dis appears . The data from the shell middens indicate that es tuarine conditions ex tended much further inland in north Deli s everal thous and year s ago .

No specific date

can yet be as s i gned to the middens ; analy s is of sh ell c onc hiol in may yield ab solute dates , if s ui tab le samples from an undi s t urbed mound can be obtai ned .

l� I I

I.

-122-

The date

for

ab s e n c e o f the mo u.>'lds .

in the S a enti s , a r e as , time

s ugg e s t s

ad d i t ion ,

early

th i ck p e a t b ed s

oc cur

period o f

g ave way t o a d r i e r

I I

61) .

A tho u s an d y e a r s ago thi s r eg ion may have been kno'ltm f or the we a l th o f m a r i t ime

A. D .

An i t i n er ary o f

she l J. f i sh found he r e .

t r avel b e t'Vreen C an ton

and

India

comp i le d ab out

8 0 0 o n t a i n s a toponym Sheng-teng , whi ch. has b e en

restored

as

s i n t ing o r � en t en9:. ,

:e_l acenta L i n n .

and P l a c una

b i valve mo l l u s c s . re fers

to

(Wo lte r s

a

( Wo l t e r s

12 ) ,

of

be l i eves

two

that

1976 :

1 4 no t e 1 5 ) .

B i n j a i - Tam i ang mo und

were

sp e c i e s

thi s

of

toponym

coast o f

S umatr a "

r e l a t ive

is

spe c i e s

according t o van d er M e e r Mohr In

f act

S churmann n o t e s

" v e r y numer o u s "

( S ch urmann

1928 :

421 )

,

at

that

the

t.hus

s upp o r ting

content i on .

Altho ug h s e d imentation mu s t have bee n r ap i d i n the no rthe a s t e rn S uinatr a es t u ar i e s ,

r e c en t

been c o mp i l e d

for

r eg i ons .

r ep o r t s

f r om the

P l a�

for

t h a t P l acuna p l a cen t a

an aly s i s o f

the mi d d e n s

P l acun a plac enta L inn .

Wo l t e r s '

s e l l a L am . ,

but n o t e s

s c a r c e i n the

compo s i t i on

the M a l a y word

11 s t r e t ch o f the n o rtheas te rn

1976 :

r e l at i vely

Wo l t e r s

The

co lon i a l

of

p e r iod

r

and P aya Goho r

an app r e c i ab le

con d i t i on s

19 3 8 :

( D rui f

mo de.r a t e ly

a

P ay a Bakong

a p a s s ag e o f

es tu ar ine

envir onment

In

·

B u lu C ina ,

indic a ting

s in c e

pott. e.r y

s e d imentati on

to

fill

n o f irm data have in

the D e p a r tme n t o f

the D e l i

coa s t a l

P ub l i c Wo rks

s e em to have pe r i shed dur ing

r

- 1 2 3-

Howeve r ,

Wor l d War I I .

a form e r P ub l i c Wo rks o f f i c i a l who

w a s a member o f the D e par t...llent f rom the l a te 1 9 3 0 s l a te

1 9 6 0 s was

to the

ab l e to p ro v i d e s om e r em i n i s c e n c e s b a s ed on

h i s p e r s o n a l exp e r i en c e s under t he D u t c h ,

J a pan e s e and

I nd o ne s i an admin i s t r a t i o n s . During

the co l o n i a l per i o d , wh i c h i n D e l i

from ab out 1 8 6 0

to

194 0 ,

las ted

the inte n s i v e d e v e l opment o f

p l an t at ion agr i c ul ture n e c e s s i t a t e d s tr i c t c o n t r o l over dra i n ag·e i n the f l a t ,

lowly.i.ng c o a s t al p l a i n .

Num e r o u s

d r a in a g e p ro j e c t s and d i k e s we r e con s tru cted b o th b y the g o ve rnme nt an d by p r i v a t e compani e s . The s e o pe r a t i on s wou l d h ave had a s i gn i f i c a n t e f f e ct on the r a te a n d p a t t e rn o f co a s t a l

s e d ime n t a tion .

The

l o s s o f the r e c o rd s f r om thi s pe r i od i s a ma j o r imp e d iment to the attempt to r e c o n s truct the s pe c i f i c e f f e c t s o f i n t e n s i ve p l an t a t. i on ag r i c u l tur e o n the pr e - ex i s t ing c o a s t a l c o n f iguration . D ur ing the J a p an e s e o c c up at i on dr a in ag e wo rk , inc l uding p e r i o d i c dr e dg ing o f the r iv e r s , was n eg l e c te d , and s ediment. a ·t i o n p ro c e s s e s �vo uld have re s e rnb l e d n a tur al cond i ti o n s mo re c l o s e l y . b e twe en two and 2 .

In the D e l i River bed at B e l awan ,

5 m e ·t: e r s o f s edi..'lten t a c c umul ated dur ing

the t e n - y e a r p e r io d 1 9 4 1- 1 9 5 0 .

S im i l a r amo un t s were

d epo s i t e d o n the b e d o f the U l ar River , e a s t o f Be l awan , to the v1e s t .

--'

I

thi r ty ki lomete r s

an d the Batang S er ang an f o r ty ki l ometer s

- 1 2 4 ·-

'I'he

town o f Tan j ung :P ur a ,

northwes t o f Med an ,

f

forty- f iv e ki lome t e r s

and f i fteen ki lometer s inl and ,

r

up the

B atang S er angan River , wa s a c c e s s ib l e t o ves s e ls o f up to 5 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 tons be fore Wor l d V i b l y

.:::- e a d

" 1 0 0 4 , ''

1

- 2 3'3 -

or

A. D .

The s ites

( H u s ny

15 9 1

she r d s

come

ce l ado n s

fotmd

of

l a t e S un g

t hr e e

the s e

bowl s a

to

the

f rom S uk o t h a i

c ommon

type the

f rom

s imp l e

s ur f a c e s go l d e n

t h i ck-w a l l ed ,

O n e var i ety ha s

114 ) .

is

the s e

co n t ai n s

and coin

and

nearly

s h er d s ,

s tr i k i n g

o f mo s t o f The s e

whe e l - fo rmed

traces

of

an v i l marks o n the

inte rior .

as

or no

common .

but

mi c a

Little

is

qu i t e

f l a r i ng - r imme d c o ok i n g po t s ,

r im d e s i g n s

s i mi l a r

to K o t a C i n a ve s s el s ,

b e ar

o f r e d s lip .

S ome

a

fall

f l e ck s .

V e s s e l s were mo s tly

traces

ce l ad o n ,

f rom D e l i T u a

g l i t t e r \·l i th n ume rous

s e cond type in

Ming

the r e a r e

A s i n g l e C hi n e s e

ear t henw a r e s

red s l i p o n the exter i o r ,

exi s ts

and ki ln s ;

Thai w a r e s

i r o n py r i te w h i c h c aus e s

( s e e d r aw in g

py r i t e

t ime s

a t o ther n e a rby

and Y u a n a t t r i b u t i o n ,

The mo s t

come m a i n l y

The

and

151) .

Commun i c a ti on ) .

of

type s .

s he r ds

s he r d s

f o rt

1961 :

1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 8 vr a s f o un d n e a r po i n t E

P e rsonal

T he p a s te s

of

the

and whi t e ,

of the period A . D .

amo ung

in

an d much e ar the nware .

S aw ankha l o k ,

( McKi nnon :

Said

31 ; M.

f r om many d i f f e r ent

e a r ly M i n g b l ue

i n to

n.d. :

she r d s

common . s ome w i th

and many

come

s herds

from sma l l e r

un s l ipped ve s s e l s . The py r ite

and

thir d type

mica ,

is

though.

rare ,

the

i n the firs t type de s c r ibed . smo o ther feel , shape s

c an be

becaus e of

and

the pa s t e

J_:>yrite

is

The s e s he r d s

the f iner

recons tructed .

not

One

inc lud e s b o th

as

abundan t a s

have a muc h

g r a i n ed pa s te .

No

s he rd has a padd l e -

-2 34 -

impres s ed he r rin g bo n e des ign . The

are a contains type

or

areas

unus ual conc entrat.ions o f

period .

near

not indicate that any o n e

did

s ur f ace s ur vey

It may be

the north and

sherds o f any one

as s umed for the pre s ent that

south forti f ications wer e

contempo raneous ly inhab ited . Only when

hi stor ical

and ,.,rhy the s e

forts were bui lt ;

eve r b e en carr ied out at

imp ly

that thi s

a long perio d , pos ition ,

the

no excavati ons

have

ar ea ha s been cont in uo u s ly in hab i t e d

since

perhaps

the

o v e r l ooking the r i ve r

fo r gua rd ing transport

from

at it s point o f

the

fo r

I ts

fourte enth century .

ob vio us ly

is

of

Sur f a c e r emains

site .

the p l a in f r om the highl and s ,

high l ands

a

into

entry

strategic one t he D e l i

down

1 8 6 6 D e l i Tua was the f i r s t l arge s ettlem e nt

In

Ri ve r .

give any indic ation

s ource s can

on th e D e l i

Rive r

i n l and

f r om L abuan ,

and

also

the

neare s t

B atak vi l l age to the D e l i coast . The se ction s

r iver

rocky

of

tradi t i on

r ap i ds .

tha t De l i

s e a and tha t s h i p s impo s s ib le

tha t

s u f f ic i entl¥ t e rminus

D e l i Tua

at

Tua had

s ma l l

ne ar t�i s

o f wa t erbo rn e

is

sha l l ow an d the r e

Ba ron

had o n c e come

r iver po int

to

Rae t

b e en

r e c o rded

craft

could

have

to m ake D e l i

Deli

a

much ne a r e r th e

It

anchor n e a rby .

transpor t .

high proportion o f p eop l e in

de

are

D e Raet Tua who

Tua

is

not

ap p r o ached the

rema rked could

the

sp eak

r

- 2 3 5-

Malay , an ind i cat. i on o f fr equent commun i c at i on b etw een peop le o f this are a and o f the coas tal f r inge 1875 :

173-17 4) .

(de Raet

26

The r e s t o f the ava i l ab l e hi s to r i c a l informat ion r egarding D e l i Tua i s not very exte n s i ve .

T he center o f

a pol i t i cal ent ity o f s ome imp o r t a nce named Haru during the pe r i od b e tween 1 2 8 2 and 1 6 1 2 l ay s omewhe re near D e l i T ua .

As noted ear l i e r , H aru met i t s e n d i n 1 6 1 2 a f ter a

long s e ries o f Acehn e s e a t t acks .

Legend a s s o c i at e s

P uter i H i j au , the Green P r i n c e s s , with Haru ' s f in a l de f e a t , and with the o l d fort s a t D e l i •r ua . S iberaya Thi s vi l lage i s the: legendary bi rthp l ace o f Puteri I t l i es outs ide the main s urvey a rea , on t:he Karo

H i j au .

P la t e au , beyond the s ource o f the D e l i River .

Its

l egendary and hi s t or i c a l a s soc i a t ion s are o f s ome i n tere s t 2

6 A s econd i n di c a tion of e a rly fam i l i ar i ty of a t l e a s t some hig h l and peop le vd. th mari t ime cu l ·tur e i s the exi s tence o f re l i e f carving s on a c l i f f near the Karo P l a teau , on the bank of the Lau Garut . The s e carving s are a s s oc i ated with a rock-cut chamber s im i l ar to othe r s found along the e a s te rn f r inge o f the B a t ak highl and s ( T i chelman 1939 :

179-180 ) .

The dates an d func tions of the s e chambers are Some ma y have been ;r eri t an , o r pl aces comp l e te mys ter i e s . of s e cond ary buri al ; t.his cus tmn is now pract i ced by the K aro B at ak a£ter the dea ths o f importan t peop l e . A t Lau G arut the e.ntrance to a s1na ll chamber about 3 m. . deep , 2 wide , and l o 2 hi gh , is f l anked .by relief c arvings o f boats . One we l l-preserved carving po rtray s a. s a i l i nsr ship w-i th Thus s a i l ing and tr ad i t io n a l Halay rigging an d a rudder . s e a- faring p l ayed a part in the syrr� o l ism of thi s highland The " s hip o f the tomb , tho ugh fur ther d e t a i l s are unkr1 mvn . dead 11 i s a commo n theme o f Southe a s t A s i an art and c o smo log i e s .

l

- 2 3 6-

for

thi s

fur ther

what may

as well as the ind i c ations found there o f

s tudy ,

archa e o l o g i c a l

r e s e ar c h

i n .b.ighl and S um atra

reveal . S i be r ay a

are.a. ,

i s the f ir s t mountain vi l l ag e in the B a t a k

and pe rh ap s a l l Sumatr a ,

e ar ly p o r c e l ain

found here ,

to have y ie l d ed

in any quan t i ty .

but. Yuan

of

she rds

No Sung s he r d s have b ee n

c e l adon , Ming c e l adon and b lue and

white ware , and 'rh a i porce l a in from S a-v1ankha lok an d S ukhothai have b ee n d i s covered on the fringes o f the s e t tlemen t

(.Hi lner

et

al . in p r e s s ) .

The earthenware s ht:� rd s f o und at S i b e r a y a a r e by c on t r a s t. s e em

very p l a i n and homogen e o us .

In p a r t i cu l ar ,

they

very s imilar to the leas t c ormnon typ e a t D e l i •r ua ;

the p a s te h a s

a smo o th feel ,

p yr i t e and m i c a . o r g ro und po t t e ry . any she r d s .

Wh ere

and con t a i n s inclu s i on s o f

S ome sherds have temper o f No

s u r f a c e d e c o r a t i on

is app aren t o n

sherds p e nni ·t determinat i on o f

manufa cturin g t e c hn iqu e

,

i t app e ar s that co i l in g and hand

smoo th in g we re the o n ly op e r a t i on s . Baron de Rae t v i s i t ed S i b e r a y a in 1 8 6 6 and 1 8 6 7 , and men t ioned s everal u nu s ua l c :h.ara c t e r i s t i c s o f the Like the o t he r B a ta k chi e f s , the £��hu l u o r

vi l l age . v i l l ag e

he ad o f S ib e r aya w a s tributary t.o o n e o f the f our

Batak s uku.

( l i te r a l ly

"

qu a rt e r " )

c hi e f s

of

De l i , who in

tu r n were techn i c a lly s ubordina te to the sul tan o f D e l i . B ut the r u l e r o f S ib e r ay a 1.>r a s s a i d to be muc�1 mor e

- 23 7-

o f hi s

independent

(de

Ee nghu l us

Rae t

1875 :

h i gh l an d s , w h e r e food ,

dye ,

c l o th ,

ho r s e s

an d

whe r e by a n c i e n t cus tom the S i bav a k s and

o f T a n ah Karo

p enghulus

are a an d ano ther

( " Karo L a nd " )

on the b a nks

of

he ld a s s emb l i e s . t he

Lau B i ang

uppe r c o ur s e o f t.he Wam.pu and a s ac r e d s po t ) t er r i t o ry

s l ave s were

A l s o the v i l l a g e o f S ib e r ay a had a b a l a i o r

a s s e mb ly h al l ,

Th i s

that the r e

the o n ly o n e de Rae t s aw in the

a mar k e t ne arby ,

b ar t e re d .

2 19 ] .

un i q ue a t t r ib ut e o f S i b e r a y a was

.�o th e r was

t han any o f t he o ther

s uk u he ad

,

exempt

frequ e n t

f rom the

d e s c r ib e d b y An de r s on a n d o t h e r s

( the

were n e u t r a l

i n t e r - v i l lag e w a r f a r e

( d e Raet 1 8 7 5 :

212 ,

214 ,

2 19 ) .

( T and em

T a n j ung Amon No

o ther c o a s t a l

s i tes

on

h a v e b e en

d i s covered ,

the

g i ve of

I n d i v i dua l

i n c l u d i n g S un g ,

any

Ch i n e s e

s pe c ime n s

Yuan and M i n g ware s ,

but th e s e f i n d s t end to be s p o r a d i c ·

a n d no t as s o c i a tt:�d w i th

l arge

a s s emb l a g e s o f hab i t a tion

.

O n e other o f approxim a t. e l y d i s cus s ed ; grotm d

in Deli

impo :r:t a t i on

s c al e o f K o t a C i n a .

in the c o a s t a l p l ain ,

d eb r i s

l o c ated

c en t e r s o f

s i gn o f having o n ce b e en p o r c e l ain

yet

H i l ir )

s ite the

the s i t e

in D e l i ha s y iel d e d hab i t a·t i o n debr i s s ame p e ri o d a s cove r s

a g r o up

the of

prev i ous ly

i s l and s o f hig h

1 6 ki lome ters v;e s t o f Ko t a C i n a , ·

s ites

whi ch a r e

- 23 8 -

s urrounded by r i ce

f i el d s

cleared within

l as t

ground

on

the

the we s tern

w i th the s o i l

that J·ava ne s e

25

edge The

corer .

An

¥ear s . of

the s e

core s

iminig r an t s

fields wa s

ind i c a t e d

to

s i ze

s tr e am depo s i tion

of

b r o ad

and pos sib ly ot.her

the s tr e am c o uld not be

and qui t.:.e

de·te:rrn ined , been

I t may have

s hallow .

The

Wampu River .

now

s it e i s

mar shy

s amp l ed the

that

had b e en un t i l re cently an e s tuary a.nd is due

of lmv

ar e a

have

s i lted

1n

f ac t or s . but

The

wa s

it

l i n k e d to

now f i f t e en k i l ometer s

T

area

the

i n l and

f r om the Wampu River ' s mo uth . In

v i c inity o f point C

the

area o f higher groun d porce l ai n

s he rd s ,

fr agment s

and

con t a i n ed many

fr agme n ts o f

chunks

of

i ron

Thi s in

rises

two to

s lag

i s l an d has

the

thr e e me t e r s

B r i ck

appeared �

Br

at

above

an

a n o th e r

r i ve

the for

l ow

f i e l ds .

the vi l l a g e r s turned

up

many

re cently

b e en

h e re . a t A a n o the r

F in a l l y ,

cult ivated

for

t he

b r o ught to

the

sur f a c e

the mound marks Surface

first

r ema in s

d i s t r i b ut i on .

o

low moun d had

t j�e ,

in

and many

Low m a r s hy

the probab l e

s im i l a r e ar thenwar e , in

and b e ad s .

also

gr avey ard

8b )

r the m; a r e and

Gr ave d i g g i ng ha s

nei ghb o r h oo d .

pots herds

t.he

b e come

ea

glass ,

Fourteen hundred met e r s we s t , ri dge

s i te map

( s ee

the

s herd s

had

been

gro und n o rthe a s t. o f

cour s e o f

ano ther

three s e c t o r s

" d e a d r i ve r

included

but the o ther r ema i n s were va r i ab l e

S e ctor C

had a mu ch d e n s e r conc e n t r a t i on

. 11

-239-

o f b e ads

t han

g l a s s we re

found

two

fr om C

The m a j o r i ty o f

g r ay - g r e e n bow l s w i t h

the

inter i o r

also

nor

s i te .

pot tery wa s

and

Yuan-Ming

Thai

c e l adon :

i n c i s e d de c o r a tion ,

wi th ex t e r i o r

repr e s en t ed .

whi te ware s were

Ne i t her b r i c k s

i n c l uded bot h Chin e s e

and bow l s

ce l adon b o t t l e s , d e c o r a t ion w e r e

s e c t or s .

e l s ewher e o n the

por c e l a in

The wares .

the o t h e r

S herds

of

lotus

leaf

e ar l y b l u e

and

·

found .

A few s t oneware fr agme n t s wer e :f o un d at C , m a i n l y f r o m l ar g e b rown of

s torage

a mo n s t e r mask handl e , E a r thenware

of

j ar s .

a very p a l e

f r om

color .

The r e w a s

s im i l a r

thi s

to

s e c tor

The mos·t

c ommon

s ur f a c e s ,

102 ,

1 0 6-11 0 ) .

a very

l a rge

l a te r i te p a s te f rom of

( d r awings amo unt

o r g round

cont ains l ar g e

8 mm .

of

c o ar s e

Common

fo rms

wi th an

in clude

is

al tho ugh

fragment

s p e c ime n s .

two

type

type s ,

b o th

a very s hap e s

The ware

are

contains

to whi c h

s omet ime s

amoun t o f mi ca .

he avy ve s s e l s ,

C i na

s and t emp e r ,

sher d t emper w a s

a l arge

Ko ta

i n c l ud e s

co ar s e ware with i r r e g u l a r symme t r i c a l

a l s o one

Ho s t

The

a dded . she r d s

c ome

average body t h i c kne s s

r ims o f bow l s

and h and l e s

f r om l i d s . T he a very

s e cond e ar thenware type

smo o th c ha l ky

S ib e r aya .

Pos s i b ly

feel ,

no t un l ike tlill

t hi s war e c o n t ains

pho spha t i c mine r a L

S ev e r a l

s im i l a r

f o und

to

f r agme n t s

(d r aw i ng s

fragment s

1 03 ,

104)

ear thenware

kao l i n or

f rom

s om e o the r

o f pho s pha tic

a t Ko t a C i n a ,

ha s

rock ,

\ve r e d i s c ove red

- 2 4 0-

on

the

re tain

traces

pyri t e s

and

the

she r d s

a r ed

of

were

rough e arthenware also

fl aking

wi th

common ,

this

r

Two body

area whi ch

s e c to r

als o

S e c tor A w a s

by i t s vi s i t ed

of

Re s i dents

c l a im that

are

tak e p l ac e , r e cent

mo s t

the

s h erds

s herd s

of

common

an d

and

s i f t ed

only

s it e .

from the

f l ak i ng .

-)

Al l

Tan j ung Anom

s ome py ri t e ,

b ackdi r t o f

r ew a r d in g area , before

M any por c e l a in were

j ar s

type ,

and

no

f i ve ph o spha t i c m i n e r a l

a f ew d a y s

s herds

s t oneware

s t or age

c ategory .

were o f t h e coar s e

s l ag

There

but

large

a

s he r d s we r e

but

i n t e rmen t .

corroded

the mo s t

t he mo s t

o�m e r

and whi te

S awankha lok

f rom the backdirt

g l a z e much

Me t a l l i c

f r agme nt s w e r e

b u t b l ue

I

or o the.r marks o f u s e over

wh i c h c on t ains much mi c a ,

decoration .

f ir s t

I

C,

at

c ar in a ted .

from this

and i n c l uded sherds

their

a paste

wo rked

sur f ac e

101) .

dr a\vi ng

a g r ay-green porc e l ain ,

Ea rthenware was

in

the

on

r

col lected

the

of

s he r d s

b a s in s ,

sherds

sherd s

here when b u r i a l s

di s cove r e d n e ar

were three

and

s e ctor B .

at

found

was mo r e

I

fire .

n ew gr ave

only

found

(see

exte r i o r s

,� I

some o ther min e ra l .

also

type

ar e no

A f ew s herds wer e

a lw ays

of

that some v es s e l s v1e r e

indi c ate

smudg e s ,

a cooking

The p a s t e c o n t a in s mic a ,

s l ip .

spouts

Inte r e s t i n g l y there be a r

Some fr agmen t s o f thi s w a r e

f i n e b l ack flecks

Two kendi of

s e ctor C .

s ur f a c e o f

s c ar c e ,

the

having the

grav e . b e en

PPPPN

s h e r d s wer e

t e am f o und ,

a l tho ug h s e ver a l

c o n t empo r a r y wi th e ar l y N i n g war e we r e

--""- ----- --�-----

1

- 2 4 1-

f o und . S e ctor A y i e lded sherds we re

f r om

ab o u t

of

one

hun d r e d

were

to

s p e c imen s

o f war e s

Ming ,

and

usually

thus

l at e r

S toneware sherds .

of

a

ma s k n e arly

c omp a r ed

f rom

l i ght

g r ay

was

examp l e s

s ector A was

whi c h

in

the

fo und .

One

a mo lded mons t e r

Of

Ci n a . s carce

p ar t i cu l a r

po t ,

inc i s e d de c o r a t i on

i d en t i c a l with Kot a C ina p i e c e s

e arthenw are

wi th

f i ne- textur e d w a r e

r e l a t iv e l y

c o o k ing

j ar s

and b a s i n s

from Kot a

a n d s t onewar e .

and

early

s e c tor A

of

s to r ag e

also

to

r ed- s l ipped

Yuan or

o f b r i t t l e ware ,

i de n t i c a l in

l ate

de s i g n s ,

bas e ,

were

tho ug h mo s t

f r a c t i on

s t. oneware b o r e

a rim pr o f i l e

5:1

or

dishes ,

a t Ko t a C i n a .

f r agme n t s i n c i s ed

the

and

sherds

Cina ,

of

f r om a

though no t

to

l a rg e s t

f r agment

to por c e l a i n

a rim

Ko ·t a

bo t t l e s the

f r agment

E arthenw a r e

C o ar s e

the

s imp l e

One

at

an y thing

" me r cury v e s s e l 11

g re en- g l a z e d

w i th

than

l ight b r own

from K o t a C in a .

f ew o f

a t tr i b u t e d

f o rm e d

an d

re s emb l e d t h e

shape

f o un d

The r e w e r e many

brown g l a z e s

A

d e s ign .

f i fty p o rc e l a in

S ev e n ty - f i v e p e r c ent

f r om g r e e n or g r ay i s h g r e e n bowl s ,

iden t i c a l

a

total

thi r ty ve s s e l s .

many w i t h und e rg l a z e

was

a

of

c o ar s e

s im i l a r

inter est p a s te ,

to ,

( d r aw i n g

87) .

f rom thi s area outnumbe red t h e f in e by

r atio . In

addi tion

to

:po t s he r d s ,

\ve

d i s cover ed

in

t hi s

s ector

ano ther f r agmen t o f t h e s ame pho s pha t i c m in e r a l a s

in

o t he r

the

two

s e c to r s .

Num e r ou s

dam� f r agme n t s

wer e

-2 42-

v i s i b l e i n "l:he n ew l y Anom i s

Tanj ung seve r a l t ime

s ma l l

during

turned

are a s

soi l .

an enigma tic site .

of

high g round wer e s e t t l e d f o r a s ho r t

left a

as

r i

t h e f ourteenth c en tury by_ peop l e who p o s s e s s e d

l at e Yuan - e a r ly M.ing period c e r ami cs as we l l

App arently

two

and In

typ e s o f e arth e nwa r e .

l arge numb e r o f b e ad s .

They

some

one

r

'J�hai '"ar e , are a

they

probably e r e c t e d one

permanent br i ck foundation , p o s s ib l y for a r e l i g i o us S e t tl ement b egan her e

s anctuary . ha d been

abandoned .

Ko t a C in a

pro s p e r o us

fo r

imported

an d g l as s . tha t

the

S ung

and e ar l y Y uan

and

thi r teenth

a lo n g routes

the

s i ·t e was

s ma l l

but mo de r a t e l y

of

dynas t i e s

a g ro up

east

of

coas t ,

Tr a n s a c tion s

p o t t e ry salt ,

sites

· - - - · ···-- ----·--·------

S umatra

wh ich inc l uded

and c e r ami c typ e s

dur i ng the r e i g n s . o f

i n Ch i n a ,

the twe l f th

K o t a C i n a may still

be

to b e

f ound

in p l ac e s whe r e r i ver s p r o v i d e

an d g l a s s

goods f r om

iron and c lo th)

b e tween

o f highl and

dates

o c c up i ed

al ong which b o t h s t a t u s

(rice ,

S ur vey

l uxury goods

cen t ur i e s A . D .

S um a t r a ' s

f rom S um at r a , goods

a

C arbon- 1 4

indi c a te

r ep r e s en tati ve

.

repr e s e n t s

s e t t l ement whe r e products

exchang e d

po r c e l ain

V al l ey

app e a r s a s a uni que s i t e in the D e l i It

River V a l l e y .

�

Deli

S lli� ar�-

were

s oon a f ter Kot a C ina

(go ld

and r e s i n s

abr o ad )

and

s ub s i s tence

cou l d b e t r an s por ted .

c o a s t a l p e op l e s

a long

the

r i v e r s and

I

-

h i n t e r l an d

peop l e s

in

the

n o t conducted through a pro c e d ur e ; s u ch the

as

r a ther

records

pr e - c o l o n i a l

f o r the t he

and

ide a tha t a

exchange

of

a l r e a dy i n other

set

of

the

so c io - p o l i t i c a l arg ued were

the

The

a

have

i nvo lve d

and

the

the

Ming

the

De l i

c e r ami c s were

s hi f t o f tr ade it may

also

patterns of

the M ing

(Wo l t e r s

from D e l i

in maritime

or more

the

of

Thi s to

e c o logi c a l

to

tho s e

and

I h ave

sys tem .

A

s y s t em s

set of

may

be t h e

another n e arby

for

the

i n s t i t utions .

c on c en t r a t io n s

effects of

In

In

s im i l a r

re spon s ib l e

this

S o uthe a s t A s i a

1 8 7-19 0 ) .

ago .

was

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e en

f a c t or s

rei gn whi ch. r e s u l t e d

1970 :

lowl and gr oup s

and M e s o am e r i c a

Rive r V a l l e y no

indic a te

and

invo l v i ng

anc i en t comme r c i a l

n atur a l

foun d .

av a i l ab l e

ob l i g a t i on s

years

exac t

rules

d o n o t contrad i ct

analogous

evo l ut i o n and wide d i s t r i b u t ion In

sources

deve l o p e d und er

s t ody o f

the

f o r c e b e twe en

in ·the n orth S umatran

do ub t c l ari fy

c u l tur a l

thou s a nd

in

f ew

r e c i proc a l

c i r c ums t anc e s

comp a r a t i ve no

r e l a t i on s h i p s

I n d i an O c e an

s e em to

so uth Sum a t r a dur i ng

e ar l i e r p e r i o d s of

exi s t ence

in s t i t ut i o n s

wo uld

in

go o d s b e twe en high l an d

parts

l ar g e r

c u s toma r y r e l a t i o n ships

depi c t

lowl and rul e r s .

s tudy o f y e t

demand m arke ting

pe r i od probably provided

wh i c h kept t h e exchan g e highl and

and

-

va l l e y s were prob ab l y

s up p l y and

c e r emoni a l

hi s t o r i c a l

l a te

hi ghl and

24 3

of

early

re s u l t o f

a

entrepo r t ,

chang i ng

but

·tr ading

in the e ar ly d e c a de s

from n ew Chine s e po l i c i e s

addition

to

cha n g e s

in

the

- 2 4 4-

in s t itutional

format ,

S o uthe as t As i a a l s o D ur ing

the

the vo l um e o f C hine s e t r ad e with

d e c r eas e d ,

late

four teenth c en tury

s e tt l emen t s ,

i n c l ud in g Tanj ung Anom ,

Ko t a B angun ,

we re

hi g hl and t ime .

site of

At

t ra d e

the

val l ey .

at D e l i

the

Tua b e c am e

a

sma l l e r

and perhaps

probably o c c up i e d

t r an s i ti o n b e tween

s i te

ac t i v i ty ,

Ko ta J a'i.v a ,

in the D e l i

S ib e r aya was

the p o i nt o f

· the mo un t a i n s , mi l i tary

e s t ab l i shed

a number o f

The

at thi s

l owlands and focus

of

p o s s ibly c onne c te d with h i gh l and- lovl l and

and po l i t i c a l

ru�d e conom i c r ivalry wi th t he

no rth

c o as t . The of

hi s t ori c a l

l in k i n g mo r e

e n t ity

c lo s e ly the h i s to r i c a l

H a r u may have

data .

c a l l e d Haru o f f e r s

exe r ci s e d

r eg i on dur ing p a r t o f

the

and

archa e o l og i c a l

contro l over

pe r io d when

some hope

the

the s e

Deli

s i t e s wer e

inhab i t e d .

Ko t a C i n a S in c e S uma tr a , the

are be

the

closest

sho u ld

in

also

data ,

trading

s i te s

the Merbok

tim e

and

i de a s

an d wha t we

S o uth Kedah

near

S u ch a

a c c ur a t e

s ites

o ther

s ites

comp ared .

mo r e

the

no

and

sp a c e

c omp a ri s on

of

how to

sho u l d

h ave

been

e s tu a ry

in

s t ud i e d

s ou t h K e d ah

to wh i c h Kota

sho ul d p e rm i t

us

C i n a c an

to

l o c ate o ther c o a s t a l

exp e c t

to

f i nd

in

in

them .

f o rm trad i ng

It

i nd i c at e new que s t i o n s whi c h c a n b e a s ke d o f

hi s to r i ca l

and

a r chaeo l o g i c a l .

- 2 4 5-

The we s t co a s t o f north Kedah , s imi l ar

l e s ser magni tude t han that o f e a s t

The .l·1 erbok e s t.uary ,

around ,.,h i ch c l uster

s ites

exc ava ted by Quar itch Wal e s and Lamb

J ames

Low

l arger

i n the n i n e t e enth c e n t ury )

in the pa s t .

( t r an s l ated K e d ah Pe ak ,

an i s l and

as

The

;H ikayat

was

,

(and L t . - C o l . p r o b a b l y much

ment ion s

·that

on the no rth s i de o f the e s tuary , wa s once see

also Wa l e s

changes may have

194 0 :

2- 3 ,

8 1- 8 5 ) .

combined w i th s e d im e n t a t ion

to help tran s f orm a br o ad es tuary i nto of

the

�a,Eo ng ��.havl ang�.

the Kedah Ann a l s b y Lmv )

(L ow 1 9 0 8 ;

River cour s e

i n c l ud i ng

has un dergo n e a proc e s s o f coas t al progradation

to b u t o f

S um a tr a .

the Ivl a l ay P en i n s u l a ,

the

swampy comp l ex

s lugg i s h winding channe l s among mang rove

now l i e s betwe en Ke dah P e ak and

c l ump s whi ch

the pre s e n t cour s e o f the

Muda River . Wa l e s

in 1 9 4 0 men t i on e d thr i ty

south Ked ah s i t e s wi th

r emai n s o f br ic k s tructur e s .

R e c en t r e s e ar ch b y the

Mu z i um Neg a r a has

·to t a l

r a i s e d th is

P e r son a l C ommun ic a t i o n ) .

s hown

f i f ty

(Ad i T ah a :

Wal es b e l i eved t:hat s i te s

1 2 had been s ecular s tructures f urther re s e ar ch. ha s

to

(Wa l e s 1 9 4 0 :

that the s e

1 1 and

24-28) ,

s tr u c ture s

but

c annot

be d i f f erent iated f rom the o ther s 't'V'h i ch wer e probab ly £�n.9.;i�

(rel i g i o u s

L i k e Kot a C i na ,

s anctuar i e s )

there f o r e ,

all

(.B . A . V .

P eacock 1 9 7 0 :

21-2 2 ) .

the permanent found a t i on s

around the Merbok may have b e en bu i l t fo r r e l igious r e a s o n s . 'l'he Kedah s tructur e s c an be g r ouped

i n two c at e go r i e s

-2 4 6-

o n tne ba s i s comp r i s e s

of

layout .

maj o r·ity o f ·the

the

has

Matan g P a s i r ,

been

Lawas

and K o t a C i n a

1974 :

69)

( se e map

the

ce remo n i e s

and

thus

less

tha t

l arge ;

e a r thenwa r e s

P er hap s

- -·-· ---·- --------

the

(Tr e l o ar

and H i n d u i s m

evidence yet that t�he

the

temp l e

s ites ,

c erami c dep o s i t s wh i ch Lamb

than

at b o th

s it e to

the s e

he appar ently

ruined

temp l e s .

f ow1d

The

I t i s parti cularly

and p o s s ibly

s i te s ,

e x c avated by B r on son , imp o r te d

c e r ami c s

c an

the mo s t that

------

to ha ve

of

been

abo u t the Ked ah

compar i so n

now b e und er t aken .

int e re s t ing

copper

and n o

at

p ro p o r t i o n

i t wa s

no d e s c r iptions

have e ver b een p ub li s hed , typ es

the

appe ars

C i n a a n d A i r B e r s ih

U n f o r tun a tely

w i th Ko ta C in a

---

in Kedah

s i te we re T an tr i c .

the D u t ch ,

Like

at Kota

thr e e t o one .

is

no

a l re ady b een d i s c u s s e d .

o f e ar thenw ares

s i te s

the

is

Hahayana

cerami c a s s emb lag e s b e tween Kedah and

in

t h e Ai r B e r s ih

two

at

inter e s t.ing

h ave

i n t er e s t i n g

qui te

there

d i d n o t d i s cu s s

s imi l ar i t. i e s Ko t a C i n a

coexi s te d

c on cen ·trat e d hi s r e s e a r ch o n

l a ter d i s co ve r e d . p o t s he r ds

M. c Kinnon

24;

Ked ah temp l e s ha s a l so led to

Ko ta C .i n a Buddhims

b ut

p r a c t i ce d

Wa l e s

·that at

ai: P a.dan g

s t ructures

at l e as t two r e l igi ons ,

At

1975) .

al so p r e s ent 1

we re

in cl uding

P e ac o c k 1 9 7 0 :

Buddhi sm and •r antric Hindu i sm , and F ab r i s

to

wh i c h

10) .

that

con c l u s i o n

Type B ,

temp le s ,

compared

(B . A . V .

Exami nation o f the

formal

the ir

coin s ,

d i f f eren c e b e tween

s o p l en t i f ul

at Ko t a

the Ci n a ,

•

-2 4 7-

are not f ound in Ked a h , whi l e beads , Larnb 1 s as s emb la ge ,

very n wnero u s

are r ar e at Ko ta C i n a .

in

Even in the

seven teenth cen tury cowrey she l l s r a ther than me tal s e rved as

the b a s i s

for cur ren cy in Kedah

(Bowr ey 1 9 0 5 ) .

Kedah and Ko t a C i n a show n mne rous b a s i c s .i rnil ari t i e s i n g e o g r aphi c l o c a tion ,

r e l i g i o u s archi t e c t ure ,

and

a r t i f a c t a s s emb l ages whi ch con t a i n Chin e s e ce rami cs �'1i d d l e E a s -tern g l as s .

and

Whi le Kota C in a r e s iden t s vlere

us ing Chi n e s e copper c o i n s

a s currency , Kedah r e s id ents

may h ave us ed bead s whi ch the y imported e i t her a s raw ma te r i a l o r as

f in i s hed ob j e cts

f r om Ind i a .

Thi s d i f f erence

may b e s i gn i f i cant , but seve r a l exp lan a t i on s are po s s ib l e . K e d ah ' s trading c on t a c t s wi th the Indi an O c e an m ay have been mo re inten s i ve than Ko ta C i n a ' s , but it is more l ike ly that. Kota C in a had s t rong l i nk s wi th b o th areas . 'l'he Ko t a C i n a Buddha s ta tue s s t rongly r e s emb le s outh Indi an examp l e s .

Onl:y f urther exc ava t i o n s at o ther s .i t e s

wi l l re veal whe th e r the u s e o f Chine s e c o i n s or b e ad s has a di f f e renti a l regional d i s trib ut i on wh i ch may h e l p to explain this d i f fe rence between the two s i tes . The s imi l ar i ti e s b etw een sou th Kedah and Ko ta C i n a are s tron g enough s o that i t may b e even tua l l y po s s ib l e to

gro up th e two in a s in g l e archaeo l o g i c al hor i z on ..

d e f inition s e e W i l ley a n d P hi l l ip s 1 9 5 8 : repres enting s u ch

a

hor i z on

s ho u l d

be

33) .

(for

O t..l1.er s i-te s

found in S umat r a .

Characteris t ics u s ed to d e f i n e s i tes o f t hi s ho r i z on mus t.

- 2 4 8-

of

include a s s emb l ages p o t t ery

P o t tery mad e

s ty l e s .

s how l i tt.le

change

c e n tur ie s .

S i tes

s imi l ar

impo rted

at

b e l on g ing

to

and whi l e

Kedah aimed

W i l le y

at

ho r i z cm

S t raits

S u c h evi dence

evi d en c e

envi ronmen t a l c r i ter i a . role

who b e l i eve In

ho;,ve ver ,

c orru'Uon

c ond i t i o n s

long- d i s t an c e

--------.

is

Further

found

h av e

a t Ko ta

as

reve a l

as 'l.¥ e .l l .

diverg e s local

it may

a p p ea r

r e s e a r ch a ·t

s i t e s may

from

art

·the s o c i e t i e s

set o f

Ethnohi s to r i c a 1

of

.

ther e

11 hori zon "

empha s i s .

of a

should

not men t i on e d at Kedah it does

took p l a c e

o f Hal a c c a ,

local

and s ho ul d cont.ain

d i s covering hab i t a t i on

and P hi l l ip s p

as

a re a or over many

this

( T a.Y"l j ong Raj a )

concept o f

re c e ive p r imary

the

is

a c t i v i ty

thi s

This

us e

it

as we l l

S tr a i t s a r e a may

t he

l o c ations n e a r river mouths ,

Kuala S e l i n s ing

that

in

throughout the

evi den c e o f me t a l -working . Cina ,

c erami c s

no·t b e

tradi.n g

tha t o f

s ty l es

s ho u l d

the

a l on g

in accur ate

c on t a c t s

to

and

p r imary de f in i t i on a l

data

s upport.

conune r c e

s uch emph a s i s

i n e a r ly

Ha l ay

on

s o c i ety .

CHAPTER V

IN'I'ERP RE TAT I O N S Kota C i n a

is

the f i r s t S tuna t r a n s i t e vlhi. c h h a s

y i e lded f i rm eviden c e of l o n g d i s t a n c e c omme r c i a l -

conn e c t ions w i t h C hi n a and the we s tern Ind i an Ocean a s e ar l y a s

the twe l fth cen tury A . D .

Hi s to r i c a l source s

s ugge s t that many o the r s imi l a r s i t e s exi s t on the i s l and . P r e l i min a ry excava t i o n a t Ko t a C i n a ind i c ate s that ,

in i t s

gene r a l f e a ture s s u ch a s re l i g i ous ar chi t e cture and a c e r ami c a s s emb l age whi ch i n c l ude s l o c a l and impo r t e d po ttery , Kota C i n a i s c lo s e l y r e l ated t o the s i te s o n the Me rbok E s tuary in s outhern Kedah , on the oppo s i te s i de o f the S tr a i t s o f Ma l a c c a .

I t ha s no t ye t been po s s i ble

to comp a re the Kedah e a r thenware p ot te ry w i th Ko ta Cina s p e c ime ns t o attemp t to determine whe the r there may be e v i de n ce of d i re c t c orrunun i c at i on be twee n the inhab i tan ts of the two s i te s .

S uch evidence mi ght t ake the form o f

c l o s e s imi l a r i ties i n comp lex sur f a c e decora tion o n po t s from the two s i t e s .

O f cours e , a l te rnative exp l an a t i o n s

could al s o b e add uc ed t o accoun t for des ign s unil aritie s , an d fur ther r e s e arch d e l v i n g into o ther po s s ib l e i t ems

such as meta l s which might have b een exch an ged acr o s s the S t r a i t s woul d a l s o be ne eded to furn i s h convincing proo f

-2 49-

I :

I I

I

-2 50-

that Kota Cina and Ked ah rna.in·ta.inE�d dire c t c ormne r c i al relat i o n s \vi th e ach o ther .. Rather

than

emp oria ,

I

the De l i

River

try

to

S umatra and

in

tr..i. s

we have

d ir e c tly rel ated t o

1

t o g ai n

individual s

tradition al Mal a y

per i od b e tw e e n A . D .

and the e ar l y

few written

s o c iety .

fo re i g n er s

and hold For

the

sixteen th century ,

s our c e s

to u s e

s o c i o -· comme r c i a l p roce s s e s in Sumatra , w ritten by

revea l s te mp ora l

d i s s ertation

trade was

and the ab ility o f in

i n f ormati o n

in hi ghland- lowl and trade i n

con f i rm s that

p ower

Ethno1ri s to r i c

the hi nter land .

and s p atial continuity

however ,

o f coas tal

a lo n g whi ch imp orted items might have moved

s ummar i ze d e.arl ier

p ol i tical

s i ·tes

ch o s e to attemp t t o trace a p os s i b le rout e up

f r om the coast to

st a·tus

f in d add i t i o n al

and

in

s tudy ing

the se

few were

who were ma i nly f amil i ar with

c oas tal

r e g i on s . At this p oint

archaeo lo g i c a l

r e s earch which aim s

d i s c o ver the d i s t ribut i o n o f certai n commodit i es to

have

for

s ate

c e r amics

been thi s

of

c au t i ou s l y , other

marke r s

o f e l ite

l ack o f d at a .

s how whe re

acti v i t ie s

s uch

at d i f f eren t p e r i o d s . impo r te d p o t.tery · a t way

to me a s ure

the

can

as

be

el ites

l i ved

a s s umed

u s ed to compen-

The dis t ri b u t i o n o f

o f man u f a c t ur e ,

know n dat e s can

s t atus

to

C h i ne s e

when u sed or

carried

out

r e l ig i o u s cerem o n ie s and b u r i al s

A comp a r i s on o f q u an ti t i e s

d i f f eren t impo r t aJ1C e

of

s J_ t e s vlo u l d p r ov id e o n e at

particular

t i:ne s o f

r

-1

- 2 5 1-

I

-I

var ious l o c a t i ons on t r ansport networks ,

!

whe re valuab l e res our c e s c ould be found .

i

-1 I

and o f are a s

I n thi s st udy I cons idered only the va l l ey o f t he D e l i Rive r .

P r odu c ing areas for fores t produc ts an d

min e r a l s were not i n cluded ;

thus the survey covers only

a tran s p o r t route , a l t hough the dis cove r i e s at S i b e r ay a in the highlands show that a n over l and route once ex i s ted b eyond the navigab le po r t i on of the D e l i R i ver , and p r ob ab ly continued f ur ther i n t o the moun t ains . The Del i area was o f mo d e r a te import ance between the t h i r te e n th an d s ixteen th c en turi es .

A country named Haru ,

men t i oned by Chines e , Ar ab , J avan es e , Ma l a c c an , and P o r tugue s e s o ur ce s , was intermi tten t ly pro s perous and power ful , al tho ugh it was no t a ma j or tr ad i ng center .

The

d i s covery of a s i t e s uch as Ko ta C i n a in thi s reg ion i s there fore n o t wh at one would exp e c t ; Ko ta C i n a exc ava t i on s a n d s urvey have re s u l ted i n the c o l l e c tion o f much high qual i ty Chines e po r c e l ai n , copper c o i n s , s tat uary w i th s o uth Indi an a f f i n i t i e s ,

and Middle E a s t e rn gl as s .

The

s i t e w a s pr obab ly inhab i t e d dur i ng the t\ve l f th to e ar l y fo ur teenth centuri e s . wnen o ther coas t a l tr adin g s ites o f the s ame period are found , Kota Cina may not s eem to be an ex ce pt i onally r i ch s i te . con tex t .

At the momen t , however , the s i te i s without a Exc a vations in other c o a s t s o f Sumatra may

s omeday provide tha t contex t ,

r

and r eveal Ko ta Cin a ' s p l ac e

� 2 52-

coa s t a l empo r i a

i n wha t. mu s t have b e e n a hi e r a r c hy o f Geological con f i rmed

the

an a l ys i s

of

exp e c t a t i o n

s o on

pr oc e s s . of

·the

s i te

c o ur s es s hort

'I'he

in

d i s c overy

f urther

s p an s

Bron s o n ' s

co a s t a l are

to

S wnatra have

and b e come

!

I

from the

s i t e may

l !

speed o f th i s

the

in part

the imp r e s s ion that wate r o f ten

s i l te d

" d i e d 11

a f t er

r e l a t i ve l y

in .

p r e d i c t i on s :

that e v i d e n c e o f

c o n c en tr ated n e a r the c o a s t p

f o r e ign

and that

t r a d i ng cen te r s wo u l d p r o b ab l y have b e en i mp e rmanen t , s ome d e g r e e

r e s e a r ch . f r om the and

of

has b e e n

o f Hal a c c a .

s tr e am- laid s ed iments

of

s t re ng thens

(1977)

t r ad e s ho u l d be

the S t r a i t s

e..xa c t re ckon ing

co a s t. a l

l ife

into

shore l i ne the r e

m ang r o ve samp l e s

dat ing o f

a l lm-r a more

s o i l s o f Kota C i n a

the

tha t

s t e ad i ly extending s e award Radio c arbon

the

.

The

co a s t al p l a i n w a s

at

Deli

by

also

and · p o s s i b l y

Tua

the

results

the r:1ountains

z on e whe r e

commun i c at i on ,

fortr e s s

s upported

a

of

begin

thi s the i r

focal point of

o f po l i t i c a l

and the rema i n s

ascent

tr ade

pmver ,

as

a s s o c i a t e d wi th

the

it

indi ca t e . The p r obl em o f c an

on l y b e

w i th Ko t a

s o l ve d by

Cina ,

we

a s i n g l e t r an s port s i te than s e t t l ement thr e a t s .

d a t ing D el i

Ko ta away

Tu a ' s

If

exc ava t i o n .

c an

then

route .

But D e l i could

Tua

and

thu s

fr om

the

c o a s t b e c a us e evidenc e ,

th i s

s i te

t.hey 'i'lere

a s s ume

Cina ,

E t hn o hi s t o 1::- i c

f i r s t o cc u p at i on

may

two be

r ep r e s e nt

and

of

the

c o ex i s t e d

a a

nodes

on

l a ter s hi f t

of

ext e rn a l m i l i t a r y l o c a t i on

of

1

_f

- 2 5 3-

I

s eve r a l

ce remon i a l

c en t er s

lowland t r an s i t i on , have b e en

t i ght

impo r t a n t a s

c o n tro l over

expo rt hi ghl and p ro d u c t s . at

Ko t a C i n a

is

h i g h l and gro up s ob j e ct s ,

as wel l

The v a l l ey

t h e p e r i o d und e r commod i t i es

s t a tu s

goods ,

the hyp o the s i s

p e r i o d are

in

of

the

the n in e t e e n t h c en tury .

c e r ami c s

f l ow o f

i n China dur ing

cen tury p er i od h ave b e e n

C e ram i c s

an d b e tween in

r i

1-

imp o r ted

f a r the A f ter Ko t a

the

o f the Kot a J" awa

a s i te whi c h may to

have

the Wampu Rive r .

t h i r t e enth- s i x t e enth

foun d at o ther

a long the n o r t he a s t c o a s t ,

s c atte red

l o c a t i on s

but i n sma l l number s .

for Fur ther Res e a r ch

the D e l i v al l ey has

geo graphi c t r an s i tion ,

t he D e l i

s i te a t K o t a J awa be c am e a

had a c c e s s v i a a n ow- s i l te d- up c h an n e l

S urvey of

in

imp o r t e d o b j e c ts .

imp o rt ance .

S ugge s t i on s

i ron

that c o a s t a l c e n te r s d ur i n g

f o und a t r.r an j ung Anorn ,

C e r ami c s made

f i n i s hed

Ko ta C in a c o n t a i n s by

concent r a t ion

coastal

f o r m e t a l wo r k ing

as

s tudy con tro l l ed the

s ome

as

a lway s

P a l emb an g :c u l e r s p r o v ided

s u ch n e c e s s i t i es

in l and .

s e t t l eme n t o f

l ong

The e v i d e n c e

s UJ; p r i s ing .

w i th

C i n a w a s ab andone d ,

highl and-

the route s u s ed t o

d i s t r i bu t i o n o f Chi ne s e

s up p o r t s

l a rg e s t

not

as

the

s u g ge s t tha t s u c h po i n t s would

s tr a t eg i c a l l y

rul e r s needed

f ur the r so uth a l ong

l o c a t ed two p o i n t s o f

b etween c o a s t and

lowl and p l ain ,

l owl and p l a i n and hig hl an d , \vhi ch wer e impo r t ant

early S uma t r an exchan g e

s y s tem s .

L a r g e r r iver

sy s tem s

- 254in s o u th S umatr a �rance mus t be

f

mad e for the use o f a l t ernative routes by highl and Sumatr an s .

r

In Sumatr a , with the advantag e provid ed by

the common import o f Chine s e pottery who s e date s o f manufacture are app roximately kno¥m , we s ho uld be ab le

T T

to detect change s in the u s e of s pe c i f i c ro ute s c onnec t ing c o a s t a l empor i a and highl and produc ing zones , add the e l ement of time to a c o n c ep t wh ic h ,

and thereby

r l

part i a l ly

b e c aus e o f Jc he l imi t a t i on s o f the Olme c data , has ha d a s t atic qual i ty when app l i ed to archaeo l o g i c a l d a t a . Adams and N i s s en

( 1 9 7 2 ) u t i l i z ed four components in

a s tudy of e arly urb an i z a t i on in M e s opo tami a :

(1)

general

des cript ive s t atements whi ch pre s e nt an overview o f th e prob l em , re f i ne

(2)

or

s p a t. i a l or

loc a t i onal analy s i s ,

p e n e t r at e w i t hin

s e e king " to

the g r o s s ly ob s ervab l e ,

(3)

d e s c r i p t ive r e g u l a r it i e s , "

s t udy o f topogr aphy and

s o i l depo s i ti on , wi th the a im o f r e co n s t r u c t ing the depos i t i on a l hi s t ory

of

a s p e c i f i c r e g i o n , and

(4 )

use

of t r a d i t i o n a l hi s t o r iogr aphy and a r cha e o l o g y t o r e c o n s t r u c t m an ' s c han g i n g r e la t i o n s hip t o a s p e c i f i c la n d s c a pe and N i s s en

1972 :

12 ) .

Thi s

(Ad am s

s tudy h a s taken a s im i l a r

appro ach to the s tudy o f no r the a s t S um a t r an invo l vel:',en t in

l o ng-d i s t a n c e

t r ad e

and the

-------�- ----... _,z;;

______ _

role

of

t r ade

in

the

1

-,

- 25 7-

g e n e r a l dev e l opme n t o f

S uma t r an

v a l l ey p ro j e c t provides

an

i n f o rmat i on whi ch s u r f ace c an

contr ib ute

to

N o r the a s t t h e mo re

S uma t r a

c en t r a l

and

coas t , of

s urvey

and o ther

sout he a s t

t oward

iden t i f i c at i on

in

i n f o rm a t i o n o n l y an

region s .

S uma t r a ,

s o lv ing of

the s e ,

s pe c i f i c

S um a t r a w a s n e twork o f

conune r c i a l

on

two

and

en t i r e

and integr a te d . i t , may

the

p a tt e rn o f c u l ture s . a

cul t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s who s e and we mus t

s y s t em ran ,

elucidated

ind ividual

the manne r

s ubsy s t em s o f

extern a l

f ac t o r s

In

way

the

s t udy o f

STh�a t r a c an be

in g e neral .

f un c t i o n ing

w e c an then d i s ting u i s h

t he

humanity

any

the w a y i n

thous and y e a r s p a r t o f

and

s tudy o f

s o lution

Onc e

env i ronme n t and o ther

s o c i e ty thi s

,

i l l um i n a t e n o t

also

a parti cul ar

O n c e we have

rel at i on ships b etween

tr ade

in f o rmat i on whi ch

f rom S uma t r a to un de r s t an d the

the en t i re n e twork.

the

throug h the

of

of

the w e s t

i t may be

s e l dom been e q u a l l e d i n h i s to ry ,

i n f o rm at i on

i n whi ch t he

r

p a ttern o f

s tudy make s

s ou r c e s

local

for perhaps

b r e adth has

T

the

one

th i s

i n Sumat r an h i s to r y b ut

r e l at i on s h ip w i th

I

to have b e en

F u t u r e re s e a r ch in

If

i s p ro p e r l y o rg ani z e d ,

epi sode

of

exc a v a t i o n

and n e a r B a r u s

outl i n e d he r e .

whi ch human b e i ng s deve l oped

,,

s e em

the o ve r a l l

c an mo s t u s e f u l l y b e e xp l o i ted

tl1e

l imi ted

amount

s ho u l d pro v i de mu c h add i t i on a l d a t a f o r

pr og r e s s

of

and

t he

s u c h a prob l em .

S uma t r a doe s n o t

the que s t io n s

h ave

The D e l i

i nd i c a t i on o f

imp o r tan t r eg i on s

b e tween

s o c i e ty .

Sumatran

to whi ch they r e s p onde d . r e l a t e d to

the

T APPEND IX 1

T

!

EARLY GOLD-WORKING IN SUMATRA

T

I

Nomadic groups may have c aus ed a s hortage o f gold in India dur ing the l as t two centuries B . C . by dis rupting trw� s po r t ro ute s in central As i a .

I nd i an l i ter ary source s

o f the s ame p eriod ind i c a t e an inter e s t in Suvarn advip a and suvarn abhumi , mythi c a l 11 go lden l ands " to the e a s t wher e fortunes could be made and g o l d go tten 19 6 8 :

20 )

( Coede s

0

S uvarn advipa i s o f t en id en ti f ied w i th Sumat r a and the are as on the Mal ay P en i n s u l a which S r i vi j ay a later contro l led , p r i n c i p ally Kedah and the I s thmus o f Kra ( Coedes 1 9 6 8 :

92) .

The acc uracy o f this n ame , " Land o f

Gold , " f o r S umatra has be en que s t ioned .

Wh e a t l ey c a l l ed

at te n t i on to the f a c t that in Chao Ju-kua ' s d e s c rip t i on o f the exp or ts o f S r i vi j aya , coming from [ or ]

" there i s no ment i on o f go ld

(or more p a r t i cularly being mined in )

the Ma lay Penin s u l a "

(Whe a t l ey 1 9 5 9 : 1 1 3 ) .

S uma t r a In fact

Chin a expo r t ed g o l d t o S ri v i j aya . Roman wri t ings men t i on tha t grea t amoun ts o f gold we r e exported to I n d i a dur ing the f i r s t two c en tu r i e s a s payment f o r s p i c e s and s i lks .

A. D .

Thi s s ource o f supp l y

a l s o dec l ined r ap i d l y a f t er the s e cond c e n t ury A . D . when

-2 58-

T

--

I

-259-

i

Roman - I n d i an

t r a d e f el l o f f .

The r e is evidence t ha t in r e c en t time s Borneo exp o r ted go l d to C hi na .

But there i s no indi c a tion that

B o rn e ans mined gold un t i l Chine s e s e t t l e r s a rri ved aroun d 1760 .

Never the l e s s i t ha s b e e n a s s erted th at whe r e

S umatra is concerned ,

" there i s n o comp a r i son w i th th e

g o l d r e s ou r c e s o f Borneo " 70) .

(T .

H arris son and O ' C onner 1 9 7 0 :

There are however s ome d a t a whi ch give s t r ong

s upport to t.he c on te n t i o n that g o l d w a s mined in S umatra in l arge q uan t i t i e s b e fore the c o l o n i a l period , and t hat i t was mined enti r e ly by S um a t r ans . I n d i an

�o l d-Min in�

I n s outhern I n d i a ther e are s e veral regions where gol d mining was on c e c ar r i e d o u t on a large s c a l e . Rai chur ,

f o r exampl e ,

In

in a n are a o f 2 0 0 square m i l e s

s ever a l hun d r e d ab andoned g o l d mine s have been d i s covered . S h a f t s r e a c h depths o f up to 6 4 5 fe e t , perhaps the deepe s t y e t foun d whi ch were dug b y an c i en t mining t echnique s Sha f t s w e r e w a te r

to

s ome t imes

cr ack the rock .

exc avated by

us ing f i r e and

Thi s method ne c e s s i t ated the

d igging of twin s ha f t s , o n e to dr aw out the smoke . t e chn i q u e d e po s i t s

r

I i

l e ave s of

c arbon

po t sher d s

.

tr a c e s whi ch c an be dated .

have a l s o b e en

Thi s T hi c k

f o und i n t h e b o t toms

/ \

I.

- 2 6 0-

r· of

some

shaf t s ,

and may be the r emains

of b a i l i ng ac tivity .

S ome o f these pott ery fragments belong to d a teab l e Ar t i f a c t s used to pro c e s s

Hmmne r s tones

were used to crush the ore ,

whi ch wa s

and

anv i l

then washed

typ es .

s tone s in wo oden

Cru c i b l e s

s eparate the he avier gold parti c l e s .

containing trac es o f g o l d and mer cury ltave a l s o b e e n found The Artha s a s tr a ,

at the mining s i t e s . di s c u s s e s

a f amo u s epi c poem ,

the duti e s o f mine s uper intenden t s ,

one o f whi ch

is the d i s t i l l ation o f mercury . Pottery type s ,

and a stool ,

found in

the

s ha f t s

be en dated s ty l i s t i c ally to the period b e tween the

c e n t ury B . C . dates have

and the thi rd c entury A . D .

and 1

f ir s t

s haf t s :

81 0 ± 7 0 B . P .

Mus l im hi sto r iography ,

whi ch in

1 3 0 0 s , do e s not men t i on g o l d min ing . ever o b serve d by European s g i s t s have no ted that mi nes

have

Two radioc arbon

also been obtained from the se mine

1 8 9 0 ± 70 B . P .

in s o uthern

Ind i a dates

from the

No g o l d mining was

I n di a .

Ar cha e o l o -

s e t t l emen ts i n the v i c i n ity o f

the

s eem t o have b een l arge and numero u s in the pe r i o d

200 B.C.

- A.D .

2 0 0 , with a s ub s e q uent d e c l i ne i n s i z e and

r i chne s s of ma terial cul ture

�l lchin 1 9 6 2 :

19 5-211 ) .

Al l the data points to the c on c l u s io n that the r e was 1

!

the go ld ore have a l so

be en found near the mine s .

pans to

1

Pr o f . S t an l ey J . 0 ' Conno r (p e r s on a l Commun i c at i on ) _ bel ieves tha t an c i en t min ing r i tu a l s may have invo lved the Thi s wo uld pro v i d e an deliberate sma s hing o f p o t tery . a l t e rn a te exp lan at i on for the sherds in the shaf ts .

r

-

261

-

a p e r i o d o f i n t en s e go l d - m i n i n g a c t iv i ty in s o uthern Ind i a p r e c is e l y a t the t ime when the c en tr a l A s i an trade routes we r e s e v e r e d i s th a t ,

(Hhe a t l ey 1 9 7 1 :

3 5 6 note 2 1 6 )

depri ved o f cen t r a l As i an g o l d ,

exp l o i t e their own r e s o ur c e s ,

.

The imp l i c a t i o n

I n d i an s b e g a n t o

a n d qui ckly exha u s t e d them .

Europe an go l d w o u l d have b e e n impor tant for abo ut 2 0 0 y e a r s , b u t probab ly was n o t s i gn i f i c a n t a f t er ab out A . D .

250 .

E a r l � � inin1 in S um a t r a V a n B emm e l en

(1944 :

II ,

1 05 - 1 2 2 )

s umm ar i z e s ·the Gold­

ev � den c e f o r pre- coloni a l g o l d min ing in S uma tra .

b e a r i n g rocks are f o und through a lmo s t t he entire Bar i s an Range .

Furthermo r e ,

11 r emains o f fo rmer n at i ve g o l dmining

are nume rous and ha v e b e e n f o un d in many pl ac e s fr om Atj e h in the n o r t h to Benku l e n in t h e s o uth .

The exte ns ive n e s s

o f the o l d wo rking s i n d i c a tes a thoroug h organ i z at i o n i n wh ich tho u s a n d s and thous an d s o f men mu s t have b e e n emp l o yed .

I t i s ev i d e n t that c on s i d erab l e q uant i t i e s o f

g o l d h ave b e e n produ c e d "

( van B enune l en 1 9 4 4 :

II

1

105) .

Dur i n g the p e r i od 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 0 g o l d produc t i on i n the Ne ther l ands E a s t Indi e s tota l l e d 1 2 3 , 2 8 1 . 5 ki logra�s ; S uma t r an provided 8 2 % o f this , The Lebong area of

and Benku l e n a l o n e 7 2 % .

s o uth Suma tra i s r ich in g o ld-

b e a r ing f o rmation s , and is Ve.J:y near Benk.u l en , but the early Dutch s e ttl e r s d id no t know that g o l d exi sted ther e . M a r s d e n was

I i

s im i l a r l y un aware o f the m i n e r a l we a l th o f

r J

-262-

Lebon g ,

though he mentions o ther mi n ing zone s .

whi le much further from the e a s t coas t ,

L ebong ,

,.

i s separated from

the wes t by a part o f the Bar i san cha i n ,

��

and has been

po l i ti cally connected for much of i t s hi s tory w i th P al emb ang , but i t i s not ea s ily a cc e s s ib l e f rom the r e

r

e ithe r . Legend s in the Lebong are a frequently men t i on e ar ly go ld m i ning , go ld veins ,

inc ludin g the or iginal d i sc overy o f

and may re late to the four teenth c entury .

In one ver i ons Maj apahit i s menti oned br iefly 9 8- 1 1 2 ;

t e r B r ak e 1 9 4 4 :

(Hovig 1 9 1 4 :

J

51) .

r

When E uropean mining comp an i e s b eg an to exp lo i t the Lebong depo s i t s ,

the f i r s t chi e f eng ineer repo r t ed th at " a

great d e al o f work ha s been don e by an c i ent mine r s 1 includ i ng a l arge comp l ex o f sha f t s , wi n z es

( Wr ig h t

1 9 01 :

9) .

.

s ta pe s , dr ives and

356 ) 1

r

S tone mort a r s and gr inding

imp l emen ts we r e found s c attered ab o u t the s i te 1 9 12 :

f

j

rr

( T r u s cott

and one via s sent to the Batav i a Mu s e um

(Notulen 1 9 0 3 : B i j l ag e xi i , page XC , n umb e r 3 8 9 a ; i llus tr ation i n Ho vig 1 9 1 4 1

f i g ure 1 ) .

A

see

l arge quan t i ty

o f mer cury w a s also fo und , but the d i s c over er was unw i l l ing to gue s s whe ther it had b ee n u s e d by p r e - E uro p e an mine r s o r by the f ir s t E uro p e an exp lorer s . con ta ining m er c u r y , Eur o p e an o c c up a t i o n

C innab ar ,

an o r e

was mined b y S uma t r a n s i n J amb i b efo re (To b l e r 1 9 1 9 :

463-464 ) ,

tho ugh its us e

i s no t mentioned .

l

- 2 6 3-

I n add i t ion sys t ems o f the

gold

r e s ervo i r s

from the

s u ch waterwo rks and A c eh

to mines ,

ta i l ing s

exi s t

s y s t em o f

reinf o r ced vert i c a l s im i lar to of

and aqueduc t s ,

1944 :

f i r e t o cr ack r o c k

12 0 ) .

Thi s

India

s eparate

Comp l ex e s o f

(Boomg ardt 1 9 4 7 )

and a d i t s ,

shafts . in

prob ab ly ·to

Sumatra II ,

t unn e l s

that used

a l s o cons t ruc ted

a f t er g r i nd i ng .

in we s t

( van B emme len

a l s o had a

e arly m i n e r s

A mine

in Aceh

wi th roc k-

s y s t em

sounds very

in con j un ct i on with the us e

1 9 4 4 : 51 ) .

( t er B r ake

However ,

only

a P a s a i leg end in d i c a t e s tha t any non - S um a t r an s wer e involved i n g old min i ng b e f o r e European s , a s s er t s 19 6 0 :

that Sumatrans and an

I nd i an cooper a t ed

so ught .

Be s i d e s c i nn ab ar

copp e r we r e

(me r c ur y }

210) .

M a r s d en

(1966 :

c opper

166 ,

z inc we re I r o n and

d e s c ribed S uma tran

and i ron .

S umat r an g o l d was

l ar g e q u an t i t i e s

and

(van Bemme l en 1 9 4 4 :

172-1 7 3 )

No ne o f the s e e ar l y mine s

in the e ar ly 1 5 0 0 s ;

l ead

s outh Tapanul i .

a l s o mined and worked

mining o f gol d ,

in

( Hi l l

the only min e r a l whi ch e ar l y Suma tran s

s m e l t e d n e a r Muara S ipo ng i ,

dated .

l eg end

12 3 ) . G o l d w a s not

II ,

a n d th i s

has

yet b e e n ab s o l ut e l y

expo rted to Mal a c c a

and Vietnam

thi s g o ld was o f high qua l i ty and c ame (Cort e s ao

194 4 :

1 13 ;

T ie l e

1879 :

27} .

Only sma l l amo unt s o f poor qu a l i ty g o ld c ame f rom e l s ewhe r e ;

Bornean g o l d s en t to Malac c a \va s

a s s ay value "

r '

(Co r t e s ao

1944 :

132 ) .

" o f very lmv

-264�

I

t Goldsmithing was a highly developed art in preco lonial S umatr a .

i

Marsden corrunented tha·t " the r e being no

l

manufactur e in that part o f the wor ld , and perhaps I might be j us t i f i ed in s aying ,

r

in any part o f the wo rld ,

' '

_(

th at has been more admi red and c e l ebrated , than the fine go ld an d s i lver f i l agree of Sumatr a 11

(Ha rsden 1 9 6 6 :

r

178) .

r j

The smi ths used borax to prepare the so lder used in the wo rking o f gold for j ewel l ery .

r

During S ung time s China

obtained borax from the alkaline l ake s of As i a Mino r .

Early

J

S umatran craftsmen could have obtained borax at the s ame time as Near E a s tern g l as s was b e in g imported by Sumatran s . The go lden j ewe l l ery produced by e arly c r a f t smen i s n o t likely t.o b e f ound frequently i n archaeo log i c a l s i te s . Met a l art ob j e cts made b e fore the coming o f I s lam were ne arly a l l ra�e lted an d worked in to new shapes as the new r e l ig i on became dominant

(Wi n stedt 1 9 6 9b ) .

The S i val ing ga s

in the g o ld room o f the Nuseum P us a t in J akar t a are among the few ob j e cts which man aged to s u r v i ve s uch i cono c l a sm . Among the Batak ,

go ld an d s i lver working we r e

t r ad i t io n a l craf t s , w i t h numerous ce remoni e s atte ndan t on the use of vari ous t oo l s and pro c e s s e s

P i r n g a di e 1 9 2 7 : IV , 2 4 - 3 4 ) . r i tual ha s

(J asper and

M e t a l -wo r ki n g

and

a l s o been propo s ed as a r e a s o n f o r the

cons truct ion o f rneg a l i th..i c mon umen ts in Bo rneo H ar r i s s o n

as soc iated

an d

(1915-1916)

O ' Conno r 1 9 7 0 ) .

so ught

- -·

to

conn e c t

, _ _ --------- - - -

S im i l a r ly W . J .

(T . Perry

t he di s t r i b u t i o n o f

---

If" ii

-

- 2 6 5-

Eur op e an meg a l i ths w i t h an c ie n t mine s .

Further r e s e ar ch

on the d i s tribution o f meg a l i ths in s outh Smna tra , b u i l d ing o n the work o f van der Hoop a te s t o f J . L .

P e ac o c k ' s

(1 9 6 2 )

(193 3 ) ,

comb ined with

hyp o the s i s wh ich c or r e l a t e s

the c on s t r u c t ion o f the P a s emah meg a l i ths wi th a shi f t from ac�i eved t o a s cr ibed s t at u s , may permi t us t o und e r s t an d s ome o f the ch��ge s i n Sumatr an s o c i e ty wh ich a c c omp ani e d the devel opment o f t r ad ing l inks b e tw e e n Sum at r a an d I n d i a a n d China in t h e e a r l y cen tur i e s A . D .

r F

r

I

AP P ENDIX

r

i I

2

��-

i l I

SUMMARY OF EXCAVAT ION AT PO INT J A 2x2

20

em .

thi c k .

from this

0- 2 0

mete r

em . :

s quare wa s

T he

excava·ted

in

t ab le b e l ow s um1na r i z e s

r

ar t i fi c i a l the

d a ta

layer s

r

obtained

pit .

D i s turb ed

so il ,

Earthenwar e :

l

humu s . s an d - tempered :

" Bau-H a l ay inc i s ed " , 1 s h erd , 2 0 g r ams . p l a in : 5 2 sher d s , 8 8 0 g r am s . carved padd le

r '

impre s s ed : 3 [ s herds ] , 6 5 [ gr ams ] .

she l l - tempered :

1

[ sh er d ] [ gr am s ] . F i n e pa s t e w ar e : 9 /5 0 Po r c e l a i n :

1 6/ 4 0

S t o n ew ar e

B r i t t l e ware :

:

j ar s ,

6/ 6 0 .

mercury

ves s e l s ,

10/9 5 . Kwangtung w ar e : 5 / 1 4 0 . Im i t at i o n Kw a n gtung w a r e : U niden t i f i ed : 4/ 4 0 .

Bon e :

/5

7/12 .

6 5 g r ams .

Dam a r :

Chi n e s e

s e ver a l

f r a gmen t s .

copper coins :

1,

-266-

·-

- · ·-·- ----------------- - --

.- ,.

� � ..-

··- ..... .� ----. .._

.. ....,._,.., .-.-��--- - --- -�----

-

·· ···-------- ·- · · �.,.--.... '""

I

-267-

2 0 - 4 0 em . :

Brown humus , char coal a t 4 0 ern . depth . E arthenware :

s and- temp ered :

" Bau-Malay inc i s e d " , 2 / 2 0 . plain : 2 2 /4 3 0 . carved padd l e impr e s s ed : 1 / 1. F ine p a s te ware : 4 / 6 5 , inc l ud i ng spout . Br i t t l e o r ange var i ety , l/ 6 0 .

P o r c e l ai n :

2 1/ 3 7 0 .

Stonewar e :

Br i t t l e ware : 3/ 7 5 . Imi ta tion Kwangt ung : Khmer [ ? ] s tonewar e :

Bone : Stone :

l/ 3 0 . 1/ 7 5 .

1 7 0 g r am s . 1 vo l c an i c tuf f p ebb l e , ( 6 x 3 x 2 em . )

2 0 grams

.

Chine s e c opper c o i n s :

4 0 - 6 0 em . :

2.

Gray c l ay . E arthenware :

s and- tempered : p l a in , 2 4 / 6 2 0 . c arved paddl e impr e s s ed : 6 / 6 0 . p a inted : 1 / 5 . s h e l l temp ered : 2 / 6 0 . F ine pas te war e : 4 / 4 5 .

P o r c e l ain :

9/1 4 0 .

S t oneware :

Br i t t l e ware :

large j ar s , 4 / 3 0 . mercury ve s s e l s : l/2 0 .

Kwangtung : Bone ;

r

11 Southern Tenunoku " : 2 / 2 0 . 4/1 0 0 .

1 , 1 0 0 g r ams .

B r i c k f r agmen t s :

2/60 0 .

Thi c kne s s ,

3 . 5 em .

I. I·

-2 6 8 -

60-80

em .

:

Gr ay c l ay with a sh l en s , E ar the nwar e :

6 0 em

•

r

.

sand- tempered :

p l a in ,

6 1- 5 6 0 .

c arved padd l e

f

impre s s ed : 2 8/ 4 8 0 .

F ine paste war e : Porc elain :

3 3/ 2 6 0 .

S tonewa r e :

B r i tt l e war e :

1/4 0 .

larg e

r

j ars ,

1/ 5 .

" Southern T emmoku " : 2/ 4 0 . M ercury ves s e l s : 4/ 6 0 . Bone :

At app e ar ed .

a depth o f Thi s was

gr ound w a t e r was

2 8 0 grams .

8 0 em .

a

exc av ated

ster i l e to

s tr a tum

a d ep th

r

o f y e l low c l ay

of 100

em . ,

where

l .

r eached .

r r T

i

�·

APP END I X

3

P ROF I LE D E S C RI P T I ONS

F i g u re 1 2 3 .

P ro f i l e

l ,

Point B ,

Ko ta C in a .

o f humus , u n d e c a yed veg e t ab l e ·

A=Mixtur e

matter ,

ro ots .

B=Darker ,

f in e r

l OYR ,

humus .

5/2 . l O YR ,

3/2 .

S ome

h��u s w i th l ight e r s t reaks .

C=Darker

ar t i f a c t s

but

no mo l l us c s he l l s .

l O YR ,

2/2 .

D=Lay er compo s ed o f compa c t ed she l l s , s herds , o th e r

de f i n e d p SY ,

l ow e r

s t re ak s F=Like

Pro f i l e

boundary shar p ly

E

2 ,

devo id l OYR ,

.

but l e s s

\'lat er tabl e :

124 .

poorly

boundar y

d e f i ne d .

2 . 5/1 .

E=Fine c l ay ,

F i gur e

U pp er

ar t i f ac t s .

o f ar ti f a c t s

B=Finer

s tr e a k ing .

lOYR ,

7/2 .

1 3 0 em .

Point C ,

Ko t a

b r i ck fr a gm e n t s

texture ,

fragmen t s .

Al

4/4 .

Cina .

A= F in e r o o t l e t s , comp a c t e d S ome

Fe ,

.

.

textu r e .

1 0YR ,

he av i er r o o t s .

5/ 2

H um u s

.

.

Large

b r i ck

S l ightly p l a s t i c c on s i s t e n c y .

-269-

,t .

- 2 70 -

r·

3/2 .

l O YR ,

C=S andy s i l t ,

l es s p l a s t i c .

brick fr agmen t s .

7 . 5YR ,

r·

Fine rootlets , 4 / 4 - 5/ 4 .

D=Fine t extur ed s andy s i l t .

l O YR , 4 / 3 .

E=S andy c l ay , s ome b r i ck fr agments , main ly

A few c har c o a l

at upper boundary .

r

F e , lU

fr agments ,

s ome l a rge rooJc s .

depos i t s .

S ome rounded pebb l e s o f v o l c anic

tuf f .

1 0 YR 1

F=Poo r l y de fined ; color .

f in e r s t ructure , darker

S ome met a l l i c s t r e ak s , br i c k

fr agments .

l OYR r

5/ 2 .

G=F in e s and - c l ay m i x t u ;r e

.

Char co a l fr agmen t s

f a i r l y cormno n 1 pa rt i c u l a r l y :in the c enter of the pro f i l e .

Al 0

2

r

4/2-4/3 .

l

l OYR , · 5/ 8 with some Fe ,

d i s c o lor ation , l OYR , 6 / 3 .

H=P a l e c l ay , char coal metal l i c oxide s . I = P a l e he avy c l ay , s t r e aks

at ba s e .

l OYR ,

S t reak s o f

I

6/1 .

eve n ly b e dded .

Numerous

from me tals le ached from upp er

hor i zons .

l O YR , 6 / 4 - 6 / 6 .

J=Co ar s e sand l e n s , s ome gravel .

l O YR

5/ 2 - 4 / 1 . K=C lay w i th s ome charcoal nodules . depos i t s .

Fe , Al O

2

1j

l OYR , 6/3 .

I

-2 7 1-

L;S ti cky l OYR ,

f in e

c l ay ,

p l en t i f u l

car bon

r ema i n s .

4/1 .

c l ay ,

M=Gr a v e l ly

Plastic ,

som e me tal l i c

s t i c ky .

l O YR ,

d epo s i t s .

6/2 .

N=B lack s and l e n s e s with wh i t e s i l i c a t e adm i x t ur e .

s and w i th much g r a v e l / l a rg e r o unded

X= C o ar s e

pebb l e s

of

vo l c a n i c

f r a gment s ,

F i gu r e

125 .

Pro f i l e

f in e

P o in t H ,

3 ,

Some b r i ck

tuff .

ro o t l e t s .

l O YR ,

5 / 3 - 5/2 .

Ko ta C i n a .

grave l fragmen ts , many br i ck

A=Loam w i th

f r a gment s .

7 . 5 YR ,

B= S an dy s i l t .

4/4 .

Some b r i c k

7 . 5 YR ,

f r agment s .

5/2 . C = Ho t t l e d

s i l t y l o am ,

SYR ,

2 . 5 /2 ,

y e l l ow c l ay s t r e ak s 7 . 5YR , D=C o ar s e

s and ,

E=C layey s and , l OYR ,

7 . 5YR ,

wi th

7/4 .

6 /2 .

some b r i ck

f r a gme n t s

at base .

6/1 .

F=Grav e l ly

s and .

G=Fine b l ack s and with admix ture o f wh i t e s ili c a t e s . . '

I

H=F ine

s and , p a l e r c o l o r .

I =Y e .l l m·l J=Co ar s e r

-r I

l

c l ay ,

c l ay ,

2 . SY , l OYR ,

6/2 . 5/2 .

i.

- 2 72-

F igure

12 6 .

Profile

r·

Point M ,

5,

A=Humu s ,

l e a ve s ,

Kota C in a .

r

roo t s .

B::::: S andy l o am .

r

C=Y e l l m.v c lay . D=Al luvial l ayer

s and ,

tuf f p ebb l e s /red

at b a s e .

top to gravel

Graded at b a s e .

r

lateritic

from f i n e

s and

at

r

Sharply d e fined .

E=Y e l low c l ay . Water t ab l e a t 2 1 0 em .

Fig ur e 12 7 .

r P ro f i l e

Po int J ,

4,

Ko ta C in a .

l

Many

A=D ark br own d i s turbed t op s o i l . roo t l et s . B�Lighter to C 1

color ,

poo r l y d e f i n ed .

we s tern C=C l ay ey in

fewer r o o t s .

h al f l o am .

up per

•rr an s i ti o n a l

Many p o t s h erds

in

.

Numero u s

char c o a l

nodul e s

ar t i f a c t s .

r

r -l

1 0 em .

D=G r ay - b r own

r

c l ay with Ko t a C i n a ph a s e Poorly

d e f i n ed

at

t op

and

b o ttom . E = S t e r i l e y e l l ow c l ay w i th i r on Water

F i g ur e 1 2 8 .

�rofile

s t r e ak s .

t ab l e at 1 0 0 em .

6 , P o int I ,

A= S ur f a c e

l ay e r o f

Ko t a C i n a . h um u s ,

d e c ay i n g v e g e tab l e

.

_ ... _,. -,�-----

1

- 2 7 3-

m a tt e r , A ' =Humus

roo ts , in

etc .

di tch b o t tom ;

s ome 2 0 th cen tury

a r t i f a c t� m ixed w i t h Ko t a C in a pha s e ar t i f a c t s . B=C l ay ey

sterile .

humus ,

C == S andy

l o am ,

D = S andy

s tr a t.um ;

m i c a c eo us layers

of

a

f ew a r t i f a c t s .

sand ,

inter c a l a t i n g

f e rro u s

s a nd wi th

b l a ck

l a rg e

lenses

s a nd ,

of

coarse

q u ar t z i t e

p ar t i c l e s . E=Y e l l ow

l I

,. r

c l ay ,

modul e s

of

oxi d i z e d me t a l s .

r r· r r r f T i

11

MAP S

r r

r

T

-l

-274-

1

. .I

'l

____

- 2 0" C a n t o n

2 0:

To n k i n

j)

Tak u ap a - o·

S r i

L an k a

A c eh

u�

M e d an·

Bar

-

-

.

_

J am b i o

'

P a l emba n g

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