architecture and human rights - Home [PDF]

The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation School of Architecture

ARCHITECTURE HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES

JORGE LOBOS

03

303_H EMERG 03_COVER 2013_DEFINITIVO.indd 1

ARCHITECTURE HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES 03 15/06/2013 17:56:29

AUTHOR Jorge Lobos

EDITOR BOARD Jonna Majgaard Krarup, Associate professor Phd. Arch MAA head institute for Planning, KADK Peder Duelund Mortensen, lector cand, arch MAA Jørgen Eskemose Andersen, lector, cand, arch MAA María Gómez-Guillamón, cand, arch MAA Giovanni Maciocco, Professore emerito UNISS, former direttore Dip. arch UNISS Jorge Lobos Contreras, associate professor UNISS, master ETSAB, arch FAU

WORKSHOP 5x5 CONCEPT Jorge Lobos, visiting teacher KADK, associate prof. UNISS Jørgen Eskemose, lector, cand, arch MAA KADK Maria Gomez-Guillamón, cand, arch MAA Dpt.7 & Head International department KADK

TRANSLATION Monica Johansson

GRAPHIC DESIGN Design Layout Vicki Thake Graphic design book 03 Mirko Mellino

Copyright © MMXIII K.A.D.K , Jorge Lobos Contreras www.kadk.dk www.jorgelobos.com

ISBN 978-87-7830-255-7 Reservados todos los derechos internacionales de traducción, digitalización, reproducción y transmisión de la obra en parte o en su totalidad en cualquier medio, formato y soporte No se permiten las fotocopias sin autorización por escrito del editor excepto con fines académicos

COPYRIGHT © 2013 Author and The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation www.kadk.dk

No part of this book may be reproduced by print, photoprint, microfilm, microfiche, or any other means, without publisher’s authorization.

ISBN 978-87-7830-255-7

FUNDS Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture. KADK Denmark Dipartimento di Architettura di Alghero, UNISS Italy

first edition: june 2013 Copenhagen

INSTITUTIONS The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture, KADK. DK University of Sassari, UNISS. IT University Autónoma de Aguascalientes, UAC. MX Kocaeli University, MTF. TR Universidad de Chile, FAU. CL Universidad Austral de Chile, UACH. CL

303_H EMERG 03_COVER 2013_DEFINITIVO.indd 2

15/06/2013 17:56:29

ARCHITECTURE HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES

I

II

III

FOREWORD

PAGE 9

Lene Dammand Lund, Dean KADK

ARCHITECTURE AND HUMAN RIGHTS

IV

“INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH INTO EMERGENCY SHELTERS” Olga Popovic Larsen, Professor KADK & Daniel Sang-Hoon Lee, Assistant Professor KADK “PROYECTO ARQUITECTÒNICO VS PROYECTO DE ARQUITECTURA” Maria Gòmez-Guillamòn, professor KADK “ESCOLA DA CIDADE” Ciro Pirondi, Director of Escola da Cidade

PAGE 121

MEGACITY MAP WORLD MAP WORKSHOPS WORLD MAP CASES

PAGE 11

Jorge Lobos, Professor UNISS Introduction 1 Cultural Processes 2 Humanitarian Emergencies 3 Projects for social equality 4 Social Sustainability 5 Democratization of Architecture 6 Low Cost Housing and Slums 7 Political Architecture & Utopia 8 Science and Architecture 9 Educational Processes & New Roles for Architecture

ARTICLES

WORKSHOP 5x5

Slums INDIA, MUMBAI Garbage EGYPT, CAIRO Earthquake & Tsunami JAPAN, TOKYO Earthquake TURKEY, ISTANBUL Favelas BRAZIL, SAO PAULO Social crisis MEXICO, MEXICO CITY Political demands CHILE, SANTIAGO Political demands SPAIN, MADRID Low cost housing ITALY, ROME Hurricane CUBA, LA HAVANA VALDIVIA, CHILE Humanitarian Emergencies

PAGE 109

V

GLOBAL SOUTH

Jorgen Eskemose, Professor KADK

PAGE 231

INDEX

03

6

METROPOLIS & MEGACICITIES

One of the core competences of architects is to translate the values in society into design and preservation of physical environments. Architecture is never a purely aesthetical, functional or technicalrmatter; there is always a layer of social intention – an expression of the value of each individual person. The organization theorist Edgar Schein has developed a theory about organizational culture which describes this exact translation. He speaks of three “layers”. The essence of a culture he calls assumptions. It is everything we take for granted, things we do not discuss; the fact that parents are expected to love their children, for example. The next “layer” is values or social principles, such as democracy, human rights, freedom and loyalty. The outer layers are artifacts, which manifests themselves as the physical heritage, art, design, architecture, all kinds of

layer is nothing without the other. It is meaningless to work as an architect if your work is not based on values and common assumptions. How can you make life better for people if you have no idea how they should live and interact? In the Nordic countries there is a very close relationship between assumptions, values and architecture. The idea of the welfare society is expressed in all of our physical environments; the idea that all children should have free access to borrow a book is expressed through libraries designed to encourage children to read and discover new books.

FOREWORD

ARCHITECTURE EMERGENCIES

Far from all societies are welfare societies and far from all societies have architecture made of lasting materials.

Lene Dammand Lund, Denmark Rector Architect MAA, MBA The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Schools of architecture, Design and Conservation

8

a physical expression through architecture. In those societies there is more need than anywhere else to support and encourage people through architecture.

9

INTRODUCTION1 (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. (article 25. Declaration of Human Rights, Paris, U.N. 1948)2

st In the late 20th century, after having focused on various geopolitical struggles, the world has, again, turned its attention to human rights, and the ethical support, which will contribute in an important way to the future society. Human rights may be conceived as a new utopia to somebody, while, to somebody else it may be an ethical duty in relation to mankind, to future generations, as well as to the destiny of the planet. Architecture plays an important role in this debate. This book aims to address some relevant discussions related to human rights and architecture. We will start by examining a recompilation of literature which refers to and revisits some of the many architectural projects, and

rights of all men and women.

Jorge Lobos, Chile Architect University of Chile, FAU Chile Master ETSAB-UPC Barcelona, Spain Associate Teacher School of Architecture Alghero. UNISS, Italy Visting Teacher Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. KADK Denmark Founder of E Architecture & Human Rights

1

Some parts of this text correspond to my master thesis “Arquitectura Cultural “ in ETSAB-UPC, Barcelona Spain 2006 and 2007,

Chapter 2, Humanitarian Emergencies has been reviewed by the Editorial committee of Architectural review of the University of Chile and has been published in Chile 2010. The introduction on Architecture and Human Rights and new roles of architecture has been reviewed by the Editorial committee of Architectural review (AUS) of the University Austral of Chile 2012 and published in Chile 2013.

Translation Monica Johansson, Sweden Political Scientist

Chapter 1, Cultural processes has been reviewed by the Editorial committee of review AE, Architecture and Education 2013 and will be published in Portugal 2013.

HUMAN RIGHTS

ARCHITECTURE & HUMAN RIGHTS

The entire text has been reviewed by Monica Johansson, PhD in Political Sciences, Sweden.

2

10

ASAMBLEA GENERAL DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS (1948) Declaración Universal de Derechos humanos, 10 diciembre, Paris

11

FROM CULTURAL ARCHITECTURE TO ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS This text on Architecture and Human Rights was initiated two or three decades ago with the theoretical construction process giving shape to the concept of cultural architecture in Latin America. These thoughts were represented mainly by a group of architects, sociologists, artists and intellectuals who moved to the Chiloé that ruled Chile and many other countries in South American continent at that time. These professionals found a fascinating architectural and cultural environment, previously undiscovered by architects. A universe made of The transition from one concept to another, i.e. from the Cultural Processes, taking place in South America in the 80s, to Human Rights, did not necessarily come about in a linear and unequivocal manner. It was rather an accident, which, led to the evolution of the entire concept, and, in particular, to the evolution of architecture. We may call this a random event, since, among all the outcomes that these processes could possibly have evolutionary process was the work that we carried out in the mid-2000s, after the Indonesian Earthquake and Tsunami of December 2004. This humanitarian tragedy triggered considerable attention in media.

1 importance, while the capability of individuals to coexist with others, and to form new systems in order to survive is crucial. 2 Once the moment of acute emergency passes, a process of reconstruction begins. During this phase, cultural to pay attention to cultural processes. No architectural project or architectural idea, neither of social nor of permanent character can take place without considering the particular processes of each territory related to identity.

to intervene in legal issues and regulations, so as to enhance democracy and to render the interpretation of the fundamental rights of the citizens of the XXI century more accurate. of architecture, to becoming cultural agents, and active carriers of knowledge, talents and responsibilities in processes of development of urban spaces and environments in which we all live. The concept of Human Rights involves duties for the architect. These duties are not necessarily involved in the concept of Culture, but are left to the discretion of the architect who may decide on whether to consider or ignore them. When Human Rights is brought into focus in urban planning, action or performance, the architect is forced to adopt a socially responsible and ethical behavior, which cannot be avoided or ignored, and which processes, contributing with all of their capacities and cultural values which gradually take on a more collective form and assuming all of the responsibilities involved. During the lat decades it was important to elaborate the concepts of culture and civilization, so as to outline the universal relation between Human Rights and civilizing processes or ”the large cultural process of humanity”, as some authors refer to it, which are different from the cultural processes of each space, nation or territory. It is also important to mention that when we talk about cultural processes, we are dealing primarily with the ethnographic perspective and secondly with the perspective of culture in the form of politics and as an artistic expression. These two perspectives give rise to differences between the two concepts of Human Rights and it can be considered more relevant than the concept of culture, from a humanist perspective. The concept of Human Rights leaves no doubt considering which values should guide our social organization so as to render it as inclusive, democratic and as possible, where all must and can in community life. Human Rights granted to all also include the opportunities to enhance and develop social knowledge. There is no doubt that processes of cultural change are of great universal value and importance, particularly in and fanatical cultural processes may lead to discrimination, segregation and lack of freedom. This could,

The concept of Human Rights is also related to the fact that cultural processes are part of universal rights, but territory. The latter would lead to an unacceptable relativization of these universal values, which, eventually would become delimited or completely invalid. On the other hand, Human Rights is a greater and more generic concept than cultural processes. Human Rights make up the biggest conceptual and ethical umbrella for a range of social concerns that architecture has dealt with over the last century. Projects focusing on Human Rights also alter the roles of management and responsibilities. The role of the architect changes from being a bearer of authority to becoming the user who has needs, but who is also entitled to rights. The user becomes an actor which can and should be active in the production of architectural and urban design for the sake of coexistence and for the democratization of the common city. In this situation, the architect loses the monopoly of absolute control of the project. Furthermore, it may be required of the architect 12

Again, I do not pretend to question the necessity and urgency of valuing cultural diversity, especially since it is part of the necessary identity of each community, group or urban site in the world. Cultural diversity is a universal right, and can only enrich our society in a positive sense, since it contributes to democratization and adds values sometimes separates the well-intentioned act of valuing identity, from expressions of exclusion, xenophobia, nationalism and religious fanaticism, which use and manipulate cultural identity for their own purposes. The solution to this social deviation does, however, not lie in architecture, therefore we prefer to use a concept that leaves no room for erroneous interpretation, and which will serve as we build a more ethical and democratically enhanced society. 13

We can, hence, include the issue of cultural processes under the umbrella of Human Rights, so as to avoid that nationalists, xenophobes or fundamentalists use architecture as instruments for exclusion and segregation.

It is important to remember that the line that separates issues that regard identities and social representation from those that regard identities related to economic, religious, racial or national aspects only may be extremely liberties and the interests of the common good. That is why it is necessary and fundamental to focus on Human

The case of ETA in Spain. What appeared to be expression and defense of cultural values and national identity, turned into clear violations of human rights in a democratic state with a high level of social welfare. ETA even uses language as an element of division and segregation between citizens, rather than as a link that could serve to connect, understand, communicate and bring out the best of human nature. Other cases that are just as obvious as the previous are ultra-nationalist and religious fundamentalist regimes, such as Iran, or some of groups in the USA. No further details are necessary to exemplify the xenophobic view antagonistic impact on Human Rights, is the idea of one single and radicalized nation, as the place which belongs to all who were born in that same place. A setting in which there is no fundamentalist nation is a place, where there is no exclusive territory to defend, no race to protect and no feeling of superiority in relation to outsiders or strangers. The fundamentalist idea of a nation builds on a belief that the nation belongs to those born in that country. These convictions often prevail over humanistic values. Territorial defense may lead to hostility in relation to those who do not originate from it, are considered as equal. Territory is the place of architecture. A paradoxical example is the State of Israel from where, in 2012, Sudanese refugees were expelled, in an attempt to conserve the cultural homogeneity of Israel. Apparently the State of Israel has forgotten that it was created to house refugees from the Holocaust, which was another humanitarian tragedy. Half a century later, Israel is no longer capable of showing the same solidarity and humanism that was asked from the international

Hence, the individual liberties will be the cultural identities and the interests of the collective good will be the Human Rights.

from others, or expressing his or her individuality in the coexistence with others is a complex play of power management, which is open to interpretation. Language has often been used, not least in Europe, by minority groups describing themselves as marginalized, presumably basing these claims on several honest reasons. These groups have referred to language as an element of identity. Used in this manner language may, however, result in lack of communication rather than creating the desired feeling of community and shared ideas. The ultimate and essential objective of language is communication among human beings, but the outcome of such a use of identity will, hence, be the exact opposite of communication. In reality, groups seeking to settle in a given territory have often used identities as a means for separation and accumulating wealth and power. Another paradoxical fact is that many of the communities that are struggling to separate themselves from other are the wealthiest. They reach a point when sharing with others becomes a

These concepts have been elaborated in contemporary philosophy. According to that philosophical approach, the universal civilizing process is just another expression of cultural processes. The difference between the two is

act will be subject to universal repudiation forever. The case of Sarkozy’s presidency, when gypsies where expelled from France to Romania, despite the fact that

criminals be expelled? This does not mean that cultural processes linked to ethnographic processes, are automatically antagonist to Human Rights concerns. It should be emphasized though that in some cases, cultural processes, especially if linked to the idea of one single nation or religion or race, can be used and manipulated so that they work against Human Rights concerns and, hence, against citizens, men and women. This is a serious conceptual and humanistic contradiction, especially since cultural processes do have an enormous impact on society. For example, human groups or societies which have been less dominant and, hence, less visible in the world may possess resources and values that can improve the lives of millions of people far beyond national borders. These cultures need to regain presence in our society, and should be used as models that are alternative to those represented by politically and economically powerful societies and the development models applied by them.

14

which is an issue which will be given much attention in the chapter of cultural processes. Most likely, in some place and at some point of time, cultural processes will be much more important than they would be in another moment of time in the same place. As processes building on the experience and knowledge of our ancestors throughout history will be interpreted and expressed by human beings and take on the form of identity and become more visible, they will emerge as more important. Probably, in the same place and at another point of time, it will be important to explore the possible connection between cultural identity and the global context, rather than simply analysing the relation between cultural identity and cultural territory. The interpretation of that connection will be dependent on the particular situation in each region or country, hence the key for interpretation will be an ethical and value-based relativism. This container can provide valuebased Human Rights, carried out as a humanist process par excellence in which the entire human race, all of the cohabitants of the planet, should try to participate.

15

THE MyTH “THE SUPPLIANTS IN THE GREEK TRAGEDy” (AESCHyLUS, 467 - 458 BC) IS, PERHAPS, ONE OF THE FIRST RECORDS OF UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND EqUALITy BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN... THE DECISION TO PROTECT THE WOMEN IN THE CITy OF ARGOS WAS NEITHER EASy, NOR OBVIOUS. THE WOMEN BELONGED TO AN ENEMy NATION, NEVERTHELESS THEy RECEIVED PROTECTION AS REFUGEES. THUS, THE MERE FACT THAT THEy WERE HUMAN BEINGS PREVAILED OVER THEIR FOREIGN ORIGIN. THE CITy IS CONCEIVED OF AS A PLACE FOR PROTECTION FOR WOMEN AND MEN ALIKE

A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT ON THE EMERGENCE OF HUMAN RIGHTS When do ”Human Rights” issues appear in history? According to Fernando Savater3, Human Rights emerged as an issue as late as in the late 18th century, when The French Revolution, the reaction of the French people against the monarchy (particularly against Louis XVI) with the objective to achieve freedom and equality among men. regardless of racial or ethnic origin.

1 The myth “The suppliants in the Greek tragedy” (Aeschylus, dated between 467 and 458 BC) They arrive exhausted to the enemy city of Argos in Greece. The women are closely followed by the Egyptians, who want to make an attempt to bring them back to their country. The suppliants, however, implore protection from Pelasgus, the King of Argos.

women”. The king consults his people and they decide to offer the suppliants protection. This puts the king in Egyptians, he will go against the will of his people. The decision to protect the women in the city was neither easy, nor obvious. The women belonged to an enemy nation, nevertheless they received protection as refugees. Thus, the mere fact that they were human beings prevailed over the nation of origin. The city is conceived of as a place for protection for women and men alike. and women. 2 Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca4 (1490-1560), Spanish discoverer of South Florida, escapes along a river as one of the few survivors after a disastrous battle, in which he had lost many of his fellow men. Cabeza de Vaca is tired and frightened. He knows that one of the banks of the river is inhabited by a dangerous warrior tribe of natives of Florida, but he is shipwrecked and has no choice but to swim into the dangerous territory together Vaca and his men immediately face their tormentors. Expecting the worst, they kneel in a circle, keeping their heads low, praying and waiting for the inevitable death. It is with great surprise they become aware of the fact that the savage and violent natives surrounding them in large numbers, cry with them. 3 4

SAVATER, Fernando (1999) Universalismo e identidades / civilización versus cultura Conferencia en ETSAM 22/02, Madrid NÚÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, Alvar (2005) Naufragios y Comentarios Espasa-Calpe Madrid NUÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, Alvar (2000) Naufragios y Comentarios Col. Crónicas de América Dastin, Madrid NUÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, Alvar (1542) Naufragios y Comentarios Zamora España 17

All human beings are more similar than we might imagine, if we take merely cultures into account. It is easy

anecdotes assert that the common ground lays in the equal Rights of men and women. Globalization and the enhanced knowledge about others, diminishes the differences between human beings. Being part of the human race is also part of our identity, the human race is the only one common ground to which we all belong.

relationship between architecture and Human Rights has, however, been ignored in that process. Nevertheless, many architects have developed important architectural expressions, with an indirect or peripheral relation to these themes.

In this introduction, much effort has been put into outlining and explaining how the concept of Architecture and Human Rights evolves from the concept of Architecture and culture. Our approach has been selected with the aim to explain the conceptual dimension and the origin of the theoretical position. This theoretical position has been reached only by chance, just like many other discoveries made by man. One of our aims in this book is, however, to analyze and outline the impact that these concepts have on architecture.

Yona Friedman6 (Hungary 1923) architect and urban planner Fabrizio Carola7 (Italy 1931) architect Edward Rojas (Chile, 1951) architect and teacher of Architecture Eduardo Feuerhake (Chile, 1951) architect, art producer and consultant UN Habitat. Fernando Ferreiro (Chile 1971) architect and consultant UN Habitat Shigeru Ban (Japan) architect

ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS NINE KEY ISSUES

Eladio Dieste (Uruguay 1917-2000) civil engineer Escola da Cidade (Brasil) Santiago Cirujeda (Spain) architect

The conceptual emphasis on Human Rights is fundamental for understanding the challenges faced within our and aesthetic points of view. Thoughts and analysis about the relationship between architecture and Human Rights have been absent in the theory of architecture. In this book, we emphasize the necessity and urgency of developing and deepening the knowledge and awareness about this relationship, and integrating this ethical This way we can stimulate the development of new professional roles, and we can bring the experience and

countries around the world, who have remained unknown to the rest of the world and who deal with issues of Human Rights, implicitly or explicitly as an essential part of their daily work. These architects are aware of the fact that ethical concern is a latent element in the world of architecture all over the world. It is true that the values of the Modern Movement of the early twentieth century did touch upon Human Rights, although it did not fully come to the fore as a clear and conscious expression, neither was it represented by thinkers or architects calling for social justice and global equality. The scarce attention to ethics is palpable also in architectural literature of the last decades.

In the previous book Architecture for Humanitarian Emergencies 025 an introduction to Architecture and Human Rights was outlined. In this book, number 03, we develop nine key issues that shapes the concept, and additional, related topics. The aim is to analyze the relationship between theory and practice and Architecture and Human Rights, and seize the opportunities that are brought by the new insights. It should be mentioned here that the 9 topics presented below are only a preliminary suggestion. It is the

being questioned in various international forums of architecture. The motto of the Venice Biennale of 2000 was, for instance, “more ethical and less aesthetic”, but never became more than a slogan. Although it sounds good, it does not work to use the same criterion for granting awards, selecting publications and dealing with concerns related to citizens’ rights, and social equity in architecture. Unfortunately, ethical concepts are purely discursive. We are principally attracted by and tend to apply formal and aesthetic values in our work. That is what we have been prepared and trained for, and that is exactly what we keep on doing.

of cultural architecture. Furthermore, they could be more than nine, or the number could be reduced. This is a work in progress, it needs time to mature and develop, so that we can arrive at a better understanding, and

5

18

LOBOS, jorge (2012) Architecture for Humanitarian Emergencias 02 Ed KADK, Copenhagen

6 7

FRIEDMAN, Yona (1975) MIT Press ISBN 0-262-56019-4 SOPPELSA, Francesco (2012) Conversando con Fabrizio Carola T18 número 5 Ed AssociacioT18 Barcelona

19

One explanation to this tendency of ours, to cling to aesthetic values, and disregard ethics, lies, most likely in We do not have a system for the evaluation of architectural projects from a social perspective either. Therefore we return repeatedly to apply knowledge which has been shaped by the strong focus on aesthetic values. As gradually become part of the very fundament of architecture. We believe, however, that some of the tendencies in the society all around the world indicate that change is start out there, but rather in the world around us. For instance we see signs of a more ethically responsible attitude in the social sciences and within social and political movements in the society, challenging the power relations which have been developed throughout history up until today.

longer avoid engaging in a debate about the profession. These themes could become a permanent issue – just

We will now make an attempt to construct a conceptual relationship between architecture and human rights, or,

1 CULTURAL PROCESSES 2 HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES 3 PROJECTS FOR SOCIAL EQUALITY 4 SOCIAL SUSTAINIBILITY 5 DEMOCRATIZATION OF ARCHITECTURE 6 LOW COST HOUSING AND SLUMS 7 POLITICAL ARCHITECTURE & UTOPIA 8 SCIENCE AND ARCHITECTURE 9 EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES AND NEW ROLES FOR ARCHITECTURE

20

21

1

1 CULTURAL PROCESSES We include the concept of Cultural Architecture as a part of our theoretical framework in an attempt to raise the awareness, and enhance the knowledge about the particular human values inherent in each territory and how they can affect the architectural project. These cultural values can give architects important knowledge about the perspectives of the population of a territory and may be transformed by professionals into useful tools, which in turn can permit for more sensible intervention, as architectural projects are carried out in various settings. The evolution of contemporary thought from the anthropology of culture (at the end of 19th century), th th century) and the second globalization (beginning of 21st century), saw only half-hearted attempts to connect with the theory of architecture, despite the fact that numerous works accounting for these cultural processes have been produced in different parts of the world. In general, theory of architecture in the 20th century and, particularly during the latest decades, has focused processes and the massive cultural dimension posed in contemporary philosophy. The authors wish to leave individuals in public and collective actions. To better understand these phenomena, it is necessary to take a closer look at the different meanings of the word culture and how it is related to the concept of civilization.

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION The general meanings of the word culture have been partly or fully analyzed by several authors. One of them is the Spanish philosopher Javier San Martin Sala, in the book Theory of Culture8 who contributes to the analysis 9 and Fernando Savater from Spain. We will also add the opinion of Clifford Geertz who clearly explains the challenges faced by

are intrinsic in architecture. civilization. This term has often been used in the culture. with different perspectives and dimensions. If we discuss whether the dialectic relation between culture and form of opposite ideas, like most of the architecture of the 20th century did. This would imply diverting attention from a more important reason – the great potential which lies in architecture of cultural representation. 8 9

SAN MARTIN SALA, Javier (1999) Teoría de la Cultura, Ed. Síntesis S.A. Madrid, España BUENO, Gustavo (1996)

. Prensa Ibérica, Barcelona

23

as such, we may lose the constructive process of developing the tools that are necessary to us as we approach a project. be described as a concept encompassing both culture and civilization in the same meaning. This makes it possible to imagine the existence of an Architecture of Culture which goes beyond the problems

feature of the pre-Columbian cultures in Latin America, which has been passed down to the Americans and then spread around the world. Can we say that it has ceased to be a cultural value, and that it, instead, has become a value of civilization, like dancing, football, science or tolerance?

culture and civilization.

of the last century. To Savater, civilization is a kind of supreme culture, which includes the preeminent elements

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE

Critical Regionalism, and also in Latin America with the ideas of Appropriate Modernity of Cristian Fernandez Cox. During this era, Architectural

Bueno, referring to San Martin Sala, makes an interesting observation about the concept of culture, as he claims that, currently, three generally accepted core philosophical claims are inherent in the idea of culture. These

A and poses culture on the same level as other important values such as freedom, equality, wealth or democracy. Ministry of Culture or Cultural Centers/Cultural Buildings, etc, which play an important role as promoters and protectors of culture in society. B community. The preservation of these distinctive features is considered important for them, because they are

To Savater, civilization is synonymous with culture of all mankind, hence, these terms are completely intertwined. Architecture must therefore consider this new dimension and understanding of the concept of culture, also

and accurate in designing a representation of culture. It should be emphasized here that we all have different cultures, not just one. There is a whole set of cultural values, ranging from local to universal. We use these values interchangeably, spontaneously and according to our needs. Architecture should do the same. It should accept the range or spectrum of cultures in society and use all of its possibilities without demagogic totalizing or traditionalist bias. In the following, various texts dealing with this conception will be analyzed and discussed.

the classical ideas of Taylor and his Cultural Anthropology and/or Cultural Ethnography. C places, but that have spread and settled around the world as a “global culture”. This core encompasses the ideas of a cosmopolitan and/or universal culture, the global village and the so-called civilization.

CIVILIZATION IS SYNONYMOUS TO WORLD CULTURE Television represents a universal technology, like the market, sports and politics. But does a universal culture exist? Why does the constitution say that we all have right to it? If culture is a value; in what sense? For instance, is football an element of a universal culture? According to San Martin Sala, Bueno speaks about a Universal civilization, the same civilization that Savater mentions in his Philosophical Dictionary10 We generally tend to refer to culture in terms of universal civilization, but this is just a way to try to get around the issue.

THE LITERATURE ON CULTURE The literature that accounts for cultural phenomena and can be useful for architecture can be divided into three groups of texts which will be examined in the following. In the concluding part of this section, we will aim at advancing the discussion, and argue that there is, indeed, an architecture of culture, which requires a theoretical framework.

architecture in the twentieth century. The third corresponds to attempts made by some architects to arrive at a of architecture.

10

24

25

A. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

much discussed issue ever since. Sir Edward Taylor published one of the fundamental works, Primitive Culture in 187111 in which he starts to elaborate on the relation between anthropology and culture in the ethnographic sense was examined. More than a century later, San Martin Sala contributed with his Theory of Culture12, an analysis of the different meanings of the concept throughout the history of mankind. Particular attention is given to Anthropology of Culture. At the same time, though, the conception of culture is separated from that of Anthropology of Culture ... the comprehension of this inescapably human phenomenon requires more than a descriptive analysis… This is the point at which the existence of the Philosophy of Culture, which was to become and remain a much discussed issue throughout most of the 20th

When Savater presented the idea that that culture will lead to the revolution of Human Rights, and that this is synonymous with civilization,18 the intellectual landscape was completely changed, and the world entered into a second era of globalization, which Savater calls “the globalization of human rights”. These thoughts fully correspond with those of Boff and San Martin Sala. Savater makes a great contribution to architecture, as he links the concept of culture to the globalization of human rights, and as he argues that a revolution is emerging. The message is spread in the global society and gives rise to debate and mobilization.8 In this second globalization, new knowledge and perspectives gave rise to a different conception of the idea of globalization. Globalist approaches became increasingly pluralist and inclusive, focusing on enhanced democracy and the fundamental rights of immigrants, marginalized, poor, groups which have no voice and do not enjoy access to power, etc. This should not be interpreted as an attempt to delete the previous claim of the and, in turn, as part of the assessment of various kinds of human knowledge.

Savater develops various approaches to the idea of culture. In his Philosophical Dictionary 199513 he appears Clifford Geertz19 referring to Max Weber, compares culture to a “warp” which man has used to spin frames of the idea of cultural localism as antagonist. Later, in 2001, in his text Surviving he has changed position, and considers these two terms as identical and interdependent. 14

According to Boff, we have entered into a “second globalization”. Boff (2001)15 globalization - which had taken place during the 20th century - can be considered a “stone age globalization”. In that perspective, technology and economy make up the main driving forces of globalization, thus globalization is considered inevitable, totalist and universal. This perspective is represented in contemporary thought, also lead to homogenization and the complete obliteration of local cultures and plurality. This backward idea of globalization is clearly explained by Carlos Taibo in his book One Hundred Questions on the new disorder16 This

the Chilean sociologist Pedro Morandé, who wrote the book Culture and Modernization Latin America17, widely used by South American architects.

and the analysis of culture should not be an experimental science in search of law, but rather an interpretative science in search of meaning. This implies that every group of human beings associates a meaning to each object and each task or activity. associated to the same object or activity, although meanings associated to the object or activity by two different groups of human beings can never be exactly identical. This implies, in turn, that the culture of each group of

transmitting and communicating “the entire life and meaning” of an object. What effectively is being exposed is of formal reproduction.

26

11

TAYLOR, Sir Edward B. (1871) PRIMITIVE CULTURE. Antropología cultural

12 13 14 15

SAN MARTIN SALA, Javier (1999) teoría de la cultura, Editorial Síntesis S.A. Madrid, España SAVATER, Fernando (1995) . Planeta. Barcelona, España SAVATER, Fernando (2001) Sobrevivir, Editorial Ariel S.A. Barcelona, 3° edición BOFF, Leonardo (2001) “Estamos en la edad de piedra de la globalización” entrevista El País 6/07/2001 Juan Bedoya Madrid

16 17

TAIBO Carlos (2002) Cien preguntas sobre el nuevo desorden. Ediciones Suma de letras, Madrid, España MORANDE, Pedro (1987) Cultura y Modernización en América Latina. Ensayo sociológico acerca de la crisis del desarrollismo y su superación. Cuadernos del Instituto de Sociología, PUC Chile (1984) Reeditado Encuentro Ediciones, Madrid

18 19

Savater (1999) Universalism and identities / culture versus civilization Lecture at ETSAM, 22/02/1999 Madrid GEERTZ, Clifford (1987) La Interpretación de las Culturas Ed. Gedisa, Mexico (1973) The Interpretation Of Cultures Original ed. Basic Books Inc. New York

27

B. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Modern Architecture from 190020 by Curtis, and History of Modern Architecture21 by Benévolo, because these two works make an attempt to comprehend the theory of the entire 20th century Modern Architecture as a point of departure. These two works makes it possible for us to understand, and to draw a conclusion which appears obvious, th century, and it brought a great architectural transformation. Postmodernism and Deconstructivism were the two principal and serious movements. They both represented evolution, and were both trying to prevail over Modernism.

A second text which had a great impact on Latin American architectural thought was Hacia una Modernidad Apropiada23 by Architecture entitled “SAL” started a movement. The core idea of the SAL sessions, suggests, basically, that the concept appropriation (I)The capacity of adequacy in a given place, to a given object or subject, the capacity of being adequate or correct in relation to a determinate territory (II)The act of appropriation in the sense of taking something away from another person, or another setting. In a cultural context, this would mean taking elements from other cultures and use them in the own culture, with the intention of correcting their relevance and appropriateness. (III)The term could, however, also be interpreted according to the ethnographic view and, hence, correspond to

Today, some eclecticism or baroque tendencies can be discerned. These conceptual tendencies come and go, they appear in the shape of multiple, similar or contrasting theoretical proposals. These tendencies, and their complete absence of core ideas, create a confused panorama, completely different to the traditional and established architectural styles. However, this moment of apparent confusion does have the quest at its core, which, in turn, implies considerable theoretical freedom – a component which rarely existed before in the history

them visible through architecture.

second globalization as it has been interpreted in contemporary philosophy – the globalization of plurality and of the coexistence of the different. Architecture has, however, not yet been capable of expressing its theoretical proposals, neither is the theory consistent with contemporary philosophy.

The SAL seminars, were carried out during the 1990s in various countries in Latin America - from Mexico to Chile, and the best architects of the continent met in an ongoing discussion about possible scenarios of the future of architecture. Publications, such as the Somosur Collection24, including works of these prominent

C. ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE A THEORETICAL POSITION, USING CULTURAL PROCESSES AS THE POINT OF DEPARTURE

America, and although it did not receive any considerable attention worldwide, it was an important movement, just comparable to the boom of the Latin American literature of the 1960s.

According to Cox, architecture should consider the three meanings of appropriation exposed above. According appropriate in the various architectural territories in which it operates.

The contribution of Cox was important, mainly because of the fact that he succeeded to gather all of the starting points for a theoretical discussion. Towards a Critical Regionalism22, by the English architect Kenneth Frampton, who perfectly represents the generation of architects of the 1980s and their relation to cultural issues. The text is an attempt to interpret regionalism and localism as facilitators or providers of architecture, as opposed to centralized power. The idea of centralized power has always monopolized the architectural theory, and they always originated in Central or Northern Europe and North America. The idea of shifting the theoretical focus from the power center to the emarginated areas connected perfectly with the Latin American social discussion about center and periphery. Frampton’s text contributed to the reinforcement and encouragement of architectural thought in Latin America.

accepted and applied in the world of architecture of his time. This can certainly be considered as a landmark in the production of architectural theory, and, particularly, as an important step, paving the way for the future development of a theoretical framework which would be original for Latin America. Finally, numerous Latin American architects have studied and specialized in Spain, and to them Spanish architecture is particularly important. The Catalan architect Joseph Muntañola and his text Topogénesis25 open up for further progress and, compared to the theoretical developments referred to above, Muntañola is one step ahead as he poses the place, the topos, at the center and considers it the essence of the architectural project, and as he contributes in reorganising the literature of architectural theory. 23

20 21 22

28

CURTIS, William (2006) La arquitectura moderna desde 1900, Phaidon Press Llimited, 3ª ed. español, London BENÉVOLO, Leonardo (2002) Historia de la arquitectura moderna. Gustavo Gili, edición 2ª tirada, Barcelona FRAMPTON, Kenneth (1983) Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance, in The Anti-Aesthetic. Essays on Postmodern Culture. Ed. Hal Foster, Bay Press, Port Townsen

24 25

FERNÁNDEZ COX Cristian (1991) Hacia una Modernidad Apropiada, en libro Nueva Arquitectura en América Latina. Edit. G. Gili, Barcelona España FERNÁNDEZ COX Cristian, Arquitectura y Modernidad Apropiada. Editorial Taller América, Santiago de Chile MORALES, Carlos Colección SOMOSUR Ed. Escala Bogotà Colombia MUNTAÑOLA, Thornberg Joseph (2000) Topogénesis, Fundamentos de una nueva arquitectura, Collección Arquitext 11, edición ETSAB Barcelona, España 29

Subject, Place, History… The author, Muntañola, who is also as a professional architect, has examined and power in Central Europe and North America. Both titles do present some shortcomings which, perhaps, were such as history and anthropology. Historygenesis (History) and subjectgenesis (anthropology) already exist as ideas of topos, so as to bring these ideas to the same conceptual level as “the history” and “the subject”. Such a profound analysis and interpretation had never been done earlier.

that critics become ethical. The discourse takes on the form of a “moral court”, rather than an intrinsic process, inherent to the values of architecture. Of course ethical values are not alien to architecture, but to raise standards far.

A PARALLEL BETWEEN THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND THEORY OF CULTURE

the theory of architecture and the idea of culture have developed in parallel.

Anthropology of culture, late 19th century century th century The second globalization, the beginning of the 21st century th

A second group of texts deal with the theory of architecture in the 20th century. By analyzing this, it is possible Modern Movement, beginning of the 20th century to 1960s Postmodernism, since 1970s -1980s Deconstructivism, 1990s

For instance, when cultural anthropology and – later – philosophy of culture had evolved, architecture tended more towards a globalization process which was related to the Modern Movement. The Modern Movement is

to its theoretical positions, which denote its strength and its weakness. Both need “the enemy” to exist, that is, they exist only if the central power is monopolistic, perverse, an aseptic centre, without commitment to periphery as is the case in Critical Regionalism and if modernity is inaccurate, misleading and inappropriate as is the case in Appropriate Modernity.

in the margin, or beyond architecture. The concept of Critical Regionalism implies an acritical regionalism. The appropriate modernity, in turn, needs an inappropriate modernity. Accordingly both need an incorrect architecture both concepts which are born of the negation, and both need the existence of the adversary, the denied. Furthermore, both authors assign these moral properties to the form, to the architectonical object, as if it would have the exclusive capacity to represent this ethical valorization. Again, this is a feature of architecture of the entire 20th and their existence is conditioned by the ability to achieve international visibility.

are destined to live a short life. This was also the case for the positions taken in “Critical Regionalism” and “Appropriate Modernity”, which both eventually stagnated. This does not mean that the theory of architecture should be aseptic in ethical terms - quite the contrary. Theoretical positions represent the values of the time in which they exist, but their strength lies in their own approach rather than in the capacity to devastate or dismiss adversary positions.

and fully evolved during mid 20th century. The third group of texts, deals with the rare attempts to bring the two topics “cultural thought” and “theory of “Critical Regionalism” by Kenneth Frampton, “La modernidad apropiada” (Eng. “Topogénesis” by Joseph Muntañola. 30

31

THE CONCEPT OF TOPOGENESIS The concept of Muntañola referring to place, topos, is much more accurate, as it clearly focuses on the value of the profession. All projects are related to the place, in effect, the production of the architectural project can be sustained in the conditions of the territory. Architecture always refers to a territory, but is not necessarily to a critical position or to the appropriateness as suggested by Fernandez Cox and Frampton respectively. topos as related to the history my opinion, lies in that it establishes the project from topos as a value intrinsic in the profession. This represents, however, also a weakness, since no previous extensive studies had been carried out within the professional

building on topos as one of its central values. If we continue to explore and interpret the criterion of Topgenesis as developed by Muntañola, we ought to take into consideration not only Topogenesis, but also Subjectgenesis, which would be an architecture based solely on the user or subject (spontaneous or purely anthropological architecture). Or we could talk about historygenesis, which would refer to an architecture based on history (which would correspond to a phenomenon similar to postmodernism). Used singularly, these concepts would, however, be incapable of accounting for the tremendous complexity of contemporary phenomena. Architecture, according to Muntañola, comprises, thus, three related (dialogic) dimensions, rather than the one concept of topogenesis of architecture. Muntañola does, however, not intend to dramatize the concept - he is well aware of the fact that the current problems of architecture cannot be solved nor by merely referring to the problems related to “place”, neither by exaggerating its importance. Muntañola claims that there must be a dialogical relationship between place, subject and history. It would therefore be more appropriate to speak of a dialogic architecture rather than of an architecture of

and Fernandez Cox, referring to critical (non-critical) or appropriate (inappropriate architecture). These are approaches to the project, which we can chose to apply or not, rather than intrinsic, permanent or indispensable

quote sheds light upon the problem, expresses the meaning of the concept of culture and explains it through the trilogy to which Muntañola constantly refers. According to this conception, its dialogic and vital relation is contained within the culture.

In contemporary philosophy, the idea of culture is capable of effectively including history, subject and place, as well as the dialogic relationship between them. For this reason, I agree with Muntañola, and supports his choice of putting emphasis on the multiple relations of this trilogy, rather than overestimating the importance of the place. It should be mentioned though, that the objective of Muntañola’s book book is to study the topos and to bring the three elements of the trilogy to a similar bibliographical level. The topos per se is static. What makes it dynamic and existential is culture. This becomes particularly manifest in cases in which the topos is not capable of constructing an architectural project, neither in, nor by itself. The occupation of a site, for example, is much more related to cultural processes in memory in general or in the memories of a person or persons (subject/s) who occupy much more than the physical place itself. It is not possible to construct a project only from the memory of a place (topography, climate, rainfall...) and without one or more subjects who effectively expresses/express him/herself/themselves. cultural load of layers and substrata of culture contained in the European territory, which has taken shape throughout thousands of years. This cultural european content can, however, not be considered as a constant all around the world, and can, thus, not be extended to encompass all human beings. There are two reasons for this THE IMMIGRATION In Europe, in an era of immense immigration, the notion of topos as the only lens through which culture can be conceived is being questioned. These migratory movements clearly show that topos alone cannot always provide a good understanding of the great complexity of contemporary architecture. Territories are occupied by persons who do not belong to the places, or who arrived just recently. For these persons, the historical heritage that they bring with them on the journey, which will not abandon them for decades,is far more important than the place, the new territory that they occupy. In these situations, the topos is relegated to support a scenario where different cultures move in an ongoing relationship of power. HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES In the same way, natural phenomena, wars and epidemics - so called humanitarian catastrophes - are taking place in a number of places, all over the world. Victims of such catastrophes often move around in areas in which urbanization is completely absent; deserts, mountains, refugee camps, etc. What does an architect have to pay attention to in such situations? Only to topos? Or to topos as well as to the cultural heritage carried by the inhabitants? These migrants will undoubtedly occupy this territory according to their particular vision, and the vision of one person and one group of persons will be different from other persons and another group of refugees. It is inevitable that migrants use their accumulated knowledge as a resource for surviving and living. The experience of MSF (Eng. Doctors Without Borders)26 provide several examples of such phenomena. Below, I will cite two cases of occupation of similar territories, both of them deserts. The two examples aim architectural project. 26

32

PIFERRER García, Raimon (2007) Responsable logístico, Unidad de emergencias MSF reunión 13 Abril 2007, Barcelona 33

a war. Their refuge is a desert land, lacking the agricultural qualities of the properties that the refugees have been constrained to leave behind. Nevertheless, the refugees all know how to survive in the desert, although they do need assistance from humanitarian organizations; water, food, medicine and shade. The shade, which contemporaneously makes up the lodge, is called “plastic sheeting” by Doctors Without Borders (MSF) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. As a matter of fact, a white or blue “plastic sheeting” of 4 x 6 metres is simply what it is, neither more nor less. The shelter is constructed by the refugees themselves, from wood be supported for many years through economic cooperation. Refugees can live in such camps for decades. Shelters will eventually be consolidated and become houses, as the inhabitants add mud and straw. Hospitals and schools are provided by donors in developed countries.

Should we then, accordingly put emphasis only on topos or the culture in which topos is contained as we create and carry out an architectural project? I believe that Muntañola is very close to the answer, but the title of his book betrays him, since it eventually represents a theoretical position. However, the title may just be a matter of emphasis, and I would suggest that the texts can be used to understand cultural phenomena in architecture in general, and – thus – complement the vision of Muntañola, which, perhaps, has posed an excessive emphasis on Europe.

CULTURAL ARCHITECTURE, AN ARCHITECTURE OF THE SECOND GLOBALIZATION, THE GLOBALIZATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS At this point, we would like to suggest a new, hypothetical form of Architecture, a Cultural Architecture, based on the philosophy of culture, that developed parallel with the great movements to the twentieth century, and that

Lebanese refugees and 300,000 Israelis, as well as a large number of deaths and wounded during one month described as humanitarian emergencies, they are completely different for several reasons. For instance, while in Darfur, the refugees were poor, there were Lebanese who did have some purchasing power- some refugee families could own multiple cars. Therefore, in Lebanon, the main problem faced by Doctors Without Borders was not to deliver shade, but rather to provide parking space for the cars, to protect the belongings of the families and to safeguard the security of the refugees. The parking area occupied more space than the refugee the standard of living that the refugees had enjoyed prior to the emergency. The situation would have required a more complex solution. All Lebanese refugees returned promptly to their properties, once the humanitarian catastrophe was over, so the camp did not take on urban form. Both territories used for camps have similar climatic and geographical conditions. None of them had been inhabited previously, and they were both used by refugees suffering the effects of a religious war. The difference lies in the cultural process carried by each human group, which required completely different solutions. The examples provided above demonstrate the immense importance of culture in the construction of architecture, rather than the topos relation to cultural subjects. We should increase our awareness of their existence, importance and interaction in the construction of place. The more complex a territory, the more cultural processes are occurring simultaneously appear to be easier to interpret the cultural content of the most isolated human groups through observing and reaching an understanding of the cultural distance which has been created throughout centuries and passed through generations, and which separates us from them.

culture and civilization; instead they are one and the same thing. This helps us to avoid the problem, dispute or opposition between the two concepts, and allows us, instead, to focus action on architectural transformation, hybridism, miscegenation and the complexity of the various cultural processes operating in the same territory. If we draw a parallel between these ideas of philosophy with the theory of twentieth century architecture, we can be possible to leave “the stone age of globalization” behind, unless new theoretical models, which correspond with the new priorities of the planet, are constructed. Thus, we could enter to the second globalization, which Fernando Savater calls “the globalization of Human Rights”

The right to a decent standard of living and housing established by the United Nations in the 25th paragraph27 “... Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services… “ Millions of people driven from their homes by humanitarian disasters. Rational and democratic territorial planning. Environmental sustainability in human processes. The fact that two thirds of the world’s population still lack access to any formal architectural product28. These are, among others, the issues that architecture will have to face.. One problem though, is that the working parameters of architects were created during the twentieth century, they mainly focus on the object, in the form current problems of the planet. 27 28

34

ASAMBLEA GENERAL DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS (1948) Declaración Universal de Derechos humanos, 10 diciembre, Paris

35

In this sense, Cultural Architecture seeks tune with the heterogeneous and diverse process that begins in the XXI century and that, according to philosophers and sociologists, may be based on Human Rights. Let us recall follows culture”

ALL ARCHITECTURE IS CULTURAL. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE 20TH CENTURY

architecture. Also, exactly for that reason, if all architecture would be acultural, no theory could be built from it, inherent value, it may have the potential to represent various coexisting visions of the world in various corners of the planet. This is demonstrated in the theory of twentieth century architecture. The great difference between each of the most important architectural periods which dominated the last century was mainly created by putting the giving it a greater value than any other.

It was an attempt to express the social ambitions of the time. We must, however, remember that all architecture throughout history, is modern, or have been modern in the sense of “new” in its own time. Jorge Luis Borges claims that the only thing we cannot avoid, is to be modern. In this sense, the “Postmodern” as well as the “Deconstructivism” can also be described as modern. The Postmodern movement made ”history” the sustenance of architecture, but we must not forget that all architecture has a position in history at any time, anywhere in the world. Modern architecture, like “Deconstructivism”, had a clear vision in relation to history. The movement of Deconstructivism considers “construction” as a fundamental aspect, and as more important – even movements such as Modern architecture, Postmodernism and Minimalism - are built on, and relate to “construction” in one way or the other.

36

LET US RECALL THE WORDS OF THE MODERN MOVEMENT OF th THE 20 “FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION”. TODAY WE “FORM FOLLOWS CULTURE”

In this sense, and conceptually, Cultural Architecture cannot constitute itself in an authoritarian theoretical body, since such a position would be the exact opposite of the essence of the movement itself. It should rather be more of a method, a system, which would help architects who work in different countries and in various territories the founders of 20th century architecture theory had engaged in emphasizing only one of the intrinsic elements each. The respective elements served to distinguish one architectural movement from the other, and to shape a formal expression, and a common imaginary symbol, which would be clearly and immediately recognized by anybody. This became a feature of the twentieth century, a century driven by the ambition to spread certain theoretical models as universal and applicable to the entire planet. Within this panorama, Cultural Architecture, i.e. consciously valued human processes in different territories, understanding culture in the sense of the philosophy of culture, in the sense of anthropology and ethnography and in the sense of the arts. We can conclude that all architecture is cultural; Modernism, Postmodernism and Deconstructivism were cultural, too, although maybe they were not totally aware about. Our point here is to do a conscious emphasize to the value of culture, and considering it more or so important than any of the other elements.

interesting. They would make good arenas for exchange of knowledge and experience rather than, as is often be done. We should, thus, pass from the “must be” to the “could be”, and change from the conceptual homogeneity which dismisses dissent to an absolute plurality and respect for difference. If we view the situation from this point of view, we must talk not of Cultural Architecture, but rather of Cultural Architectures – a plural theoretical and practical concept – with several different interests, concerns, technologies, habitants and geographies.

FROM THE FORMAL HOMOGENEITY OF THE 20TH CENTURY, TO THE HETEROGENEITY OF IMAGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY CONCEPTUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE 20TH AND THE 21ST CENTURY FROM CONCEPTUAL HOMOGENEITY OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY TO THEORETICAL DIASPORA OF THE TWENTYFIRST The architecture of the twentieth century was characterized by the pursuit of theoretical positions. That is, positions were used to explained the global process univocally. Theoretical processes were always - consciously or unconsciously– applicable worldwide, in a fairly indiscriminate and totalitarian way, using one single discourse. This position coincides with twentieth century politics, where advocates of socialism and capitalism both univocally claimed to represent the only and undisputable truth. Also the modern, postmodern and deconstructionist movements are examples of theoretical positions and architectural realities used anywhere in the world, although this might not have been the objective of its creators. These positions have a strong capability to expose and promote their ideas – they represented, and still represent, a way of viewing the world in a fairly global way, in the core of the primary sense of the term “global”,

The formal aspect is the area in which the interventions of architects can make a considerable and most visible difference in the analysis of architecture. The main reason for this is that all theoretical positions of the 20th century derived from a formal expression which was easily recognizable. These positions contributed to the development of theory, which necessarily resulted in a formal expression, rendered each of the positions

The end result was that formal expressions appeared as more radiant, strong and powerful than theoretical or evaluation, and without necessarily relating it to a theoretical discourse. This phenomenon has occurred worldwide, in various countries and on all continents, where the formal imitation of the processes occurring system of social ascent or aesthetics of aspiration. That aesthetic position, full of aspiration, pretended to make territories or places appear as “developed” through the reproduction of models.

As a matter of fact, one of the problems that always faced the architectural styles of the twentieth century, represented intellectual positions which were considerably different from those held by advocates of the architectural movements of the 20th century.

As this conscious or unconscious process of homogenization took place worldwide, enabled and ushered by the architecture of the 20th century, architecture undermined itself. Eventually this led to their complete demise.

and applying already existing and established styles.

38

39

Cultural Architecture shares the preoccupations of these crtical approaches, and is radically distant from homogeneous proposals. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to recognize Cultural Architecture merely by considering its physical form or material shape – all expressions of this position are, and need to be, diverse and in harmony with the place where it is developed, as well as with the human group to which it is addressed. Cultural Architecture can, as Muntañola writes, only be recognized by the dialogical relationship between subject, history and place, but it is not possible to perceive them only through visual observation. The three elements; subject, history and place can be perceived in Cultural architecture as a similar and common vision of the world only by individuals or groups who have experienced them personally, or to persons who listen to narratives or explanations about them. The story becomes a system to decipher its codes, while the approach the idea of myth in culture, the fact that it is impossible to see and understand only through the visual, of the retinal, as Marcel Duchamp would say, to return to the conceptual, the narrative ” ... Abandoning retinal art, so as to return to the conceptua29” This means that the most distinct aspects of the architectural movements of the 20th through the formal, the homogeneity, and the claim that one single architectural model can be valid for the entire planet, within Cultural Architecture or Cultural architectures, as a plural concept, nothing of this remains and all of the precepts of the last century is being left behind. These traditional concepts from the 20th are replaced for the impossibility of Cultural architecture to perceive the architectural positions just visually, or by merely observing its physical features. Its conceptual plurality means a formal plurality, for and since it is obvious that they cannot be applied globally in a univocal manner, they have been challenged and, eventually replaced by heterogeneity and conceptual freedom. Also, in the 21st century, it has become more important to focus and terms.

29

40

CABANNE, Pierre (1972) Conversaciones con Marcel Duchamp, Editorial Anagrama, Barcelona

41

2

2 HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES Humanitarian emergencies and our incapacity as professionals to take an active part of the solution and the mitigation of such emergencies, is one of the challenges that contemporaneous architecture must face.

on 26 December, 2004, a 9.1 magnitude earthquake, with epicenter on the east coast of Sumatra, Indonesia was the second biggest registered by a modern seismograph. The biggest was the 9.5 magnitude submarine earthquake and Tsunami in Valdivia, Chile in 1960.

consequences of such disasters. The excuse which is usually presented in these cases as an obstacle for architectural intervention - lack of funding – was not valid on this occasion. This humanitarian disaster had a considerable impact all over the world, since the earthquake had occurred in an area of extensive international tourism, many countries were directly affected. This resulted in immediate cooperation with Indonesia, and weeks, three times the money requested and needed were raised by “Doctors without borders” and other similar associations. This eventually compelled the DWB to turn to mass media for help with spreading the plead to donors to cease funding. Numerous donations were reserved for reconstruction. Architects did, however, not have any such interventions in mind. We literally did not know what to do or where to start. Many donated prefabricated houses from the Spanish government, for instance, could not be reinforced or installed, others could not be used, since they were not adapted to the climatic circumstances of the area. This represents a

This triggered many organizations to act and encourage professional architects to develop new strategies, which would contribute to mitigating humanitarian emergencies. It should be mentioned here, that more than 80% of profession. It also implies opening up for new roles for professional architects. We are yet at an early stage, though

out on-site, in the form of practical, on-site experiences. International organizations and NGOs have also become more aware and sensitive to the contribution of architecture and professional architects, and numerous debates have approached the problem. Certainly, we are still “in the stone age” of offering architects a possibility to choose

Moreover, every humanitarian emergency is a test or examination for the city and any inhabited territory. Large urban centers, metropolies or megacities, in particular, face a considerable civic test every time an emergency occurs. New Orleans, USA 2005, L’Aquila, Italy 2009, Fukushima, Japan 2010, Concepcion, Chile 2011, etc provide examples of such urban emergencies.

43

Tragedies of this kind cause great suffering for thousands of people. On the other hand they give us opportunities to study how the city works in extreme conditions of pain and vulnerability. We can easily gain experience and knowledge on how to modify and improve our urban plans, our projects and social organization. It is interesting to see that the city has certain tacit and implicit laws, which make people behave in certain ways in urban contexts. These laws are not necessarily written, although they may be. Often they are manifest as implicit social agreements shaping our civic behavior and making us citizens. Although particularly manifest in and following situations of human emergencies, these do not make up the only contexts in which changes and differences in behaviors can be observed. If we pay attention, they are possible to grasp, for instance, as we travel from one city to another. It is remarkable how situations of emergency change human behavior. For instance, when societies experience disasters, individuals are capable of expressing impressively and surprisingly strong solidarity and affection for each other. On the other hand, these extreme situations, as the social structures of the city collapse, some individuals infringe limits. Convinced of being entitled to certain rights, they take on behaviors that they would never even consider to adopt under normal circumstances. The case of Chile who lives constant emergencies, magnitude earthquake that struck Concepción in 2010, and the aftermaths - the enormous tragedy that deeply affected us as a country - it was shocking to see on television as several families looted a supermarket. What was most surprising was that the items stolen were not a response to hunger and lack of products which would serve for basic subsistence. Instead, plasma-TVs, home appliances and other items were robbed. It should be mentioned here that there was no electricity after the earthquake, so these appliances remained useless for a while. It was sad to witness how items were carried off in latest-model fancy cars. The families responsible of these lootings were, thus, neither poor, nor homeless. What makes a normal family, steal with impunity when the opportunity occurs? How can a humanitarian emergency change the behavior of people so radically? This behaviour is partly related to the fact that the city loses its civil capacity or civil norms in these situations. These norms are one of the crucial contents and values of the city, even if we usually do not consider them, since they are generally implicit or inherent in society. The city, in this perspective, is not just an accumulation of more or less beautiful buildings, but a set of social arrangements, which helps us live and coexist more or less harmoniously or peacefully. It should be mentioned here, in defense of the wealthy families looting supermarket in the aftermaths of the earthquake in Chile, that many of them returned the stolen goods to the supermarkets after a few days. Apparently, the rapid return to everyday life after the emergency, and the civil norms had a positive retroactive effect on their social behavior.

44

THESE TRAGEDIES CAUSE GREAT SUFFERING FOR THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE, PARADOxICALLy, HOWEVER, THEy GIVE US OPPORTUNITIES TO ACT AND LEARN MORE ABOUT HOW THE CITy WORKS IN ExTREME CONDITIONS OF PAIN AND VULNERABILITy, AND HOW TO PROTECT FUTURE GENERATIONS FROM DISASTERS

CIRCLE OF HUMANITARIAN TRAGEDIES Humanitarian emergencies inevitably return and repeat themselves in a cycle of predictable events. We could say it is a vicious circle that must be transformed into a virtuos circle by architecture. Each disaster brings, in itself, a humanitarian tragedy. At the same time, though, they contribute to the generation of a great deal of knowledge and the opportunity to better prepare our cities for the next emergency and to protect future generations. The mere knowledge and awareness of this circle of predictability should make us change architecture as well following the disaster, then the interest gradually declines and return to the normal everyday situation, and the memory of the disaster fades away. These are the psychological and social phases of each emergency, and architects should now learning to act on them promptly. Diagram 1

DIFFERENCES IN PREDICTABILITY OF TRAGEDIES The majority of humanitarian tragedies are predictable. Architecture for Humanitarian Emergencies should not only consider the immediate tragedy, but also measures to ensure mitigation and the level of preparation, so as to delimit particularly those 80% of cases which are completely predictable30. It should be mentioned here, all architects collaborate and participate in prevention activities. It is as a matter of social responsibility. We intervene and contribute in activities for preventing and mitigating disasters. This calls for a change of the traditional methodology which is generally applied in architectural projects. We need to imagine a potential crisis which will precede the tragedy. For architects, this implies not being

TYPES OF TRAGEDIES certainty that we do have, is that any solution must be low cost, massive and pertinent to the particular caused by man. Medical associations add a third category - the Pandemic - a large scale deadly disease, puts public health in an emergency situation. Moreover, nobody knows how to label the climate change issue. It is not purely a natural disaster, although it is a man-made emergency. As compared to “ordinary” emergencies,

on is Pandemic. A Natural disasters Earthquakes Floods Tsunami Volcanic eruptions Hurricanes Droughts

be to produce a scenario which would give us the opportunity to imagine all the phases of development of the tragedy, with the objective to alleviate and to attempt at preventing new emergencies from happening. The poorest and most vulnerable areas of the planet are continuously hit by humanitarian disasters. Many of the disasters are due to climate change, caused mainly by wealthier countries. A few architectural institutions are working on these issues. - UN HABITAT, Architecture for Humanity, some Northern European universities, among others. Every time a human disaster occurs, it raises our awareness of the fact that we need to increase the presence of architecture and use accumulated knowledge to adopt an ethical behavior. We must act and deal the most important context is the social.

REFUGEE CAMPS

B EMERGENCIES WORSENED OR CAUSED BY MAN Civil war Internally displaced persons (IDP)

Refugee camps are spaces which receive people affected by all kinds of humanitarian tragedies. In technical terms, refugee camps are set up to receive people of foreign nationalities, while individuals who come from the country in which the camp is located, are called ”Internally Displaced Persons” (IDP Internal Displaced Persons)

Homelessness

The camps are prepared by humanitarian organization to provide security and basic survival conditions for displaced, refugees and IDPs. Doubtlessly, living-conditions in these places

C PANDEMIC Public epidemics Pollution D CLIMATE CHANGE

U.N. HABITAT and NGOs are aware of the fact that camps are prepared to house people for a short time - a few months. Reality is, however, very different, camps have an average life of seven years31, they are real cities, some of them house hundreds of thousands of people and there is total absence of professional architectural knowledge. 30 31

46

MSF Médicos Sin Fronteras (2007) Barcelona KJAER, Peter (2009) Director PHD Disaster Managment. Copenhagen University 47

One of the great challenges of architecture is, hence, to reconsider these places, and to conceive of them as potential cities or towns already from the moment when they are founded, so as to offer refugees a better life. In effect, many of these spaces do become cities, like in Lebanon after the emergence of Israel in 1948. Lebanon is the oldest refugee camp in the world, dating from 1950 and home to 400,000 Palestinians without a country, who have built cities and multistory buildings within the camp. Sudan and its refugee camps of Darfur is yet another case. These camps have existed for 25 years, and although they have become major urban centers in the desert, they are extremely insecure and poor, and they live almost exclusively on humanitarian assistance. Refugee camps exist, generally, for an average period of seven years, and are houses hundreds of thousands of people.

PROJECT MATRIX Below, we will provide a matrix which has been designed with the aim to address architectural projects as a

-Culture (religion, ethnicity, level of social development, etc.) -Geography (climate, context, physical condition, etc.) The lack of systematization and evaluation of professional experience is one of the major shortcomings of this area of the architecture. Our ambition is to create a bank of projects on humanitarian emergencies, which rapidly with adequate professional skills and measures to emergencies or humanitarian tragedies. Furthermore, such a collection of projects, experiences, solutions and their respective evaluation would be most helpful in the selection of the most adequate project approach. As architects face situations, they can, hence, use knowledge generated from similar situations, documented in our bank. We would like to emphasize, that this matrix is intended to serve as a record and a facilitator in future projects. We do, hence, not intend bypass the analysis and discovery of cultural processes contained in each territory.

48

REFUGEE CAMPS ARE PREPARED TO HOUSE PEOPLE TEMPORARILY; FOR A FEW MONTHS. IN REALITY, CAMPS HAVE AN AVERAGE LIFE OF SEVEN YEARS. SOME OF THEM HOUSE HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE. PERHAPS WE SHOULD START THINKING OF THESE REFUGEE CAMPS AND CONSIDER THEM AS REAL CITIES?

CHALLENGES OF ARCHITECTURE FOR HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES

A it a second-category work. It is urgent and necessary that the very best professionals and architects engage in Ferreiro, UN. Schools of architecture must engage seriously in this issue, and involve it as a natural part of R&D for Emergencies does not comprehend arts and aesthetics must be extinguished. If we continue considering or measures taken by professionals from time to time, as they need to deal with their consciences – there will be no development. Indeed, we need to understand that, effectively, all architecture is humanitarian. B keep projects low-cost and sustainable, and design them so that they are capable of mitigating future problems. These are constituent and inseparable elements for professionals, in our inquiry for solutions and support that can be offered the communities that most need it – i.e. working for more than 200 million people are affected each year by humanitarian emergencies of various kinds. C understand that different cultures are an endless and indispensable source of inspiration and knowledge for architecture. The cultural content of territories helps us assemble a set of interventions that gives us the possibility to communities that are unfamiliar to us, but in which we can intervene to provide necessary and demanded professional assistance. D architecture does, however, possess of the possibility to transmit knowledge over wide spaces, and let it travel from one place in the world to another. Furthermore, architects have the possibility to learn from experiences of architects working in foreign territories which are unknown to the great centers of the world architecture. E create a bank of records and analysis, which will serve for sharing disseminating and exchanging project experiences and interventions that have taken place worldwide. This is a critical step on the path of development

50

51

3 PROJECTS FOR SOCIAL EqUALITy Another element which should be considered in the discussion about Architecture and Human Rights, is the importance of introducing global theoretical discourses and completing them with practical, local solutions. Human rights and social equity are universal issues that concern everyone, and that transcend the particularities of each region. Yet, many of the solutions achieved can be based on cultural identity and localism, which, in turn, are part of the universal rights of all, and key for providing and implementing architectural solutions, especially in the most remote areas of professional architecture.

identity is based on a scale of values ranging from universal to local values, and how we apply them in everyday life, as we act spontaneously and indiscriminately according to the circumstances and needs. I.e. to appeal to universal values is not contradictory to local values – they are only complementary and inseparable elements of the same entity. As stated by Savater32 – they are exactly the same, because civilization is culture worldwide. Seen from this point of view, the aim of solving the problems of inequality only at the local or national level is local and national equilibrium is reached, it is necessary to focus on the external balance. It is not just a matter of social solidarity and generosity generally, the external imbalance will also eventually affect our increasingly to each country. This tendency is well portrayed in the phenomenon of immigration. The Scandinavian countries with a well developed welfare state and internal balance can serve as examples. We are starting to see how inequities in one part of the world are considered a threat on the one hand, while, on the other hand, refugees from other areas of the planet, need to be accommodated, to secure future social security, welfare and pensions for aging societies. This is a risk and an obvious tension at the forefront of the global political debate, with huge implications for architecture.

INEQUALITY IN ACCESS TO ARCHITECTURE PROFESSIONAL Our profession does not have access to the entire planet, or – put in a different way - architects only work in the richest areas of the world.

1 Of the 7 billion inhabitants of the planet, two thirds (4.6 billion) have no relationship with professional architecture33. How can architects claim that there are no jobs for them?34

32 33 34

SAVATER, Fernando (1995)

. Planeta. Barcelona

LOBOS, Jorge (2001) Universidad de Chile, profesor visitante ETSAM Madrid

53

2 More than 90% of the architects on the planet are concentrated in the richest countries, in the richest

knowledge does not reach billions of human beings living in the poorest areas.

Every human being should be entitled to it, by the mere fact that we exist. This professional knowledge is one of the elements that help produce greater equality and solidarity in architecture. Free access to this knowledge is part of the global democratization process. Finally, if the accumulated knowledge of architecture reaches only the wealthiest, one can easily understand which, in turn, result in unemployment for architects and construction workers. It is our duty to act with answer to the basic needs of the population, rather than a mere object of consumption for the most advantaged.

(which are also products of our complacency with power), we will now devote our energies to discover the distribution networks of accumulated knowledge in architecture. It is of our concern and interest that they reach the whole planet, so that it can contribute to render the society more democratic and equal. All over the world, several signs occur, which appear to indicate that we are about to face throrough social changes. Political movements in the Arab world, where the population calls for increased participation, the social discontent with political processes also in established democracies such as Spain, Portugal and England and the more silent, even timid, demonstrations in post-earthquake of Fukushima, Japan, demanding the phasing-out of nuclear power, make us aware of a new phenomenon, which had remained unknown during the 20th century. and the presence of political structures with an enhanced capacity to protect citizens. These social movements should have a strong impact on architecture. Returning to the issue of aesthetics, described in very general terms, remarkable progress was made in regards to aesthetics during the 20th century. This is easy to understand, if we consider that we are dealing with a th century, the “problem-solution” dialectic along with the numerous possibilities offered by computers and enhanced technology, created excellent conditions for thousands of new possible solutions in aesthetics. However, this progress was not, by any means, architecture is an important component which is absent in the majority of social processes evolving in world politics. For instance, there is an enormous distance between UN-HABITAT35 and the centres of production of problems, and thereby reposition architecture as a socially useful and indispensable discipline. 35 54

UN HABITAT (2011) State of the world’s cities 2010/2011 Ed. Earthscan London & Washington

MORE THAN 90% OF THE ARCHITECTS IN THE WORLD ARE CONCENTRATED IN THE RICHEST COUNTRIES, IN THE RICHEST CITIES OF EACH COUNTRy AND IN THE WEALTHIEST NEIGHBORHOODS OF EACH CITy. THIS MAKES IT ExTREMELy DIFFICULT FOR THE ACCUMULATED ARCHITECTURAL KNOWLEDGE TO REACH ALL PARTS OF OUR PLANET AND - WORST OF ALL - KNOWLEDGE DOES NOT REACH BILLIONS OF PEOPLE IN THE WORLD

Chile is a good example. The country went through the remarkable development that has taken place in contemporary architecture during the past two decades. Unfortunately Chile was no exception, and was no more capable of posing resistance to the general architectural tendencies than any other geographical context. As a matter of fact, in Chile the consequences were even worse and disastrous since they resulted in a dissociation between public and private architecture, where the wealthiest sectors of the country were privileged with the private architecture. Public architecture, wich advocates for democracy and equality, capable of building processes of social stability entered a phase of stagnation in Chile, and lost everything that had been gained during the 60s and 70s. Policies for building an equal and pluralistic city, such as low-cost housing which would favor social mobility of families have been absent during the last decades of Chilean democracy. The remarkable Chilean architecture renown internationally, are mainly houses constructed for wealthy families in the countryside or in suburban areas (not even within cities) and corporate buildings of private companies that use public funding to make money. The global architecture is, however, beginning to open up for issues related to and affecting social stability such

thirds of humanity who have no access to professional architecture and which we are trying to reach. We will investigate this issue further in Chapter 9, as we consider architectural education and new professional roles.

architecture of style, formal and with the main objective expressed through an aesthetic, validated by architects, to represent the movement and the time to which it belongs. To break this logic of aesthetics and style, as well as to put an end to the stagnation of public architecture characterizing some countries, such as Chile, ought to be one, ought to be one of the most important missions of the 21st century. Public universities which have a social responsibility to develop and share this kind of knowledge, should take on this important role. A practical where there is great need for architects. One of Feuerhake’s projects is Learning How to Live With Floods36 The projects by Feuerhake are good and constructive examples of what architecture can do, and how wide a range of possibilities it has at disposal, which can contribute to a better life for thousands of people. Another example is Fernando Ferreiro, who is also an architect graduated from the University of Chile, who works for UN an architect whose clients have less money ...

Issues related to sustainability have been imposed in the past decade in all forums of architecture. There are 36

56

FEUERHAKE, Eduardo and RIBEZZO Fabian (2009) Learning How to Live With Floods Ed. UN-HABITAT, Nairobi

57

4

4 SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITy no university that does not consider It important to insert such issues into the curriculum. Numerous research projects and pos graduate courses have contributed to make more necessary the architecture in the view that citizens have of our work. architecture for instance, has integrated an indispensable part of sustainability. This, in turn, also changes the view held by citizens of the architects’ work. For instance, the right to a healthy environment is a public demand, which is closely related to architecture. Next step for architecture would be to go ahead, and pass from being basically a support technology, to becoming a means for getting a better understanding of the cultural world, that is - to make a transit from technical to social sustainability.

building or a city. Actions are theoretically supported by climate change and the need to create a society more aware of the world’s energy problems. But there are still profound contradictions in reality. In many projects carried out in vulnerable and disadvantaged societies, it is more urgent to solve social issues than to develop alternative energy technologies and more urgent to solve acute problems of hunger and homelessness than to use clean energy systems. This appears politically incorrect, because there is still a contradiction between technological solutions which are physically accessible but often extremely expensive and the social conditions and needs of the most vulnerable and/or developing societies. Both of these positions can defend a vision of social sustainability, based on cultural processes rather than purely technical elements. environmental issues throughout the centuries. This implies a rapprochement to sociology.

RAPPROCHEMENT TO SOCIOLOGY

recent years, but we have not had the same capacity to develop the ability to deal with social problems and priorities of the planet, neither have new created systems for analysis and discovery these social problems. derived from mathematical processes and linked to art and aesthetics, and - on the other hand - a lacking supportive framework of ethical issues related to our scarce understanding of social phenomena. The latter has not even been the subject of any systematic studies in the vast majority of schools of architecture in the world. Instead, composition, aesthetics, the object and the idea of the architect as an artist is still at the center decent housing established by the United Nations37 the millions of people displaced by humanitarian disasters, rational and democratic planning projects, environmental and social sustainability in human processes, largeaccess to any formal product of architecture, are still absent from schools of architecture.

37

ASAMBLEA GENERAL DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS (1948) Declaración Universal de Derechos humanos, 10 diciembre, Paris

59

ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL CONFLICTS WITHIN THE FIELD OF ARCHITECTURE OF THE LAST DECADES LIES IN THE FACT THAT ARCHITECTS HAVE ENGAGED IN CREATING THOUSANDS OF AESTHETIC SOLUTIONS, WHILE OUR CAPACITY OF DEALING WITH REAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS HAS BEEN INSUFFICIENT. IN EFFECT, ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTS SEVERAL TIMES GENERATE RATHER THAN SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS

We have neither created nor understood how to manage systems for analysis and discovery of these elements of social and/or environmental imbalance. This is an interesting, although worrying fact, if we consider that countries are becoming increasingly aware of the fact that environmental issues have no borders. The same and other social challenges do not trespass the borders of our own region or country, although we are becoming aware of the fact that struggles, for instances, in the Arab world and in Northern Africa and their aftermaths will not remain in the region or nation from which they sprung. We can conclude that it is necessary to seriously consider to give aesthetic solutions and the social aspects of reality the same importance. To do this, it will be necessary to approach sociology and/or anthropology, which imply, stating problems and solutions for social aspects should be developed to the same level, If we attempt to change the axis of architecture so that it does not exclusively focus on art and aesthetics but also on responding to social demands, and delivering services to the society and its citizens the prospects for representing cultural processes will improve considerably.

delivering services. The participation in processes of civic development should, hence, be considered a natural

This represents a radical change as to how we approach architectural projects. It suggests that architecture is a problem-solving system taking on a social rather than physical form, and effectively serving as a tool at the service of society and its citizens. In this way architecture is more a issue of social form rather than only physical form. Clifford Geertz38 advocates Max Weber’s interpretation of the concept of culture. According to Weber, man culture must not be an experimental science searching for laws, but rather an interpretive science in search of meaning. According to this interpretation, culture (and hence, also architecture, which is inherent in culture) can be interpreted as the representation of the meaning of everyday life. Therefore, if we are interested in knowing the culture of a particular group, we should actually analyze “the meaning of life” of this group, and relate it to the position of the rest of mankind. This is a notion of culture which may contribute greatly to architecture, since from the interpretation according to which the formal reproduction is synonymous with culture. The next problem we will have to face is how to grasp the actual “meaning of life” in practice and as lived by a human group. This is a substantial problem in architecture, and it becomes a concrete problem, particularly as architectural projects are carried out. Social sciences can, however, be of considerable utility. 38

GEERTZ, Clifford (1987) La interpretación de las culturas, Editorial Gedisa Mexico

61

Every human group associates a particular meaning to all things and all actions. These meanings are, however, merely connotations given by a particular human group. Meanings may be similar to those of another group, no two groups with the same culture, yet we are all part of the universal culture, or civilization, in which human principal missions of 21st century architecture ought to be to turn away from aesthetics as the one and only ideal. Especially universities and schools of architecture play an important role in changing paradigms, and they

In this sense, to start talking about social sustainability we take a step in the right direction, since it makes us solutions. This way of viewing development processes, i.e. considering local cultural processes as part of the solution to the problem would, in the environmental sciences, be called “biodiversity”. In our architectural setting, we may call it “cultural biodiversity”.

62

63

5 DEMOCRATIZATION OF ARCHITECTURE CHANGES IN THE PRODUCTION OF PROJECT PROCESSES Cultural Architecture poses a challenge to the methods of production of architectural projects, by emphasizing the need for architecture to renounce its repetition of a formal and external code and to, instead, adopt new forms of social representation. This would make architectural processes focus more on vital process and less on purely visual aspects. This, in turn, implies that processes must become more ethical and less aesthetic. This change must be produced in various dimensions. Two examples of such dimensions are approaches deriving

A SYSTEM INCLUDING THE SUBJECT, AND THE ARCHITECT AS CULTURAL SUBJECT Traditionally the architect has had the monopoly of designing the city. This monopoly has been granted and upheld by social norms regulating the system of creative arts, and by which these actions and capabilities are associated with the architect as “an artist”. This condition must not necessarily be changed, although our approaches to management of architectural project do need to change. The architect ought to become more of a facilitator, a social and cultural activist, who creates systems which would pave the way for a more direct inclusion of individuals or groups of individuals who engage in these projects. Furthermore, the architect should go beyond the mere creation of forms. Form has often been conceived of as “magic” in architectural projects, in the sense that it appears to possess an extraordinary mysterious power which solves any social problem. The results of 20th century architecture shows that form has no such problem-solving capabilities – on the countries, for instance, little space is given to this traditional notion of the architect as “creator” or “artist” and interventions by “artists” are considered less necessary, and less important.

of various subjects in project activities, and to use systems of analysis which have already proved to be effective - such as ethnographic techniques and feasibility possibilistic studies, rather than products already concluded 39 which can be used to approach various social problems. With this the formal result is less accurate, considering that architecture is not just a problem of physical form, but also it is a problem of social form. If we accept the claim that architecture is not merely a physical but also a social problem, we can also expect that the formal results will take on a less precise and physically concrete form. Why do we suggest that the method of carrying out architectural projects should change? The main aim would be to radically improve the inclusion of the subject (individual) and subjects (groups of individuals) in cultural processes of which they are carriers, not only depositories. Culture is subjects in action, and if we can immerse ourselves in this culture, and understand subjects’ concerns, we can touch the most intimate contents of culture.

39

AMPHOUX, Pascal (2001) Convocatoria Europan VI, Editorial Europan, Comunidad Europea, Suiza

65

JOSEPH If processes can be opened up, so that professionals, such as architects can immerse themselves in these subjects, and become a part of the expression of cultural processes. Despotic authoritarianism and endogenous creative processes can be avoided. The architect can be included as a person who possesses of knowledge which will be useful and indispensable for grasping the culture. This way, our possibilities to arrive at certain answers related to cultural architecture and human rights will improve, although the objects and the physical forms generated will be less physically concrete, precise and perfects, , if interpreted according to the view and ideals of 20th century architecture. The systems of massive mass distribution of architecture, through publications, generally follow a traditional conception of the profession as art and 19th century aesthetics. The abandonment of the subject and the strong importance given to the relation between architecture and arts is often palpable in these publications. Another common tendency is the scarce attention given to inhabited buildings. When photographs in architectural publications will include subjects, and representations of human processes, this will mean that change has taken place in architectural production. I would be hesitant to call such a change a new architectural production process, since it is probably the oldest of all architectural approaches, and since many attempts have been made to bring it back. One such attempt was made in the modern Latin American architecture, inspired by the social movements of the 60’s. If professional architecture lost or abandoned this view, as too much focus was put on the object, and several times over-design, the situation will be improved in the near future. It is only a matter of time, since the excessive emphasis on design and the aesthetics in professional architecture is being debated, and has been questioned for a long time, in particular as results are related to social challenges.

BEUYS

“EVERY MAN, AN ARTIST” TODAY THE STATEMENT

CREATIVE PROCESSES AS COLLECTIVE ACTION Systems arising from art creation as open processes, cited by Joseph Beuys40 in saying, “every man, an artist,” to appeal to the political and artistic self-determination, and to conceive of art as human evolution system, are elements which can learn the architectural production process. We can also cite within these methods, the ideas of John Cage41, speaking of random systems. Similar to those posed by Duchamp. - Or include exercises imperfection or indeterminate, inconclusive and open to the inclusion of the subject as part of creation. Joseph Beuys statement “every man, an artist,” relates to creative systems conceived as open processes of art production, and appeals to man’s political and artistic self-determination. In this conception, art is a human evolution system, which can serve as models from which architectural production systems can learn. Similar ideas are expressed by John Cage who writes about random systems and by Duchamp who makes statements regarding imperfection and indeterminate, inconclusive and open exercises which enable the inclusion of the subject as a part of the creative process. 40 41

66

BODENMANN, Ritter Clara (1972) Josephs Beuys. Cada hombre, un artista. Ed. Antonio Machado, Conversaciones en Documenta 5 Kassel, Alemania KOSTELANETZ, Richard (1988) Conversing with Cage, Limelight editions, New York CHARLES, Daniel (1981) Para os pájaros. Conversaciones con John Cage,

HUMAN BEING, AN ARCHITECT”

artist, since he usually conceives of himself as equipped with certain superior capacities, which enables him to understand realities which “common” citizens cannot grasp. This attitude, taught in architectural schools, contributes more to maintaining a social status of architects than to search for solutions of social challenges. The architect’s fear is related to the self-imposed role to create works of art. Obviously the ambition of the architect, to fully control the design of the object, tends to become unrealistic, since it aims at reaching a level of perfection that does not exist. An open system are, supposedly, less likely to get close to that utopian perfection which often makes architects return to their endemic position of private and hermetic processes of creation. In cultural architecture, imperfection can be considered part of the creative process, and the inclusion of subjects as a random element. We do not know how a project will end, but only assume a set of rules to guide the process towards an indeterminate conclusion.

MORE DEMOCRACY IN ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS 42

in philosophy and movements for global justice in politics. The latter are heterogeneous and diverse groups which share the respect for differences and coexistence of diversity. These movements pose obstacles for an imperial homogeneous global world, without attempting to eliminate them. As a matter of fact, they even aim at coexistence with the notion of a homogeneous and globalized world – this is a novel ideological attitude which developed during last decades of 20th century, an era which was generally characterized by the strong polarization between capitalism and socialism and the continuous attempts of various political positions to impose conceptions on each other. Democracy can be used as a means to enhance participation in architectural projects. Democracy is also the germ of self-determination, which is a crucial element of all contexts of our contemporary society. Individuals hold opinions about their cities and their homes, and it is important that these aspects are taken into consideration in architectural projects. It is, hence, necessary to modify the production process of projects, so as to include more

It is necessary that we leave the current logic, which puts too much focus on the object and the physical form. As stated by Younes43 we need to adopt new methods in architectural projects to enhance processes of being together, of living in society, of contact and proximity to others – of coexisting respecting diversity, living in and with nature. In other words, democratization processes must be enhanced all over the world in general, and in

42 43

68

SAVATER, Fernando (1999) Universalismo e identidades. Civilización versus cultura. Conferencia en ETSAM, Madrid YOUNÉS, Chris (2001) Convocatoria Europan VI, Ed. Europan, Comunidad Europea, Francia

69

6

6 LOW COST HOUSING AND SLUM (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control… (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. (article 25. Declaration of Human Rights, Paris, U.N. 1948)44 This is, in effect, the only reference to architecture in the universal declaration of Human Rights of 1948. Article 25 is the only article in which the universal right to housing and decent living conditions for all, regardless of social status, health or marital status. This, article, along with articles 1 and 2 – which lay down the universal legal and ethical framework in architecture. The Declaration of Human Rights was partly an outcome of the great social movements, which in turn gave inspiration to architectural projects for large-scale collective housing. These public policies became an important cornerstone of the professional activities for architects during the 20th century. The production of social, low-cost and collective housing for the working-class was revolutionary, and driven by the demands of society as well as by radical social changes experienced by a large number of countries all over the world during an era of intense industrialization and economic expansion. These ideas mainly developed during the 20th century in architecture, along with the social and revolutionary tendencies which characterized politics in the 60s and 70s. This was perhaps the historical era in which the

However, in the last decades of the 20th

st

century, changes took place within the

have been limited and privatized. These changes have had extreme consequences, such as in various states among the USA where governmental public housing policy is “no policy”. This means that if you do not possess of the capacity (read economic conditions) to acquire a home, why should I, the state, have to provide you with it? Much evidence has been generated through research in social sciences showing that housing assistance considerably improves prospects for the social mobility of families. The opposite applies in situations when public policies are not capable of delivering decent housing conditions. Homelessness or poor housing conditions generally result in marginalization and social segregation, social immobility and renders the cycle of poverty perpetual for several generations45. Architecture, unfortunately, cannot expose the same successful record in contributing in social improvements. As a matter of fact, in some cases, policy interventions have produced the opposite outcomes. 44 45

ASAMBLEA GENERAL DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS (1948) Declaración Universal de Derechos humanos, 10 diciembre, Paris INVI (2000) Instituto de la Vivienda FAU Universidad de Chile

71

Neoliberal policies in Chile, for instance, have resulted in permanent poverty for some families. This segregation policy, managed by the state and its negative effects cannot be balanced by implementing housing programs. These families cannot sell their houses, they are forced to live in that same place for the entire life. To provide decent housing for all is one of the great challenges for developing countries, while the Scandinavian countries stand out as success stories as they have solved the problem by huge efforts and interventions made by the welfare state. In Scandinavia, the right to housing is a universal right and speculation in housing is tightly controlled. The situation is quite different in several other countries in Europe, though. In Spain, for instance, property speculation generated a so-called “economic bubble” which, as it burst, resulted in a general unemployment-rate of 25%. In 2012, unemployment among architects and construction workers exceeded 50%. Social policies for low-cost housing have remained a constant challenge for politics during the last decades. It should be mentioned here though - in defense of architecture - that thousands of architects from various countries have devoted themselves, and put considerable effort into work aiming at increasing and improving access to affordable housing. Perhaps this is the aspect, out of the nine issues brought up in this book, in which

CURRENT CHALLENGES One of the major challenges is the growing population of the planet, and the construction techniques which fail to meet the need for housing. For this reason we need to return to public housing policies, research on materials Cultural processes and accumulated knowledge on how people build their own homes can be recycled and applied as we develop new designs, methods and processes of housing. Furthermore, we have to pay close attention to changes in society, and adapt our processes accordingly. The concept of “family”, for instance, which was the major “target” for housing policies during the 20th century, has changed. In some European countries – Sweden and Denmark for instance - roughly 50% of households consist of one single person. Many new forms of families – households supported by (single) mothers, gay couples with or without children, extended families with children from previous marriages, which can have several children one weekend and zero child another weekend, singles, multi-ethnic and multicultural families, etc - are changing the structure, needs and demands of society. Architecture has no evident or immediate ready-to-apply responses at hand. As a matter of fact, these changes and new realities represent challenges which will have to be faced, included and accepted, as low-cost social housing policies of the future are considered.

72

THE CONCEPT OF “FAMILy” OF 5 PERSONS, THE MAJOR “TARGET” FOR GLOBAL HOUSING POLICIES THROUGHOUT THE 20th CENTURy, HAS RADICALLy CHANGED IN THE LAST DECADES. IN SOME EUROPEAN COUNTRIES; SWEDEN AND DENMARK FOR INSTANCE, 50% OF HOUSEHOLDS CONSIST OF ONE SINGLE PERSON. IN SOME LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES, THE “FAMILy” IS A HUGE GROUP, INCLUDING ALL KINDS OF RELATIVES, BUT ALSO FRIENDS OR ABANDONED CHILDREN

FAVELAS AND SLUMS The topic of social housing is highly relevant in urban contexts. The struggle for a piece of land is part of everyday-life for millions of urban citizens who do not have a home. Economic and administrative power has left no alternative to homeless than to retreat to slums or favelas. These are sites of spontaneous construction without urban infrastructure, generally located in vulnerable areas of the city. These areas, slums and favelas, are usually the most affected in cases of humanitarian emergencies which these areas will receive maximum visibility and attention from media and governments. Humanitarian emergencies is an urgent problem, affecting more than 200 million people each year, nevertheless, the visibility doesn’t last for long. In a few weeks, or - at best – in one or a few months’ time, everything returns to the initial situation of abandonment and disinterest. Although these crises make excellent occasions for communities in slums and favelas to demand better demanding change is the short-term visibility of less-favored areas such as slums and favelas. Another problem is the fact that no planning exists for the areas currently occupied by slums and favelas. Any intervention (also in emergency situations) will need to be preceded by a plan, which, in turn, will cause late delivery. It is, thus, urgent that the situations in slums are analyzed before the outbreak of an emergency, and ready to be presented to the media as the tragedy occurs. One third question that we may need to approach is whether these slums or favelas can be considered emergencies. After all, it can be argued, they exist since decades. In effect, strictly speaking they are only to be considered emergencies at the occurrence of a humanitarian tragedy, although, there are, indeed, other ways of approaching this question. For instance, slums and favelas can be perceived of as a state of (permanent) social emergency within the overall urban strategy. Perceived in this manner, we can intervene more easily, and with more governmental resources. If we instead chose not to consider them emergencies, we will condemn them to remain forgotten by the rest of the city, and invisible to the rest of the world. Society will continue to avoid them and put various delicate mechanisms to work, ensuring that they disappear in the dynamics of the city. Unfortunately, interventions made by architecture in cases of humanitarian emergencies do not reach the levels of prevention or mitigation which would be necessary for preventing future emergencies. Once the emergency for favelas and slums to remain visible and relevant in society. Emergencies – as has been demonstrated in the diagram “Cycle of tragedies” are, however, most likely to recur.

74

SLUMS AND FAVELAS ARE USUALLy THE MOST AFFECTED IN CASES OF HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES (EARTHqUAKES, FLOODS, DROUGHTS, ETC.) PARADOxICALLy, SITUATIONS OF HUMAN EMERGENCIES ARE THE ONLy OCCASIONS IN WHICH MARGINALIZED AREAS WILL RECEIVE MAxIMUM VISIBILITy AND ATTENTION FROM MEDIA AND GOVERNMENTS

Whether slums and favelas can be considered emergencies or not, whenever a humanitarian emergency occurs, it is a key moment for introducing our newest, most creative strategies of mitigation and prevention of future catastrophes. These interventions can serve as tools and responses in slums and favelas, which can provide good arguments for, and give permission to professional architecture to intervene promptly in these areas. As we consider the topic “Architecture and Human Rights”, the discussion on “human emergencies” can be widened and the number of possible solutions increases. Also, it permits us to improve the scope of intervention and comprise also other social problems; situations which may receive little attention, but which may include highly relevant and urgent problems. One example of a case that we have explored is the favelas in Brazil, which have been analyzed in our second book46. The Brazilian favelas are notorious mainly for the high criminality and the drugs, not for the precarious urban situation. There are other similar cases, which have received attention during a short-period of time, but which instead The case of ghettos in Paris. These areas remained invisible for a long period of time, and were considered on the political agenda only at the outbreak of riots organized by angry citizens. The case of the Maxaquene district in Maputo; an example of spontaneous growth within the formal city. This themselves. This neighborhood is torn between the private exploitation of urban land which will lead to the expulsion of its inhabitants and the consolidation of the existing urban structure for the population which have been occupying this area for generations, although they do not own the land on which they live. The slums of Bombay, Dharavi for instance, with millions of inhabitants completely deprived of access to public and professional planning. One good example of how architectural knowledge can contribute to the solution of problems in the physical as well as in the social environment is the Coptic neighborhood in Cairo, where trash from the entire city is being recycled. This latter case has been included in this book. The issue “Human Rights” allows us to conceive of these problems as urgencies, and act promptly in social housing and slums. Furthermore we can address these challenges along with others related to human

equals to the poorest 15% of the population, and who are already marginalized from the development of the rest of the country. Approximately 30% of the Brazilian population; about 60 million people, live in favelas, where there is no access to public housing and the urban infrastructure is poor.

46

76

LOBOS, Jorge (2012) Architecture for Humanitarian Emergencies 02 Ed. Royal Danish Academy of Copenhagen, KADK

77

7 POLITICAL ARCHITECTURE & UTOPIA ARCHITECTURE ARISING FROM THE PERIPHERY THE CASE OF LATIN AMERICA One of the big differences between the architecture of the 21st and the 20th centuries is that theory, during

architecture, by Kenneth Frampton for instance – but was then referred to as periphery within Europe. In the 21st century, as we start to approach ideas related to cultural architecture and human rights, the situation is the world, but can develop simultaneously and spontaneously anywhere on the planet. Furthermore, processes may not be related or have anything in common, other than the clear sensitivity to problems facing humanity.

A It is a continent where social differences are more manifest than in any other place in the world, and where inequality is an ever-present constant, everyday-state. Also, the continent has a strong tradition of confrontation serve as assets in architecture. B that Latin America is being left outside of the process of globalization may, however, not prove to be negative. that developing countries should distance themselves from. Latin American countries should, instead focus fully on developing their own (architectural) thought and shape their own future. We cannot expect that the problems of developing countries can be resolved through interventions by external action. This means, in the case of architecture, we cannot expect that solutions will come out of experiences from Europe or the USA. It is true that as long as architecture could be practiced as a strictly aesthetic concept, splendid buildings were constructed following European and North American ideals, in Latin America and in other parts of the world. Social interventions of the same kind, have, however, had a quite different outcome, and failed in many Latin

C Some success stories of self-determination exist in the collective imagination of Latin America, which can serve as stimuli and examples for developing new theories in architecture. In politics, the Mexican and Cuban the “altermundialista” meetings of Porto Alegre could serve as examples. In art, the boom of Latin American literature of the 60s, the Brazilian music of the same period, the Mexican “muralistas” (artists who paint on city walls). In architecture the Brazilian modernism can be considered as hallmark, along with the Latin American own way through their own free expression. 79

ARCHITECTURE AND ITS FATAL EQUATION The ideas of architecture, politics and utopia can illustrate this fatal equation. In real life, architecture will never be at the forefront or vanguard of social change. Architecture needs money. Money supports power. Architecture is an expression of the power. Power will never aim at generating social change, since this would lead to its self-destruction. Hence, architecture as a tool for social change is a utopia. We can only be aware of political changes for which the architecture can build a favorable scenario. It is, however, worthwhile to aim at the utopia and break the vicious circle which makes us conceive of architecture as a byproduct of power. Furthermore, if the cursed equation between architecture and power could be broken, and if we could arrive at a conception of architecture as a means to generate money, we would resign from power and, hence, architecture would become an agent for social change. This is, however, a Utopia. To imagine utopia is also to think of the territory and of the nation as an area in which we can solve political

of any other country in the world. Over time, since the territory was allocated to Israel by UN in 1948, it has become a state-island or city-archipelago within the state of Israel. Though, in 60 years, the territory has virtually disappeared and it still continues to lose ground to its neighbours. The Palestinians of the area now inhabit closed and high-density cities. A “project utopia” would be to create new islands in the Mediterranean

An interesting case study is the work of Israeli architect, Eyal Weizman47, who conduct research on the architecture of the war, the architecture of destruction.

47

80

WEIZMAN, Eyal (2012) Hollow Land: Israel’s Architecture of Occupation Ed. Verso London UK

IN REAL LIFE, ARCHITECTURE WILL NEVER BE AT THE FOREFRONT OR VANGUARD OF SOCIAL CHANGE. ARCHITECTURE NEEDS MONEy. MONEy SUPPORTS POWER. ARCHITECTURE IS AN ExPRESSION OF THE POWER. POWER WILL NEVER AIM AT GENERATING SOCIAL CHANGE, SINCE THIS WOULD LEAD TO ITS SELF-DESTRUCTION. HENCE, ARCHITECTURE AS A TOOL FOR SOCIAL CHANGE IS A UTOPIA. IF WE COULD ATTEMPT TO BREAK THE CURSED EqUATION, AND ARRIVE AT AN ARCHITECTURE WHICH WOULD EFFECTIVELy WORK AS A MEANS TO GENERATE RESOURCES, ARCHITECTS WOULD RESIGN FROM POWER AND, HENCE, ARCHITECTURE WOULD BECOME SUBJECT OF SOCIAL CHANGE. THIS IS, HOWEVER, A UTOPIA

continuously raising claims for compensation in various international forums. Also, a series of contentions have occurred, causing repercussions on bilateral relations between Chile and Bolivia. After many political attempts to deliver solutions, Chile agreed to deliver an 8 km strip of land on the Peruvian border, so that Bolivia would have access to the sea. Chile was to be compensated with land in another area of Bolivia. This solution was, however, contested by Peru, since Peru would then lose contact with its important trading partner Chile. A

byproduct of the construction of an underground tunnel which would pass underground through Chile, and reconnect Bolivia with the sea. This way Bolivia could regain its lost territory, Chile would not lose land, and Peru would be able to continue its trade with Chile. These are all utopian suggestions on how knowledge and experience from architecture can contribute to the improvement also of the political dimension in the world by complementing policy perspectives.

82

83

8

8 SCIENCE AND ARCHITECTURE to apply to property rights, patents and copyrights on these discoveries, since knowledge is a resource which discoveries crystallize the possibilities of the world in which we are generated, that is – the context provides the conditions and sets the limits for what is relevant and possible. This also means that the same scientist probably would not have reached that same level of knowledge in another context and another time. From this point of view, progress within science and technology are issues that, at least in part, ought to belong to the entire the democratization of knowledge and science.

Aequorea Victoria. This gene has been applied also in other living beings In 1961, researcher Osamu Shimomura48 ultraviolet light (as pictured). After extracting the molecule from 10,000 specimens, Shimomura found the protein that creates the glow. At some point, a light bulb went off. Some of Shimomura’s colleagues realized that the protein could be attached to other proteins, enabling scientists to mark proteins of their choice with a green glow. like the spread of cancer or the development of nerve cells. For these discoveries, Shimomura and colleagues were rewarded with the Nobel Prize in 2008. Fluorescent proteins have also been used to carry out research on a number of animals and plants. Researchers at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota (USA) have continued and deepened the studies and developed an immunization humans). The gene is used to detect affected cells49 How could these discoveries be useful to architecture?

living organisms. This would create amazing possibilities of energy savings and true prospects for social sustainability, unlike many currently existing systems of low-energy consuming, alternative energy for which the initial investment cost is generally so high that families no longer can afford to apply them in their homes. 48 49

SHIMOMURA, Osamu (1961) Marine Biological Laboratory of Massachussets POESCHLA (2011) Clinica Mayo, ‘Nature Methods’ Revista online

85

SCIENTIFIC EVOLUTION HAS REACHED REMARKABLE LEVELS AND GROWN EXPONENTIALLY ALL OVER THE WORLD. RESTRICTIONS OUGHT TO APPLY TO PROPERTY RIGHTS, PATENTS AND COPYRIGHTS ON THESE DISCOVERIES, SINCE KNOWLEDGE IS A RESOURCE WHICH HAS BEEN GENERATED BY THE PROGRESS OF THE ENTIRE COMMUNITY OF HUMAN BEINGS OF ALL GENERATIONS. FROM THIS POINT OF VIEW, PROGRESS WITHIN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ARE ISSUES THAT, AT LEAST IN PART, OUGHT TO BELONG TO THE ENTIRE HUMANITY. EVERYONE SHOULD HAVE THE RIGHT TO ENJOY THE RESULTS AND BENEFITS THAT ARE GENERATED IN OUR WORLD

Another technique, which can be applied in architecture, although with a high cost are photosensitive textiles50. These materials, also known as solar textiles, work as solar panels. They are made of semiconducting materials, to absorb light and convert it into electricity. Solar textiles can collect solar energy during the day and as a source of light at night. The use of these textiles would be a breakthrough for example in refugee camps, where the most urgent problems are shelter, food, medicine, water, bathrooms and security systems. With these systems,

less costly and can, hence, be used extensively. The use of solar textiles would contribute to the establishment of situation comes about as a result from the fact that the social organization and laws of “normal” communities and technology can offer support and solutions in vulnerable contexts, which contribute to a better social environment

50

FERRARI, Serge group. Solar Textile, France

87

9

9 EDUCATION PROCESS AND NEW ROLES FOR ARCHITECTURE This chapter on education does not aim at stating that architectural education is one of the universal rights. In this chapter, we would , rather, like to describe it as a functional tool for achieving the other eight elements, which, involves all human beings, and could be associated with universal rights. In this sense, architectural education is a kind of synthesis from the previous process, and a means which can serve to approximate architecture of human rights. Much of the future success of this conceptual and practical partnership depends on whether universities all over the world reconsider their position on these issues, and how new generations of architects are able to articulate the relationship between ethics and aesthetics. The ninth chapter has been elaborated as a natural synthesis of the process explained previously in this book, as a new discourse for architectural students. Seen from this point of view, we can say that the evolution of architectural education is inextricably linked to the theory of architecture. Architectural thought has hardly changed since the modernist period in the early twentieth regarding form and information update. However in the last two decades, some major changes have effectively from a conceptually homogeneous to an eclectic architecture; the production of solutions, the emergence of environmental sustainability, the reappraisal of cultural processes, the rapprochement to sociology and human integrated in our society and in architecture. Let us consider two facts about architecture and education which provides examples of what has been indicated

1 of the 7000 million people currently living on the planet, two thirds of them, ie 4.6 billion people have no access to any formal product architecture, design, material, industrialized system, professional, government aid, electrical, internet, water mains, etc., etc..51 2 Only 10% of the architects in the world dedicate their professional life to architectural design52. Of these 10% architects, in turn, only 10% (i.e. 1% of the total) are devoted to custom design, which is generally considered architectural schools all over the world is designing a building. This means that the majority of architectural

3 Another aspect, of more emotional nature. Newly graduated architectural students experience great frustration

Below, we will attempt to explain this phenomenon and suggest possible solutions. 51 52

DAH (2000) Departamento de Asentamientos Humanos de ETSAM Madrid

89

THE EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION IS INEXTRICABLY LINKED TO THE THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ARCHITECTURAL THINKING HAS HARDLY CHANGED SINCE THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERNISM IN THE EARLY th 20 CENTURY. HOW CAN WE EXPECT RADICAL CHANGES TO BE POSSIBLE (OR EVEN LIKELY) IN THE FIELD OF ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION?

CURRENT THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE Current architecture can be described as conceptually baroque or eclectic – appearing and disappearing, in the form of multiple, similar or contrasting theoretical proposals, which tend to deepen confusion and usher the abandonment of the great totalitarian architectural patterns and ideas which used to be applied during the 20th century. However, this seemingly confused time of dispersion has at its core the search for values, and it involves a great theoretical freedom, rarely seen in the history of architecture. Precisely this eclecticism globalization of plurality, the coexistence and respect for the different and Human Rights. It is, however, also clear that the theoretical proposals have not been fully integrated in architecture, neither is it accurately tuned with contemporary thinking, since much of the architecture is anchored in formal values, which are more typical of the nineteenth century than of contemporary thought.

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

them contradictory, as would many social thinkers in the last decades of the 20th century. To Savater,53 civilization is a kind of “supraculture” encompassing the best features of the cultures of each country or territory. A bipolar conception of culture and civilization had emerged and spread from Europe with the ideas of Postmodernism and Frampton’s Critical Regionalism, and, not least, with the ideas of Appropriate Modernity versus modernity, civilization versus culture, localism versus universalism, etc. To Savater these are absolutely intertwined terms or in other words, civilization is synonymous with global culture, the culture of all mankind. The architecture must therefore account for this new dimension and understanding of the concept of culture.

THE IDEA OF TOPOS AND CONTEXT AS OPPOSED TO THE IDEA OF CULTURE Cases where topos by itself is not able to build the architectural project, are evidence that contemporary architecture builds on cultural processes than on the idea of topos. As a matter of fact. These cases show that behind of Topos rest the culture, waiting for being released and uncovered. The occupation of a site, for example, is much more related to cultural processes in the memory or various fragments of memory of the subject in question, than to the physical place itself. It is impossible to build a project with one sole aspect of memory of the place (topography, climate, precipitation, etc.) without the presence of a subject.

53

SAVATER, Fernando (1999) Universalismo e identidades / civilizacion versus cultura Conferencia en ETSAM Madrid

91

Also in Europe, where the notion of topos as the sole support of architecture is widely emphasized and recognized, is being challenged by huge migration movements currently occurring on the continent. These movements attest that topos belt” surrounding large areas of Paris. They have little or no relation to French or Central-European historical processes, and call into question the ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity. In our time, many territories are inhabited by persons who do not belong there, and who are unfamiliar with the site where they settle. For these persons, the historical and cultural luggage that they bring along on their journey is much more important than the new place in which they arrive. This cultural luggage will stay with them for decades, although they have settled down in a new territory. In these cases, the site, the topos, is transformed into being a supporting pillar of a scenario in which various cultures move around and form continuous relations of power. These displaced persons will undoubtedly occupy this territory according to their particular vision, different from that of another group of refugees. This cannot be avoided, since this knowledge is accumulated and makes up the cultural content, the strength – even the only chance of survival - of that individual or that group. We might want to recall here, the example mentioned of refugees from Darfur and Lebanon in the chapter about by each group required completely different solutions. Thus, as an architectural project takes place, it cannot emphasize merely on topos but we must be aware of the culture which lies behind or within the topos, and which operate simultaneously in a territory.

Architecture in the 21st century can be radically distant to the formal architectural proposals of the 20th century. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to recognize cultural architecture only by analyzing it visually and physically, since all its formal expressions are different and in accordance with the context in which it is developed and the human group to which it is addressed. Cultural architecture can only be recognized by the dialogical relationship between subject, history and topos. These are the most distinctive aspects of movements within architecture of the twentieth century. Recognition through formal, conceptual homogeneity and statements representing the view of a unique architecture which can be applied anywhere in the world are challenged and abandoned. In cultural architecture and in its various cultural expressions, none of the precepts of the last century are recognized. Instead, the old models are replaced by a completely different expression, in effect, it is impossible to recognize it by observing its physical form, neither does it take on a

value to diversity or biodiversity in ecological or environmental terms.

CHANGES IN THE PRODUCTION OF ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTS As cultural architecture and Human Rights are being integrated into the professional activities of architects, the modes of production of architectural projects are being revised. There is a need for architecture that would be closer to a process of social representation than to a repetition of formal codes. In other words, architecture should be more of a vital process than a visual issue, a process that includes ethical rather than purely aesthetic techniques derived from sociology or anthropology and systems generated from creation of contemporary art.

CULTURAL ARCHITECTURE, AN ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS A SYSTEM INCLUDING SUBJECT AND ARCHITECT AS CULTURAL SUBJECTS In this second globalization that the planet is experiencing, architecture has an important role to play in the 54 , the many persons displaced by humanitarian disasters, rational and democratic planning, environmental sustainability in human processes, large-scale migrations along with the fact that two-thirds of the world’s population have no access to any formal product of professional architecture55. These, among others, are parameters for the architects to start working. Parameters, mainly focusing on the object, the form of building and architecture as a form of art have been established during the twentieth century. The spirit of the Modern “Form follows function”. Today we could say “Form follows culture” It would be a more suitable expression for our contemporary era.

54 55

92

ASAMBLEA GENERAL DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS (1948) Declaración Universal de Derechos humanos, 10 diciembre, Paris

Traditionally the architect has had the monopoly of designing the city. This monopoly has been granted and upheld by social norms regulating the system of creative arts, and by which these actions and capabilities are associated with the architect in his/her professional role. This condition must not necessarily be changed, although our approaches to management of architectural project do need to change. The architect ought to become more of a facilitator, a social and cultural activist, who creates systems which would pave the way for a more direct inclusion of individuals or groups of individuals who engage in these projects. Furthermore, the architect should go beyond the mere creation of forms. Form has often been conceived of as “magic” in architectural projects, in the sense that it appears to possess an extraordinary mysterious power which solves any social problem. The results of 20th century architecture shows that form has no such problem-solving economically developed countries, little space is given to this traditional notion of the architect as “creator” or “artist” and interventions by “artists” are considered less necessary, and less important.

93

of various subjects in project activities, and to use systems of analysis which have already proved to be effective - such as ethnographic techniques and feasibility studies rather than products already concluded and ready-to56 which can be used to approach various social issues. With this the formal result is less accurate, considering that architecture is not just a physical problem, but also a problem of social form. If we accept the claim that architecture is not merely a physical but also a social problem, we can also expect that the formal results will take on a less precise and physically concrete form. Consequently, the architect, rather than being a mere constructor of form, is a constructor of society. If we can improve the inclusion of the subject (individual) and subjects (groups of individuals) in cultural processes of which they are carriers and depositories. Also the architect is part of these processes – not a external and neutral actor. Culture is subjects in action, and if we can immerse ourselves in this culture, and understand subjects’ concerns, we can touch the most intimate contents of culture.

artist, since he usually conceives of himself as equipped with certain superior capacities, which enables him to understand realities which “common” citizens cannot grasp. This attitude, taught in architectural schools, contributes more to maintaining a social status of architects than to search for solutions of social challenges. The architect’s fear is related to the self-imposed role to create works of art. Obviously the ambition of the architect, to fully control the design of the object, tends to become unrealistic, since it aims at reaching a level of perfection that does not exist. An open system are, supposedly, less likely to get close to that utopian perfection which often makes architects return to their endemic position of private and hermetic processes of creation. In cultural architecture, imperfection can be considered part of the creative process, and the inclusion of subjects as a random element. We do not know how a project will end, but only assume a set of rules to guide the process towards an indeterminate conclusion.

RAPPROCHEMENT TO SOCIOLOGY In these processes, also the architect is a subject, and becomes, hence, a cultural expression. This implies that we must pay attention not only to the observed, but also to the observer, exactly as has been indicated by anthropologists for more than a century. If processes can be opened up, so that professionals, such as architects can immerse themselves in these subjects, and become a part of the expression of cultural processes, despotic authoritarianism and endogenous creative processes can be avoided. The architect can be included as a person who possesses of knowledge which will be useful and necessary to grasp the culture. This way, our possibilities to arrive at certain answers related to cultural architecture and human rights will improve, although the objects and the physical forms generated will be less physically concrete and precise.

The importance of abandoning the logic of composition, so as to give possibilist and open projects - including the subject as a part of the cultural content - the opportunity to develop, has been discussed earlier in this book. This does not imply abandoning architecture as art – as a matter of fact, we always have much to learn from sociology. Architecture has gone through a considerable development in the form of solutions and various models on how to carry out projects; algorithms, the theory of fractals, the chaos theory, mathematical processes and all new of serving approximately 2/3 of the world population. For this reason, it is necessary to bring problems and solutions to the same level. Sociology and anthropology, which have developed systems for understanding

THE CREATION AS A COLECTIVE ACT already reached by the solutions. Joseph Beuys57 statement “every man, an artist,” refers to creative systems conceived as open processes of art production, and appeals to man’s political and artistic self-determination. In this conception, art is a human evolution system, which can serve as models from which architectural production systems can learn. Similar ideas are expressed by John Cage58 who writes about random systems and by Duchamp who makes statements regarding imperfection and indeterminate, inconclusive and open exercises which enable the inclusion of the subject as a part of the creative process. 56 57 58

94

AMPHOUX, Pascal (2001) Convocatoria Europan VI, Ed. Europan, Comunidad Europea, Suiza BODENMANN, Ritter Clara (1972) Josephs Beuys. Cada hombre, un artista. Ed. Antonio Machado, Conversaciones en Documenta 5, Kassel, Alemania KOSTELANETZ, Richard (1988) Conversing with Cage, Limelight editions, New York CHARLES, Daniel (1981) Para os pájaros. Conversaciones con John Cage,

We can conclude that it is necessary to seriously consider both the environmental and the social aspects of reality, and integrate them into the world of architectural practice. To do this, it will be necessary to approach developed. This would, in other words, imply, stating problems and developing solutions for social aspects, like architecture so that it does not exclusively focus on art and aesthetics but also on responding to social demands, and delivering services, the prospects for representing cultural processes will improve considerably.

95

delivering services, The participation in processes of civic development should, hence, be considered a natural

Democracy can be used as a means to enhance participation in architectural projects. Democracy is also the germ of self-determination, which is a crucial element of all contexts of our contemporary society. Individuals hold opinions about their cities and their homes, and it is important that these aspects are taken into consideration in architectural projects. It is, hence, necessary to modify the production process of projects, so as to include more

taught, since it suggests that architecture is a system of problem-solving activities at the service of territories and their inhabitants. This is a notion of culture which may contribute greatly to architecture, since it takes focus off the mere form,

MORE ROLES FOR THE PROFESSIONAL ARCHITECTURE

to which the formal reproduction and iconography is synonymous with culture. Clifford Geertz59 advocates Max Weber’s interpretation of the concept of culture. According to this interpretation, culture (and hence, also architecture, which is inherent in culture) can be interpreted as the representation of the meaning of everyday life. Therefore, if we are interested in understanding the culture of a particular group, we should actually analyze “the meaning of life” of this group, and relate it to the position of the rest of mankind.

particularly as projects are developed, but social sciences can assist us in taking one step forward in these situations. Furthermore, every human group gives a different meaning to each object, activity or situation, in the sense that the meanings are exactly those given by that particular human group. They may be similar to those of another

new roles for the profession, which can coexist with the traditional, and which, also, represent our historical background. To create new roles for architects (new ways to conceive our profession) is, to say the least urgent in a world in which two thirds of the population do not enjoy access to any formal product of architecture.

countries. In these countries, the traditional modes of training architects are applied; architects are trained exclusively as designers of buildings hence they become artist-architects. This must change, especially since most architects do not apply their knowledge in designing buildings during their entire professional career. We must open up the spectrum of education and training for new interpretations and dynamics as well as for new as much as an artist. In the book Architects Without Frontiers61

equal cultures exist. Colonialists, Social Reformers and Educators. Cultural architecture would be closer to the role of the architect as a social reformer, referred to by Esther Charlesworh as “architectures as constructors of peace and political actors.”

THE RELATION BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND POLITICS MORE DEMOCRACY IN ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

A few, timid, attempts to approach issues affecting social peace and future development through architecture 60

96

in philosophy and movements for global justice in politics. The latter are heterogeneous and diverse groups which share the respect for differences and coexistence of diversity. These movements pose obstacles for an imperial homogeneous global world, without attempting to eliminate it. As a matter of fact, they even aim at coexistence with the notion of a homogeneous and globalized world – this is a novel ideological attitude which developed during the last years of the 20th century, an era which was generally characterized by the strong polarization between capitalism and socialism and the continuous attempts of various political positions to impose conceptions on each other.

These are entirely new approaches within architecture and, if adopted, they will mainly affect the 2/3 of humanity which generally does not have access to professional architecture, but will also change conditions in areas where professional architecture is already available, but where there is a need to establish new relations between citizens and power. These emerging models are, hence, examples of architecture seeking higher levels of democracy

59 60

61

GEERTZ, Clifford (1987) La interpretación de las culturas Ed. Gedisa, Mexico SAVATER, Fernando (1999) Universalismo e identidades. Civilización versus cultura Conferencia en ETSAM, Madrid

CHARLESWORTH, Esther (2006) Architects Without Frontiers, Ed. Architectural Press, London, UK

97

In other words, are emerging architectures that seek higher levels of democracy in production and consequences of the architectural project. Example is Shigeru Ban in Japan62 with their projects for humanitarian emergencies. Cameron Sinclair63 of Architects for Humanity. Ciro Pirondi and Paulo Brazil from School of the Cidade of Sao Paulo who works with students in real projects that they develop in the most vulnerable sectors of favelas. Edward Rojas in the Chiloé archipelago an architect who moved to an island where 40 years ago, no architects existed, and whose work has become an engine of social activism, transforming the architecture into one of the greatest expressions of the local and regional culture of Chiloé

NEW ROLES FOR THE PROFESSIONAL ARCHITECT THE ARCHITECT AS A CONSTRUCTOR OF DEMOCRACY Century, architecture became the expressions of the two major political forces, socialism and capitalism. Today, in the 21st Century is should give expression to what philosophers generally call “the second globalisation”, and, in politics, alterglobalist movements. Chris Younés64 calls for a renovation of projectual methods that could be used for improving the process of community building, enhancing the way human beings live in contact with and proximity to others, fostering respect for differences among individuals as well as respect for nature. One example of such a project is the studio “Ecosistema Urbano” of Madrid, Spain, who developed Hama square, in Norway. th

THE ARCHITECT AS A “BUILDER” OF SOCIETY An architect who creates society is an architect capable of creating collectivity and heterogeneity. Methods developed by Joseph Beuys65, the random music created by John Cage66 and Marcel Duchamp’s models67 can be very useful. We can conceive of imperfection, the “ugliness” in classic and/or academic terms or non-concluded pieces of architecture as a part of the creative process.

object and the loss of control of the result as part of the system of creation. Since we are often dealing with projects involving many human variables, we can only assume a set of rules which will guide the process. In this perspective, the inclusion of subjects is as a prospect rather than a challenge.

62 63 64 65 66 67

98

YOUNÉS, Chris (2001) Convocatoria Europan VI, Ed. Europan, Comunidad Europea, Francia BODENMANN, Ritter Clara (1972) Josephs Beuys. Cada hombre, un artista. Ed. Antonio Machado, Conversaciones en Documenta 5, Kassel, Alemania KOSTELANETZ, Richard (1988) Conversing with Cage, Limelight editions, New York CABANNE, Pierre (1972) Conversaciones con Marcel Duchamp, Ed. Anagrama, Barcelona

IN A WORLD IN WHICH 4.500 MILLIONS OF HUMAN BEINGS OR 2/3 OF THE WORLD POPULATION DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO ANY FORMAL PRODUCT OF PROFESSIONAL ARCHITECTURE. IT IS HIGHLY URGENT TO CREATE NEW ROLES FOR ARCHITECTS

It is indeed interesting to see how social order is destroyed as humanitarian emergencies occur. It seems that the city has certain implicit and tacit norms and rules that teach us how to behave as “citizens”. Since architects generally contribute in constructing not only refugee camps, but also cities for emergencies, we could also play an important role in enhancing implicit rules for the city and, hence, in building a better society.

SOME POSSIBLE TEACHING METHODS FOR PROJECT WORKSHOPS A WORKSHOP OF ARCHITECTURE One of the most advantageous forms of teaching and training in architecture is the workshop. This method is practical interventions.

education in traditional schools of architecture, but their works represent the social ideals of the 1960’s and 70’s– the era in which architecture was particularly involved in social issues.

ARCHITECT AS A SOCIAL ACTIVIST

1 Students should go to the city and the territory to search for social problems or social issues where architecture can effectively do something. This experience should be done without having been assigned a given topic or a given problem

the importance of getting involved in social processes, and to adopt a social activist-approach in architectural practise. The architect has a valid say in the urban discussion, and the voice must be claimed and used. The participation of architects is crucial in processes and social organizations aiming at improving the cities, and enhancing new expressions for citizens’ participation.

2 concept.

social utopia and social inquiry, respectively.

individual has the possibility to work on a problem of his or her interest, and in an area in which he or she believes to improve conditions. We must not forget that the student group contains a spontaneous and contemporary

THE ARCHITECT AS A TRANSMITTER OF KNOWLEDGE

building society.

Some projects may need no other intervention from architects than the transmission of knowledge from one place in the world to another. Architects have been trained to accumulate large amounts of information from various contexts. If these ideas could be systematized and, for instance, installed in a system of global access,

We should also remember that there are certain limitations to architecture, for instance it will never be subject to social change, and will always be dependent on power relations , hence our capacity to move is very limited. As students who arrive at an understanding of the limitations of our profession, will be better professionals and better human beings – which is also the ultimate objective of university education.

architecture, in particular in the case of humanitarian emergencies, could improve. In humanitarian emergency situations an extremely rapid response which will alleviate the suffering of our fellowmen is crucial. One example of two architects working with this kind of interventions are Eduardo Feuerhake and Fernando Ferreiro with their work for UN HABITAT in Mozambique. These are some of the new roles that we suggest for architects at present. Doubtlessly, many more exist, and many more will be discovered in the future. Accordingly, we must open up the spectrum of education and training for new interpretations of architecture. The architects, in such a perspective may be an artist as well as a technician or a cultural activist, a constructor of democracy, a creator of communities and society and constructor of peace.

100

We suggest the workshop form to be used in architectural training, based on the ideas presented above, and

of collective creation, where ideas are the total assets of the group. These ideas can be used by anyone, like a pencil a paper or a table. The important thing in this process is not just ideas related to architecture, but rather, how we develop these ideas and transform them into a solution that can be used to approach a social problem or issue. We started to develop this project method at the University of Chile in 2001, and we have been using it since 2007 at the Royal Danish Academy of Copenhagen and the School of Architecture in Sassari, Italy.

101

We introduced the short-workshop format “Workshop 5x5” with the aim to develop ideas related to architecture and human rights at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen in Denmark. We selected 5 different cases of humanitarian emergencies in 5 diverse contexts in different corners of the world, so as to offer the students a global perspective of the challenges faced by humanity. This short-workshop-format gives an excellent opportunity to experiment the possibility of carrying out a project rapidly, and to demonstrate that we need other architects and students in creative processes. This is of extreme importance as we face humanitarian emergencies. The workshop format also provides us with experience which is indispensable for professional life; it teaches us to trust in others and to depend on each other.

Copenhagen, Denmark, January 2010 Aguas Calientes, México, October 2010 Copenhagen Denmark, January 2011 Sao Paulo, Brazil, April 2011 Maputo, Mozambique, May 2011 Istanbul, Turkey, October 2011 Sardinia, Italy, September-December 2011 Copenhagen Denmark, April 2012 Santiago Chile, May 2012 Valdivia, Chile, September 2012 These experiences had, however, been tested before. The 5x5 Workshop was originally developed in Santiago Trincomalee, Sri Lanka , Tsunami 2004 Arequipa, Peru Earthquake 2001 Vanuatu, Volcanic eruption 2005 Kosovo, Balkan war 1996 New Orleans, USA, Hurricane katrine 2005 These cases forced students to consider the important role that architecture can play in mitigating problems faced by humanity in extreme situations. It also showed how important it is for architecture to approach sociology, so that professional architecture can arrive at an enhanced understanding of human processes in various communities around the world. Furthermore, as we engaged in the elaboration of short workshops, we were given the opportunity to try low-cost construction, rapid action and social sustainability and make them fundamental and indispensable elements of our response.

102

103

BIBLIOGRAPHy AMPHOUX, Pascal (2001) Convocatoria Europan VI. Ed. Europan EU Suiza BENÉVOLO, Leonardo (2002) Historia de la arquitectura moderna. Ed. Gustavo Gili, 2° edición Barcelona España BODENMANN, Ritter Clara (1972) Josephs Beuys. Cada hombre, un artista. Ed. Antonio Machado, Conversaciones en Documenta 5, Kassel, Germany BUENO, Gustavo (1996) El mito de la cultura. . Ed. Prensa Ibérica, Barcelona España CABANNE, Pierre (1972) Conversaciones con Marcel Ducham., Ed. Anagrama Barcelona España CASSIRER, Ernst (1964) Philosophie der symbolischen Formen. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt. Trad. Español Filosofía de las formas simbólicas. FCE. México CHARLES, Daniel (1981) Para os pájaros. Conversaciones con John Cage CHARLESWORTH, Esther (2006) Architects Without Frontiers, Ed. Architectural Press London UK COLOMINA, Beatriz (2007) La domesticidad en guerra Ed. Actar Barcelona ES CURTIS, William (2006) La Arquitectura Moderna desde 1900. Ed. Phaidon Press Llimited, 3ª edición en español, London UK ESTEFANIA, Joaquín (2002) Hijo, Que es la Globalización? Ed. Aguilar Madrid España FERNÁNDEZ COX, Cristian (1991) Hacia una Modernidad Apropiada, en libro Nueva Arquitectura en América Latina. Ed. G. Gili, Barcelona España FRAMPTON, Kenneth (1983) Towards a Critical Regionalism The Anti-Aesthetic. Essays on Postmodern Culture. Ed. by Hal Foster, Bay Press, Port Townsen FREUD, Sigmund (1927) El porvenir de una ilusión. Obras Completas, vol. II, pag 73-99. Trad. De L. LópezBallesteros. Ed. Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid España GEERTZ, Clifford (1987) La interpretación de las culturas. Ed. Gedisa, 387pp, Mexico KANT, Immanuel (1958) Crítica del juicio, Traducción por Manuel G. Morente Ed. Librería General Victoriano KANT, Immanuel (1994) de la historia Ed. Tecnos Madrid España El concepto de cultura textos fundamentales. Compilados y prologados por J.S.S kahn. Ed. Anagrama. Barcelona España KOSTELANETZ, Richard (1988) Conversing with Cage. Ed. Limelight editions, New York, USA LOBOS, Jorge (2006) Guía de arquitectura de Chiloé Ed. Junta de Andalucía, 405 pag. Sevilla, España LOBOS, Jorge y GOMEZ-GUILLAMON, Maria (2010) Architecture for Humanitarian Emergencies 01 Ed. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen Denmark LOBOS, Jorge (2012) Architecture for Humanitarian Emergencies 02 Ed. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen Denmark MORANDE, Pedro (1984) Cultura y Modernización en América Latina. Ensayo sociológico acerca de la crisis del desarrollismo y su superación. Cuadernos del Instituto de Sociología, Ed. PUC de Chile (1987) Reeditado por Encuentro Ediciones, Madrid MUNTAGNOLA, Thornberg Joseph (2000) Topogénesis, Fundamentos de una nueva arquitectura, Collección Arquitext 11. Ed. UPC Barcelona, España MUNTAÑOLA, Thornberg Joseph (2006) Mind, Land and Territory. Ed. Ex-libris, Barcelona, España PARIS, Carlos (1994) El animal cultural. Biología y cultura en la realidad humana. Ed. Crítica, Barcelona España PEREZ TAPIAS, José Antonio (1995) Filosofía y crítica de la cultura. Ed. Trotta, Madrid España ROJAS, Edward (1996) El reciclaje insular SAN MARTIN SALA, Javier (1999) Teoría de la cultura, Ed. Síntesis S.A. Madrid España

104

SAN MARTIN SALA, Javier (1998) Fenomenología y cultura en Ortega. Ensayos de interpretación. Ed. Tecnos, Madrid España SAVATER, Fernando (1995) Ed. Planeta. Barcelona España SAVATER, Fernando (1999) “Universalismo e identidades / civilizacion versus cultura” Conferencia en ETSAM 22/02/1999 SAVATER, Fernando (2001) Sobrevivir. Ed. Ariel S.A. 3° edición Barcelona España SIMMEL, Georg (1950) The Metropolis and Mental Life. Ed. Free Press New York USA SOMMER, Robert (1969) Personal space the behavioral basis of design Hall USA SONTAG Susan (1978) Illness as Metaphor Ed. Farrar, Straus & Giroux New York USA TAIBO, Carlos (2002) Cien Preguntas Sobre el Nuevo Desorden Ed. Suma de letras, madrid España THAMES&HUDSON (2006) Design Like You Give a Damn, Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. Ed. Architecture for Humanity London UK UN (1948) Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 10 December 1948 Paris France UNHCR (2007) Handbook for Emergencies Ed. UNHCR Geneve Switzerland UN HABITAT (2011) State of the world’s cities 2010/2011 Ed. Earthscan London & Washington UK & USA Ed. UNHABITAT Geneve Switzerland UNHABITAT (2010) Shelter Project 2009 Ed. UNHABITAT Geneve Switzerland UNHABITAT (2009) Shelter Project 2008 Ed. UNHABITAT Geneve Switzerland YOUNÉS, Chris (2001) Convocatoria Europan VI, Ed. Europan EU France WEIZMAN, Eyal (2012) Hollow Land: Israel’s Architecture of Occupation Ed. Verso London UK WEIZMAN, Eyal (2011) The Least of All Possible Evils: Humanitarian Violence from Arendt to Gaza Ed. Verso London UK WISNER Ben, BLAIKIE Piers, CANNON Terry and DAVIS Ian (2005) At Risk Ed. Routledge 2nd ed. London UK WHITE, Leslie A. (1964) La ciencia de la cultura. Ed. Paidós, Buenos Aires Argentina HOMEPAGES BAN, Shigeru Japan BOFF, Leonardo (2001) “Estamos en la edad de piedra de la globalización” Ed. El País, Madrid, 6 de julio Juan FEUERHAKE, Eduardo (2007) GARCIA, Sierra Pelayo, , Biblioteca Filosofía en español, LOBOS, Jorge (2004) Arquitectura Cultural. En Revista de Urbanismo Nº11 Santiago de Chile. Ed. FAU Universidad de Chile I.S.S.N. 0717-5051 526IDG%253D2%2526ACT%253D0%2526PRT%253D13008,00.html SINCLAIR, Cameron UK TAYLOR, Sir Edward B. (1871) Primitive Culture Antropología cultural

105

PROJECT MATRIx

CIRCLE OF TRAGEDy DISASTER

CLIMATE & GEOGRAPHy

EMERGENCIES

Dry arid

EMERGENCY

plans emergency exercises and training warning systems evacuation routes

Search and rescue Emergency relief Delivery food and shelter First hours to 10 days

0

A - NATURAL DISASTERS Drought

Dry semiarid

TU

RK

AN

P JA

Floods

AR

AM

NM

Z MO

MALDIVES

MALDIVES

EGYPT INDIA

MEXICO BRAZIL

CUBA ITALY

KA

DA N

C - MANMADE EMERGENCIES IST AN

N

PA K

SP

AI

Continental Humid

3m

on

Civil war

Continental Subarctic

D - PANDEMIC

ILE

North American

Central American catholic

South American catholic

East European

North European protestant

European Mediterranean catholic

Asiatic Hindu

Asiatic Islamic

Asiatic Buddhist

Middle East

MITIGATION Building codes and zoning Vulnerability analyses Public educations Manuals on reconstruction and Building Back Better solutions Posters etc.

24 months

Sub Sahara

Pendemia

North African

ths

CH

Polar

Assessment phase Temporary housing Mall grants Medical care Refugee camps 10 days - 3 months

SU

Moderate Marine west coast

RECOVER

AN

ILE

Climate Change

Architecture model for shelters to incorporate Disaster Risk Reduction concepts adaptation

IL

HAITI

Moderate Humid subtropical

PREVENTION

ITALY

B - CLIMATE CHANGE

SR

CH

Hurricane

UE

BIQ

AM

Z MO

BR

AZ

IL

DE

Volcano Eruption

Moderate Mediterranean

CULTURE

ys

da

UE

BIQ

K

Tsunami Tropical wet and dry

106

10

Earthquake

Tropical wet

BOOK 3 BOOK 2 BOOK 1

EY

REHABILITATION

RECONSTRUCTION

EMERGENCIES

PREPAREDNESS

Long term solutions Re-building housingsand economy systems Loans, resettlements 3 months to 24 months (variable)

BOOK 1 BOOK 2 BOOK 3 107

The effective post-disaster reconstruction has been an important issue not only for the affected societies but also for other nations as globally we all share a common threat due to natural and man-made disasters. Many reports and current evacuation plans suggest the use the existing buildings as shelters. This is only possible if these buildings have withstood the disaster. Most frequently used post-disaster solutions for shelter of people are by converting sports facilities, hospitals, or schools to use as refugee shelters. Although this helps it also poses many problems including sanitation, privacy of the occupants, and the limit of in hold capacity. The research project “Development of Green Shelters for Emergency Evacuation from Extreme Conditions by Deployable Systems” investigates shelter construction solutions which can satisfy the urgent need after the disaster, and which can also satisfy the future need for long-term residential requirements through continual evolution in the structures, sustainable use of materials services, environmental control, adaptive façade solutions and architecture. The overall aim is to promote fast recovery of disaster affected areas by developing sustainable building solutions that offer effective post-disaster re-construction using an interdisciplinary design approach. A lot of the people suffer from mental traumas after the incident and some of these are based on the reloca-

shelters for a lot longer than initially planned (months or years). This generates a further problem for governments, as there is a risk that the camps can become slums. porary shelters are a great help as they provide very fast shelter, however they are not adequate for long-term use. On the other hand their initial design poses a great technical challenge in upgrading the current temporary shelters to more permanent housing. It is therefore extremely important to develop more practical shelter systems that could be integrated into more long-term sustainable solutions.Thus the research effort must be interdisciplinary enabling future shelter design to take all relevant issues into account. To do so researchers from

SHELTERS

INTERDISCIPLINARy RESEARCH INTO EMERGENCy SHELTERS

control must work together and collaborate internationally.

Olga Popovic Larsen, Macedonia & U.K. Professor and leader of the Loadbearing Structures in Architecture (BÆK) The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture in Copenhagen, KADK &

Daniel Sang-Hoon Lee, South Korea & U.K. Phd, Structural Engineer, Assistant Professor and part of BÆK The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture in Copenhagen. KADK

108

The “Research into Emergency Shelters” – International Network funded by the Danish Agency for Innovation international network aims at bringing researchers together to investigate all relevant aspects of emergency shelter design including the initial stages of emergency shelters and developing solutions that could become semi-permanent or permanent solutions. Olga Popovic Larsen is project leader working together with Daniel Lee, Assistant Professor. Collaborators are Professor Kenichi Kawaguchi with his research group from Tokyo University, Japan and Professor Seung-Deog Kim from Semyung University in South Korea.

109

110

111

”Ya va siendo hora que entendamos que la Humanidad es mas importante que la arquitectura” Esta frase me llegò hace unos días por una de las redes sociales, una frase que por lo obvio es cierta, y màs aun en el contexto de los ùltimos años de locura egocéntrica de la arquitectura parece muy a propòsito y, de alguna manera en sintonía con el pensamiento de Oscar Niemeyer (1908-2012) quien ha fallecido hace sólo unos meses. El gran arquitecto brasileño y último de los modernos decía... ”me interesa la arquitectura, porque me Pero tràs una segunda lectura, y pese a que la humanidad es màs importante que la arquitectura, se podría preguntàramos que hace o que puede hacer la arquitectura por la humanidad!

de explorar las posibilidades de la arquitectura en un àmbito que tradicionalmente se ha considerado exclusivo de organizaciones de ayuda humanitarias, y donde la arquitectura ha estado en un segundo plano o, en muchos casos, totalmente ausente. En general es mi opinión que la arquitectura debe interesarse fundamentalmente de los sujetos, es decir de la vida de las personas, y por ello de las circunstancias de la vida misma. Se podría decir que ese interes es quizàs la arquitectura dar respuesta a las situaciones de emergencias, a las que la humanidad continuamente esta enfrentàndose, asi como lógica es quererla incluir en las escuelas, como parte esencial en el curriculum de los arquitectos. Este curso se contextualiza en un momento donde debido a la globalizaciòn, todos somos màs y estamos mas informados y conscientes de las situaciones de emergencias y las catàstrofes, tanto las provocadas por la naturaleza como las provocadas por el hombre. Algunas como el cambio climàtico, principal tema de la discusión política de los ùltimos años, apelan a una necesidad de buscar soluciones o respuestas de una manera global, y de alguna manera nos responsabiliza a todos el intentar buscar soluciones. Es decir, que este àmbito de la arquitectura no es ya tanto una labor social, una opción de vida o trabajo, sino una realidad profesional, y es precisamente de ahí, del deseo de abordar esta nueva realidad desde la arquitectura y en el àmbito académico, que este curso tiene su punto de partida y su principal objetivo.

Maria Gòmez-Guillamòn, Spain Architect ETSA Seville Spain The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture. KADK

112

EL PROYECTO

PROyECTO ARqUITECTONICO vs PROyECTO DE ARqUITECTURA

El introducir este tema, que quizàs hasta el momento había estado marginado, por considerar este tipo de proyectos no aptos o sin posibilidades de desarrollo en el campo arquitectónico, debiese ser considerado como un proyecto màs, creo, ha sido importante. Por una parte por el hecho de establecer una colaboración directa a través del curso entre el àrea de proyectos e investigación y por otra, por el hecho de realizar esta experiencia en tres ocasiones, dàndole una continuidad, tanto del tema en si, posibilitando asi un desarrollo a nivel pedagógico. Una experiencia que en sus tres ediciones ademas ha despertado un gran interés en los alumnos, asi como el de los profesores, con unos resultados que evidencian el gran potencial no solo arquitectónico sino pedagógico.

113

En esta tercera edición en Copenhagen, se ha evidienciado, que ademàs de la importancia del curso por su potencial académico/pedagógico, por sus mùltiples posibilidades y que en el segundo libro quedaron explicados, que hay que provocar que este tipo de proyectos no se aborden de una manera especial, como una experiencia aislada, sino que aparezcan de una manera continua dentro de los programas de los distintos departamentos, tratàndolos como cualquier otro tipo de proyecto. Es mi experiencia que en este sentido el curso ha tenido un efecto positivo, y que se estàn empezando a incluir este tipo de proyectos.

Es mi opinión, es importante que en futuras experiencias se incluyan proyectos reales, donde no solo se establece una relación de proyecto e investigación en el àmbito académico, pero donde la inclusión de la profesiòn sea inevitable, es decir, que a ejecuciòn del proyecto se incluya como factor esencial para que el proyecto deje de ser un proyecto arquitectónico a ser un proyecto de arquitectura, donde la realidad es tanto su punto de partida

La frecuencia y magnitud de las emergencias, las consencuencias de las misma, que a la vez afectan a màs personas, no solo en el àmbito local sino de una manera global, hacen que las oportunidades de desarrollar proyectos arquitectónicos, asi como las voluntades politicas y económicas se hayan incrementado proporcionalmente . En estos momentos donde la profesión del arquitecto se esta cuestionando, donde la educación se replantea cuestionàndose que competencias y recursos deberian formar parte del curriculum de los arquitectos, seria interesante explorar y desarrollar este tema, no solo desde el proyecto arquitectónico, como hemos hecho en estas tres ediciones, sino estudiando que métodos o pautas son necesarios para la profesionalización, Una profesionalización que exige una revisión de los modelos de trabajo del arquitecto, de la estructura, de la economia etc.... Todo ello tan necesario para poder establecer las nuevas reglas del juego y de esa manera poder dar respuesta a las demandas de la nueva realidad y que de momento estàn solo cubiertas por algunas asociaciones y desarrolladas de una manera tradicional.

Establer esa diferencia entre el proyecto arquitectónico y el proyecto de arquitectura es una labor académica importante que se hace màs evidente y màs fàcil de explicar en el campo de las emergencias humanitarias, donde el arquitecto no puede encerrarse en su propio mundo, donde el contexto por su evidencia requiere que el

donde ha trabajado por 10 años, con estas premisas de realidad.

culturales, que hacen del proyecto arquitectónico un proyecto de arquitectura.

situaciones. Se podria decir que si por una parte el propio desarrollo del proyecto arquitectónico deberia considerarse no especial sino como cualquier otro proyecto, desde el punto de vista del proyecto profesional deben desarrollarse nuevos mecanismos que respondan a una situaciòn que en nada se parece a las situaciones normales de cotidianeidad o de no emergencia.

arquitectura profesional mientras que el desempleo en el campo de la arquitectura en nuestras sociedades sigue incrementàndose. Luego tanto desde la arquitectura misma, como desde las escuelas, como desde la profesion deberian replantearse de que manera incluir esta realidad en nuestro àmbito de trabajo. Para mi este tipo de proyectos, de pedagogias radicales que intentan introducir otras experiencias en el àmbito académico, de alguna manera politicas y que pretenden explicar nuevas realidades, tanto en lo académico

profesional.

114

115

Um grupo de jovens arquitetos decide, em 1996, desenhar o projeto de um novo curso de arquitetura, mas completamente livre e independente na sua estrutura pedagógica e administrativa. Uma cooperativa de com o objetivo de formar arquitetos/ urbanistas, capazes de criticar e transformar a realidade, divulgando o Em 2002 iniciamos as aulas com cinquenta alunos. Hoje, trezentos e quarenta alunos, mais de cem associados,

O Conselho Pedagógico é sua espinha dorsal. Formado pelos representantes dos anos e dos Núcleos, somos Se a Arquitetura é uma arte de fronteiras, margeando outros conhecimentos, instituímos como disciplina o

custo extra ao aluno. Viajamos com todos os estudantes pelo Brasil e América Latina duas vezes ao ano. A Escola posturas, aproximando alunos e professores fora do espaço escolar.

dos seus estudos. é um deles, vem desenvolvendo trabalhos, aperfeiçoando metodologias e realizando projetos juntamente com

Projeto Trip Cidade Projeto Pique

Ciro Pirondi, Brazil Architect USP Sao Paulo, Brazil. Director of Escola da Cidade, Sao Paulo, Brazil

116

ESCOLA DA CIDADE

ESCOLA DA CIDADE

117

Marcenaria - Escola Passagem da Cidadania

118

119

120

121

WORKSHOP 5X5

122

MEGACITIES

5 DAYS

10 DAYS

30 DAYS

10 DAYS

10 DAYS

2 DAYS

2 YEAR 55 STUDENTS

Centro de Ciencias de Diseño y Construcción Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes UAA

3 & 4 YEAR 25 STUDENTS

3 & 4 YEAR 47 STUDENTS

KOCAELI TURKEY

VALDIVIA

Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo Universidad de Chile FAU

ALGHERO ITALY COPENHAGEN DENMARK

Faculty of Architecture and Design Kocaeli University KOU-MTF

SANTIAGO CHILE

2 & 3 YEAR 38 STUDENTS

CHILE

Dipartimento di Architettura di Alghero Università degli studi di Sassari UNISS

AGUASCALIENTES MEXICO

4 YEAR 15 STUDENTS

Escuela de Arquitectura Universidad Austral de Chile UACH

124

TIME

School of Architecture Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen KADK

COUNTRY

WORKSHOP 6X12

UNIVERSITY

4 & 5 YEAR 44 STUDENTS

STUDENTS

126

CASES POLITICAL DEMANDS

POLITICAL DEMANDS

LOW COST HOUSING EARTHQUAKE POLITICAL DEMANDS TSUNAMI EARTHQUAKE

MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN

FUKUSHIMA TOKIO JAPAN, GDP U$ 34.314

MUMBAI INDIA, GDP U$ 3.267

ISTANBUL TURKEY, GDP USD 465 CAIRO EGYPT, GDP U$ 6.281

ROME ITALY, GDP U$ 32.647

MADRID SPAIN, GDP U$ 32.045

SAO PAULO BRASIL, GDP U$ 11.640

LA HABANA CUBA, GDP U$ 9.900 VALDIVIA SANTIAGO CHILE, GDP U$ 17.310

MEXICO CITY MEXICO, GDP U$ 15.266

COUNTRY

6X12

ASIATIC BUDDHIST ASIATIC BUDDHIST

ASIATIC HINDU

NORTH AFRICAN & MUSLIM

MIDDLE EAST & MUSLIM

SOUTH EUROPEAN CATHOLIC

SOUTH EUROPEAN CATHOLIC

CENTRAL AMERICAN CATHOLIC

SOUTH AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOUTH AMERICAN CATHOLIC

CENTRAL AMERICAN CATHOLIC

CENTRAL AMERICAN CATHOLIC

CULTURE

EMERGENCY

MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN

GARBAGE DRY ARID

HURRICANE

SOCIAL CRISIS SLUMS TROPICAL WET DRY SEMIARID TROPICAL WET AND DRY

FAVELAS TROPICAL WET

MODERATE MEDITERRANEAN

CLIMATE

UMBAI / SLUM

NDI

PROBLEM

EN LOS PRÓxIMOS AÑOS BOMBAy TENDRÁ 20 MILLONES DE HABITANTES, LA MAyORÍA DE ELLOS VIVIRÁN EN SLUMS

INDIA - MUMBAI - SLUMS

desde zonas rurales 2 o 3 millones de nuevos habitantes. La pregunta es ¿Cómo recibir a esas personas, sin continuar con el crecimiento horizontal de estos barrios, que hace insostenible el desarrollo de la ciudad? ¿Podría la arquitectura mejorar ligeramente, las condiciones de vida en los slums de Bombay?

130

131

SOLUTION 1X3

ACUPUNTURA EN BAMBÚ

Esta liviana torre de bambú puede recibir cientos de personas en las tardes y noches, solo para dormir o descansar. Es la hora en que regresa la mayoría de los habitantes al slum, luego de trabajar o buscar trabajo en la ciudad. La torre se ubica estrictamente en los estrechos espacios abiertos de calles, para no interrumpir el posible crecimiento de las casas existentes, usa mínimos pilares y conexiones a tierra. En esta torre de bambú, las personas construyen sus propias divisiones con textiles o ropa, tanto el suelo, cielo o muros son textiles atados a los bambúes… Un rascacielos textil

132

133

KADK

COPENHAGEN

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

SOLUTION 2X3 SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2

Este proyecto, sigue la estrategia anterior. Crear una torre liviana en los pocos espacios abiertos que deja el bloque homogéneo del slum, pero propone un suelo tener un lugar colectivo y de socialización. Esta plataforma de bambú también produce sombra en las zonas comerciales y calles de mayor ancho, lo que facilita la vida colectiva.

134

135

FAU

NUEVO SUELO URBANO DE BAMBÚ

SOLUTION 3X3 SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 3

Estas torres deberían ser construidas por el gobierno, deberían tener un bajo costo y no considerar instalaciones sanitarias ni eléctricas, elementos no frecuentes Los habitantes del barrio pueden ocupar estas torres como ellos estimen conveniente, de acuerdo a sus necesidades, organización social y usos culturales.

136

137

FAU

ESTRUCTURAS PARA AUMENTAR DENSIDAD

GYP

AIRO / GARBAG

PROBLEM

EL BARRIO COPTO DE 60.000 HABITANTES, RECICLA LA BASURA DE 17 MILLONES DE CAIROTAS

EGYPT, CAIRO - GARBAGE

La ciudad de la basura, es un caso único en el mundo. 60.000 habitantes católicos, coptos, pobres y provenientes de zonas rurales, reciclan la basura de 17 millones de habitantes de El Cairo. Esta situación es de total discriminación y marginación, sin embargo no se les puede quitar la basura, pues es su fuente de sobrevivencia. Ellos viven de la basura y en la basura. Entendiendo que no podemos producir un cambio radical en esta organización social, la pregunta es ¿Cómo la arquitectura puede dar mejores condiciones de vida? En este caso los juicios éticos son discutibles y nos centramos solo en la limitada capacidad de la arquitectura de mejorar ligeramente la vida de miles de personas.

140

141

SOLUTION 1X3

DECORACIÓN y LADRILLOS qUE RECICLAN LA BASURA

142

El proyecto propone intentar con estos elementos, decoración y colores re-conquistar algunas calles o crear nuevos espacios en los niveles superiores. Por otra parte proponen crear ladrillos de basura prensada y mezclada con arcilla y cemento para reciclar el 100% de lo que llega al barrio. Los ladrillos

143

KADK

alfombras y tapetes en cada casa, que llega a niveles de exageración, al decorar con alfombras los cielos de la casa. Una manera de paliar en el interior de la vivienda la saturación y contaminación de las calles exteriores.

COPENHAGEN

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

SOLUTION 2X3

destinar a actividades colectivas ajenas y separadas de la basura. El enorme nivel de contaminación de la zona, tiene sin embargo dos elementos arquitectónicos que muestran la necesidad de sus habitantes de distanciarse de la polución de la calle. para crear espacios para actividades colectivas y sociales y potenciar las terrazas para mejorar ligeramente la calidad de vida de los habitantes. Un modo de enriquecer la vida comunitaria y social.

144

145

FAU

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2

SANTIAGO, CHILE

TORRES DE MADERA EN LAS CUBIERTAS

SOLUTION 3X3

SOMBRA CON MATERIALES RECICLADOS

SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 3

Este proyecto se concentra en el extremo clima de esta zona del mundo. Un lugar donde la temperatura promedio es entre 15 grados de mínima y 28 grados arena, llamadas jamsin.

Las cubiertas textiles se instalan en varias capas y a diversas alturas, para mejorar su efectividad y el movimiento del aire.

146

147

FAU

RAMADO CON AUTOINTERVENCIÓN.

OKIO/ EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAM

APA

PROBLEM

LOS EDIFICIOS RESISTEN, PERO LAS PERSONAS SIGUEN SIENDO DAÑADAS POR TERREMOTOS

JAPAN, TOKyO - EARTHqUAKE

Sin embargo, se siguen produciendo pérdidas de vida por efectos de terremotos; el miedo y angustia que sienten las personas, a pesar de estar muy preparadas la onda sísmica. Ataques al corazón, golpearse contra los muros, caídas de objetos o la imposibilidad de bajar las escalas, cuando los ascensores no funcionan, son algunas de las causas que dañan a las personas. ¿Puede hacer algo la arquitectura para mejorar esta situación?

150

151

SOLUTION 1X3

EDIFICIOS CON AIRBAG

llegar al suelo, para no aumentar la aglomeración de la calle, cuando se produce una emergencia.

152

153

KADK

COPENHAGEN

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

SOLUTION 2X3 SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2

saturación del nivel de calle, la gran aglomeración de personas y su incremento cuando sucede una emergencia hacen aconsejable crear nuevos espacios urbanos de descanso y de naturaleza, en niveles superiores. Su objetivo es duplicar los parques y dar posibilidades de escape a las personas que viven o trabajan en los rascacielos.

154

155

FAU

BURBUJAS FLOTANTES DE ESPACIOS PÚBLICOS

SOLUTION 3X3 SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 3

futuros rascacielos.

156

157

FAU

NUEVAS CONExIONES ENTRE RASCACIELOS

FUKUSHIMA PROBLEM

JAPÓN UNO DE LOS PAÍSES MÁS DESARROLLADOS DEL MUNDO NO ESTABA PREPARADO PARA UN TSUNAMI

JAPAN, FUKUSHIMA - TSUNAMI El 11 de marzo del 2011, un terremoto de magnitud 9,0 richter golpeó la prefectura de Miyagi en Japón. El epicentro se ubicó en el mar, a 130 Km. de la costa de Honshu. Este terremoto creó un Tsunami con olas de hasta 40 metros en el mar. En la costa llegaron a los 10 a 12 metros y entraron hasta 7 Km. por tierra, debido a las extensas zonas planas de Fukushima. El terremoto-Tsunami demostró la vulnerabilidad del país mejor preparado del mundo para resistir un terremoto. Japón no tenía un plan para las zonas bajas y

Fusiones parciales de 3 de los 6 reactores de las centrales atómicas,

18000 muertos 1.000.000 presentan daños

158

12.000 personas continúan viviendo con familiares 320.000 viven en viviendas provisionales de 50m2 159

NUEVA ESTRATEGIA PARA EDIFICIOS EN ALTURA

SOLUTION 2X2

SOLUTION 1X2

REFUGIOS POLIÉDRICOS DE CEMENTO ARMADO

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

160

también del Tsunami

161

UNISS

internamos en tierra. Este espacio es para recibir a los habitantes que huyen del Tsunami y poder recibir cientos o miles de personas. En la cotidianeidad se

ALGHERO

yoga, ejercicios físicos o espirituales y ubicarlos dentro de parques o lugares donde ellos puedan fundirse con la naturaleza.

1 Una base totalmente hermética y sin ventanas que sea capaz de resistir el impacto de la ola. Se podría usar de estacionamientos, centros comerciales, cines,

UNISS

Los refugios deben estar totalmente vacíos, sin muebles, ni otros elementos que impidan recibir el mayor número de personas posibles. Una pregunta que se

ALGHERO

Este proyecto de la Universidad de Sassari, Italia, propone construir estructuras de hormigón con múltiples aristas, como un pedrusco en un terreno plano. Esta

URKE

STANBUL/ EARTHQUAK

PROBLEM

TURqUÍA PIERDE MILES DE VIVIENDAS y VIDAS EN CADA TERREMOTO. ESTO FRENA SU ALTO CRECIMIENTO ECONÓMICO qUE NECESITA 350.000 VIVIENDAS POR AÑO

TURKEy, ISTANBUL EARTHqUAKE

los 100 millones de habitantes en el futuro cercano. Para mantener este crecimiento el país necesita construir viviendas para 350.000 personas por año.

constructivamente y, a su vez crear planes para asistir a la población que no cuenta con viviendas adecuadas para resistir terremotos y que irremediablemente

164

165

SOLUTION 1X2

REFUGIOS DE CARTÓN EN LOS BAZARES

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

KOCAELI

El proyecto considera la creación de un sistema de viviendas provisorias de cartón, almacenadas dentro de los bazares. En caso de emergencia, se pueden desplegar dentro del bazar, por ser un lugar abierto y central a toda la comunidad. En los lugares que no existe bazar la propuesta es construirlos, pues es un Las viviendas de cartón son un sistema desplegable, similar al armado y desarmado de una caja de cartón. Corresponde también a la repetición incesante de un elemento decorativo del que tanta experiencia tiene la arquitectura y cultura turca.

166

167

KOU-MTF

Este proyecto estudia los bazares. El bazar, como centro de comercio es el lugar, junto con la mezquita, de encuentro y reunión por excelencia de cada comunidad

SOLUTION 2X2

ESTRUCTURAS PARA PROTEGER LOS EDIFICIOS ExISTENTES

Esta es una solución que debe ser construida por los gobiernos, pero que ha cambio pueden recibir terrenos para crear espacios comunitarios.

168

169

KOU-MTF

KOCAELI

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2

AO PAULO / FAVELA

RAZI

PROBLEM

FAVELA: UNA CIUDAD DENTRO DE LA CIUDAD, ExPRESIÓN DE INEqUIDAD EN LATINOAMÉRICA

BRAZIL, SAO PAULO - FAVELAS

megaciudad que, si bien a frenado su crecimiento en los últimos años, el aumento de la población se sigue concentrando en las favelas que continúan con un crecimiento mucho mayor que el de la ciudad formal. Las favelas se ubican en las laderas altas de la ciudad, con un intrincado sistema de callejuelas, esto hace infraestructura pública (alcantarillado, agua potable) por la propiedad del suelo, la topografía y las condiciones urbanas.

172

173

SOLUTION

NUEVO SUELO URBANO SOBRE LOS TEJADOS

A diferencia de los slums en Bombay las condiciones materiales de estas viviendas son de mayor calidad constructiva. De hecho tienen varios niveles, 2 a 3 y llegan incluso a 4 niveles, principalmente construidos en ladrillo y cemento. 1 Reutilizar las terrazas existentes en los tejados, 2 Crear nuevas terrazas elevadas, reforzando algunas estructuras existentes o proponiendo nuevos pilares.

174

175

KADK

COPENHAGEN

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

EXIC

MEXICO CITY/ SOCIAL CRISI

178

SOLUTION

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

El proyecto propone formalizar estos mercados ambulantes entregando mínimas condiciones de higiene y protección. Como son ilegales, la propuesta considera usar un pretexto; sombra en las calles, paradas de buses, servicios higiénicos públicos, cubiertas con placas para captar energía solar, etc.

179

UAA

Existen cientos de miles de indígenas en México que viven en condiciones de pobreza. Muchos de ellos viajan por el día al centro de las grandes ciudades a vender sus productos agrícolas. Es el caso de Ciudad de México, donde se crean diariamente miles de puestos informales de venta en la calle. Esta situación es ilegal, pero en cierto modo tolerada por la administración, pues es de tal envergadura que se hace casi imposible su control y represión.

MERCADOS PARA INDÍGENAS

AGUASCALIENTES

MExICO, MExICO CITy - SOCIAL CRISIS

PROBLEM

MILES DE PERSONAS VIVEN EN UNA ECONOMÍA INFORMAL y PARALELA A LA OFICIAL

HIL

ANTIAGO/ SOCIAL DEMAND

PROBLEM

EN CHILE, EL 10% MAS RICO GANA 30 VECES MÁS qUE EL 10% MÁS POBRE

CHILE, SANTIAGO - SOCIAL DEMANDS

Esto ha implicado, entre otros, un enorme deterioro de la educación pública, lo que ha hecho explotar las demandas sociales por un mejor sistema educativo, único modo de lograr mayor equidad, igualdad y democracia para las futuras generaciones. ¿Puede la arquitectura ayudar en el proceso de mayor equidad social? ¿Puede la arquitectura contribuir a la paz social en una manifestación pública? ¿Tiene la arquitectura derecho a intervenir?

182

183

El proyecto desarrolla, un sistema para calcular el número de personas presentes en una manifestación, a través, del ordenamiento de globos equidistantes que 1 las diferencias en el conteo de personas asistentes a una manifestación. El gobierno dice 50.000, los manifestantes dicen 100.000. Importante elemento de discusión política a la hora de tomar decisiones.

Segundo, el proyecto propone un sistema para mostrar en vivo la cantidad de personas participantes desde el aire, a través, de subir los teléfonos móviles de

juego de poderes.

Ambos temas son eminentemente arquitectónicos. El espacio que ocupan las personas y el tiempo real en que se aglomeran.

184

185

FAU

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

SANTIAGO, CHILE

SOLUTION

TIEMPO y ESPACIO EN LAS MANIFESTACIONES

ADRID / SOCIAL DEMAND

PAI

PROBLEM

ESPAÑA: 25% DESEMPLEO = 6.000.000 DE PERSONAS SIN TRABAJO

SPAIN, MADRID - SOCIAL DEMANDS

grave situación social surge el movimiento “Los indignados”. Este movimiento exige mayores niveles de participación ciudadana en las decisiones políticas y un cambio de las reglas de convivencia social. El centro de actuación es Puerta del Sol, el símbolo urbano de España. Los manifestantes, como un acto de presión social y desafío abierto al poder central, vivieron meses en esta plaza en forma muy precaria, en lugares informales

188

Crearon una ciudad temporal para miles de personas. ¿Puede la arquitectura proponer mejores soluciones para esta ciudad informal y temporal? ¿Puede la arquitectura dar mejor calidad de vida a estas personas que viven precariamente en tiendas, muchos meses y por decisión propia? ¿Tiene derecho la arquitectura a intervenir en una situación política de este tipo? Estas preguntas y otras similares que atañen temas éticos fueron las que rodearon este proyecto. 189

SOLUTION 1X3

EL MANUAL DEL MANIFESTANTE

es voluntario la opción de considerarlo o no. El proyecto consiste en el llamado “The protester’s handbook” un manual de cómo usar diversos materiales y como organizar un campamento velozmente. Se inspiran en los festivales de música y las grandes concentraciones de personas que crean verdaderas ciudades informales que duran solo días.

190

191

KADK

COPENHAGEN

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

SOLUTION 2X3 SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2 Este proyecto desarrollado en la Universidad de Chile, crea una cubierta textil para la plaza. Una cubierta con una doble tela que puede recibir cientos de personas para vivir dentro de ella. La tela se puede estirar hacia el suelo, para permitir el ascenso y descenso de sus ocupantes. La tela se transforma en si misma en un reclamo social, pues puede ser el soporte para carteles, slogan o alguna performance. Da mayor visibilidad a cualquier reclamo social. y encuentro. En tiempos sin manifestaciones sociales esta cubierta da sombra y protege de la lluvia, puede ser usada también en numerosas expresiones comunitarias, no necesariamente ligada a las protestas sociales.

192

193

FAU

CUBIERTAS TExTILES

SOLUTION 3X3 SANTIAGO, CHILE

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 3

Es usual ver como una persona sube a los hombros de otra para poder ver y comentar. La manifestación en general es horizontal sobre la calle. Esta propuesta es una manifestación vertical. Utiliza para ello, un sistema de andamios para permitir que las personas suban, vean la manifestación y usen las estructuras para colgar sus proclamas y demandas. de espectadores para otras actividades sociales, artísticas o de diversión.

194

195

FAU

MANIFESTACIONES VERTICALES

OME / LOW COST HOUSIN

TAL

PROBLEM

FALTA DE VIVIENDAS ECONÓMICAS PARA FAMILIAS JÓVENES O PERSONAS SOLAS

ITALy, ROME - LOW COST HOUSING La crisis económica de los últimos años ha tenido diversas repercusiones. Una de ellas es la falta de viviendas económicas para las nuevas familias, jóvenes que desean independizarse o personas menos favorecidas. Esta es una constante en todos los países europeos. El alto precio de la vivienda, uno de los mayores Numerosas protestas se han levantado con estas demandas, tener acceso a viviendas de bajo costo y a lugares dignos para vivir. En Italia nos propusimos construir propuestas de vivienda por 20.000€, para ello es fundamental que el terreno sea público, a costo cero o a un valor muy bajo, para destinar todo el dinero a costo de construcción.

198

199

SOLUTION 1X3

REUSO DE EDIFICIOS ABANDONADOS = APARTAMENTO A 20.000€

espacio único y de libre uso de 20 a 30m2 por cada casa. usado de patio o jardín. Un sistema de casa y ampliación en altura.

200

201

UNISS

ALGHERO

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 1

SOLUTION 2X3

CONTENEDORES EN LA VILLA OLÍMPICA = APARTAMENTO A 20.000€

ALGHERO

Este proyecto se instala en la zona de la Villa Olímpica de Roma, frente al Viale Tiziano, donde el suelo es del Estado. El proyecto se construye con contenedores por su bajo costo y por resolver los principales problemas estructurales de la obra.

En este proyecto tienen mucha importancia los espacios intermedios, los cuales se forman solo por la disposición de los diversos contendores. Estos espacios suplen la necesidad de espacios para actividades sociales o complementarias a la pequeña vivienda.

202

203

UNISS

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 2

SOLUTION 3X3

VIVIENDAS DE PAJA EN EL VELÓDROMO = APARTAMENTO A 20.000€

Este proyecto usa la tecnología agrícola de paja y madera para construir unos gruesos muros, de 60 a 80cm de ancho, que aíslan la vivienda del clima y del encuentra en proceso de demolición. Las casas pueden usar este terreno vacío y perdido por décadas y crear una solución para muchas familias que no pueden abordar una vivienda tradicional.

204

205

UNISS

ALGHERO

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN 3

UB

A HAVANA / HURRICAN

PROBLEM

COMO VIVIR CON HURACANES y TORMENTAS TROPICALES

CUBA, LA HABANA - HURRICANE Categoría 1 entre 118 y 150 km/h. Categoría 2 entre 151 y 178 km/h. Categoría 3 entre 179 y 209 km/h. Categoría 4 entre 210 y 249 km/h. Los huracanes son una baja presión en regiones tropicales, formadas por las diferencias de temperatura de masas de aire frío que se encuentran con otras que Cuba cuenta con una de las mejores organizaciones civiles para afrontar esta tragedia, se perdieron cientos de viviendas, las cuales necesitan tener mejor condiciones de diseño para afrontar esta emergencia. 208

209

SOLUTION

CASAS DE MADERA qUE SE CIERRAN y SE ABREN DE ACUERDO A LA TORMENTA

tropical de la isla.

210

211

UNISS

ALGHERO

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

FIVE CASES 7X5

BOMBAY ELCAIRO VALDIVIA MADRID FUKUSHIMA 212

VALDIVIA

1 Bombai slums, India 2 Garbage city, Cairo Egypt 3 Camp Girasoles, Valdivia, Chile 4 Demonstration “Los Indignados” Madrid, Spain 5 Earthquake & Tsunami, Japan Estos casos se analizaron desde un solo punto de vista arquitectónico; densidad, espacios libres, reciclaje de basura, etc. El último día de workshop los diversos

213

UACH

VALDIVIA WORKSHOP

SOLUTION 1X7

AMPLIACIÓN DE VIVIENDAS INFORMALES

PROBLEMA

VALDIVIA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN.

maqueta desde una fotografía del slum. En esta foto existe gran diversidad de escaleras para trepar a niveles superiores o a otras viviendas, que se alquilan o La gran densidad de los slums y su explosivo crecimiento y expansión. sube por escaleras similares a las detectadas en la fotografía. Esta construcción puede re-orientar las futuras ampliaciones y ser usada como los ciudadanos estimen conveniente. La ventaja de esta estructura es que propone una base de mayor cualidad para desarrollar el crecimiento del slum.

214

215

UACH

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

BOMBAY

SOLUTION 2X7

ESPACIOS COLECTIVOS VALDIVIA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

PROBLEMA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN.

Las viviendas permanentes; El Cairo, Valdivia y Bombay. Las viviendas temporales, construcciones provisorias de corta data; Madrid y Tokio. Estas últimas, las viviendas temporales, tienen mayor densidad y una mayor tendencia a crear actividades comunes; comer, reunión, seguridad, asistencia gubernamental (Fukushima) o política (Madrid). Dentro de los casos de agrupación permanente, los espacios comunes como se entienden en la ciudad formal, desaparecen y se crean muy diversas y originales situaciones urbanas. El caso de Bombay fue el elegido por su mayor densidad y por la gran mezcla de actividades comunes y privadas. Algo inusual para los ojos occidentales.

216

Los slums en Bombay tienen pequeños espacios públicos de gran densidad de actividades y personas. Uno de los pocos lugares abiertos y no construidos en el slum, es el ducto de alcantarillado que atraviesa el asentamiento, desde las zonas acomodadas hasta el mar, obviamente sin conectarse a ninguna de sus precarias viviendas. Esa zona es difícil para construir una vivienda, por lo que da la oportunidad de proponer un mínimo equipamiento social. Lugares para lavar

217

UACH

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

BOMBAY

SOLUTION 3X7

DENSIDAD BOMBAY

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

PROBLEMA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN.

millones de habitantes en los próximos años y se espera que 2/3 de ellos, arriben a los slums. Por otra parte y dentro de precarias condiciones, estas aglomeraciones producen un sistema económico, que aunque mínimo, sirve a muchos para subsistir.

218

entregar una vivienda o una solución. Cuando esto ocurre, otras familias llegan a ocupar este terreno. Sin embargo Chile debería tener resuelto el problema de los sin casa en los próximos años. Y no se debería repetir esta situación. La pregunta entonces es ¿Que hacer con ese lugar inundable y de rica condición paisajística en el año 2030, cuando esté vacío de ocupantes ilegales? nuevas generaciones puedan ver y entender las condiciones de vida que tuvieron sus antepasados del año 2000, 2010 o 2020. Por otra parte, este proyecto 219

UACH

vida urbana. De hecho, para millones de familias en el mundo, es un estadio intermedio entre la vida rural y la vida urbana.

VALDIVIA

formales del gobierno. Este es un lugar inundable y no recomendado para vivir. Las familias usan este terreno para presionar al gobierno a entregarles una

SOLUTION 4X7

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

PROBLEMA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

crearlos es la Ciudad de la Basura en El Cairo, pues las calles son el lugar de trabajo, transporte y almacenamiento de la basura que los 60.000 habitantes del barrio reciclan de los 17 millones de habitantes de El Cairo. Esta actividad ocupa todo el nivel suelo, lo que impide el uso de este lugar para encuentro puramente social.

el proyecto no toca la calle y refuerza la idea, que los Coptos ya desarrollan, de espacios públicos en los tejados. Creando techos para cultivar vegetales, para

220

221

UACH

BOMBAY

VALDIVIA

ESPACIOS DE ENCUENTRO

SOLUTION 5X7

RECICLAJE BOMBAY

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

PROBLEMA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

El barrio Copto del Cairo trabaja reciclando la basura de la ciudad. Curiosamente Bombay, produce menos basura, casi la mitad de kg/basura/persona que los otros casos, sin embargo es el lugar que no tiene una solución colectiva para los desechos. No se han dado una organización comunitaria par resolver este problema. 222

ecológica. Cubiertas elevadas como una posibilidad de ampliar las casas existentes o, crear nuevas viviendas y espacios colectivos. Estas terrazas deberían ser ííntegramente construidas con los materiales de desecho que los propios habitantes producen 223

UACH

Madrid y la zona de refugiados de Fukushima, han tenido una fuerte organización social en ese sentido, una demostración política de nuevos modelos de vida.

VALDIVIA

La basura es un problema mundial. En los casos analizados, ha sido interesante comprobar que 4 de los 5 casos tienen algún tipo de solución de tratamiento

SOLUTION 6X7

SISTEMAS CONSTRUCTIVOS VALDIVIA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

PROBLEMA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

Valdivia se protege de la lluvia con casas de lata. nuevas generaciones. Bombay utiliza todo tipo de materiales para lograr mínimas viviendas que de alguna manera se protejan del clima y de las fuertes lluvias estacionales.

intimidad a la familia y una sensación de recogimiento al tener un cielo cercano. A diferencia del proyecto original cuyo cielo es el mismo del gimnasio, colegio

Fukushima usó una interesante tecnología, un proyecto de papel y textil.

224

225

UACH

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

BOMBAY

PROBLEMA

MADRID

FUKUSHIMA

SOLUTION 7X7

VALDIVIA

ESTRATEGIA DE SOLUCIÓN

Este grupo desarrolló propuestas para todos los casos, pero destacan las propuestas para la manifestación de “Los Indignados” donde con grandes globos La información, en estos casos, es sinónimo de seguridad. velocidad de comunicación e información, en el caso de Madrid, es una fuerte protección en casos de grandes concentraciones de gente. Todos estos sistemas ayudan a protegerse del exterior.

226

olas del tsunami y de su enorme y devastadora fuerza. 227

UACH

EL CAIRO

VALDIVIA

PROTECCIÓN BOMBAY

ALGHERO UNISS

COPENHAGEN KADK

SANTIAGO, CHILE FAU

KOCAELI KOU-MTF

UAA

AGUASCALIENTES

UACH

VALDIVIA

PREPAREDNESS, VULNERABILITy AND RESILIENCE The Tsunami in 2004 was a disaster on an unprecedented scale and acted as a wake-up call for the international community. The impact of the disaster was enormous and in the aftermath national and international agencies international programs were thereafter set in motion in order to be better prepared in an eventual future likeminded disaster situation. In 2010 Haiti was hit by an earthquake devastating the entire Port-au-Prince killing thousands. The evaluations of the assistance and interventions in this case are not impressed with the efforts and the results on the ground. In both cases funds were not a problem as the international community mobilized quite substantial amounts. There is obviously however still a lot to be learnt. In 2011Japan was hit by a Tsunami with serious consequences as a nuclear plant was severely damaged and added complications of an unprecedented character to the distressed infrastructure. Recent evaluations of this catastrophe have shown nation unlike the Tsunami in Asia and the Earthquake in Haiti. When disasters happen, the speed and effectiveness of response depends heavily on local organizations that can respond to the needs of those most vulnerable and affected. The impact of most disasters is concentrated in particular locations where lives and livelihoods are lost, house and infrastructure destroyed and health and education compromised. Hence pre-disaster planning, awareness and readiness within local government and civil society organizations is critical. Many case studies indicate the importance of community action for disaster risk reduction, for post disaster rebuilding and for climate change adaption. Disaster affected communities can rebuild their homes more cheaply and effectively than external agencies as these latter often lack the local knowledge in the construction sector and most external architects and engineer are much embedded in their home culture leading to alien concepts not adaptable to local needs and external solutions have proved to be far too expensive for the ones in need. Delivering people-centered housing reconstruction at scale is a challenge and recent history has documented how were extraordinary big affecting millions of which most were vulnerable and low-income or poor people. And in both cases the need for immediate planning in terms of securing land for the enormous resettlement programs were failing and hence not able to meet the demand. Finally the issue of assuring a proper local settlement planning is too often not taken seriously enough due to time pressure and the absence of planners capable of

Jørgen Eskemose Andersen, Denmark & Mozambique Senior lecturer, cand. arch. MAA Department of Human Settlements The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Schools of Architecture. KADK

230

GLOBAL SOUTH

URBANIZATION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

231

This 1755 copper engraving shows the overwhelming the ships in the harbor. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon Earthquake, occurred in the Kingdom of Portugal on Saturday, 1 November 1755, the holiday of All Saints' Day, at around

THE IMMEDIATE, THE INTERMEDIATE AND THE LONG TERM Many “camps” set up to cater for immediate response to a given catastrophe tends to become permanent city neighborhoods with often hundreds of thousands residents living in single and multistory structures in very dense urban fabrics. This transformation from a camp to a city involves many aspects which often contradict and the result is too often an urban environment which is too dense with limited space for infrastructure services, social infrastructure and open spaces for recreation. As the initial “camp” was designed and set in response to urgent needs it can hardly facilitate the emergence of an urban morphology that generates well-functioning in this process. Too often however architects and planners were not even involved when setting up emergency shelters after a given disaster resulting in haphazard settlements patterns. And hence many of these temporary camps developing into permanent urban neighborhoods will bear the characteristics of slum that will require expensive and complicated upgrading excises. INFORMAL URBANIZATION AND THE NOTION OF SLUM Most of the urban population in the Global South is housed in informal settlements (by the UN labeled “slum”) and in some cities up to 90% of the new housing stock is provided informally. Albeit many attempts to The driving force in urbanization is the informal sector under various forms. This applies to access to land, access engineers or architects is only applied in relation to infrastructure provision and in exceptional individual cases. Poor and low-income people are relying on informal builders or their own skills in building. LOCAL RESOURCES AND DIGNIFIED LIVING ENVIRONMENTS This capacity and resource should to a much greater extent be taking into account when intervening and assisting when an emergency is occurring with need for shelter and reconstruction. Communities deliberately have the capacity to build their own houses and hence governments and international and national NGO’s should engage at an early stage after a given disaster with the communities and focus on delivering what communities does not and open spaces, health and educational institutions. Provided these conditions are in place most poor and in fact this is what they do what they have been doing all the time. Standards must necessarily accept these building processes that furthermore create living environments where people feel comfortable the shelter is then more a house which in turn over time becomes a home. The home clearly provides a socially and personally acceptable setting within which to establish an individual coherent space where home is then not only the material shelter but also a shelter for those things that make life meaningful. The material collection that establishes a home is shaping the self and hence one of the most feeling of home. Unfortunately this happens only relatively seldom as people affected by a disaster often are hold up under intermediate conditions for too long.

232

233

Morvel. Estimate global earthquake map and plate motions

PUTTING PEOPLE AT THE CENTRE OF RECONSTRUCTION Formal urban housing is designed and built according to standards and regulations, which may contain elements of disaster resistant construction. However some formal housing continues to be built on vulnerable sites, at

to landslides. COMMUNITy BASED ORGANIZATIONS: CAPACITIES AND LIMITATIONS Community Based Organizations (CBO’s) may be able to small works e.g. dig trenches for better runoff, building handling systems. CBO cannot design and build city wide bulk infrastructure important for resilience to storms followed by heavy or on step slops these can do little if local government is unwilling or do not have the capacity to ensure the needed provision of infrastructure to reduce risk and control a better land use. these have a large proportion of the housing stock and concentrate much of the disaster risk. This may be due to a number of factors not least the issue linked to the lacking legality of these settlements and the often quite negative view on the residents in these large urban agglomerations as city authorities often fails to embrace these areas in the planning and budgeting as they are seen as a problem with only one solution namely eviction and subsequently building of modern city neighborhoods with up to standard infrastructure. There is regularly a lack of trustworthy data on the living conditions and the status of how residents are served with services in the informal settlements. CBO’s ought to play a central in bring about these missing data as they serious this local knowledge into account. The result may be detrimental for the planning and implementation of eventual interventions as these may be based on biased sets of premises and conditions. DISASTERS AND INTERNATIONAL ExPERTISE AND FUNDING The needs and priorities of disaster survivors often get trampled when the international community is mobilized and numerous agencies rush to disaster sites. International agencies have their own agenda, priorities and funds should be invested. The bigger the funds the more powerful are these agencies and international NGO’s. These circumstances often means that local actors and stakeholders are neglected or considered too poor organized and with too little capacity to engage on a large scale in the needed response to a disaster. This has proven to be the case after the Tsunami in 2004 when exceptional large funds were provided international. The same was repeated in the case of the Haiti earthquake in 2010 when international intervention was rather impact on ordinary and poor citizens have been very limited and in cases hardly noticeable. This despite the enormous focus that was spelled on Haiti not least when a celebrity as former US president Bill Clinton entered

234

235

and on paper was supposed to coordinate the interventions. However lack of coordination and a clear strategy still meant that enormous resources were ill spend or simply soaked in the mainstream when the many experts,

In terms of disaster relief and post disaster reconstruction it is of outmost importance to acknowledge the role of ordinary people and work with these on their premises. Hamdi argues that people should participate in shaping stakeholders; guarantee continuity through such partnerships; better collect and share information on local

catastrophe became uncontrollable not least as they were so huge. Post disaster response i.e. reconstruction should ideally act as an agent for change and development in favor uncertain circumstances before. This change which has been labeled as Building Back Better has unfortunately are still living under intermediate condition on inappropriate sites with rudimentary infrastructural service. Long term solutions with substantial improvement of living condition s for ordinary low-income people is not the order of the day and many victims and survivors are still facing a reality which is worse than before the disaster and with few if any prospects for a better life in the foreseeable future. PARTICIPATION AND ENGAGEMENT what it does for poor people rather than what it is…as early as in the 60ies. Putting people at the Centre of Development has since been regarded as the must mantra for architects and planners in urban expansion and/or upgrading of informal settlements projects. Community participation started to get ample attention in the 1960ies riding on a wave of academics and activists arguing for more power to local people, local knowledge and involvement and engagement in development projects. Participation has now been embedded in a number of tools and methods that underpin development and all housing projects is now for many years, on paper at least, adhering to community participation in one way or the other. However practice has proven to be paved with numerous obstacles to whose participation in whose decisions and whose actions. Turner distinguishes two categories’ of stakeholders. The sponsors, usually governments and/or aid

Sponsors decide and Sponsors provide. This covers the typical supply driven housing processes adopted by governments often labeled social housing. This is not a feasible path to follow for developing nations as this would only reach a tiny fraction of the many in need. Sponsors decide and users provide. Many Site & Service schemes and Self-Help Housing Programs are of this type. This approach has produced many housings units throughout the past 40 years. Sponsors develop the land and the users do the construction under a myriad of variations under the label Self-Help. Users decide and users provide. This is how the vast majority of all housing is delivered in the informal housing sector in informal and unplanned settlements. These settlements have since 2003 increasingly been labeled

236

growth and the ability to integrate housing services and livelihoods and, over time, overcome social and economic marginalization. Ultimately this approach helps to empower people and generate more appropriate and sustainable solutions whether social or technical. Focus on the local. Use local materials; draw on local skills and decentralize to the extent possible all decisions to the local level to the target group. Work with communities. Avoid out-sourcing to local companies that seldom consults local communities and rarely involve communities in the construction processes. Building Back Better. This concept is important and must be carefully thought through and well designed in order to be able to deliver at scale a better return offer to survivors. The mere return to a life in the slum is not Avoid post disaster evictions. This is a serious issue that often is at stake as communities in many cases are not allowed to return to their settlements to rebuild. Governments often want to reallocate these sites to more government to get it. Poor communities are vulnerable and unless they are well organized and engage with NGO’s and others lobbying in their interest they may lose the game and the result is relocation in remote sites lacking amenities and the livelihood options. LEARNING FROM STUDENTS This publication is an assemblage of studio work by MSc students from a number of countries in the North and in the Global South. The publication will hopefully contribute to the debate on post-disaster reconstruction. income people? The potential to reduce people’s vulnerability to disasters when working with the communities affected is enormous but still too often not really taken into serious consideration when governments and the international community are engaged in reconstruction programs. The aims of this booklet is to inform design practice as it is based on research and the design of concrete solutions to different types of disasters in different contexts. Mature MSc students have the capacity to be creative, innovative and importantly, not blocked by conventional thinking and hence at times surprising real world, however approaches that challenges orthodox thinking and behavior within the aid sector are always welcome. May the book act as an eye-opener to the practitioner, the architect, the engineer and the many engaged with disaster relief our mission has been achieved. 237

“The Ruins of Lisbon” Lisbon 1755 German copperplate

Survivors lived in tents on the outskirts of the city after the earthquake, as shown in this fanciful 1755 German engraving. At least 34 looters were hanged in the chaotic aftermath of the disaster. As a warning against looting, King Joseph I of Portugal ordered gallows to be constructed in several parts of the city. Although not the strongest or most deadly earthquake in human history, the 1755 Lisbon earthquake’s impact, not only on Portugal but on all of Europe, was profound and lasting. Depictions of the earthquake in art and literature can be found in several European countries, and these were produced and reproduced for centuries following the event, which came to be known as “The Great Lisbon Earthquake.”

239

PAGES 8-9 PAGES 108-109 PAGES 114-115 PAGE 123

Swiss Dots Ltd. Emergencies diagramms, Jorge Lobos UNISS Shelters diagramms Olga Popovic, KADK Sao Paulo picture All rights of Aperture Photo

PAGES 124-125

information MAP population

PAGES 126-129

world maps Jorge Lobos UNISS

PAGES 176-177

KADK

MEXICO CITY PAGES 178-179 PAGES 180-181

Colectivo zamorano de fotografía UAC

PAGE 130 PAGES 132-133 PAGES 134-135 PAGES 136-137

SANTIAGO, CHILE PAGES 182-183

MUMBAI

PAGES 184-185

Tutti i diritti riservati a Marcusfornell edwindwianto.wordpress.com com/2010/01/05/10-places-you-don%E2%80%99t-want-to-live/

PAGES 186-187

KADK FAU

CAIRO PAGES 138-139 PAGES 140-141 PAGES 142-143 PAGES 144-147

all rights Egor Gavrilenko KADK FAU

TOKYO PAGES 148-149 economia-mondiala-peste-380-de- miliarde-de-dolari-969958.html

PAGES 152-153

en-chile.html FAU estreno-del-primer-documental-sobre-la-lucha-estudiantil/ FAU

MADRID PAGES 188-189 PAGES 190-191 PAGES 192-193 PAGES 194-197

KADK FAU

ROME PAGES 198-199 PAGES 200-201 PAGES 202-207

all rights Deborah Swain UNISS

PAGES 208-209

inter press service

HAVANA PAGES 210-211

PAGES 154-155 PAGES 156-159 PAGES 160-161 PAGES 162-163

KADK, Tomas Saracedo novo.over-blog.es FAU

hits-cuba

PAGES 212-213 PAGES 214-215 UNISS

ISTANBUL

all rights Jorge Lobos

PAGES 164-165 PAGES 166-167 PAGES 168-169 PAGES 170-171

protests/ all rights Cansu Uzun MTF MTF

SAO PAULO PAGES 172-173 PAGES 174-175

240

UNISS all rights Marcusfornell

all rights Roberto Rocco Terrace

PAGES 216-229 PAGES 230-231 PAGE 234 PAGE 236 PAGES 240-241

UACH UACH, UNISS, FAU, UAC, KADK, MTF Jan Kozak collection Morvel, Jan Kozak collection

PICTURE CREDITS

COPyRIGHTS

241

DET KONGELIGE DANSKE KUNSTAKADEMIS SKOLER FOR ARKITEKTUR ROyAL DANISH ACADEMy OF FINE ARTS SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE ORGANIZATION, TEACHING AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE 3 Jonna Majgaard Krarup Peder Duelund Mortensen Jørgen Eskemose Andersen Jorge Lobos (Visiting teacher) DEPARTMENT 7 Jan Søndergaard Maria Gomez-Guillamón ADMINISTRATION Trine Baek Birgitte Weien LECTURERS Olga Popovic Larsen, Professor PhD MSc Arch. KADK Mette Bak-Andersen, Designer founder CPH Forever Bijoy Jay, arch. founder of Studio Mumbai, India STUDENTS 4th and 5th year Rune Sjöstedt Sode Anna Petrusjka Mangaard Skjerning Azra Mehmedbasic Jacob Billesbølle Kristian Ly Serena Claudio Albanese Marek (erasmus ) Esben Heick Christian Jøhnk Hess Erik Lundström Mathias Franck (erasmus Switzerland) Ariel Curtelin Sean Michael Kelly (erasmus USA)

242

Alberto Biondi (erasmus ) Peter James Houghton Pola Maxine Zoe Buske Dimitrie Grigorescu (erasmus Rumania) yu Chuan Liu (erasmus ) Jonathan Ware (erasmus Australia) Paolo Michele Salvetti (erasmus brazil) Charles Wong (erasmus ) Karin Villarroel (erasmus Chile) Johanne Vestergaard Architect KADK

WORKSHOP AGUAS CALIENTES. UAC. Mx October 2010 AUTÓNOMA DE AGUASCALIENTES CENTRO DE CIENCIAS DEL DISEÑO y DE LA CONSTRUCCIÓN UNIVERSITy AUTONOMA DE AGUASCALIENTES DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CENTER WORKSHOP TEACHERS M.D.I. Blanca Ruiz Esparza. Head Dp. design of habitat M. in arch. Juan Jesús Aranda V. Jorge Lobos, Arch. Asso. Prof. UNISS ASSISTANT Arch. Jorge Garcia Macias STUDENTS 3st year and 4th year Alejandro Gutierrez Monica Cristina Medina Martha Diaz Morales Rebeca Alvarez Rodriguez Ana Isabel Soto Rodriguez Ernesto Morales de la Rosa Maria Jose Gonzalez Vladimir Gonzalez Hernandez Jorge Erik Capetillo Rangel Raul Alejandro Martinez Medina

Martin Muñoz Acosta Rodrigo Martin del Campo de Alba Diana Carolina Silva Neyra Leonardo Javier Campos Sanchez Maria Gonzalez Villanueva Lorena Lopez Martinez Adriana Barajas Serna Daniela Aldana Aguilar Edith Orenday Tapia Mairan Aguilera Moran Fernando Anaya Cinthya Diaz Oswaldo Sanchez Juan Carlos Reyes Pavon Delia Alejandra Perez Piña

WORKSHOP KOCAELI ISTANBUL , MTF. TR October 2011 KOCAELI ÜNIVERSITESI MIMARLIK VE TASARIM FAKÜLTESI (MTF) MIMARLIK BÖLÜMÜ KOCAELI UNIVERSITy FACULTy OF ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

Nora J-jalal (3rd) Nese Nur Akkaya (3rd) Müge Ecer (3rd) Gökhan Okumus (2nd) Mücahit Argun (2nd) Gönül Budancamanak (3rd) REINFORCEMENT BEFORE EARTHqUAKE 1.- Between two buildings I (rectangular shapes) Cansu Uzun (3rd) Gözde Mercan (2nd)

2.-Between two buildings II (tree-shaped) Tugçe Köse (3rd) 3.- Extreme Sports Fatih Aygül Enes Abdullah Bozkurt LOW-COST HOUSING 1.- on Bazaar Structure Kübra Demir Gizem Büyükgüner Elif Bilge 2.- on the Isle

(2nd) (4th)

CREDITS

WORKSHOP COPENHAGEN, KADK. DK April 2012

(2nd) (2nd) (2nd)

TEACHERS Assist. Prof. Dr. Murat Ulug Arch. Jorge Lobos, Ass. Prof. UNISS Arch. Eylem Ulug Res. Assist. Ibrahim Türkeri Res. Assist. Irem Uslu

Fatih Aydemir 3.- on Viaduct Hazal Senel Fatma Sofuoglu Hasan Aslan 4.- on the Roof Ezgi Çuncü Sule Göktas

(2nd)

(2nd) (2nd)

STUDENTS SOCIAL INTEGRATION (rupture between high buildings and squatter houses)

EMERGENCy PROJECTS 1.- Triangular Folding Kübra Erkoç

(3rd)

(3rd) (2nd) (2rd)

243

Kamil Arsoy

(2nd)

Mustafa Demir Miyase Ezgi Güner Faruk Nayir 2.- Rectangular Folding Burcu Saral Zümer Erdem Merve Gençali Burçin Sen Cem Üstün

(2nd) (2nd) (4th) (2nd) (2nd) (2nd) (2nd) (2nd)

WORKSHOP ALGHERO, UNISS. IT September 2011-January 2012 UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI SASSARI DIPARTIMENTO DI ARCHITETTURA E PIANIFICAZIONE UNIVERSITy OF SASSARI DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING TEACHERS Jorge Lobos Eleonora Carrano Roberto Busonera STUDENTS 2nd year GRUPPO ITALIA Angotzi Antonello Boi Mattia Cotzia Valentina Delogu Stefano Dettori Gian Mario Fiori Marco Mattia Matiz Livio Rossi Federica Zugno Brunetti Stefano

244

Ledda Fabiana Nonna Simona GRUPPO OCEANIA Angius Maria Letizia Bianchini Martina Mozzo Sara Porru Flavia Sardu Carlo Scarpa Anna Sucato Eleonora Tocca Marzia Monti Marcello Caria Chiara Masia Gavino GRUPPO GIAPPONE Alciator Fabiano Joele Casu Maria Edvige Delaria Nevio Mazzella Silvia Melis Elena Nurra Daniele Pintus Sergio Scarpa Roberta Soro Alessia Mannoni Francesco Oggiano Giancarlo GRUPPO AMERICA LATINA Amoroso Jacopo Brundu Mauro Cosani Sabrina Dettori Sara Gana Chiara Ledda Francesca Masala Leonardo Masia Luca Meloni Luca quilichini Edmondo Ganau Francesca

GRUPPO AFRICA Azzarelli Enrica Carmela Caneo Davide Crobe Alberto Cuccuru Carla Deplano Claudia Meloni Antonio Mocci Silvia Pinna Marco Posadinu Isabella Amadori Paolo Masala Diego

WORKSHOP SANTIAGO DE CHILE. FAU. CL May 2012 DE CHILE FACULTAD DE ARqUITECTURA y URBANISMO UNIVERSITy OF CHILE FACULTy OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING TEACHERS Fernando Dowling Rodrigo Toro Igor Rosenman Jorge Lobos VISITING TEACHERS AND LECTURERS Georg Unger, Psychologist central University Chile Jesus Bermejo, Architect teacher Universitiy Fernando x, Spain Miguel Lawner, Architect, former director of CORMU, Chile Giuliano Pastorelli, Architect ArchDaily and Plataforma Arquitectura ASSISTANTS Henry Bauer Luis Iturra

ASSISTANT STUDENTS Pauline Claramunt Plinio Tarsetti STUDENTS TALLER DOWLING 3rd year Pablo Enrique Pulla Valenzuela Gonzalo Benjamin Ibañez Vargas Alvaro Lagos Silva Javier Ignacio Magnani Ainzua Natalia Miranda Piccolini Pablo Andres Navarrete Tiznado Javier Ignacio Rojas Miranda Natalia Paz Rozas Vasquez Jurgen Bernhard Schulmeister Naranjo Allan Paul Ubilla Kiger Oscar Enrique Urqueta Herrera Daniela Castro Rojas Felipe Ignacio Galarce Cornejos Camila Belen Sandoval Campos TALLER TORO 4th year Daniela Tamara Arriaza Barrera Maria Constanza Avila Martinez Felipe Adolfo Carrasco Brevis Fernando Pablo Contreras Orellana Rene Antonio Fuentes Muñoz Macarena Pamela Gonzalez Villanueva Francisco Javier Guerrero Ferrer Hernic Alexander Jara Vargas Francisco Tomas Lopez Mendoza Macarena Morelli Molina Paulina Loreto Orellana Canales Angel Rodrigo quiroz Gonzalez Sebastian Alejandro Suarez Valenzuela Diego Francisco Vilches Schulz 3rd year Karina Alejandra Abarca Bustamante Marie-Camille Henriette Anastaze

245

yazmin Angelica Araya Santos Juan Ignacio Beltran Zebil Ramiro Miguel Contreras Villarroel Natalia Soledad Cruz Campos Kim Macarena Diaz Maldonado Felipe Gerardo Tomas Echeverria Oyarzun Nicolas Andres Espinoza Petruzzi Montserrat Isabel Rios Barros (exploraciones urbanas) Marcello Risso (exploraciones urbanas) David Israel Silva quintana (consultorio fau) Daniela Castro Rojas Chloe Peltier - intercambio (exploraciones urbanas)

WORKSHOP VALDIVIA, UACH. CL September 2012 AUSTRAL DE CHILE FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS DE LA INGENIERIA UNIVERSITy AUSTRAL OF CHILE FACULTy OF SCIENCES OF ENGINEERING TEACHERS Roberto Martínez K. Taller 5th year Antonio Zumelzu Scheel Taller 4th year Adviser Teacher Antropòlogo Ph.D. Juan Carlos Olivares Toledo ASSISTANTS Andrés Horn M. Cristóbal Riffo G. Javiera Maira Moya STUNDETS 4th and 5th year GRUPO 1 MUMBAI/CONCENTRACIÓN Vilenka Zúñiga (5th) Camila Mancilla (4th) Josué Huaquin (4th)

246

Rodrigo Llancal (5th) yorky Carrasco (4th) Polet Villarroel (4th) GRUPO 2 MADRID/PROTECCIÓN Pablo Lara (5th) Alejandro Guerra (5th) Claudio Mancilla (4th) Sebastián Navarro (4th) Guillermo Müller (4th) Florencia Vidal (4th) GRUPO 3 MUMBAI/RECICLAJE Pedro Almonacid (4th) Ignacio Baessolo (5th) Fabiola Osorio (4th) Gonzalo Navarro (4th) Robinson Silva (5th) Melisa Toro (4th) GRUPO 4 MUMBAI/CRECIMIENTO Karen Rojas (5th) Alex Rodriguez (4th) Matías Murúa (4th) Marcos Mardones (4th) Francisca Vergara (5th) Manuel Piucol (5th) GRUPO 6 GIRASOLES/DENSIDAD Christopher Muster (5th) Cristian Silva (4th) Sergio Paillalef (5th) Hugo Manzano (4th) Sergio Ruíz (5th) David Navarro (4th) GRUPO 7 MADRID/LÍMITES José Miguel Carrera (4th) Gabriel Neira (4th) Carlos Fernandoy (4th) Victor Palma (5th) Romina Jaramillo (4th) Macarena Leal (4th)

GRUPO 8 EL CAIRO/ESPACIOS DE ENCUENTRO Alvaro Ulloa (4th) Romina Sanhueza (4th) yonathan yañez (4th) Germán Saldivia (5th) Francisco Cárdenas (4th) Felipe Reyes (4th) GRUPO 9 FUKUSHIMA Francisco Badilla (4th) Fernando Navarro (5th) Camilo Carrillo (4th) Rafael Cárdenas (4th) José Luis Ruiz (4th) Carolina Aguilar (4th) Valeria Farias (4th)

247