Art To art [PDF]

Art To art

Seni Rupa Pengertian Seni Rupa, Unsur, Macam & Fungsi|Secara Umum, Pengertian Seni Rupa adalah cabang seni yang membentuk karya seni dengan media yang ditangkap oleh mata dan dirasakan dengan rabaan. Seni rupa juga diartikan sebagai hasil ciptaan kualitas, hasil, ekspresi, atau alam keindahan atau segala hal yang melebihi keasliannya serta klasifikasi objek-objek terhadap kriteria tertentu yang diciptakan menjadi suatu struktur sehingga dapat dinikmati menggunakan indera mata dan peraba.

Unsur-Unsur Seni Rupa Unsur-Unsur Seni Rupa – Seni rupa dibangun dari beberapa unsur yang saling membentuk suatu kesatuan padu sehingga dapat dinikmati secara utuh. Unsur-unsur seni rupa merupakan unsur yang digunakan untukmewujudkan sebuah karya seni rupa. Unsur-unsur seni rupa yaitu sebagai berikut… 1. Titik, adalah unsur seni rupa yang paling dasar yang melahirkan suatu wujud dari ide-ide atau gagasan yang melahirkan garis, bentuk, atau bidang. Teknik lukisan yang menggunakan kombinasi dari berbagai variasi ukuran dan warna titik dikenal dengan sebutan Pointilisme. 2. Garis, adalah unsur seni rupa sebagai hasil dari penggambungan unsur titik. Berdasarkan jenisnya, garis dibedakan dari garis lurus, panjang, lengkung, pendek, vertikal, horizontal, diagonal, berombak, patah-patah, siral, putus-putus dan lain-lain. Macam-macam garis tersebut akan menimbulkan kesan-kesan tertentu seperti garis lurus berkesan tegak dan keras, garis patah-patah terkesan kaku, garis lengkung berkesan lembut dan lentur, dan garis spiral berkesan lentur. Selain itu, garis juga memberikan kesan watak sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai perlambaan misalnya.. Garis tegak melambangkan keagungan, kestabilan. Garis halus, melengkung-melengkung berirama mengesankan kelembutan kewanitaan. Garis miring, melambangkan akan kegoncangan, gerak, tidak stabil. Garis tegas, kuat, terpatah-patah mengesankan atau melangmbangkan kekuasaan. Sedangkan, berdasarkan wujud garisnya yaitu sebagai berikut.. Garis nyata, ialah garis yang dihasilkan dari coretan atau goresan lengkung. Garis semu, yaitu garis yang muncul karena terdapat kesan balance pada bidang, warna atau ruang. 3. Bidang, adalah pengembangan garis yang membatasi suatu bentuk sehingga dapat membentuk bidang yang melingkupi dari beberapa sisi. Bidang memiliki sisi panjang, dan lebar dengan memiliki ukuran. 4. Bentuk, adalah unsur seni rupa dari gabungan berbagai bidang. Bentuk dikelompokkan dalam 2 macam yaitu sebagai berikut.. a. Bentuk Geografis, ialah bentuk yang terdapat ilmu ukur seperti Bentuk kubistis, contohnya kubus dan balok Bentuk silindris, contohnya tabung, bola dan kerucut. b. Bentuk Nongeometris, adalah bentuk yang meniru bentuk alam, seperti hewan, manusia dan tumbuhan. 5. Ruang, adalah unsur seni rupa dengan dua sifat. Dalam seni rupa dua dimensi, ruang besifat semu sedangkan dalam seni rupa tiga dimensi, ruang bersifat nyata. Ruang juga digolongkan menjadi dua yaitu Ruang dalam bentuk nyata, seperti ruangan kamar, ruangan patung. Ruangan dalam bentuk khayalan (ilusi) seperti ruangan yang terkesan dari lukisan. 6. Warna, adalah unsur seni rupa yang menimbulkan kesan dari pantulan cahaya pada mata. Warna dikelompokkan dalam beberapa macam yaitu sebagai berikut.. Warna Primer, adalah warna dasar yang tidak diperoleh dari campuran warna lain. Warna primer terdiri dari warna merah, kuning dan biru. Warna Sekunder, adalah warna yang dapatkan dari campuran dua warna primer dalam takaran tertentu. Warna Tersier, adalah warna yang didapatkan dari pencampuran warna sekunder Warna Analogus, adalah deretan warna yang letaknya berdampingan dalam satu lingkaran warna atau berdekatan, seperti deretan warna hijau ke warna kuning. Warna Komplementer, adalah warna yang kontras dan letaknya bersebrangan yang dibentuk dalam satu lingkaran warna, misalnya warna merah dengan hijau, warna kuning dengan warna ungu. 7. Tekstur, adalah sifat dan keadaan suatu permukaan bidang atau permukaan benda pada sebuah karya seni rupa. Setiap benda memiliki sifat permukaan yang berbeda. Tekstur dapat dibedakan menjadi tekstur nyata dan tekstur semu. Tekstur nyata adalah nilai raba yang sama antara penglihatan dan rabaan. Sedangkan teksur semu adalah kesan yang tidak sama antara penglihatan dan perabaan. 8. Gelap Terang, adalah unsur yang bergantung dari intensitas cahaya. Semakin besar intensitassuatu cahaya maka semakin terang, sedangkan semakin kecil intensitas cahaya, maka akan semakin gelap. Dalam karya seni rupa dua dimensi, unsur gelap terang dibuat menurut gradiensi dan pemilihan warna yang ada.

Fungsi Seni Rupa 1. Fungsi Individu a. Fungsi pemenuhan kebutuhan fiisk Pada dasarnya, manusia adalah makhluk homofaber yang memiliki kecakapan untuk apresiasi pada keindahan dan pemakaian benda-benda. Seni terapan memang mengacu kepada pemuasan kebutuhan fisik sehingga dari segi kenyamanan menjadi hal yang penting. Sebagai contoh seni bangunan, seni furniture, seni pakaian/textile, seni kerajinan, dll. b. Fungsi pemenuhan kebutuhan emosional Setiap orang memiliki sifat yang berbeda-beda dengan manusia lain. Pengalaman dari setiap orang sangatlahberbedauntuk mempengaruhisisi emosional atau perasaannya. Contohnya perasaan sedih, gembira, letif-lelah, kasihan, cinta, benci, dll. Manusia mampu merasakan semua itu karena di dirinya terdapat dorongan emosional karena merupakan situasi kejiwaan pada setiap manusia normal. Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan emosional manusia memerlukan dorongan dari luar dirinya yang sifatnya menyenangkan, memuaskan kebutuhan batinnya. Contohnya mengalami keletihan sehingga membutuhkan rekreasi seperti teater, menonton biskop, konsert, pameran seni dll. 2. Fungsi Sosial a. Fungsi Sosial Seni dibidang Rekreasi Banyak aktivitas seseorang membuat mereka merasakan kejenuhan sehingga orang tersebut memerlukan penyebaran seperti berlipur ke tempat rekreasi objek wisata (rekreasi alam). dan Seni rupa juga sebagai benda rekreasi seperti seni teater, pameran lukisan, pagelaran musik, dan pameran bonsai. Arti seni benda rekreasi adalah seni yang menciptakan kondisi bersifat penyebaran dan pembaharuan kondisi yang telah ada. b. Fungsi Sosial Seni bidang Komunikasi Setiap manusia pasti berkomunikasi dengan bahasa karena merupakan sarana komunikasi paling efektif dapat dengan mudah dimengerti. Namun bahasa memiliki keterbatasan karena tidak semua bahasa dapat dimengerti seluruh orang didunia ini karena bahasa setiap negara berbeda-beda, maka dari itu dibutuhkan bahasa universal yang digunakan untuk berkomunikasi di seluruh dunia ini. Berdasarkan pernyataan tersebut, seni diyakini dapat berperan sebagai bahasa universal. seperti affandi yang berkomunikasi ke seluruh dunia dengan lukisannya, Shakespare berkomunikasi dengan puisi-puisinya. Berdasarkan dari contoh nyata tersebut, seni dapat menembus batasan-batasan verbal, maupun perbedaan lahiriah setiap orang. c. Fungsi Sosial di bidang Pendidikan Dalam arti luas, pendidikan adalah suatu kondisi yang bertransformasi yang mengakitkan kondisi tertentu menjadi lebih maju. Seni dapat memberikan pendidikan karena dari setiap pertunjukan seni terdapat makna yang disampaikan. Seni bermanfaat untuk membimbing dan mendidik mental dan tingkahlaku seseorang berubah menjadi kondisi yang lebih maju dari sebelumnya. Dari ha ini, bahwa seni menumbuhkan pengalaman estetika dan etika. d. Fungsi Sosial Seni dibidang Rohani Menurut Kar Barth bahwa keindahan bersumber dari Tuhan. Agama merupakan salah satu sumber insiperasi seni yang berfungsi untuk kepentingan keagamaan. Pengalaman-pengalaman religi menggambarkan bentuk nilai estetika. Tidak hanya itu fungsi nya seni dapat dilihat dibawah ini.. Memuaskan batin seniman penciptanya atau memberikan kepuasan tersendiri Memberikan keindahan yang dinikmati secara luas berdasarkan penilaian yang berbeda. Menyampaikan nilai-nilai budaya dan ekspresi seniman Sebagai benda kebutuhan sehari-hari atau benda praktis Sebagai media atau alat untuk mengenang suatu peristiwa tertentu Sebagai sarana ritual keagamaan.

Macam-Macam Seni Rupa Macam-Macam seni dikelomokkan menurut wujud, massa dan fungsinya yaitu sebagai berikut.. 1. Macam-Macam Seni Rupa Berdasarkan Wujudnya Seni Rupa Dua Dimensi, adalah seni rupa dengan karya dua ukuran, yaitu panjang dan lebar. Seni rupa dua dimensi hanya dapat dilihat dari satu arah yaitu dari arah depan. Contoh seni rupa dua dimensi adalah seni lukis, seni batik, sketsa, dan seni ilustrasi. Seni Rupa Tiga Dimensi, adalah seni rupa yang yang memiliki tiga ukuran panjang, lebar dan tinggi atau tebal (memiliki volume). Hasil dari karya seni dapat dinikmati atau dihayati dari sembarang arah pandang. Contoh seni rupa tiga dimensi adalah seni kriya, seni taman, seni bangunan, dekorasi dan lain-lain.

2. Macam-Macam Seni Rupa Berdasarkan Massanya Seni Rupa Tradisional, adalah seni rupa yang dibuat dengan pola, aturan, atau pakem tertentu sebagai pedoman dalam berkarya seni dan dibuat berulang-ulang tanpa merubah bentuk aslinya. Aturan-aturan umum terkait dengan penciptaan bentuk, ola, corak, penggunaan warna, bahan dan ukuran, Aspek-aspek berkarya seni seni rupa tradisional misalnya masih dipertahankan secara turun-temurun, dari generasi ke generasi sampai sekarang. Sehingga seni rupa bersifat statis, sejak dulu hingga sekarang bentuk dan coraknya tidak mengalami perubahan. Seni Rupa Modern, adalah karya seni yang ditandai dengan munculnya kreativitas untuk mencitakan hal yang baru yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya. Unsur kebaharuan menjadi sangat penting dan harus ada untuk memberikan karya seni rupa modern yang mengutamakan aspek kreativitas dalam berkarya sehingga tercipta suatu karya yang baru. Sehingga seni rupa modern bersifat lebih individualis. Contoh seni rupa modern berupa lukisan, grafis, patung dan kriya. Seni Rupa Kontemporer, adalah karya seni yang pemunculannya dipengaruhi oleh waktu dimana karya seni tersebut diciptakan. Seni rupa kontemporer bersifat kekinian dan temporer yang diangkat dari seni rupa kontemporer mengenai situasi dan kondisi saat karya tersebut diciptakan yang biasa untuk ekspresi pribadi seniman dan mengungkapkan daya fantasi, imajinasi, maupun dengan cita-cita harapan yang dikaitkan mengenai situasi dan kondisi kapan karya tersebut diciptakan. 3. Macam-Macam Seni Rupa Berdasarkan Fungsinya Seni Rupa Terapan, adalah seni rupa yang dihadirkan dari tujuan praktis. Karya yang digunakan dari benda-benda dengan kebutuhan sehari-hari masyarakat, seperti senjata, poster, keramik, rumah dan lain-lain. Seni Rupa Murni adalah karya seni rupa yang diciptakan bukan untuk tujuan digunakan melainkan untuk mengungkapkan ide dari penciptanya dan hanya mengutamakan nilai keindahan. Seni rupa terapan, bebas untuk semua orang dalam mengungkapkan keinginan, harapan, impian, khayalan dalam karya seninya. Sumber : http://www.artikelsiana.com/2015/08/seni-rupa-pengertian-seni-rupa-unsur.html (http://www.artikelsiana.com/2015/08/seni-rupa-pengertian-seni-rupa-unsur.html)

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Report this ad N OV2828 N OVEMBER 2016 • BY ALFBRAM • POSTED IN TAK BERKATEGORI • COMMENTS: +

Seni Lukis Pengertian Seni Lukis Seni lukis adalah salah satu cabang dari seni rupa. Seni lukis ialah seni yang mengapresiasikan kreatifitas seorang seniman melalui bidang dua dimensi, seperti kanvas, papan, kertas dan sebagainya.

Macam-Macam Contoh Aliran Seni Lukis Telah banyak seniman yang terkenal di seluruh dunia dengan karya seni lukisannya. Tanpa disadari, setiap karya seni dari beberapa seniman mempunyai ciri khas dan gaya yang berbedabeda. Setiap pelukis mempunyai alirannya masing-masing. Seni lukis mempunyai beragam aliran yang semakin hari semakin berkembang. Seiring perkembangannya tersebut, munculah aliran-aliran dalam seni lukis yang berpengaruh di dunia. Berikut ini macam-macam dan contoh aliran-aliran dalam seni lukis yang paling terkenal di dunia:

1. Aliran Seni Lukis Naturalisme

2.bp.blogspot.com Naturalisme adalah aliran seni lukis yang menggambarkan segala sesuatu sesuai dengan alam nyata atau alami. Basuki Abdullah merupakan salah satu maestro asal Indonesia yang melukis seorang perawan desa yang menggunakan pakaian lusuh tapi justru tampak seperti bidadari. Selain Basuki Abdullah maestro asal Indonesia yang juga terkenal yaitu Raden Saleh.

2. Aliran Seni Lukis Romantisme

setiayha.files.wordpress.com Romantisme adalah aliran seni lukis tertua dalam sejarah seni lukis modern Indonesia. Hasil karya dari aliran seni lukis ini biasanya terkesan untuk membangkitkan kenangan keindahan atau romantis di setiap objek yang dihasilkan. Objek yang paling sering dieksplor pada aliran seni lukis romantisme, biasanya berlatar belakang alam. Romantisme dirintis oleh pelukis-pelukis pada zaman penjajahan Belanda dan ditularkan kepada pelukis-pelukis pribumi untuk tujuan koleksi dan galeri pada zaman kolonial. Salah satu tokoh terkenal dari aliran ini ialah Raden Saleh.

3. Aliran Seni Lukis Kubisme

g03.a.alicdn.com Kubisme adalah aliran seni lukis yang lebih cenderung melakukan abstraksi suatu objek ke dalam berbagai macam bentuk geometri demi mendapatkan sensasi tertentu. Salah satu seorang tokoh yang paling terkenal dalam aliran seni lukis kubisme adalah Pablo Picasso. Sumber : https://cara.pro/pengertian-macam-macam-dan-contoh-aliran-aliran-dalam-seni-lukis/ (https://cara.pro/pengertian-macam-macam-dan-contoh-aliran-aliran-dalam-seni-lukis/) N OV2828 N OVEMBER 2016 • BY ALFBRAM • POSTED IN TAK BERKATEGORI • COMMENTS: +

Pengertian Seni Tari Selamat datang di softilmu, blog sederhana yang berbagi ilmu pengetahuan dengan penuh keikhlasan. Kali ini kami akan berbagi ilmu tentang Seni Tari, beberapa poin yang akan kami bahas adalah Pengertian Seni Tari, Fungsi Seni Tari, Unsur Seni Tari, Konsep Seni Tari, dan Macam Macam Jenis Seni Tari. Semoga dapat bermanfaat J 1. PENGERTIAN SENI TARI Ketika kita mendengar seni tari, umumnya yang akan terlintas di pikiran kita yaitu gerakan-gerakan anggota tubuh yang mengikuti alunan music. Lalu, bagaimana dengan pendapat para ahli? Apakah mereka memiliki pendapat yang sama?. Nah, definisi dari seni tari yang dikemukakan oleh para ahli, diantaranya yaitu: Soedarsono, menyatakan bahwa tarian adalah ekspresi jiwa manusia melalui gerak ritmis yang indah. Yulianti Parani, menyatakan tari adalah gerak-gerak ritmis sebagian atau seluruhnya dari tubuh yang terdiri dari pola individual atau kelompok yang disertai ekspresi tertentu. Curts Sachs: Tari adalah gerak yang ritmis. Jika ditarik sebuah kesimpulan dari ketiga pendapat tersebut maka Seni Tari merupakan gerak-gerak ritmis dari anggota tubuh sebagai ekspresi dan pengungkapan perasaan dari si penari yang diikuti alunan music yang fungsinya memperkuat maksud yang ingin disampaikan. Jadi, seni tari tidak hanya asal menggerakkan anggota tubuh, akan tetapi memiliki maksud dan makna tertentu yang ingin disampaikan si penari bagi yang melihat. Makna tersebut dapat berupa filosofis, keagamaan, pendidikan, kepahlawanan dsb. Contohnya yaitu Tari Saman yang berasal dari Aceh. Tari saman ini mencerminkan keagamaan, pendidikan, sopan santun dan juga kepahlawanan dalam waktu yang bersamaan. PENGERTIA, FUNGSI, UNSUR, JENIS SENI TARI 1. FUNGSI SENI TARI Kita telah mengetahui bahwa salah satu fungsi dari seni tari yaitu sebagai ekpresi dan pengungkapan perasaan dari si penari. Hal ini dapat dimaklumi karena manusia merupakan makhluk social yang harus berkomunikasi dengan pihak lain. Pihak lain tersebut yaitu manusia lainnya dan juga Tuhan YME. Dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat ada beberapa fungsi lain dari seni tari, diantaranya yaitu: 1. Sebagai sarana keagamaan Di dalam kehidupan keagamaan, sejak dahulu manusia menggunakan tari-tarian sebagai sarana berkomunikasi dengan Tuhan. Biasanya tari yang digunakan sebagai sarana keagamaan bersifat sakral. Di Bali masih terdapat tarian-tarian keagamaan sebagai sarana komunikasi dengan para Dewa dan leluhurnya. Biasanya tarian ini dilakukan di Pura-pura. Contoh tariannya yaitu, Sang Hyang, Kecak, Keris, Rejang. Sebagai sarana upacara adat Tarian yang biasanya digunakan sebagai upacara adat terbagi atas 2 yaitu: 1a. Peristiwa Alamiah Tarian upacara adat yang bersifat alamiah biasanya berhubungan dengan kejadian alam. Contohnya yaitu tarian upacara menanam padi, tarian untuk kesuburan tanah/minta hujan, panen padi, memohon keselamatan dan tolak bala. Tarian-tariannya yaitu: Tari Ngaseuk (menanam padi) dari Jawa Barat, Tari Seblang (panen padi) dari Jawa Timur, Tari Nelayan (memohon keselamatan saat berlaut) dari Irian Jaya. 1b. Peristiwa Kehidupan Tarian upacara adat pada peristiwa kehidupan umumnya berhubungan dengan kehidupan manusia. Contohnya yaitu pada peristiwa perkawinan, kelahiran, khitanan hingga kematian. Tariantariannya yaitu: Tari Sisingaan (upacara khitanan) dari Jawa Barat, Tari Wolane (upacara perkawinan) dari Maluku, Tari Holana (menyambut kelahiran bayi) dari NTT dan Tari Ngaben (upacara kematian) dari Bali 2. Sebagai Sarana Pergaulan Manusia merupakan makhluk social yang membutuhkan interaksi dengan individu lainnya hingga muncullah keakraban. Untuk mendapatkan suasana keakraban tersebut, manusia membutuhkan suatu sarana. Salah satu dari sarana tersebut yaitu Tarian Pergaulan. Tarian pergaulan adalah jenis tarian yang diperuntukkan untuk menyatakan kerukunan bermasyarakat. Salah satu contoh yang paling jelas dari tari pergaulan yaitu Tari Jaipongan dimana penari dan penonton dapat menari bersama di satu panggung. Contoh yang lain yaitu Tari Tayub dari Jawa Timur, Tari Adu jago dari Surabaya dan Tari Manduda dari Sumatera Barat. 3. Sebagai Tontonan Fungsi terakhir dari seni tari yaitu sebagai tontonan atau pertunjukan. Hampir setiap daerah di Nusantara memiliki tarian tontonan. Tarian tontonan atau pertunjukan adalah jenis tarian yang dihadirkan sebagai hiburan semata. Diharapkan penonton yang menyaksikan tarian ini akan merasa terhibur. 1. UNSUR SENI TARI Kita telah membahas arti dari seni tari. Seni tari yaitu gerakan anggota tubuh secara ritmik yang diikuti oleh iringan music. Berdasarkan definisi tersebut, dapat ditarik sebuah kesimpulan bahwa seni tari terdiri atas beberapa unsur. Unsur-unsur dari seni tari tersebut berkaitan erat dan tidak dapat dihilangkan. Unsur-unsur dari seni tari yaitu: 1. Ragam Gerak Gerak merupakan unsure utama dan juga unsur estetika dari tari. Gerakan dari tari berasal dari anggota tubuh. Anggota tubuh yang dapat digunakan untuk menari yaitu anggota tubuh bagian atas, bagian tengah dan bagian bawah. Anggota tubuh bagian atas terdiri atas kepala, mata dan raut wajah. Ragam gerak dari anggota tubuh bagian tengah yaitu terdiri dari lengan atas, lengan bawah, telapak tangan, jari-jari dan ruas jari. Sedangkan anggota tubuh bagian bawah terdiri dari Kaki. Ragam gerak pada bagian kaki hampir sama untuk tarian di bagian timur. Perbedaannya terletak pada tempo atau volume gerakannya. 2. Bentuk Iringan Unsur kedua dari tarian yaitu bentuk iringan. Bentuk iringan tarian dapat berupa jenis music iringan tari internal dan jenis music iringan tari eksternal. Jenis music iringan tari internal yaitu iringan yang berasal dari tubuh penari itu sendiri. Contohnya yaitu Tepukan dada dan telapak tangan pada Tarian Saman dari Aceh dan suara “Cak” pada tari kecak dari Bali. Sedangkan jenis music iringan tari eksternal berasal dari tabuhan alat music. Contohnya di Jawa tengah, Jawa Timur dan Jawa Barat dikenal alat music gamelan, pelog dan salendro. 3. Kostum Tari Kostum tari merupakan suatu estetika yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari dari wujud tarian. Kostum tarian untuk upacara bentuknya lebih sederhana dan tidak mementingkan estetika. Berbeda dengan kostum tarian yang digunakan untuk tarian pertunjukan atau tarian tontonan. Kostum pada tarian tontonan atau pertunjukan bentuknya dirancang sedemikian rupa sehingga menimbulkan kesan keindahan maupun mendalam dari penontonnya. 4. Pola Lantai Nah, last but not the least yaitu pola lantai. Apa yang dimaksud dengan pola lantai?. Pola lantai adalah posisi yang dilakukan baik oleh penari tunggal maupun penari kelompok. Pola lantai pada suatu tarian dapat berupa simetris, asimetris, lengkungan, garis lurus dan lingkaran. Pada tarian upacara, pola lantai biasanya berbentuk lingkaran. Menurut para ahli, pola lantai berbentuk lingkaran menggambarkan berkaitan erat dengan sesuatu yang sacral atau mistis. Lingkaran berpusat sebagai symbol alam dunia, berpusat kepada bagian tertentu yang ditempati oleh alam gaib. Contoh tarian upacara dengan pola lantai lingkaran yaitu tari kecak dari bali. 1. KONSEP SENI TARI Kita tahu bahwa Indonesia merupakan Negara kepulauan yang terdiri dari banyak suku. Keberagaman suku di Indonesia menghasilkan keberagaman gerak tari yang berbeda antara suku lain di Indonesia. Walaupun setiap tarian memiliki gerakan yang berbeda namun tetap memiliki persamaan. Persamaan tersebut yaitu tenaga, ruang dan waktu. 1. Tenaga Setiap bergerak kita memerlukan tenaga. Nah, begitupun dengan gerak tari. Untuk mendapatkan gerak tari yang dinamis, kompak dan ritmis tentunya membutuhkan tenaga. Penggunaan tenaga memiliki intensitas kuat, sedang dan lemah. Tanpa tenaga suatu gerakan yang baik tidak mungkin dapat dihasilkan, karena tenaga merupakan hal yang utama dalam gerak tari. Contoh penggunaan tenaga dalam gerak tari yaitu ketika seorang penari berdiri di atas punggung temannya, maka penari tersebut membutuhkan tenaga yang besar untuk menahan beban dari temannya yang berdiri di atas punggungnya. Jadi, kesimpulan yang dapat diambil yaitu hubungan antara gerak tari dan tenaga memiliki kaitan yang erat. Tenaga dalam seni tari berhubungan dengan emosi dan perasaan. Untuk menghasilkan gerak tari yang baik dibutuhkan tenaga. Penambahan tenaga dalam gerak tari menjadikan gerak tari tersebut terlihat dinamis dan ritmik. 2. Ruang Gerak Suatu gerak tarian membutuhkan ruang gerak. Gerak di dalam ruangan dapat dilakukan penari secara tunggal, berpasangan ataupun berkelompok. Ruang gerak terbagi atas dua yaitu ruang gerak sempit atau pribadi dan ruang gerak luas atau umum. Contoh dari ruang gerak sempit yaitu jika kita melakukan suatu gerakan tanpa berdiri berarti kita melakukan di ruang gerak sempit atau ruang gerak pribadi. Sedangkan, jika kita melakukan gerakan dan diikuti dengan perpindahan tempat maka dinamakan dengan ruang gerak luas atau ruang gerak umum. Jadi kesimpulannya suatu gerak tari ada karena adanya ruang gerak. Ruang gerak yang dilakukan oleh penari terdiri dari ruang gerak sempit atau pribadi dan ruang gerak luas atau ruang gerak umum. 3. Waktu Setiap kita bergerak selain membutuhkan tenaga, kita juga membutuhkan waktu. Nah, begitupun dengan gerak tari. Setiap gerakan yang dilakukan oleh penari membutuhkan waktu. Dalam gerak tarian, perbedaan cepat atau lambat suatu gerak disebut dengan Tempo. Fungsi tempo pada gerak tari yaitu memberikan kesan dinamis sehingga suatu tarian tersebut enak untuk ditonton. Contoh dari tempo yaitu ketika penari melakukan gerak hormat. Maka akan terdapat perbedaan pose dari gerak hormat tersebut. Penari pada urutan pertama akan melakukan gerak hormat dengan tempo cepat dan berlanjut sampai penari pada urutan terakhir dalam tempo yang lambat. Tempo tersebut akan memberikan daya hidup pada sebuah tarian. Jadi, gerak tari tidak hanya membutuhkan tenaga dan ruang saja. Akan tetapi juga membutuhkan tempo untuk menghasilkan suatu gerakan yang terlihat dinamis dan hidup sehingga enak untuk ditonton. 1. MACAM MACAM JENIS SENI TARI Akhirnya kita telah sampai di point terakhir pembahasan dari seni tari. Setelah kita mengetahui arti, fungsi dan konsep dari seni tari. Rasanya tidak sah kalau kita belum mengetahui berbagai macam jenis tarian yang ada di Bumi Indonesia ini. Jenis-jenis tarian yang ada di nusantara yaitu dibagi atas Tari Tradisional, Tari Kreasi Baru dan Tari Kontemporer. Ketiga jenis dari tarian tersebut akan dijelaskan dibawah ini. 1. Tari Tradisional Di Indonesia, hampir di setiap daerah memiliki tari tradisional. Nah, arti dari tari tradisional yaitu suatu tarian yang berasal dari suatu daerah dan diturunkan secara turun-temurun hingga menjadi budaya dari daerah tersebut. Umumnya tari tradisional mengandung nilai-nilai filosofis seperti keagamaan, kepahlawanan dsb. Tari tradisional di Indonesia terbagi atas dua, tari rakyat dan tari klasik (keraton). 1a. Tari Rakyat Tarian rakyat atau tarian daerah merupakan tarian yang berkembang pada masyarakat biasa. Tarian rakyat lahir sebagai lambang dari kebahagiaan dan sukacita. Contohnya jika musim panen tiba dan hasil panen melimpah maka masyarakat akan berkumpul dan menari bersama untuk merayakannya. Nah, tarian rakyat terus berkembang dan menjadi tradisi. Tarian rakyat tidak memiliki aturan-aturan baku sehingga bentuk tariannya sangat bervariasi. 1b. Tari Klasik (Tari Keraton) Nah, teman-teman pasti bertanya, apa yang membedakan antara tarian rakyat dengan tari klasik? Perbedaannya yaitu tari klasik lahir dari dalam keraton atau dalam kaum bangsawan. Karena tarian ini berkembang pada lingkungan atas, maka masyarakat biasa dilarang untuk menarikan tarian ini. Berbeda dengan tari rakyat, tari keraton memiliki aturan yang tertulis dan baku. Sehingga sejak zaman tari ini lahir sampai sekarang tidak ada yang berubah. 2. Tari Kreasi Baru Kita telah sampai pada point kedua dari jenis tarian yang ada di Indonesia. Pembahasan mengenai tari kreasi baru di daerah tidak akan terlepas dari tari tradisi lama. Mengapa? Karena tari kreasi baru merupakan perkembangan dari tari tradisi yang ada. Maksudnya disini jenis tarian yang biasanya dipakai untuk upacara ritual, adat dan keagamaan dimodifikasi oleh penata tari sehingga tari ini bisa dinikmati khalayak umum. Contohnya yaitu Tari Rapai yang merupakan perpaduan dari gerak tari yang berkembang di Aceh dan Semenanjung Malaya, yaitu Tari Seudati, Saman dan Zapin. 3. Tari Kontemporer Kita telah sampai pada point terakhir dari jenis tarian di Indonesia yaitu Tari Kontemporer. Nah, apa sih yang dimaksud dengan tari kontemporer?. Jadi tari kontemporer merupakan salah satu jenis tarian modern yang berkembang di Indonesia. Tarian ini lahir sebagai reaksi atas seni tari klasik yang telah mencapai titik akhir dalam perkembangan teknisnya. Apa bedanya tari kontemporer dengan tari kreasi baru? Nah, seperti yang telah dijelaskan pada paragraph awal bahwa tari kontemporer merupakan tari modern sehingga tidak ada unsure tradisi lama lagi. Biasanya gaya tari kontemporer bernuansa unik dan memakai jenis music dari computer. Sedangkan tari kreasi baru merupakan tari tradisi yang telah dimodifikasi tapi tetap meninggalkan unsur asli tradisinya. Sumber : http://www.softilmu.com/2015/11/Pengertian-Fungsi-Unsur-Konsep-Jenis-Jenis-Seni-Tari-Adalah.html (http://www.softilmu.com/2015/11/Pengertian-Fungsi-Unsur-Konsep-JenisJenis-Seni-Tari-Adalah.html) N OV2828 N OVEMBER 2016 • BY ALFBRAM • POSTED IN TAK BERKATEGORI • COMMENTS: +

Seni MusiSeni adalah segala sesuatu yang diciptakan manusia yang mengandung unsur keindahan dan mampu membangkitkan perasaan orang lain. Istilah seni berasal dari kata sanskerta dari kata sani yang diartikan pemujaan, persembahan dan pelayanan yang erat dengan upacara keagamaan yang disebut kesenian. Menurut Padmapusphita dimana seni berasal dari bahasa Belanda genie dalam bahasa latin disebut dengan genius yang artinya kemampuan luar biasa dibawa sejak lahir. Sedangkan menurut Ilmu Eropa bahwa seni berasal dari kata art yang berarti artivisual yaitu suatu media yang melakukan kegiatan tertentu. Dari banyak arti seni, dan semakin berkembangnya zaman membuat banyak para ahli mengemukakan pendapatnya mengenai definisi seni. Pengertian seni menurut para ahli adalah sebagai berikut…

Pengertian Seni Menurut Para Ahli Pengertian Seni Menurut Para Ahli-Dari banyak arti seni, dan semakin berkembangnya zaman membuat banyak para ahli mengemukakan pendapatnya mengenai definisi seni. Pengertian seni menurut para ahli adalah sebagai berikut… Aristoteles: Pengertian seni menurut aristoteles adalah bentuk yang pengungkapannya dan penampilannya tidak pernah menyimpang dari kenyataan dan seni itu adalah meniru alam. Sudarmaji: Menurut Sudarmaji, pengertian seni adalah segala manifestasi batin dan pengalaman estetis dengan menggunakan media bidang, garis, warna, tekstur, volume, dan gelap terang. Alexander Baum Garton: Pengertian seni menurut Alexander Baum Garton bahwa arti seni adalah keindahan dan seni adalah tujuan yang positif menjadikan penikmat merasa dalam kebahagiaan. Ki Hajar Dewantara: Pengertian seni menurut Ki Hajar Dewantara adalah hasil keindahan sehingga dapat menggerakkan perasaan indah orang yang melihatnya, oleh karena itu perbuatan manusia yang dapat mempengaruhi dapat menimbulkan perasaan indah itu seni. Immanuel Kant: Pengertian seni menurut Immanuel Kant adalah sebuah impian karena rumus-rumus tidak dapat mengihtiarkan kenyataan. Hilary Bel: Pengertian seni menurut Hilary Bel bahwa arti seni adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk semua karya yang dapat menggugah hati untuk mencari tahu siapa penciptanya. Leo Tolstoy: Pengertian seni menurut Leo Tolstoy adalah ungkapan perasaan pencipta yang disampaikan kepada orang lain agar mereka dapat merasakan apa yang dirasakan pelukis. James Murko: Pengertian seni menurut James Murko adalah penjelasan rasa indah yang terkandung dalam jiwa setiap manusia, dilahirkan dengan perantaraan alat komunikasi ke dalam bentuk yang dapat dianggap oleh indra pendengar (seni suara), penglihatan (seni lukis), atau dilahirkan dengan perantaraan gerak (seni tari, drama). Ira Adriati. M.Sn (Dosen Seni ITB): Pengertian seni menurut Ira Adriati adalah proses dan produk dari memilih medium, dan suatu set peraturan untuk penggnaan medium itu, dan suatu set nilai-nilai yang menentukan apa yang pantas dengan ekspresi lewat medium itu, untuk menyampaikan baik kepercayaan, gagasan, sensasi atau perasaan dengan cara seefektif mungkin untuk medium itu. Eric Ariyanto: Pengertian seni menurut Eric Aryanto adalah kegiatan rohani atau aktivitas batin yang direfleksikan dalam bentuk karya yang dapat membangkitkan perasaan orang lain yang melihat atau mendengarkannya. Drs. Popo Iskandar: Pengertian seni menurut Popo Iskandar adalah hasil ungkapan emosi yang ingin disampaikan kepada orang lain dalam kesadaran hidup bermasyarakat/berkelompok.

Fungsi Seni Fungsi Seni-Fungsi dikelompokkan menjadi dua yaitu fungsi individu dan fungsi sosial antara lain sebagai berikut.. 1. Fungsi Individu Fungsi individu merupakan suatu fungsi seni yang bermanfaat untuk kebutuhan pribadi individu itu sendiri. Terdapat dua macam fungsi seni untuk individu yaitu sebagai berikut… a. Fungsi pemenuhan kebutuhan fisik Pada hakekatnya manusia adalah makhluk homofaber yang memiliki kecakapan untuk apresiasi pada keindahan dan pemakaian benda-benda. Seni terapan memang mengacu kepada pemuasan kebutuhan fisik sehingga segi kenyamanan menjadi suatu hal penting. b. Fungsi pemenuhan kebutuhan emosional Seorang mempunyai sifat yang beragam dengan manusia lain. Pengalaman hidup seorang sangatlah mempengaruhi sisi emosional atau perasaannya. Sebagai contoh perasaan sedih, lelah, letih, gembira, iba, kasihan, benci, cinta, dll. Manusia dapat merasakan semua itu dikarenakan didalam dirinya terkandung dorongan emosional yang merupakan situasi kejiwaan pada setiap manusia normal. Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan emosional manusia memerlukan dorongan dari luar dirinya yang sifatnya menyenangkan, memuaskan kebutuhan batinnya. Sebagai contoh karena kegiatan dan aktivitas sehari-harinya membuat mengalami kelelahan sehingga memerlukan rekreasi, seperti menonton film dibioskop, hiburan teater, dan musik. Seseorang yang memiliki estetikanya lebih banyak maka ia memiliki kepuasan yang lebih banyak pula. Sedangkan seniman adalah seorang yang mampu mengapresiasikan pengalaman dan perasaannya dalam sebuah karya seni yang diciptakannya. Hal ini juga diyakini olehnya sebagai sarana memuaskan kebutuhan emosional dirinya. 2. Fungsi Sosial Fungsi sosial merupakan suatu fungsi seni yang bermanfaat sebagai pemenuhan kebutuhan sosial suatu individu. Terdapat beberapa macam fungsi seni sebagai fungsi sosial antara lain sebagai berikut… a. Fungsi Religi/Keagamaan Karya seni sebagai pesan religi atau keagamaan. Contohnya adalah kaligrafi, busana muslim//muslimah dan lagu-lagu rohani. Seni digunakan untuk sebuah upacara pernikahan, kelahiran, dan kematian, dan lain-lainnya. Contohnya gamelan yang digunakan dalam upcara ngaben di bali (gamelan gambang, luwang, dan angklung). b. Fungsi Pendidikan Seni sebagai media pendidikan dapat dilihat dalam musik, seperti ansambel karena dilakukan dengan bekerja sama, seperti halnya dengan angklung dan gamelan yang memiliki nilai pendidikan karena kesenian tersebut terdapat nilai sosial, kerjasama dan disiplin. Karya-karya seni untuk pelajaran/pendidikan seperti gambar ilustrasi buku pelajaran, poster, alat peraga IPA, dan film ilmiah/dokumentar. c. Fungsi Komunikasi Seni sebagai media komunikasi misalnya dalam kritik sosial, kebijakan, gagasan, guna memperkenalkan kepada masyarakat. Contohnya pegelaran wayang kulit, wayang orang, dan seni teater ataupun poster, drama komedi dan reklame. d. Fungsi Rekreasi/Hiburan Fungsi utama seni adalah hiburan atau rekreasi untuk melepas kejenuhan atau mengurangi kesedihan yang khusus untuk pertunjukan berekpresi atau hiburan. e. Fungsi Artistik Seni yang berfungsi sebagai media ekspresi seniman dengan menyajikan karyanya tidak untuk hal yang komersil, seperti musik kontemporer, tari kontemporer, dan seni rupa kontemporer. (Seni pertunjukan yang tidak bisa dinikmati pendengar/pengunjung, hanya bisa dinikmati oleh para seniman dan komunitasnya). f. Fungsi Guna Karya seni yang dibuat tanpa memperhitungkan kegunaannya, kecuali sebagai media ekspresi (karya seni murni) atau pun dalam proses penciptaan mempertimbangkan aspek kegunaannya, seperti perlengkapan/peralatan rumah tangga yang berasal dari gerabah ataupun rotan. g. Fungsi Kesehatan Seni sebagai fungsi kesehatan, seperti pengobatan penderita gangguan physic atuapun medis distimulasi melalui terapi musik (disesuaikan dengan latar belakang pasien). Terbukti musik telah mampu untuk menyembuhkan penyandang autisme, gangguan psikologis trauma suatu kejadian. Pada tahun siegel menyatakan bahwa musik klasik menghasilkan gelombang alfa yang dapat menenangkan dengan merangsang sistem limbic jaringan neuron otak dan gamelan menurut Gregorian dapat mempertajam pikiran.

Macam-Macam Seni Macam-Macam Seni-Seni memiliki 5 cabang antara lain sebagai berikut… a. Seni Rupa: Seni rupa adalah salah satu cabang kesenian dimana memiliki wujud pasti dan memanfaatkan unsur rupa yang diklasifikasikan ke dalam bentuk gambar, lukis, patung, grafis, kerajinan tangan, kriya, dan multimedia. Seni rupa meliputi kemampuan memahami, dan berkarya lukis, kemampuan memahami dan membuat patung, kemampuan memahami dan berkarya grafis, kemampuan memahami dan membuat kerajinan tangan, serta kemampuan memahami dan berkarya atau membuat sarana mulltimedia. Seni rupa telah ada sejak dimulai zaman animisme dan dinamisme zaman sekarang. Seni rupa secara performatif mempresentasikan wujud kasat mata yang dipertimbangkan secara sinergis melalui media sebagai dasar perwujudan rupa. b. Seni Teater: Seni teater pada dasarnya mencakup kemampuan memahami dan berkarya teater, kemampuan memahami dan membuat naskah, kemampuan memahami berperan di bidang casting kemampuan memahami dan membuat setting atau tata teknik pentas panggung dan penciptaan suasananya sebagai perangkat tambahan dalam membidangi seni teater. Seni teater merupakan bagian dari integral kesenian bermedia ungkap suara dalam wujud pemeranan. Cara atau teknik ini lebih mengutamakan terciptanya casting, pembawaan, diksi, intonasi, pengaturan, laring, dan faring secara konsisten adalah bagian penting dalam penjelmaan profesi yang harus dimiliki. c. Seni Musik Unsur bunyi merupakan unsur utama dari seni musik. Sedangkan unsur lain adalah bentuk harmoni, melodi, dan notasi musik merupakan wujud sarana yang diajarkan. Seni musik tumbuh dan berkembang sejak zaman Renaissance sampai saat ini. Seni musik adalah hasil ciptaan manusia yang menghasilkan bunyi ritme dan harmoni yang indah bagi pendengar. d. Seni Tari Seni tari adalah hasil ciptaan manusia yang menggunakan gerak tubuh sebagai suatu keindahan. Gerak dalam tari berfungsi sebagai media mengkomunikasikan maksud-maksud tertentu dari koreogragfer. Keindahan tari terletak pada kebahagian, kepuasaan, baik itu dari koreografer, peraga dan penikmat atau penonton. Seni tari meliputi tari tradisional dan tari garapan. e. Seni Sastra Seni sastra adalah hasil daya kreasi manusia yang dinikmat segi visual dan dari makna yang dimilikinya. Seni sastra menggambarkan keindahan dalam bentuk kata-kata, baik itu dituliskan ataupun disuarakan.Contoh seni sastra adalah puisi, tulisan, dan kaligrafi. Sumber : http://www.artikelsiana.com/2015/09/pengertian-seni-fungsi-macam-macam-seni.html (http://www.artikelsiana.com/2015/09/pengertian-seni-fungsi-macam-macam-seni.html) N OV2222 N OVEMBER 2016 • BY ALFBRAM • POSTED IN SENI • COMMENTS: +

MUSIC Music is an art (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art) form and cultural (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture) activity whose medium is sound (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound) and silence (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_%28music%29), which exist in time (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time). The common elements of music are pitch (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29) (which governs melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody) and harmony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony)), rhythm (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm) (and its associated concepts tempo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempo), meter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28music%29), and articulation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articulation_%28music%29)), dynamics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_%28music%29) (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of timbre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre) and texture (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_%28music%29) (which are sometimes termed the “color” of a musical sound). Different styles or types (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_genre) of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument) and vocal techniques ranging from singing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singing) to rapping (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapping); there are solely instrumental pieces (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_music), solely vocal pieces (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_capella) (such as songs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song) without instrumental accompaniment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment)) and pieces that combine singing and instruments. The word derives from Greek (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language) µ (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek) (mousike; “art of the Muses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muses)“).[1] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-perseus.tufts.edu-1) In its most general form, the activities describing music as an art form include the production of works of music (songs, tunes, symphonies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony), and so on), the criticism of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_criticism), the study of the history of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicology), and the aesthetic examination of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music). Ancient Greek (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy) and Indian philosophers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy#Ancient_Indian_philosophers) defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as “the harmony of the spheres (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony_of_the_spheres)” and “it is music to my ears” point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cage) thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, “There is no noise (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise), only sound.”[2] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-2) The creation, performance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance), significance, and even the definition of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_music) vary according to culture and social context. Indeed, throughout history, some new forms or styles of music have been criticized as “not being music”, including Beethoven (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven)‘s Grosse Fuge (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grosse_Fuge) string quartet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_quartet) in 1825,[3] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-3) early jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) in the beginning of the 1900s[4] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-4) and hardcore punk (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcore_punk) in the 1980s.[5] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-5) There are many types of music, including popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music), traditional music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_music), art music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music), music written for religious ceremonies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical_music) and work songs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_song) such as chanteys (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chantey). Music ranges from strictly organized compositions–such as Classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music) symphonies from the 1700s and 1800s, through to spontaneously played improvisational music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation) such as jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz), and avant-garde (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avantgarde) styles of chance-based (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleatory) contemporary music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_music) from the 20th and 21st centuries. Music can be divided into genres (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_genre) (e.g., country music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music)) and genres can be further divided into subgenres (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgenre) (e.g., country blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_blues) and pop country (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_country) are two of the many country subgenres), although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to personal interpretation, and occasionally controversial. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_rock) and heavy metal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_music). Within the arts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts), music may be classified as a performing art (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performing_arts), a fine art (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_art) or as an auditory art. Music may be played or sung and heard live at a rock concert (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_concert) or orchestra (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra) performance, heard live as part of a dramatic work (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_music) (a music theater (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theater) show or opera (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera)), or it may be recorded and listened to on a radio (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio), MP3 player (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_player), CD player (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_player), Smartphone (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone) or as film score (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_score) or TV show (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_show). In many cultures, music is an important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#90502876) part of people’s way of life, as it plays a key role in religious rituals (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_ritual), rite of passage (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rite_of_passage) ceremonies (e.g., graduation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduation) and marriage (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage)), social activities (e.g., dancing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_club)) and cultural activities ranging from amateur karaoke (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaoke) singing to playing in an amateur funk band (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk) or singing in a community choir (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir). People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello) in a youth orchestra (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_orchestra), or working as a professional musician (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musician) or singer (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer). The music industry (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_industry) includes the individuals who create new songs and musical pieces (such as songwriters (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songwriter) and composers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer)), individuals who perform music (which include orchestra (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra), jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) band and rock band musicians, singers and conductors (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conducting)), individuals who record music (music producers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_producer) and sound engineers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_engineer)), individuals who organize concert tours, and individuals who sell recordings and sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music) and scores to customers.

Etymology

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muses_sarcophagus_Louvre_MR880.jpg) In Greek mythology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology), the nine muses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muses) were the inspiration for many creative endeavors, including the arts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts). The word derives from Greek (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language) µ (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek) (mousike; “art of the Muses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muses)“).[1] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-perseus.tufts.edu-1) In Greek mythology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology), the nine muses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muse) were the goddesses who inspired literature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature), science (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science), and the arts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts) and who were the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, song-lyrics, and myths in the Greek culture. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the term “music” is derived from “mid-13c., musike, from Old French (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French) musique (12c.) and directly from Latin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin) musica “the art of music,” also including poetry (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry) (also [the] source of Spanish musica, Italian musica, Old High German (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_German) mosica, German Musik, Dutch muziek, Danish musik).” This is derived from the “…Greek mousike (techne) “(art) of the Muses,” from fem. of mousikos “pertaining to the Muses,” from Mousa “Muse” (see muse (n.)). Modern spelling [dates] from [the] 1630s. In classical Greece (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece), [the term “music” refers to] any art in which the Muses presided, but especially music and lyric poetry (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetry).”

As a form of art or entertainment

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo_r%C3%A9cital_028.JPG) Jean-Gabriel Ferlan (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Gabriel_Ferlan&action=edit&redlink=1) (fr (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Gabriel_Ferlan)) performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment) product for the marketplace. When music was only available through sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music) scores, such as during the Classical and Romantic eras, music lovers would buy the sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music) of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could perform them at home on the piano. With the advent of sound recording, records of popular songs, rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music lovers would enjoy their favourite songs. With the advent of home tape recorders (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_recorder) in the 1980s and digital music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_music) in the 1990s, music lovers could make tapes or playlists (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playlist) of their favourite songs and take them with them on a portable cassette player (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_player) or MP3 player (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_player). Some music lovers create mix tapes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mix_tape) of their favorite songs, which serve as a “self-portrait, a gesture of friendship, prescription for an ideal party… [and] an environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved.”[7] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-7) Amateur musicians (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicians) can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_musician) are employed by a range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces (in marching bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marching_band), concert bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_band) and popular music groups), churches and synagogues, symphony orchestras (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra), broadcasting (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting) or film production (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmmaking) companies, and music schools (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_school). Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freelance) or session musicians (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_musician), seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_lesson) with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_band) and community orchestras (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra).

A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in both classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music) and in popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) forms such as rock (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music), where illegally taped live concerts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootleg_recording) are prized by music lovers. In the jam band (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jam_band) scene, live, improvised jam sessions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jam_session) are preferred to studio recordings.

Composition Main article: Musical composition (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_composition)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coffee_and_synths._KayoDot_album_%22Hubardo%22_recording,_2013-06-13.jpg) People composing music in 2013 using electronic keyboards (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_keyboard) and computers.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michel_Richard_Delalande_engraving_BNF_Gallica.jpg) French Baroque music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_music) composer Michel Richard Delalande (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Richard_Delalande) (1657–1726), pen in hand. “Composition” is the act or practice of creating a song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song), an instrumental music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_music) piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In many cultures, including Western classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music), the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_notation), such as a sheet music “score” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music), which is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians. In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called songwriting (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songwriter), may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead sheet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_sheet), which sets out the melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody), lyrics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics) and chord progression (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_progression). In classical music, the composer typically orchestrates (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestration) her own compositions, but in musical theatre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre) and in pop music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music), songwriters may hire an arranger (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranger) to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music.

Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements of music precisely. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed “interpretation”. Different performers’ interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_phrasing) of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historically_informed_performance), whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer.[citation needed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] Although a musical composition often uses musical notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation) and has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre), when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs. In some styles of music, such as the blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues), a composer/songwriter may create, perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from avant-garde music that uses graphic notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_notation), to text compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aus_den_sieben_Tagen), to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleatoric_music), and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cage), Morton Feldman (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Feldman), and Witold Lutosławski (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witold_Lutos%C5%82awski). A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_chimes) jingling in a breeze. The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music), but the definition of composition is broad enough the creation of popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) and traditional music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_music) songs and instrumental pieces and to include spontaneously improvised (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_improvisation) works like those of free jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_jazz) performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewe_drumming).

Notation Main article: Musical notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.svg) Sheet music is written representation of music. This is a homorhythmic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homorhythm) (i.e., hymn (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn)-style) arrangement of a traditional piece entitled “Adeste Fideles (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adeste_Fideles)“, in standard two-staff format for mixed voices. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.mid) Play (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.mid) (help·info) In the 2000s, music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody), are notated. Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music. For example, the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a “slow blues” or a “fast swing”, which indicates the tempo and the genre. To read music notation, a person must have an understanding of music theory (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory), harmony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony) and the performance practice (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_practice) associated with a particular song or piece’s genre. Written notation varies with style and period of music. In the 2000s, notated music is produced as sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music) or, for individuals with computer scorewriter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorewriter) programs, as an image on a computer screen (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_screen). In ancient times, music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets. To perform music from notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. In genres requiring musical improvisation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation), the performer often plays from music where only the chord changes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_progression) and form of the song are written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music’s structure, harmony and the styles of a particular genre (e.g., jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) or country music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music)). In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_sheet), which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics) (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Fake books (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_book) are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_section) members to improvise an accompaniment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment) part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz “big bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_band).” In popular music, guitarists (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar) and electric bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_guitar) players often read music notated in tablature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablature) (often abbreviated as “tab”), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lute), a stringed, fretted instrument.

Improvisation Main article: Musical improvisation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation) Musical improvisation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation) is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisation is the act of instantaneous composition by performers, where compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues), jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz), and jazz fusion (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_fusion), in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines and accompaniment parts. In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#27249021) skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era. In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basso_continuo) keyboard players improvised chord voicings (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_voicing) based on figured bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figured_bass) notation. In the Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadenza) during concerts. However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as “common practice” Western art music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music) performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role. At the same time, some modern composers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composers) have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work. In Indian classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music), improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances.

Theory

Main article: Music theory (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory) Music theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music. It often involves identifying patterns that govern composers’ techniques and examining the language (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language) and notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation) of music. In a grand sense, music theory distills and analyzes the parameters (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_%28music%29) or elements of music – rhythm (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm), harmony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony) (harmonic function (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatonic_function)), melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody), structure (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure), form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_form), and texture (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_%28music%29). Broadly, music theory may include any statement, belief, or conception of or about music.[8] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-8) People who study these properties are known as music theorists. Some have applied acoustics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics), human physiology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_physiology), and psychology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology) to the explanation of how and why music is perceived (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceive).

Elements of music Main article: Aspect of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_of_music) Music has many different fundamentals or elements. Depending on the definition of “element” being used, these can include: pitch, beat or pulse, tempo, rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre or color, dynamics, expression, articulation, form and structure. The elements of music feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia, UK and USA. All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics, timbre and texture as elements, but the other identified elements of music are far from universally agreed. Below is a list of the three official versions of the “elements of music”: Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and structure.[9] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-9) UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure.[10] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-10) USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony, style/articulation.[11] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-11) In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: “appropriate musical notations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation)” was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was changed from the “elements of music” to the “inter-related dimensions of music”. The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as: pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure and appropriate musical notations.[12] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-12) The phrase “the elements of music” is used in a number of different contexts. The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the “rudimentary elements of music” and the “perceptual elements of music”.

Rudimentary elements of music In the 1800s, the phrase “the elements of music” and the phrase “the rudiments of music” were used interchangeably.[13] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-13)[14] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-14) The elements described in these documents refer to aspects of music that are needed in order to become a musician, Recent writers such as Estrella [15] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-15) seem to be using the phrase “elements of music” in a similar manner. A definition which most accurately reflects this usage is: “the rudimentary principles of an art, science, etc.: the elements of grammar.”[16] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-16) The UK’s curriculum switch to the “inter-related dimensions of music” seems to be a move back to using the rudimentary elements of music.

Perceptual elements of music Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics) in the 1930s, most lists of elements of music have related more to how we hear music than how we learn to play it or study it. C.E. Seashore, in his book Psychology of Music,[17] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-17) identified four “psychological attributes of sound”. These were: “pitch, loudness, time, and timbre” (p. 3). He did not call them the “elements of music” but referred to them as “elemental components” (p. 2). Nonetheless these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements: “Pitch” and “timbre” match exactly, “loudness” links with dynamics and “time” links with the timebased elements of rhythm, duration and tempo. This usage of the phrase “the elements of music” links more closely with Webster’s New 20th Century Dictionary definition of an element as: “a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods”[18] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-18) and educational institutions’ lists of elements align with this list as well. Writers of lists of “rudimentary elements of music” vary their lists depending on their personal priorities. However, in relation to the perceptual elements of music, it should be possible to identify a list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect. It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area.

Analysis of musical styles

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_Clinton_2006.jpg) Funk (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk) places most of its emphasis on rhythm and groove (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groove_%28music%29), with entire songs based around a vamp (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostinato#Vamp) on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk musicians George Clinton (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clinton_%28musician%29) and Parliament Funkadelic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Funkadelic) in 2006. Some styles of music place an emphasis on certain of these fundamentals, while others place less emphasis on certain elements. To give one example, while Bebop (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebop)-era jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) makes use of very complex chords, including altered dominants (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_dominant) and challenging chord progressions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_progression), with chords changing two or more times per bar and keys changing several times in a tune, funk (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk) places most of its emphasis on rhythm and groove (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groove_%28music%29), with entire songs based around a vamp (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostinato#Vamp) on a single chord. While Romantic era classical music from the mid- to late-1800s makes great use of dramatic changes of dynamics, from whispering pianissimo sections to thunderous fortissimo sections, some entire Baroque dance suites for harpsichord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpsichord) from the early 1700s may use a single dynamic. To give another example, while some art music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music) pieces, such as symphonies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony) are very long, some pop songs are just a few minutes long.

Description of elements of music Pitch and melody Pitch (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29) is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note or tone is “higher” or “lower” than another musical sound, note or tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccolo) note or whistling (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistling) tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_drum). We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody), basslines (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassline) and chords (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_%28music%29). Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano) than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_cymbal) that is struck.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Popgoesweasel.jpg)

The melody to the traditional song “Pop Goes the Weasel (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_Goes_the_Weasel)” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pop_Goes_the_Weasel.ogg) Play (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Pop_Goes_the_Weasel.ogg) (help·info) A melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody) (also called a “tune”) is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in succession (one after the other), often in a rising and falling pattern. The notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_scale) or modes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_mode). Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song. The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the notes of a single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_%28music%29) of a given song. For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C major) may have a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the individual notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B and C; these are the “white notes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_notes)” on a piano keyboard. On the other hand, Bebop (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebop)-era jazz from the 1940s and contemporary music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_music) from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies with many chromatic notes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_note) (i.e., notes in addition to the notes of the major scale; on a piano, a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard, including the “white notes” and “black notes” and unusual scales, such as the whole tone scale (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_tone_scale) (a whole tone scale in the key of C would contain the notes C, D, E, F, G and A). A low, deep musical line played by bass instruments such as double bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bass), electric bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bass) or tuba (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuba) is called a bassline (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassline).

Harmony and chords

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sol7_accordo_chitarra_G7_guitar_chord.jpg) When musicians play three or more different notes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_note) at the same time, this creates a chord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_%28music%29). In Western music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture#Music), including classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music), pop music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music), rock music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music) and many related styles, the most common chords are triads (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triad_%28music%29)– three notes usually played at the same time. The most commonly used chords are the major chord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_chord) and the minor chord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_chord). An example of a major chord is the three pitches C, E and G. An example of a minor chord is the three pitches A, C and E. (Pictured is a guitar player (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_player) performing a chord on a guitar). Harmony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony) refers to the “vertical” sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_%28music%29). Usually this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of a chord). In music written using the system of major-minor tonality (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality) (“keys”), which includes most classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music) written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the scale used, which centres around the “home note” or tonic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic_%28music%29) of the key. Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song) are written so that all the music is in a single key. More complex Classical, pop and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in some cases three or more keys). Classical music from the Romantic era (written from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys, as does jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz), especially Bebop (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebop) jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or “home note” of a song may change every four bars or even every two bars.

Rhythm Rhythm (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm) is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time). Meter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_%28music%29) animates time in regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_%28music%29), which in Western classical, popular and traditional music often group notes in sets of two (e.g., 2/4 time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as Waltz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltz) time, or 3/8 time), or four (e.g., 4/4 time). Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces often (but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping. Notable exceptions exist, such as the backbeat (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbeat) used in much Western pop and rock, in which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats (called 4/4 time or common time (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_time)) will have accents on beats two and four, which are typically performed by the drummer on the snare drum (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snare_drum), a loud and distinctive-sounding percussion instrument (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussion_instrument). In pop and rock, the rhythm parts of a song are played by the rhythm section (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_section), which includes chord-playing instruments (e.g., electric guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar), acoustic guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_guitar), piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano), or other keyboard instruments (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_instrument)), a bass instrument (typically electric bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bass) or for some styles such as jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) and bluegrass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluegrass_%28music%29), double bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bass)) and a drum kit (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_kit) player.

Texture Musical texture (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_texture) is the overall sound of a piece of music or song. The texture of a piece or sing is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall nature of the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see common types below). For example, a thick texture contains many ‘layers’ of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section, or another brass. The thickness also is affected by the amount and the richness of the instruments. Texture is commonly described according to the number of and relationship between parts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_%28music%29) or lines of music: monophony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophony): a single melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody) (or “tune”) with neither instrumental accompaniment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment) nor a harmony part (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony_part). A mother singing a lullaby (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lullaby) to her baby would be an example. heterophony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterophony): two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same melody, but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the melody or adding different ornaments (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornament_%28music%29) to the melody. Two bluegrass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluegrass_music) fiddlers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddler) playing the same traditional (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_music) fiddle tune together will typically each vary the melody a bit and each add different ornaments. polyphony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony): multiple independent melody lines that interweave together, which are sung or played at the same time. Choral (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir) music written in the Renaissance music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_music) era was typically written in this style. A round (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_%28music%29), which is a song such as “Row, Row, Row Your Boat (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row,_Row,_Row_Your_Boat)“, which different groups of singers all start to sing at a different time, is a simple example of polyphony. homophony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophony): a clear melody supported by chordal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_%28music%29) accompaniment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment). Most Western popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) songs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song) from the 19th century onward are written in this texture. Music that contains a large number of independent parts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_%28music%29) (e.g., a double concerto (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto) accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines) is generally said to have a “thicker” or “denser” texture than a work with few parts (e.g., a solo flute (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flute) melody accompanied by a single cello (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello)).

Timbre or “tone color” Timbre, sometimes called “color” or “tone color” is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument.[19] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-19) Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oboe), piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano), violin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin) or electric guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar). Even if different players of the same instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embouchure)), different types of accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon players) or strings made out of different materials for string players (e.g., gut strings (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_string) versus steel strings (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_strings)). Even two instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might hold the bow differently). The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include the spectrum (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum), envelope (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_%28waves%29) and overtones (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overtone) of a note or musical sound. For electric (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology_%28electric%29) instruments developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar), electric bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bass) and electric piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_piano), the performer can also change the tone by adjusting equalizer controls (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_equalizer), tone controls on the instrument, and by using electronic effects units (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_unit) such as distortion (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion_%28music%29) pedals. The tone of the electric Hammond organ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ) is controlled by adjusting drawbars (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ#Drawbars).

Expression

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20110921-FSIS-RBN-6084_-_Flickr_-_USDAgov.jpg) Singers add expression to the melodies they sing using many methods, including changing the tone of their singing, adding vibrato (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrato) to certain notes, or emphasizing important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#88306425) words in the lyrics. Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the melody and its accompaniment. Performers, including singers and instrumentalists, can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding phrasing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_phrasing), by adding effects such as vibrato (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrato) (with voice and some instruments, such as guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar), violin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin), brass instruments and woodwinds), dynamics (the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo fluctuations (e.g., ritardando (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritardando) or accelerando (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerando), which are, respectively slowing down and speeding up the tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermata) on a cadence (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadence_%28music%29), and by changing the articulation of the notes (e.g., making notes more pronounced or accented, by making notes more legato (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legato), which means smoothly connected, or by making notes shorter).

Form

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jingle_Bells_refrain_vector.svg) Sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music) notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation) for the chorus (refrain) of the Christmas song “Jingle Bells (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingle_Bells)” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jingle_Bells_refrain_vector.mid) Play (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Jingle_Bells_refrain_vector.mid) (help·info) In music, form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_form) describes how the overall structure or plan of a song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song) or piece of music,[20] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-20) and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.[21] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-21) In the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley) songs and Broadway musical (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre) songs were often in AABA (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AABA_form) 32 bar form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32_bar_form), in which the A sections repeated the same eight bar melody and the B section provided a contrasting melody and/or harmony for 8 bars. From the 1960s onward, Western pop and rock songs are often in verse-chorus form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse-chorus_form), which is based around a sequence of verse (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_%28popular_music%29) and chorus (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorus_%28song%29) (“refrain”) sections, with new lyrics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics) for most verses and repeating lyrics for the choruses. Popular music often makes use of strophic form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophic_form), sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_bar_blues).[citation needed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Music), Percy Scholes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Scholes) defines musical form as “a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration.”[22] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-22) Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugue), the invention (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_%28musical_composition%29), sonata-allegro (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata_form), canon (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_%28music%29), strophic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophic), theme and variations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_and_variations), and rondo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rondo). Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugue) (although musicologist Alfred Mann (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Mann_%28musicologist%29) emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.[23] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-23)) Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programme_music)), it is said to be through-composed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-composed). Such is often the case with a fantasia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasia_%28music%29), prelude (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelude_%28music%29), rhapsody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsody_%28music%29), etude (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etude) (or study), symphonic poem (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphonic_poem), Bagatelle (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagatelle_%28music%29), impromptu (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impromptu), etc. [citation needed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as “sectional, developmental, or variational.”[24] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-24) SECTIONAL FORM This form is built from a sequence of clear-cut units[25] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-25) that may be referred to by letters but also often have generic names such as introduction (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_%28music%29) and coda (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coda_%28music%29), exposition, development and recapitulation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recapitulation_%28music%29), verse, chorus or refrain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrain), and bridge (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_%28music%29). Introductions and codas, when they are no more than that, are frequently excluded from formal analysis. All such units may typically be eight measures long. Sectional forms include: STROPHIC FORM Main article: Strophic form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophic_form) This form is defined by its “unrelieved repetition” (AAAA…). MEDLEY Medley (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medley_%28music%29), potpourri (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potpourri_%28music%29) is the extreme opposite, that of “unrelieved variation”: it is simply an indefinite sequence of self-contained sections (ABCD…), sometimes with repeats (AABBCCDD…). Examples include orchestral overtures (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overture), which are sometimes no more than a string of the best tunes of the musical theatre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre) show or opera (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera) to come. BINARY FORM Main article: Binary form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_form)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_form.png) Binary form in major and minor keys. Each section must be at least three phrases long.[26] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-26) This form uses two sections (AB…), each often repeated (AABB…). In 18th-century Western classical music, “simple binary” form was often used for dances and carried with it the convention that the two sections should be in different musical keys (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_key) but same rhythm, duration and tone. The alternation of two tunes gives enough variety to permit a dance to be extended for as long as desired. TERNARY FORM Main article: Ternary form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_form) This form has three parts. In Western classical music a simple ternary form has a third section that is a recapitulation of the first (ABA). Often, the first section is repeated (AABA). This approach was popular in the 18th-century operatic aria (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aria),[citation needed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] and was called da capo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_capo) (i.e. “repeat from the top”) form. Later, it gave rise to the 32-bar song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty-two-bar_form), with the B section then often referred to as the “middle eight”. A song has more need than a dance of a self-contained form with a beginning and an end of course. R ONDO FORM Main article: Rondo form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rondo_form) This form has a recurring theme alternating with different (usually contrasting) sections called “episodes”. It may be asymmetrical (ABACADAEA) or symmetrical (ABACABA). A recurring section, especially the main theme, is sometimes more thoroughly varied, or else one episode may be a “development” of it. A similar arrangement is the ritornello (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritornello) form of the Baroque concerto grosso (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto_grosso). Arch form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_form) (ABCBA) resembles a symmetrical rondo without intermediate repetitions of the main theme. It is normally used in a round. V ARIATIONAL FORM Main article: Variation (music) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variation_%28music%29) Variational forms are those in which variation is an important formative element. Theme and Variations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_and_Variations): a theme (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_%28music%29), which in itself can be of any shorter form (binary, ternary, etc.), forms the only “section” and is repeated indefinitely (as in strophic form) but is varied each time (A,B,A,F,Z,A), so as to make a sort of sectional chain form. An important variant of this, much used in 17th-century British music and in the Passacaglia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passacaglia) and Chaconne (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaconne), was that of the ground bass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_bass) – a repeating bass theme or basso ostinato (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostinato) over and around which the rest of the structure unfolds, often, but not always, spinning polyphonic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony) or contrapuntal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterpoint) threads, or improvising divisions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_%28music%29) and descants (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descant). This is said by Scholes (1977) to be the form par excellence of unaccompanied or accompanied solo instrumental music. The Rondo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rondo) is often found with sections varied (AA 1BA 2CA 3BA 4) or (ABA 1CA 2B1A). D EVELOPMENTAL FORM Main article: Musical development (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_development) Developmental forms are built directly from smaller units, such as motifs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_%28music%29). A well-known Classical piece with a motif is Beethoven’s fifth symphony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beethoven%27s_fifth_symphony), which starts with three short repeated notes and then a long note. In Classical pieces that are based on motifs, the motif is usually combined, varied and worked out in different ways, perhaps having a symmetrical or arch-like underpinning and a progressive development from beginning to end. By far the most important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#25368151) developmental form in Western classical music is Sonata form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata_form). This form, also known as sonata form, first movement form, compound binary, ternary and a variety of other names,[example needed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE)] developed from the binary-formed dance movement described above but is almost always cast in a greater ternary form having the nominal subdivisions of Exposition, Development and Recapitulation. Usually, but not always, the “A” parts (Exposition (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition_%28music%29) and Recapitulation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recapitulation_%28music%29), respectively) may be subdivided into two or three themes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_%28music%29) or theme groups which are taken asunder and recombined to form the “B” part (the development (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_development)) – thus e. g. (AabB[dev. of a and/or b]A 1ab1+coda). This developmental form is generally confined to certain sections of the piece, as to the middle section of the first movement of a sonata, though 19th-century composers such as Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner made valiant efforts to derive large-scale works purely or mainly from the motif.

History Further information: History of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music)

Prehistoric eras Main article: Prehistoric music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_music)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fl%C3%BBte_pal%C3%A9olithique_%28mus%C3%A9e_national_de_Slov%C3%A9nie,_Ljubljana%29_%289420310527%29.jpg) A bone flute which is over 41,000 years old. Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic) archaeology sites. Flutes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_flutes) are often discovered, carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced; these are thought to have been blown at one end like the Japanese shakuhachi (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakuhachi). The Divje Babe flute (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute), carved from a cave bear (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_bear) femur (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femur), is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_instrument), such as the Ravanahatha (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravanahatha), have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization) archaeological (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology) sites.[27] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-27) India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music) (marga) are found in the Vedas (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas), ancient scriptures of the Hindu (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu) tradition.[28] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-brown-28) The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China) and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC.[29] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-wilkinson-29) The Hurrian song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurrian_song), found on clay tablets (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet) that date back to approximately 1400 BC, is the oldest surviving notated work of music.

Ancient Egypt Main article: Music of Egypt (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Egypt)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_004.jpg)

Musicians of Amun (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amun), Tomb of Nakht (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakht), 18th Dynasty (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt), Western Thebes The ancient Egyptians (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptians) credited one of their gods, Thoth (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoth), with the invention of music, with Osiris (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiris) in turn used as part of his effort to civilize the world. The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic period (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt), but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom) when harps (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harp), flutes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flute) and double clarinets (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_clarinet) were played.[30] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-30) Percussion instruments (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussion_instrument), lyres (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyre) and lutes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lute) were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt). Cymbals (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbal)[31] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-ucl-31) frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt) today. Egyptian folk music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music), including the traditional Sufi dhikr (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr) rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_genre) to ancient Egyptian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt) music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments.[32] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-32)[33] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-33)

Asian cultures

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma,_Galaxy_of_Musicians.jpg) Indian women dressed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#93926389) in regional attire playing a variety of musical instruments popular in different parts of India GANGUBAI HANGAL (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/GANGUBAI_HANGAL) D URGA (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/D URGA_%28RAGA%29) See also: Music of Iran (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Iran), Music of Afghanistan (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Afghanistan), Music of Tajikistan (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Tajikistan), Music of Sri Lanka (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Sri_Lanka), and Music of Uzbekistan (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Uzbekistan) Indian classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music) is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.[34] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-34) The Indus Valley civilization (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization) has sculptures that show dance[35] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-35) and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappa) and Mohenjo Daro (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-daro) by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler).[36] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-36) The Rigveda (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda) has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the metre and the mode of chanting.[37] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-37) Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line or raga (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raga) rhythmically organized through talas (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tala_%28music%29). Silappadhikaram (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silappadhikaram) by Ilango Adigal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilango_Adigal) provides information about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale.[38] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-38) Hindustani music was influenced by the Persian performance practices of the Afghan Mughals. Carnatic music, popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are also many songs emphasising love and other social issues. Asian music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_music) covers the music cultures of Arabia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_music), Central Asia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asian_music), East Asia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_music), South Asia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_music), and Southeast Asia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asian_music). Chinese classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_classical_music), the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching over around three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 + 7 = 12) as does European-influenced music. Persian music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_traditional_music) is the music of Persia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) and Persian language countries: musiqi, the science and art of music, and muzik, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983).

References in the Bible Main article: History of music in the biblical period (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music_in_the_biblical_period)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David-harp.jpg) “David with his harp” Paris Psalter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Psalter), c. 960, Constantinople (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople) Music and theatre scholars studying the history and anthropology of Semitic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_people) and early Judeo-Christian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JudeoChristian) culture have discovered common links in theatrical and musical activity between the classical cultures of the Hebrews (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrews) and those of later Greeks (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks) and Romans (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome). The common area of performance is found in a “social phenomenon called litany (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litany),” a form of prayer consisting of a series of invocations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invocation) or supplications (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplication). The Journal of Religion and Theatre notes that among the earliest forms of litany, “Hebrew litany was accompanied by a rich musical tradition:”[39] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-JRT-39) “While Genesis 4.21 identifies Jubal as the “father of all such as handle the harp and pipe,” the Pentateuch is nearly silent about the practice and instruction of music in the early life of Israel. Then, in I Samuel 10 and the texts that follow, a curious thing happens. “One finds in the biblical text,” writes Alfred Sendrey, “a sudden and unexplained upsurge of large choirs and orchestras, consisting of thoroughly organized and trained musical groups, which would be virtually inconceivable without lengthy, methodical preparation.” This has led some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel was the patriarch of a school, which taught not only prophets and holy men, but also sacred-rite musicians. This public music school, perhaps the earliest in recorded history, was not restricted to a priestly class—which is how the shepherd boy David appears on the scene as a minstrel to King Saul.”[39] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-JRT-39)

Antiquity Major ancient Western cultures (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture) have had a major influence on the development of music. The history of music in Western cultures can be traced back to Ancient Greek times. Ancient Greek society produced the first Western philosophers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher), some of whom wrote theories about music. Music was an important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#66819983) part of Ancient Greek culture, and in turn, influenced the Ancient Roman culture.

Ancient Greece Music was an important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#89430015) part of social and cultural life in Ancient Greece (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece). Musicians and singers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer) played a prominent role in Greek theater (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece).[40] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-grove-40) Mixed-gender choruses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir) performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies.[41] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-west-41) Instruments included the double-reed aulos (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulos) and a plucked string instrument (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_instrument), the lyre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyre), principally the special kind called a kithara (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kithara). Music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Greece) was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of music development. Greek music theory (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory) included the Greek musical modes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_mode), that eventually became the basis for Western religious (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_music) and classical (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_classical_music) music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire), Eastern Europe (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe), and the Byzantine Empire (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire) changed Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_epitaph) is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world. The first work written on the subject of music theory is Harmonika Stoicheia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementa_harmonica).[42] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_noteAristoxenus.2C_Henry_Stewart_Macran-42)

Middle Ages LÉONIN (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/L%C3%A9ONIN) OR PÉROTIN (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/P%C3%A9ROTIN) BREVES DIES HOMINIS

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head_of_Christ1.jpg) Musical notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation) from a Catholic Missal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missal), c. 1310–1320 The medieval (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Music) era (476 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages), started with the introduction of monophonic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophony) (single melodic line) chanting (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_chant) into Roman Catholic Church (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church) services. Musical notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation) was used since Ancient times in Greek culture (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece), but in the Middle Ages, notation was first introduced by the Catholic church (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_church) so that the chant melodies could be written down, to facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the entire Catholic empire. The only European Medieval repertory that has been found in written form from before 800 is the monophonic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophony) liturgical (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy) plainsong (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainsong) chant of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_chant). Alongside these traditions of sacred (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_music) and church music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_music) there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_music) (non-religious songs). Examples of composers from this period are Léonin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9onin), Pérotin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9rotin) and Guillaume de Machaut (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut).

Renaissance T.L. DE V ICTORIA (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/TOM %C3%A1S_LUIS_DE_V ICTORIA) A MICUS MEUS

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filippino_Lippi_001.jpg) Allegory of Music, by Filippino Lippi (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippino_Lippi) Renaissance music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_music) (c. 1400 to 1600) was more focused on secular (non-religious) themes, such as courtly love (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtly_love). Around 1450, the printing press (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press) was invented, which made printed sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music) much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. Musicians and singers often worked for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#65099919) patron of music. By the middle of the 15th century, composers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer) wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers from this era include Guillaume Dufay (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_Dufay), Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina), Thomas Morley (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Morley), and Orlande de Lassus (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlande_de_Lassus). As musical activity shifted from the church to the aristocratic courts, kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading important composers came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France. They are called the Franco-Flemish composers. They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany, England, and Spain.

Baroque J.S. BACH (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/JOHANN_SEBASTIAN_BACH) TOCCATA AND FUGUE (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/TOCCATA_AND_FUGUE_IN_D_MINOR,_BWV_565) The Baroque era of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_music) took place from 1600 to 1750, as the Baroque artistic style (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque) flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded in its range and complexity. Baroque music began when the first operas (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera) (dramatic solo vocal music accompanied by orchestra (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra)) were written. During the Baroque era, polyphonic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony) contrapuntal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterpoint) music, in which multiple, simultaneous independent melody lines were used, remained important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#43394483) (counterpoint was important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#96098332) in the vocal music of the Medieval era). German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble) including strings (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_section), brass (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass_instrument), and woodwinds (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodwind_instrument), as well as for choirs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir) and keyboard instruments such as pipe organ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_%28music%29), harpsichord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpsichord), and clavichord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clavichord). During this period several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugue), the invention (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_%28musical_composition%29), the sonata (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata), and the concerto (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto).[43] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-sdsu-43) The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly ornamented. Important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#82676261) composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach), George Frideric Handel (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel), Georg Philipp Telemann (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Philipp_Telemann) and Vivaldi (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivaldi).

Classicism W.A. MOZART (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/WOLFGANG_A MADEUS_MOZART) SYMPHONY 40 G-MOLL (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/SYMPHONY_N O._40_%28MOZART%29)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mozart_family_crop.jpg) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart) (seated at the keyboard) was a child prodigy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_prodigy) virtuoso performer on the piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano) and violin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin). Even before he became a celebrated composer, he was widely known as a gifted performer and improviser. The music of the Classical period (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_period_%28music%29) (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were seen as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome: the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression. (Note: the music from the Classical period (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_period_%28music%29) should not be confused with Classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music) in general, a term which refers to Western art music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music) from the 5th century to the 2000s, which includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods). Music from the Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture than the Baroque music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_music) which preceded it. The main style was homophony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophony),[44] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-44) where a prominent melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody) and a subordinate chordal accompaniment (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment) part are clearly distinct. Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were developed, and the fortepiano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortepiano), the forerunner to the modern piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano), replaced the Baroque era harpsichord (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpsichord) and pipe organ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ) as the main keyboard instrument (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_instrument). Importance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#63563037)was given to instrumental (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental) music. It was dominated by further development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata), the concerto (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto), and the symphony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony). Others main kinds were the trio (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trio_%28music%29), string quartet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_quartet), serenade (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serenade) and divertimento (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divertimento). The sonata was the most important and developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based on the structure of the sonata. The instruments used chamber music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_music) and orchestra (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra) became more standardized. In place of the basso continuo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basso_continuo) group of the Baroque era, which consisted of harpsichord, organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the discretion of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello, theorbo, serpent), Classical chamber groups used specified, standardized instruments (e.g., a string quartet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_quartet) would be performed by two violins, a viola and a cello). The Baroque era improvised chord-playing of the continuo keyboardist or lute player was gradually phased out between 1750 and 1800. One of the most important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#72935657) changes made in the Classical period was the development of public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes. The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of large public performance spaces. Symphonic music including symphonies, musical accompaniment to ballet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet) and mixed vocal/instrumental genres such as opera (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera) and oratorio (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oratorio) became more popular. The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach), Christoph Willibald Gluck (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck), Johann Christian Bach (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Christian_Bach), Joseph Haydn (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Haydn), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart), Ludwig van Beethoven (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven) and Franz Schubert (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Schubert). Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism.

Romanticism

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moritz_von_Schwind_Schubertiade.jpg) The piano was the centrepiece of social activity for middle-class urbanites in the 19th century (Moritz von Schwind (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz_von_Schwind), 1868). The man at the piano is composer Franz Schubert (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Schubert). R. WAGNER (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/R ICHARD_WAGNER) D IE WALKÜRE (HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/D IE_WALK%C3%BC RE) Romantic music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_music) (c. 1810 to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements in common with the Romantic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism) styles in literature and painting of the era. Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature. Romantic music expanded beyond the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic expressive pieces and songs. Romantic composers such as Wagner (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner) and Brahms (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahms) attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music to describe deeper truths or human feelings. With symphonic tone poems (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_poem), composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music. Some composers promoted nationalistic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism) pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music). The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over tradition. Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncretism) of exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature)), history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself. Romantic love (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_love) or longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period. In some cases the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used (e.g., the sonata form (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata_form) used in string quartets (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_quartet) and symphonies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony)), but these forms were expanded and altered. In many cases, new approaches were explored for existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, new forms were created that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter. Composers continued to develop opera (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera) and ballet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet) music, exploring new styles and themes.[40] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-grove-40) In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven) and Franz Schubert (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Schubert) introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven’s case, short motifs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_%28music%29), developed organically, came to replace melody (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody) as the most significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29)). Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky), Antonín Dvořák (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k), and Gustav Mahler (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Mahler) used more unusual chords (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_%28music%29) and more dissonance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance) to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much longer musical works. During the late Romantic period, composers explored dramatic chromatic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_%28music%29) alterations of tonality (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality), such as extended chords (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_chord) and altered chords (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_chord), which created new sound “colours”. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra), and the industrial revolution (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution) helped to create better instruments, creating a more powerful sound. Public concerts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert) became an important part of well-to-do urban (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_culture) society. It also saw a new diversity in theatre music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_music), including operetta (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operetta), and musical comedy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy) and other forms of musical theatre (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre).[40] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-grove-40)

20th- and 21st-century music Main article: 20th-century music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_music)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PharoahSanders.jpg) A jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) group consisting of double bassist Reggie Workman (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggie_Workman), tenor saxophone player Pharoah Sanders (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders), and drummer Idris Muhammad (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_Muhammad), performing in 1978 In the 19th century, one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music), which middle class (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_class) amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano) or other common instruments, such as violin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin). With 20th-century music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_music), the invention of new electric technologies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology_%28electric%29) such as radio broadcasting (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_broadcasting) and the mass market (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_market) availability of gramophone records (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record) meant that sound recordings (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording) of songs and pieces heard by listeners (either on the radio or on their record player) became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces. There was a vast increase in music listening as the radio (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio) gained popularity and phonographs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph) were used to replay and distribute music, because whereas in the 19th century, the focus on sheet music restricted access to new music to the middle class and upper class (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_class) people who could read music and who owned pianos and instruments. In the 20th century, anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera), symphonies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony) and big bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_band) right in their own living room. This allowed lower-income people, who would never be able to afford an opera or symphony concert ticket to hear this music. It also meant that people could hear music from different parts of the country, or even different parts of the world, even if they could not afford to travel to these locations. This helped to spread musical styles. The focus of art music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music) in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. The horrors of World War I (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I) influenced many of the arts, including music, and some composers began exploring darker, harsher sounds. Traditional music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_music) styles such as jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) and folk music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music) were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music). Igor Stravinsky (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky), Arnold Schoenberg (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg), and John Cage (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cage) were all influential composers in 20th-century art music. The invention of sound recording (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording) and the ability to edit music gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousmatic)[45] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-45) and Musique concrète (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musique_concr%C3%A8te) schools of electronic composition. Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitrack_recording) system had a major influence on rock music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music), because it could do much more than record a band’s performance. Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_producer) could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance. Jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) evolved and became an important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#33180951) genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that century, rock music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music) did the same. Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American) communities in the Southern United States (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States) from a confluence of African (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Africa) and European (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe) music traditions. The style’s West African (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa) pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_note), improvisation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvisation), polyrhythms (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyrhythm), syncopation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncopation), and the swung note (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swung_note).[46] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-46) From its early development until the present, jazz has also incorporated music from 19th- and 20th-century American popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_music).[47] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-47) Jazz has, from its early-20th-century inception, spawned a variety of subgenres, ranging from New Orleans (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans) Dixieland (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixieland) (1910s) to 1970s and 1980s-era jazz-rock fusion (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_fusion). Rock music is a genre of popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) that developed in the 1960s from 1950s rock and roll (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_roll), rockabilly (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockabilly), blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues), and country music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music).[48] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-48) The sound of rock often revolves around the electric guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar) or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbeat_%28music%29) laid down by a rhythm section (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_section) of electric bass guitar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_guitar), drums (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_kit), and keyboard instruments such as organ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_%28music%29), piano (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano), or, since the 1970s, analog synthesizers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_synthesizer) and digital ones and computers since the 1990s. Along with the guitar or keyboards, saxophone (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxophone) and blues-style harmonica (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonica) are used as soloing instruments. In its “purest form,” it “has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody.”[49] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-49) In the late 1960s and early 1970s, it branched out into different subgenres, ranging from blues rock (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues_rock) and jazz-rock fusion (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_fusion) to heavy metal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_music) and punk rock (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock), as well as the more classical influenced genre of progressive rock (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_rock) and several types of experimental rock (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_rock) genres.

Performance Main article: Performance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naxi_Musicians_I.jpg) Chinese Naxi (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhi) musicians

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Assyrianfolk.jpg) Assyrians (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_people) playing zurna (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurna) and Davul (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davul), the instruments that go back thousands of years. Performance is the physical expression of music, which occurs when a song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song) is sung or when a piano piece, electric guitar melody, symphony, drum beat or other musical part (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_%28music%29) is played by musicians. In classical music, a musical work is written in music notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_notation) by a composer (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer) and then it is performed once the composer is satisfied with its structure and instrumentation. However, as it gets performed, the interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change. In classical music, instrumental performers, singers or conductors may gradually make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a piece. In popular and traditional music, the performers have a lot more freedom to make changes to the form of a song or piece. As such, in popular and traditional music styles, even when a band plays a cover song (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_song), they can make changes to it such as adding a guitar solo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_solo) to or inserting an introduction. A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed (practiced)–which is the norm in classical music, with jazz big bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_band) and many popular music styles–or improvised (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation) over a chord progression (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_progression) (a sequence of chords), which is the norm in small jazz (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) and blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues) groups. Rehearsals of orchestras (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra), concert bands (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_band) and choirs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir) are led by a conductor (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conducting). Rock, blues and jazz bands are usually led by the bandleader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandleader). A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song or piece by the performers until it can be sung and/or played correctly and, if it is a song or piece for more than one musician, until the parts are together from a rhythmic and tuning perspective. Improvisation is the creation of a musical idea–a melody or other musical line–created on the spot, often based on scales or pre-existing melodic riffs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riff). Many cultures have strong traditions of solo (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo_%28music%29) performance (in which one singer or instrumentalist performs), such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western art-music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali), include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing to highly planned and organised performances such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, classical music festivals (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_festival) or music competitions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_competition). Chamber music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_music), which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than large symphonic works.

Oral and aural tradition Many types of music, such as traditional blues (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues) and folk music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music) were not written down in sheet music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music); instead, they were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_history), from one musician or singer to another, or aurally, in which a performer learns a song “by ear (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playing_by_ear_%28music%29)“. When the composer of a song or piece is no longer known, this music is often classified as “traditional” or as a “folk song”. Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those that demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture’s history and stories may also be passed on by ear through song.

Ornamentation Main article: Ornament (music) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornament_%28music%29)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trill_example_ornaments.png) In a score or on a performer’s music part, this sign indicates that the musician should perform a trill (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_%28music%29)—a rapid alternation between two notes. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trill_example_ornaments.mid) Play (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Trill_example_ornaments.mid) (help·info) In music, an “ornament” is a decoration to a melody, bassline or other musical part. The detail included explicitly in the music notation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation) varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through the 19th centuries required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles. For example, in the 17th and 18th centuries, music notated for solo performers typically indicated a simple, unadorned melody. However, performers were expected to know how to add stylistically appropriate ornaments to add interest to the music, such as trills (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_%28music%29) and turns (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_%28music%29#Turn). In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without describing in detail how the performer should do this. The performer was expected to know how to use tempo changes, accentuation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accent_%28music%29), and pauses (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_%28music%29) (among other devices) to obtain this “expressive” performance style. In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how they should play or sing the piece. In popular music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the “lead sheet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_sheet)” for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz ensemble (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_band) are expected to know how to “flesh out” this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.

Philosophy and aesthetics Main articles: Philosophy of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_music) and Aesthetics of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boldini,_Woman_in_Red.jpg) A painting by Boldini of a woman playing the piano. Philosophy of music is a subfield of philosophy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy). The philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music. The philosophical study of music has many connections with philosophical questions in metaphysics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics) and aesthetics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics). Some basic questions in the philosophy of music are: What is the definition of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_music)? (What are the necessary and sufficient conditions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions) for classifying something as music?) What is the relationship between music and mind? What does musical history reveal to us about the world? What is the connection between music and emotions? What is meaning in relation to music? In ancient times, such as with the Ancient Greeks (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece), the aesthetics of music explored the mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization. In the 18th century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing music, and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment (plaisir (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaisir) and jouissance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jouissance)) of music. The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes attributed to Baumgarten (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten) in the 18th century, followed by Kant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant). Through their writing, the ancient term ‘aesthetics’, meaning sensory perception, received its present-day connotation. In the 2000s, philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment. For example, music’s capacity to express emotion has been a central issue. In the 20th century, important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#83712085) contributions were made by Peter Kivy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kivy), Jerrold Levinson (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerrold_Levinson), Roger Scruton (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Scruton), and Stephen Davies (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Davies_%28philosopher%29). However, many musicians, music critics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_criticism), and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music. In the 19th century, a significant debate arose between Eduard Hanslick (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick), a music critic and musicologist, and composer Richard Wagner (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner) regarding whether music can express meaning. Harry Partch (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Partch) and some other musicologists (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicologist), such as Kyle Gann (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Gann), have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtonal_music) and the usage of alternate musical scales (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_scale). Also many modern composers like La Monte Young (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Monte_Young), Rhys Chatham (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhys_Chatham) and Glenn Branca (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Branca) paid much attention to a scale called just intonation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_intonation). It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions), intellect (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellect), and psychology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology); it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. The philosopher Plato (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato) suggests in the Republic that music has a direct effect on the soul. Therefore, he proposes that in the ideal regime music would be closely regulated by the state. (Book VII) There has been a strong tendency in the aesthetics of music to emphasize the paramount importance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#17442419) of compositional structure; however, other issues concerning the aesthetics of music include lyricism (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics), harmony (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony), hypnotism (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotism), emotiveness (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion), temporal dynamics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_Dynamics_of_Music_and_Language), resonance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance), playfulness, and color (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre_%28music%29) (see also musical development (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_development)).

Psychology Main article: Music psychology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_psychology) Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior) and experience (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience).[50] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-Tan-50) Research in this field and its subfields are primarily empirical (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research); their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation) of and interaction with human participants (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_subject_research). In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music performance (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_technique), composition (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_composition), education (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_education), criticism (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_criticism), and therapy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_therapy), as well as investigations of human aptitude (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aptitude), skill (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill), intelligence (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence), creativity (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity), and social behavior (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior).

Cognitive neuroscience of music Main article: Cognitive neuroscience of music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music)

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brodmann_41_42.png) The primary auditory cortex (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_auditory_cortex) is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution. Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. The field is distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging) (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation) (TMS), magnetoencephalography (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography) (MEG), electroencephalography (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography) (EEG), and positron emission tomography (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography) (PET).

Cognitive musicology Main article: Cognitive musicology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_musicology) Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science) concerned with computationally modeling (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model) musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.[51] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-51) The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in artificial intelligence (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence) and cognitive science (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science).[52] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-52) This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.[53] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-53) This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.[54] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-54)

Psychoacoustics Main article: Psychoacoustics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics) Further information: Hearing (sense) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_%28sense%29) Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound) perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological) and physiological (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological) responses associated with sound (including speech (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech) and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics).

Evolutionary musicology Main article: Evolutionary musicology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology) Evolutionary musicology concerns the “origins of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution”, and “music evolution and human evolution”.[55] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-Brown.2C_Merker.2C_Wallin-55) It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_theory). Charles Darwin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin) speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolanguage),[56] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-56) a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[57] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-57)[58] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-58)[59] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-59) An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_evolution); a type of “auditory cheesecake” that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.[60] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-60) This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.[61] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-61)[62] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-62)[63] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_noteSteven_Pinker.27s_Cheesecake_For_The_Mind-63)

Culture in music cognition Main article: Culture in music cognition (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_in_music_cognition) See also: Ethnomusicology (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomusicology) An individual’s culture (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture) or ethnicity (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicity) plays a role in their music cognition (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_cognition), including their preferences (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_music_preference), emotional reaction (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_emotion), and musical memory (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music-related_memory). Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults’ classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[64] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-Soley_2010-64)[65] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-Balkwill_2004-65) Additionally, individuals’ musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music. Sumber : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music) N OV2222 N OVEMBER 2016 • BY ALFBRAM • POSTED IN MUSIC • COMMENTS: + BLOG DI WORDPRESS.COM.