CARLETON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF BUSINESS MENTORING: [PDF]

CARLETON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF BUSINESS MENTORING: An Examination of the Mentoring Constmct fkom the Perspective of Protégé usiag the Act Frequency Approach

Brian Russeli B.Corn.('onours)1998

In partialhifilment of the rquirements for the degree of Mrister in Management Studies

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2001, Brian Russell

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Abstract This thcsis examined the mentoring coastruct from the perspective of protégés using the act frequency approach. The objectives of this researcb were to clarify the roles of mentoring by using the act frequency approach, and to determine which mentoring behaviours are most important in order to incorporate them in a new sale of m e n t o ~ gand tben to attempt to validate the scale.

Thirty-six behaviors were identifid by protégés as important to the constmct of mentoring.

Two scales of mentoring wen creatcd: a 30-item scale, and a 23-item scale. Nine roles of mentoring were identifiai by junior managers who have been mentored: feedback, integrity, openness, professional growth, encouragement, support, knowledge, coach, and career and goal attainment. Of these nine roles, the roles of integrity and knowledge were viewed as important by junior managers who have been mentond. Recommendations for futureresearcb w m ma&.

Acknowledgments They say that it takes a village to raise a child and just like raising a child, there have been many people who have helped me complete my research. 1would like to take this opportunityto

thank my thesis supervisor, Professor Lorraine Dyke, for her expertise, her tirne, her patience and support. 1would also like to thank my thesis cornmittee members Rofessor Dsivid Cray, Professor Moses Kiggundu, and Professor Tim Pychyl for their advice and support.

I would like to thank aii of my fiiends for helping me realize that there is more to lift than school and nsearch on the weekend. 1would especially like to thank Shilchar Agarwal, Jason Barton, and Jason Ianni for giving me their tirne and support.

Last but not lest 1would like to th& my fami1y my parents for the5 continucd love and support;my b t h e r Winston for doing whatever it took to help me finish; my brother Jcffrey for

making me iaugh no maner how bad the situation was; al1 my relatives for their love and suppott; and my grandmother Mary Elizabeth Samuel for her love, and hcr encouraging words.

Table of Contents 1

Introduction

Literature Review 2 2.1 Origins of the Term Mentor 2.2 Mentoring: Two Schools of Thought 2.3 Dimensions of the Mentoring Constnict 2.3.1 Mentor Roles 2.3.2 2.3.2.1

Functions of Mentoring Chmging Mentor Functions Throughout the Phases of the Mentoriug Relationship Dissension regardhg the Functions of Meatoring Fonnal vcrsus infonnal Mentoring Relationship Initiation Relationship Structure Processes in the Relationship Mentoring Outcornes Fonnal and I n f i a l Mentoring and Mentoring Outcomcs Mentoring and Gcnder Differences Conclusion Objectives of This Snidy

Methodology An Overview of the Act F'equency Procedure A Cornparison of the Act Fnquency Approach and Traditional Methods Criticisms of the Act Frequency Approach Samples Mesures Control Variables The Fou Phascs of the Study Phase I - Act Nomination Rupose and Proœduns Phase 1AnaIysis Phase 1Respondents

1 4

4 5 8 8 12

Phase II - Prototypicality Ratings Purpose and Procedures Phase Ii Analysis Phase IIRespondents Phase II Results Subsidiary Analysis hirpose and Procedures Analysis Subsidiary Anaiysis Respondents Subsidiary Analpis Results Phase ïii - Measure Validation Phase Ili Purpose and Procedures Mcasures Phase IiI Analysis Phase iHRespondcnts Phase ïü Results Item Cotrelation with Mentor Effectiveness Assesment of New Scales of Mentonng Validation of the New Mentorhg Scales Comlatims Between Mentoring and the Originai Outcome Variables Control variables and Outcornes Correlations Betwecn Mentoring and the Residualizad Outcome Variables Phase IV - Exploratory Classification Respondents Classification of Items Relationship of Clusters and Mentor Scales CorreIation of Clusters to Outcomes Summary of Results Discussion and Conclusions 6.1 Phasc 1and Phasc Ii 6.2 Phase III 6.3 Phase N Nine Roles and Rolcs fmm past researcb 6.3.1 6.3.1.1 Kram 63.1.2 Levinson 6.3.1.3 Burke 6.3.1.4 Leibowitz and Schlosberg 6.4.1 Conclusions h mh m this Research 6

50 50 52 52 54 59 59 61 61

62 66 66 68 69 69 71 71 75 75 76 77

80 82 83 84 87 90 93

6.4.2

7 7.1 7.2

Recommeadatiom for Future Rcseatch

kncfiis and Limitations of the Study Benefits of this Study Limitations of this Shidy

Table 1 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11

99 Unique Acts of M e n t o ~ g Act Frequency Items cumpared to Kram's Roles Act Frequency Items compared to Levinson et al.3 Roles Act Frequency Items compared to Burke's Roles Act Frequency Items compared to Leibowitz and Schlosberg's Roles Reliabilities for Outcome Measwes 30-item and 23-item seale Mentorhg Scales vs Outcome Variables Control Variables vs Outcome Variables Residualizcd Outcome Variables Outcome vs Mentor Scales New Clusters of Mentoring Items Cluster vs Mentor Scales Clusters vs Outcome Variables

List of Appendices Appcndix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Aependix F Appendix G G.1 Kram G.2 LEVinson

G3 Burke G.4 Leibowitz and Schlossberg Appendix H Appcndix 1

1 Introduction Carcer development is important to organizations. It helps its employees to develop their careers and to feel valued by the organization, and it helps employers to develop the skills they need to staff key positions. Through career âevelopment, the organization saves the costs of recruiting human resources from outside the organization. This contributes to the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the firm (Ulrich, 1997). Mentoring is an important career development twl that facilitates upward professional progression in organizations. Mentoring aliows organizations to integrate, develop, and retain their brightest employees (Hunt and Michael, 1983). According to Krarn (198S), mentors in growing organizations can k critical to the socialization of its new mcmbcrs.

In mature organizations, where hiring and promothg

are infrcquent, mentoring offm a creative alternative to keep managers who have plateaucd in their career involved with the organization. The outcornes of rnentoring can be both posiiive and negative for the protégé, the mentor, and the organization. The positive and the negative outcornes of mentoring are affected by the d e s and the functions that are pcrf'rmed by the mentor (Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, and MCKce, 1978; Leibowitz and Schiossberg, 1980; Burke, 1984; Kram, 1983, 198Sa; and Geiger, 1992); the type of mentorhg reiationship (Ragins and Cotton, 1998); and gender diffennces in the mentoring relationship (Noe, 1988; Dreher and Ash, 1990, Ogleusky* 1995; and Ragins and Cotton, 1998). Numerous studies have documented a positive impact of mentoring on protégés, mentors, and organizations. Former protégés are bttter educated, better paid, l e s ükely to

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leave the organization and have a Iiigher level of satisfaction with their work and their career progress flreasury Board, 1994). Mentoring relationships help young professionals develop

technicd skills, leam about the politics of the organization, develop cornpetencies and l e m how

to behave in order to succeed (Hunt and Michael, 1983). Mentm grow and develop professionally and pemnaily h m the mentoring experience (Galbraith, 1995). Mentors gain satisfaction by helping less expericnced individuals in their development and can njuvenate themsetves by interacting with protégés thus obtaining new idcas, theories, and skiils (Levinson et al., 1978; Hunt and Michael, 1983). Mentors also receive confirmation of îkir self worth and accepmce by passing on their wisdom and their experience to protégés. For

organizations,mentoring Unproves their recruifment efforts, increases communication w i t h the orgauization, increases productivity and cost effectiveness,speeds up the induction pmcess of new employets, and &ces training costs (Galbraith, 1995). Mentaring can also have negative outcornes for protégés, mentors,and organizations. For pmtégds, mentoring nlationships tbat end prematurely or that arc not complementary may result in a loss of self-estcem,fnisüation, blocked opportunities, a sense of betrayal or a loss of career time (Hunt and Micbael, 1983). For the mentor, the poor performance of a protégé rcflecîs M y for the mentor who has promoted a protégé. Frustration may also develop if the mentor cannot help the protégé reach their potentid. Moreover, envy and tesentment may

arise if the protige supasses the mentor (Hunt and Michael, 1983). For the organization, the negative outcomes of mentoring may include employees who are not satisfied, a dcmase in theh productivity at work, and highcr employee turnover tbat leads to i n A costs to the

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organization in terms of recruiting new talent (Galbraith, 1995).

The purpose of this study is to clar@ the construct of mentoring by basing this study on

reai life experienccs of people who are famiiiar with mentoring. Chapter Two of this thesis reviews the literature on mentoring to gain a better understanding of the research in this area. The goal of the literature revicw section is to identify shortcomingsof the research and to suggest the need for the present research. The third chapter outlines the objectives of this thesis. The fourth chapter covers the methodology and the procedures that were used in this study. Chapter Five describes the results found in the four phases of this study. Chapter Six is

a discussion of the implications of the results of the research. Chapter Seven outlines the benefits and the limitations of this research.

2 Literature Review This chapter is an examination of the mentoring literatwe. It begins with the origins of the tenn mentor, mentor d e s , the functions of mentoring, the types of mentors, mentoring and gender, and mentoring outcomes in order to gain a betttr understanding of the research that has been done in the area of mentoring. The empirid research is examined surnmarizingthe measurements that have been used and the important hdings, and iden-g

any shortcomings.

Finally, suggestions are made for future research. 2.1 Ocigins of the Term Mentor

There are several origins of the tenn mentor. In the epic m e ûdyscy by Homer, Mentor was a wise, faithful teacher and couaselor to the son of Odysseus, namcd Telemachus. Mentor's narne is now synonymousto the tenn loyai advisor (Oglensky, 1995). The origins of the tcrm mentor can also be traced back to the apprentice system of the medieval guilds. In this system, el& trained young men to becornt craftsmen, thus pmtecting the bmthcrhood of the craft and also sewing a gatekceping function (Oglcnsky, 1995). Thc familial and loving

connotations of the tcmi mentor arc infiucnced by the role that uncles played in primitive cultures in relation to nephews who were nearing adulthood. The uncle's mie was to usher his nephew through the ceremonid rites of passage (Oglensky, 1995). There is also a cocrcive connotation of @e tenn mentor which has origins in the patron iandholder system of nual communities. By gathering favors to bis clients, the patron developed an intricate web of obligation bringhg him deference, degiance, and various other forms of material and socioemotional gratuity (Oglensky, 1995).

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in the present literature, mearchers have attempted to provide a concise definition of

the mentoring construct. Several different definitions of mentoring exist, but there are common themes. In terms of relatioaships, mentonng is said to be a developmental relationship. A developmental relationship is one in which the conscious goal of both parties is to develop the ability and the promotabiity of the subordinate (Clawson and Kram, 1984). In general, a mentor is a more senior, expetienced employee who is a role model, who provides support, direction and feedback to a less expaienaci employee regarding interpersonal developmcnt. A mentor also typically incrcases the visibiiity of the protégé to those in the organization who

influence carccr opportunities (Noe, 1988a; Levinson et al., 1978; Kram, 1983; Hunt and Michael, 1983; Harper, 1997). The common themes of mentoring have lad to the development of two perspectives regarding mentoring: a primary view of mentoring as an intense, hierarchicai relationship, and a secondary view as encompassinga variety of relationships. The two views of mentoring are important bccause they are tbe foundation of the research that has k n conducted regarding the mentoring construct. The following smtion examines these two views of mentoring.

23 Mentoring: Two Schoois ot Tbonght in the research litcranut, there an two schools of thought ngai.duigthe concept of

mentoring (Oglensky, 1995). In the classical or primaq sense of the mm,mentor and all of its denvatives are used to define an oIdcr, more experienced person who helps a younger person learn how to function in the adult world of w o k This relationship is hierarchicai in tenns of

rank, experience, or age.

6 In an organization, a mentor can be an immediate supervisor, a former boss, or someone within the organization but outside the direct iine of authority. A mentor can also be someone outside the organization like a seasoned professional who is ia the same field as the protégé. The mentoring relationship is initiated and sustained on an informal basis, thecefore it is not institutionalized wherc formal d e s and responsibities exist. Mentoring is characterizedby

an intense developmental relationship of a relatively long duration in which protégés receive a range of catetr and psychosocial. help from one senior manager (Whitcly, Dougherty and Dreher, 1991; Oglnsky, 1995).

In tbis view, mentoring is seen as a type of social relation that can bc differentiated h m other types of relationships that provide vocational and developmental support. Shapiro, Haseltine and Rowe (1978). devcloped a continuum of nlationships that make up the 'patron system'. The elements in increasing intensity wen: p r pal, guide, sponsor and mentor. These four elements werc distinguished from each other on the dimensions of nlationship hierarchy and the level of ernotional involvement. Hunt and Michael(1983) found that of these four elements, mentoring is the most emotionaüy charged relationship, and is hierazchical, parental, exclusionary, and clitist. In their work, The S w ' s of a_hrian's,~ M n s o et n al. (1978)

echoed this distinction. Hence, it is understood that the classic view of mentorhg contains elements of other types of advisory and support nlationships but, mcntoring is viewed as qualitatively different and grcater than the sum of iîs parts (Oglensky, 1995). The secondary perspective views mentoring as an umbreîîa concept under which a range of relatioaships that offer career belp are classifieci. Frwithis perspective, the mentoring

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relationship may ùe shorttr, lcss intense, and a less indusive devebpmental process as compared to the primary perspective (Whitely, Dougkty aad Dreher, 1991). Secondary mentoring focuses on extenial, career progress miented functions such as sponsorship, visibility and exposure and not on innec-orientaipsychosocial dcvelopmental functions (Whitely,

Doughcrty and Weber, 1991). Aecording to Kram (1983) it is the subsîance of the relationship that m a m , not the form. Both higher d

g people and pers cm be mentors (Kramand

Isabda, 19851, thercfate the mentoring relatimhip does not need to be hierarchical. Moreover, the relationsbip can k formally anaaged through mentoring programs set up in

organizations, or the rncntoring relationship can be arrangeci infMmaliy. Tht work of Kram (1983, 1985a) is central to the understanding of rncntoring using this

.

view Ktam d c M mttltoring in terms of the developmental functions h lare prestnt in

varying dcgrecs, in diffcrent types of supportive reiationships at work (Oglensky, 1995). Kram (1983) found that îhm ate two geaeral typcs of functions that a mentor c m provide: career functiom and psychosocial functions. Accordhg to Oglensky (1995) mcaturiag is said to occur when any of the functions of mentoring are carricd out.

In conclusion, the literature demonstrates that thm arc two conflicting views of the constnict of mentoring: a primary view where the ciaenioring relatiouship is intense, informal, and hicrarchical;and a sccondary view w k e the meamring relationship is l e s intense, the ~ l a t i d can p be inforrd or fornial, the mcntoring relationsbip is facused upon external

caner goals, and mtntoring can bt pmvided by superion or petrs.

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2.3 Dimensions of tbe Mentoring Construct

The literaîure on the roles that mentors provide and the functions ofmentoring suggest that the mentorhg constmct is not cleady d e W . In this section the dimensions of the

mentoring consçnict are outlined. A kief overview of the àevelopment of the roles of mentors

is given in order of cbroaology, followed by an examination of the functions of mentoring. 23.1 Mentor Roles According to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, a mie is dehed as: "a person's or

thing's ~hatïmeristicor expected function; the part played or assumed by a person in society,

Me, etc., influtnccd by his or hcr conception of what i s appropriate"(p. l2SO,l998). In the litcrahm on mentoring d e s , thcre is no consensus regardhg what the roles of mentors arc and

their importance.

Levinson et al. (1978) statc that the key d e of the mentor is to support the prode's iifelong objective. Levinson et al. fouad that there were five d e s that a mentor provides a protege. A mentor must be a teaciicr, enhancing the protégé's skills and inteiiectual

development. A mentor is a sponsor who uses bis or her influence to facüitate the protégé's enûy into the organizationand the protégé's advancement. A mentor is a host and gui&,

welcoming the ptégC into a new occupational and socid world and acquaintingthe prodg6 witb the values, custwis and cast of cbaracters. A mentor is an exemplar by way of the

mentor's own virtues, achievemc~ltsand way of living thus sethg an example for the protégé to follow. A mentor is also a counselor, who provides moral support in times of sms.

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Burke (1984) found that there are fifteen roles of mentoring. The five most common coles of mentoring are that: a mentor should be a positive role mode1 for the protégé; a mentor sbuld buiid the protégé's self-confidence; a mentor should go to bat for the protégé; a mentor should be a teacher, coach and trainer, and a mentor should use job assignrnents to develop their protégé.

Tn their study of employees who had supervisors who were effective in helping them with their caners, Lcihwitz and Schlossberg (1981) identified nine roles that mentors may

play: a communicator, a counselor, an appraiser, a coach, a mentor, an advisor, a broker, a referral agent, and an advocate. Geiger (1992) M e r adapted the roles developed by Leibowitz and Schlossberg (1981) and found that there are seven roles that are necessary for a mentor to effcctively carry out their duties. A mentor must be a communicator promothg a twoway exchange of information wiîh the protégé. An effective communicator Listens to the career concerns of ttte protégé and rcsponds appropriately, establishes an envuonment for open

interaction,schedules unintempted time to meet the protégé and acts as a sounding board for ideas and outcornes. The second role Geiger (1992) identified is that of a counselor. A mentor works with the protégé to identify and understand the career related skills, interests and values of the

pcotégk. An effective counselor helps the protégé evaluate the appropriatenessof carecr options and helps the protégk to plan strategies to achieve mutually agrced upon goals (Geiger, 1992). As a coach, the mentor helps the protég6 clar@ performance goals and developmental

10 needs. An effective coach teaches managerial and technical skills, reinforces effective job performance, recommends specific behaviors that need improvement, clarifies and communicates organizational objectives and goals, and serves as a role mode1 to the protégé by demonsûating successfulprofessional behaviors (Geiger, 1992). As an advisor, the mentor communicates the formal and informal realities of progression

within the organization. An effective advisor recomrtiends opportunities for training, recommends appropriate sirategies for carter direction, reviews the protég6's developmental plan on a regular basis, and helps the protégé identify career obstacles and take appropriate action to overcome them (Geiger, 1992). Geiger's (1992) t3th role is that of a h k e r . An effective broker expands the protégé's network of professional contacts, helps to bring together protégés who might mutually benefit h m helping each o k , helps link the protégé with appropriate educational and employment opportunities and helps the protigd identitjresources requircd for career progression (Geiger, 1992). Geiger's (1992) sixth role of a mentor is a nferral agent. An effective referral agent identifies resources to help the protége with specific problems and follows up to ensure that the resources used are effective. The seventh and final role of a mentor is an advocate who intewenes on behalf of the pmtég6 for benefits ükepromotions or eliminating obstacles (Geiger, 1992).

Kram (1983,1985a) fuund that the d e s of a mentor could be categorized into career functions and psychosocial functions. The career functiond e s of mentoring include.

11 sponsorship, exposure, coaching, protection, and providing chaiienging assignments. The role of the mentor in sponsorship is to open doors for the protégé. The role of ttie mentor in protection is to provide support for the protégé and to act as a buffet between the protégé and their environment. The role of the mentor in exposure is to create opporhinities for visibility for

the proîkgé. The role of the mentor in challenging the protégé is to provide the protégé with saetch assignments that push the protégé. Kram's (1983,1985a) psychosocial functions of mentoring include role modeiing, acceptanœ and confirmation, counseling, and fiiendship. The role of the mentor in role modeling is to demonstrate appropriate behaviors, attitudes and values that the protégé can emulate. The role of the mentor in acceptance and confirmation is to offer support and respect

to the protégé. The role of the mentor in counseling is to help the protégé resolve problems through fetdback and active listcning. Finaiiy, the role of the mentor in fncndship is to care and share with the protég6 in ways that go beyond the rcquirements of work. Kram (1985a) found

ihat the grcater the number of mles the mentor provided, the more beneficial the nlationship wili be but, she could not determine whether aii d e s are equaiiy important.

The numerous rolcs of mentors in the iiterature suggcsts that the dimensions of

mentoring arc not clearly defincd, nor are the importance of the roles of mentoring. This ha influenccd the rcsearch in the ana of mentoring functions, because the roles that mentors play

are oftcn grouped into mentoring functions.

12 2.3.2 F'undions of Mentoring

In this section the distinction between mentoring roles and functions is discussed and the seminal work of Kram (1983, 1985a) on the functions of mentoring is outlined. The phases in the mentoring relationship are examined in relation to the mentoring functions. Fially, dissension in the literature regarding mentoring functions is discussed. The Canadian Oxford dictionary defines a fwiction as: "an activity proper to a person or institution; a mode of action or activity by which a thing fulfills its purpose" (p.564). The literatwe on the dimensions of mentoring demonstrates that the clifference between the mentor roles and the functions of mentoring art not clear. This suggests that both the roles of mentors

and the bctions of mentoring necd to be defined clearly. Further rescarch needs to be done in order to determine the relationship between mentor d e s and tbe functions of mentoring. For the purposes of this study a mentcr role was used to refcr as specific activities while a functim of mentoring was used to rekr to the broader grouping of roles. This is consistent with Ktam (1983) who used the tenn function to categorize roks in two broad groups as noted above. According to Kcam (1983), the mentor relationship has the potential to enhance both the career development and the psychomiai development of both the protégb and the mentor.

In her study of eighteen managcrs in a public secm organization, Kram (1983) found that mentors pmvided two types of functions to protégés: career functions, that assist the protégé in leaming the topes of organizational life and in preparing the protégé for career advancement opportunities; and psychosocial functiom, that support the protégé in developing a sense of competence, confidence, identity, and effectiventss in the managerial role. Kram (1985a)

13 suggests that the mentoring nelationship is more beneficial for the protégé if the mentor provides both functions of mentoring. 2.3.2.1 Cbonglng Mentor Functions Thrmghont the Phases of the Mentorhg

Relationship Kram (1983) also examined the phases of the mentor relationship in order to highlight

the psychologicai and organizational factors that influence the functions that are provided to protégds and how protégés experienced the relationship at a given time. in general there ate four phases of the mentoring reiationship: the initiation phase, the cultivation phase, the separation phase and the &finition phase. The initiation phase is the period where the mentoring relationship is started. This phase lasts six to twelve months. The cultivation phase is the ptriodwhere the range of wter and psychosocial functions that are provided expand to their maximum. This phase lasts h m two to five years. In general, the carcer functions emerge first as tht mentor provides challenging work, coaching, exposure and visibiiity, protection and sponsorship to the protégd. The career functions that are provided by the mentor depend on the mentor's organizational rank, tenure and experience. The psychosociai functions emerge after the interpersonal bond betwccn the mentor and the protégé has strengthcned. The psychosocial functions include role modeling and acceptance and confirmation. The activities of counseling and friendship emerge after instances of greater intixnacy. Tht psychosociai functions that are pvided by the mentor depend upon the degree of ttust b e m n the mentor and the proiégé, the âegree of mutuality between both

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parties and the degcee of intimacy that exists in the mentoring relationship.

The separation phase of the mentoring relationship occurs after a p e n d of two to five years after the mentoring relationship has been initiated. This period is categorized by sigaificant changes in the functions provideci by the relationship and the affective experiences of both the mentor and the protégé. The nature of the relationship is aiteted by structural chauges

in the organization's context and by psychological changes in one or both individuais. During this period the parties experience turmoil, anxiety and feelings of loss. The relationship becornes a less central part of their lives at work. This phase is important to both the protégé

and the mentor. It is critical to the development of the protégé, because it provides an opportunity for the protégé to demonstrate essential job skills while operating without a mentor.

For the mentor this period is an opportunity to demonsirate that he or she was successful in dcveloping manageriai talent, During the redefiaition phase of the mentoring relationship then are two possible outcornes: the relationship evolves and a ncw relationship dcvelops that is significantly different

fkom the pst, or the nlationship ends. The mentor and the protégb may become fiiends sincc

the protégé has the ability to function effectively in a new setting without the mentor. The protégé also demonstratcs their cornpetence, seif-contidence and autonomy. The mentor has the ability to relate to the protégh as a peer.

The mentor aiso has the time to put more energies

toward 0 t h protégCs in order to nflect th& cornpetencc and gcnerativity.

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2 3 3 Dissension regaràing tbe Fundons of Mentorhg The seminal work of Kram (1983,1985a) regarding the career functions of mentoring and the psychosocial functions of mentoring has been questioned by the work of Burke (1984)

and the work of Harper (1997). This section outlines the dissension in the literature with regards to what are the components of the functions of mento~g. Burke (1984) developed a mentorship scaie cornpriseci of fifteen items that asked respondents to rate their mentor's difirent roles. He used a sarnple of 80 men and women in early carecr stages. Burke found that there were three dimensions of the mentoring relationship: carcer dcvelopment functions, psychosocial functions, and role modehg functions. The role modeling function consisted of the following acîivities: the mentor repnsenting an advanced level that the protég6 strove toward; the mentor king a positive d e mode1 for the protégé; and the mentor king a teacher, coach and trainer.

In her M.M.S.thesis, Harper (1997) had twelve items and found four functions of mentoring: carecr functions, psychosocial functions, enhanced effectiveness, and a bcttcr understanding of the organization. Enhanced effcctiveness is comprised of the activities of pmviding coaching, pmviding dcvtlopmental opportunitics, irnproving managerial a d interpersonal skills and helping thc protégk to develop new ways to approach problcms. The function of a bctter understanding of the organization is comprised of the activity of providhg

the protég6 a greater understanding of the organization, how it is organized, the politics of the organization and its power distribution.

In summary, Kmn (1983) found two mentoring hctions, Burke (1984) found three

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rnentoring functions aud Wper (1997) found four rnentoring hctioas. The cwrent literanirc on the functions of mentoring suggests that the dimensions of the mentoring construct are not clearly defined. This is an issue that must be resolved in order for research on mentoring to

Fosmai and informai mentoring are important to the mentoring consmct because they affect the positive and negative outcomes of ihe mentoring relationsbip. The outcomes of the

mentaring relatimhip determine the degree of succtss of the mentoring relationship. This

section outliaes the two types of mentoring relationships: formal mentoring relationships and infonnal mentoring relationships aud tbe differences between these two mentoring relationships by exarnining the structure of the relationship. the way the relationship is initiated, and the processcs within the relationship.

According to Ragins and Cotton (1998) there are thce distinct difirences between formai and informal rnentoring relationships ttiat inay affect the mentor's functions and the

career outcomcs of the relationship. These diffennces can be catcgorized into: the way the ~lationshipis initiated, the sûuchire of îhe relationship, and the praass involved in the relatimhip.

24.1 Relationship Initiath A key clifference between formal and informa1 mentoring relationships is the way in

wtiich they ùevelop (Ragins and Cotton, 1998). Infornial mentoring relationships develop

spontaneously without extemai organizationalinvolvement, whereas fornial mentoring

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relationships develop with assistance and intewention generally in the form of a voluntary assignment or matching of mentors and protégés. The development of informai mentoring reiationships is guided by identification, perceived competence, and the level of interpersonal cornfort between members of the relationship. Perceived competence influences the selection process in the i n f o d mentoring relationship. The mutual identification process contributes to

the high level of intensity in infomal relationships because mentors often select protégés who

are viewed as younger versions of themselves, and protégés select mentors who they view as role models. Interpersonai comfort is also a factor in developing informai mentoring relationships because mentoring relationships develop partiaily on the basis of the degree of cornfort in communication within the relationship. Formai mentoring relationships are typicdy assigned relationships. Variation exists in the methad of assignment, but frequently mcntoring relationships are assigned by a third party,

Thc implication is that identification, role modeling and interpersonal cornfort do not play a primary role in developing formal mentoring relationships. Formai mentorhg nlationships arc also less ükely to be founded on mutual perceptions of competence and respect because the matching process is made on the basis of one or a combination of the foilowing factors: the mentor's position in the organization; their areas of expertise; technical competence; or knowledge of the organization. The evaluation of the mentor's competence is usualîy based on the perception of the program's coordinator and their perceptions may ciiffer h m the

perceptions of the protégé or the mentor. Formal mentors may perceive protégés as pefimers who enter the program because they requirt specid or remedial attention.

18 Accordhg to Ragins and Cotton (1998)' it is reasonable to expect that the psychosocial

functions of role rnodeiing, friendship and cmseiing may be less weil developed in forma1 mentoring relationships compareci to in informal mentoring relationships. 2.4.2 Relatioinstiip Stnacture

Monnal mentoring relationships generally last between tbree to six pars. The parties

meet when desired and the goals of the relationship evolve over tirne and adapt to the career

and the life stages of the individuals in the retationship. F0nna.I mentoring relationships are usudy shortcr in duration @ouglas, 1997). The length of fornial mentaring relatiomhips are

predetcnnined; 6 months to one year are cornmon duratiom. The mode,fqucncy, and location of contact for many forrnal mentoring relationships are o k n specifïed in a relationship contract and the protégé's wetr goals are specified at the start of tfie relationship. Ragins and Cotton (1998) outline threc potcntial outcomes of the diffmnt st~cbires. First, infonnal mentaring relationsbips have more time than formal mentoring rclationships to develop psychosocial functions such as establishing tmst, building the protégé's self confidcncc and helping the protége develop an identity bath prdessionaliy and personally. Therefm informal mentorhg rnay have a l e s immediate effect on weer outcomes, but the outcome may be more subtantial in the long term.

Second, protégts in fmai m e n m g relationships may perceive that their mentors

spend cime with them due to their contractual commitment to the organization and the mentoring program and not due to Mir mentors' pwnal cornmitment to the protégé, or because the

mentor titlievcs in the protégé's potential. This may prevent the protégé h m becoming close

19

to the mentor emotionally which rnay &der the devclopment of trust in the relationship and the provision of psychosocial functions. Furthmore, because both parties know that the mentoring relationship will end at a specified tirne, bothparties rnay not personally invest as much in the formal mentoring relationship which rnay hinder the development of psychosocial functions. Third, formal mentoring relatimships focus on career goals that are short term and are appiicable to the protégé's current position in the organization. Informal mentors rnay be more concerned with the long term career needs of their protégés. These needs rnay take precedence ovcr the nccds of the organization.

2.43 Pnicesses in the Relationsbip The ciifferences in the initiation and the structure of formal and informal mentoring relationships can result in different processes in the rnentoring relationship. The k t ciifference is the motivation for the relationship. According to Ragins and Cotton (1991) fomal mentors rnay be less motivated to be in a mentoring relationship and may not invest as much of their t h e in the protége's âevelopment because they do not identify with their protéges. Monover,

although fonnal mentors receive more explicit organizational recognition tban informai mentors, they arc less likely to receive intcrnal rewards relateci to thtir w a r development stage.

The second clifference is communication in the nlationship. Formal mentors rnay lack the communication and coachhg skiiis that are ntcessary to provide effective mentoring, because fonnal mentors are self nominated or selected by program cootdinators (Kram,

1985b). Infonnal mentors are select& by protégés based on their ability to coach and to

20

communicate (Olian, Carrol and Giannantonio, 1988). Even if the formai mentor is perceived

as king an excelient coach and communicator by the program director, but the protégé does not share this perception, the mentoring relationship may be less effective(Ragins and Cotton, 1998). Ragins and Cotton (1998) believe that it is reasonable to expect that formai mentors

will provide fewer functions related to effective communication, such as coaching, fnendship, and counseling.

Third, formai mentoring relationships often match participants from diffecent departnients or functionai units. Formal mentors fiom different departments or functional areas may have career paîhs that are entirely different than the path that the protégé would Lilre to take. Thecefore, formal mentors may provide less effcctivc carecr counseling than informal

mentors because they have less in comrnon with their protigbs. Informa1mentoring relationships evolve based on mutual interest, mutual job functions, or mutual carcer paths (Ragins and Cotton, 1998). FiMy, fonnal mentors are often mon visible than informal mentors because the relationship is public, and the relationship is typically monitond by a program coordinator (Murray, 1991). Formai mentors may be more self-conscious about engaging in bchavior that may be consaued as favontism by others in the organization. In contrast, infonnal mentors have b e n f

d to sponsor îheir protégés into upper level positions, give their protég6s

chüenging work assignments, and b d e r their protéges h m adverse forces in the organization (Ragins and Cotton, 1998). Murray (1991) believes that formai mentors may be less likely to actively intervcne on behalf of their protég6.

21

iu summary, cesearch on the types of mentorhg relationships demonstrates that informal and formal mentoring relationsbips differ in thc way tbey are initiated, the structure of the relationship and the processes in the relations. These îhree factors infiuence the career and

psychosocial mentoring functions that are provided in fomal and informa1 mentoring relationships. 25 Meatoring Outcames

This section summarizes the research conducted tegarding mentoring outcomes. This section aiso examines the type of mentorhg and mentorhg outcomes. The literature on mentorhg outcomes is rich. In the literahm, one commonly studicd mentoring outcome is the

number of promotions (Ragins et al., 1998; Wtiitely, Doughcay a d Drthtt; 1991; Dnher and Ash, 1%

md Scandura, 1992). The relationship between level of incorne and mentaring has

been examined by Chao (1997), Ra-

and Cotton (I998),Chao, Walz and Gardner (I992),

Whitely, Dougheay and Dreher (1991), and Dreher and Ash (1990). Chao (1997), Ostroff and Kozlowski (19931, and Chao,Walz and Gardner (1992) analyzad the relationship bctween otganizational socialization and mentorhg outcomes. Finaily, Chao (1997), Koberg et ai. (1994), and Chao, Walz and Gardner (1992) examined the relationship betwecn mentoring

outcomes and job satisfaction.

Dreher and Ash (1990), and Whitely, Dougherty and Dnher (1991) found that the presence of a mentor has been associaîcd with incfea~edpromotions for individuals who were

mentored vtrsus individuals who werc not mentorcd Chao,Walz and Gardner (1992), Whitcly, Dougherty and Dreher (l991), and Dretier and Ash (1990) found that the presence of

22

a mentor is associated with higher iacmai for individuais who wcre mentored versus individuals who were not mcntored. Chao (lm), and Chao, Walz and Gardner (1992) found tbat the effects of mentoring on organizaiioml socializationendures over an extended period of

time and the effects are beneficial to individuals who are mentored. Koberg et al. (1994) found that mentoring bas a positive impact on job satisfaction for individuals who are mentored.

S e v d sWes have been conducted regarding mentoring outcornes and their measurement. In tbeir studies of fomal and informal mentorships and mentoting functions, Chao, Walz and Gardner (1992) emphasized threc outcornes of mentoring: organizational socialization, job satisfaction and saiary. The ûndings were that protégks in informal mentarships pmeived more cailccr-rclatcd support fnim k i r mentors than protégés in formal mcntorships. Protégks in informai mentorships r c p d higher levcls of organizational socialization, highcr levels of inainsic job satisfaction, and higher salaries than non mentorcd individuais in aii three outcorne variables. However, the ciifference between protégés in fonnal mcntorships and non mentond individuais was only found for t k e sociaiization factors.

Fially, there was not a ciifference found bttwtenformal and Sonna1 protégés for any of the outcome measures. Chao (1997) cductod a smdy of mentorhg p

h and outcomcs using

the same mentoring oatcome variables using informaiiy mentored protégés, formally mentorcd protégés, and non mentoreû individuals. Chao found consistent diffkrences between mentond and non mentord individuah with respect to caner outcomcs, job satisfaction, organizational

socialization, and income measures.

In their study of mentoring among men and wonien in managerial, pcofessionai and

23 technical positions, Drcher and Ash (1990), analyzcd four outcome variables: number of promotions, level of income, level of pay satisfaction, and level of benefit satisfaction. The researchers found that men and women who were mentored received the same number of promotions and reported essentially the same levels of compensation satisfaction. The primary difference between men and women regardles of whether they were mentored or not mentored was annual income. Men reported a higher level of income than women. Whitely, Doughcrty and Dreher (1991) examintd the relationship of carcer mentonng to the number of promotions and the level of total current compensation received. The

researchers found that mentoring was rclated to the promotion rate and total compensation, The rescarchers also found that carecr-oriented mentoring bas a grcater relationship with promotion rate for people from the highest sociocconomic group, membcrs of the upper class and the upper middle class, than for individuals from lowcr socioeconomic groups. The studies previously mentioned show a positive relationship betwetn people who are mentored and outcomes of mentoriug. 23.1Formai and Informai Mentocing and Mentorhg Outcames

Noe (1988a) invcstigatcd the influence of the protégé's job and carcer attitudes, the gender composition of the mentorhg dyad, tbe amount of time spent with the mentor and the quality of the interaction on the psychosociai and career benefits that protégés gain h m participation in assigned mentoring relatiOIlShips. Noe (1988a) found that protégés received beneficiai psychosocial outcomes but limiîed career functions h m an assigned mentor. Noe's (1988a) findings are in contrast to wbat might be expected. Formal mentoriug rclationships are

24

of shorter duration and they are formed involuntarily by a third party. These relationships are not based upon the mutual interests, mutual respect, and perceptions of cornpetence that typically exist in an informal relationship, therefore it is often expected that protégés in infomal mentoring relationships would receive higher psychosocial outcornes than protégés in formal mentoring relationships because psychosocial outcornes arc expected to take longer to develop. Moreover, since formal mentorhg relationstiips are of short duration it is expected that they will focus on career outcomes which can be achieved in a short period of time. Noe (1988a) offers the following explanation for the findings. The mentoring program that was the focus of the study included many of the characteristics that are important for the success of formal mentoring programs. These characteristics included: clearly defiaed purpose and goals of the program,

selection of mentors based on tbe interptrsonal skiils and the interest in developing employees, and mentor training.

T h studies have directly investi@

tht relationship between the type of mentoring

relationship and the functions of mentoring. In thtu study of formal and informal mentoring relationships (Ragins and Cotton, 19981, protégés in informal mentoring relationships reportcd more psychosocial functions involving friendship, social support, role modehg and acceptane than protégés in formal mentoring relationships. Howcver, w significant differences were found on the parent and counsehg functions. W g k s in informal mentoring relationships also reported greater overail satisf~ctimwith th& mentors than protégés in forma1mcntoring relationships and tanicd more in total income. In conbast to what they expected in the iiterature, the researchers found that protégés in informa1mcntoring relationships report more

25

career development functions than protégés in forma1m e n t o ~ relationships. g One possible explanation for this 6nding is that the formal mentoring relationship is public, therefore formal mentors may not want to be perceived as engaging in behavior that may be construed as favontism.

In their study of informal and fonnal protégés employed at two organizations that were merging, Fagenson-Elaad, Marks and Amendola (1997) found that informa1 protégés reportai more psychosocial benefits than formal protégés. However, infomai and formai protégés did not significantly differ in career development and role modeling functions. Moreover, protégés in informal mentorships had significantly greater compensation than protégés with a history of forma1 mentors. A possible explanation for this finding is that the greater intensity in informal mentoring relationships fosters more d e s overall. However, thete were no siguifiant ciifferences found in the number of pmmotiotts when controlling for ciifferences in position

tenure, number of carter interruptions, occupation, supervisory status of men?orsand lcngth of the mentaring rclationship.

In their study Chao, Waiz and Gardner (1992) found that protégés in informal mentoring relationships ceceive more career related hctions (Le., sponso~g,coaching, protaction, chaiienging assignments and cxposm) than protégds in fonnal relationships. nity

also found tbat longer mentorships wcrc associated with higher scores on menrorship functions. Chao, Walz and Gardner suggest that their resuits are an indication that furtherexamination of

the functions that am central to m e n t o ~ must g be done.

26

2.6 Mentorhgand Gender Mneiences

Gender differences in mentoring relationslips are important because the outcomes of mentoring differ for men and women who are mentors and protégés. The outcomes of the mentoring relationship determine the degree of success of the mentoring relationship. In addition, the nature of the relationship, such as the function and the roles that mentors provide for protégés, may be different for men and women. This section briefly outlines the benefits of mentoring for women and the barriers that women enmntcr in pursuing mentoring nlationships. Drehcr and Ash (1990)found that women and men are equally Likely to have mentors. Moreover, Noe (1988b)found that women who have mentors rcported greater job success and job satisfaction than women who did aot have a mentor. This is consistent with other findings regarding individuals who are mentored versus individuals who are not mentored. However, a numbcr of bamers to m e n t o ~ for g women have been identified. Ragins and Cotton (1998)found that women perceiveci the prcsenœ of more barriers than men in gaining a mentor. Nieva and Gutek (1981) found that womcn are not weU integrated into mentoring systems. The reasons were that mentors cannot accept women as protégés, women are not as sensitive as men to organizaîiortairealities, and that wmen hold few upper level positions thcrefore thcre are more cross-gender mentoring telationsbips. Nae (1988b)found that barriers to mentoring for women included: lack of access to information netwotks., tokenism;

stereotypes and attributions; socialization practices of men and women; noms regarding cross-gender relationships; a reliance on an ineffective power base; and a lack of female mentors to act as role models for female protdgés. Each factor will ôe discussed briefly. Lack of access to information networks occus

when there is limitedcontact with potentiai mentors for women. According to Nue (1988b) this arises due to a lack of knowledge of how to develop informai networks, a preference for interacting with others of similar status in the organization, or the intentional exclusion of womcn by maie managers (1988b). Tokenism occurs when an individuai enters a job environment whcre their social categocy, such as their sex, historically has been disproportionately representcd. The nsult is that women become highly visible in organizations, therefore their performance and socialization expencnces are more likely to be monitond by management. This may dissuade potcntial mentors h m developing relationships with femaie employees. if women are given preferentiai treatment within the organization, potential mentors may view female employees as threats to

their job security and thenfore potential mentors may be reluctant to develop a mentoring relationship with women (Noe 1988b). The negative stereotypcs and attitudes towards women's abilities to manage, the beliefs qarding women's job prefercnces, attributions regarding women's performance, beliefs that women are not interesteci in advancement opportunities, beliefs that women lack the necessary

28 skills and abilities, and sex-rolc stemtypes persist. These factors may dissuade senior managers from developing mentoring relationships with female employees (Na, 1988b). Socialization practices encourage femdes to develop personality traits and behaviors that are contrary to those that many consider to be necessary in management (Noe, 1988b). The socialized roles and the role expectations of managers and peers may have a chiiiing effect on the career aspirations of women who are isolated from performing and mastering behaviour required for future managerial positions (Noe,1988b). According to Noe (1988b) men and women prefer interacting with members of the same sex in the work environment. However, due to the lack of female mentors, the majority of mentors are male managers. The perceptions of pers in cross-gender relationships, and concems about public image may deter managers from kcoming mentors to female employees. Managers are motivatcd to develop mentoring rclationships with employecs who possess technical expertise or expert knowlcdge that may help the manager or the work unit. According to Noe (1988b), women use more indirect infiuence strategies which may mask k i r competence. If female employees f d to stress their expertise, potential mentors may be unaware of the female employce's potential and thus not initiate a mentoring relationship (Noc, 1988b). The above Literature suggests ihat women must work through more barriers in order to develop a mentoring relationship but, women who develop mentoring relationships benefit from the experience.

The litmature on mentoring is substantial, however, there are divergent views in the literature regarding the mentoring construct. The literature on the origins of the term mentor has

demonstrated that there are several origins of this term. There are two schools of thought regarding the construct of mentoring: the classical or primary perspective of mentoring where the mentor is an oldcr, more experienced person who helps a younger person l e m how to function in the world of work. This relationship is hierarchical in tems of tank, experience, and age. In contrast, in the secondary perspective on mentoring the relationship may be less intense, shorter in duration, and focus on extemal, caceer progress onented functions. In secondary mentoring, the substance of the relationship is of importance not the form. This literature demonstrates a lack of a clear definition ngarding the constnict of mentoring.

The litccature ngarding dimensions of the construct of mentoring suggests that further research nceds to be conducted. The work on the roles of mentors has demonstrated that while there is a consensus regarding the fact that mentors teach protégés how to become successful, there is a lack of consensus regarâing the specific roles that mentors provide their protégés. Furthemore, little work has been done in the area of which roles are central to the construct of mentoring. The work on the functions of mentoring has demonstrated a lack of consensus regardhg the broad functions that mentors provide protégés. Kram's (1983) seminal wotk on the caner and the psychosocial functions that mentors provide protégés bas

been questioned by the fmdings of Burke (1984), who found a third fwiction of role modeiing. Moreover, Haxper (1997) found an additional two functions that mentors provide: a better

30

understanding of tbe organization; and enhanced effectiveness. Furthennote, the difference between a mentor role and a function of mentoring is not clear in the literature. As previously discussed, for the purposes of the current tesearch a mentor role was used to r&r to specific activities, while a function of m e n t o ~ gwas used to refer to the broader grouping of d e s . The work on the types of mentoring has highlighted the important differences between informa1 and f m a l mentoring relationships in their initiation, formation, development and the structure of the relationship. Researchers have concluded that since forma1mentoring is of a shortcr duration, fewer benefits may be derived. However, only three studies have been done regadhg the type of mentoring and mentoring outcomes, and the results suggest that there is a need for tütthtr examination of the functions that are centrai to the mentoring consauct. The work on mentoring outcomes has demonstrated that there are several factors that have been used in the literature in order to measure the effectivemss of mentoring. The work on mentoring and gender has demonstrated that women who have mentors have reported pater job success and job satisfaction than women wbo did not have a mentor. However, there are barriers faced by women in obtaining mentoring.

According to Noe (1988b), preliminary studies on mcntoring focuscd on the benefits that protégés gain by participating in mentoring relationships, but the results are unclcar because of the lack of agreement in the literature regarding the functions that mentors provide. The oversupply of operationalizations of m e n t o ~ suggest g that the consmict of mentoring netds to

be more clearly dehed. Research in the area of mentoring is at the point where the consüuct of mentoring needs to be clearly &f!ineà in order for OUI understanding of the constnrct to

31

advaace. This suggests that M e r nsearcti that is based upon real life experience needs to be wnducted tegarding the mentoring constnict.

3 Objectives of this study The absence of a clear definition of the constnict of mentoring is demonstrated by the two schools of thought regarding the mentoring constnict. The work regarding the specific d e s that mentors provide protégés, and the roles that are central to the mentoring consmct is inconclusive. The deficiency of mentor roles is M e r compounded by the lack of clarity regarding the functions of mentoring. Furthemore, the research in the area of the functions of mentoring is inconclusive regarding the dimensions of the constnict. Tbe research k i t has been conducted in the area of informal and formai mentoring relationships and mentoring functions Lias resulted in findings that conflict with present theories. For research on mentorhg to

progress, the d e s of mentors and the functions of mentoring need to be ciearly dcfined This suggcsts that iurther research that is based upon reai life txperienct ntcds to be conductcd regarding the mentoring constnict. Consequently, the objectives of this study were: To clarify the constnict of mentoring by ushg the act fkqucncy approach. Tht act hquency approach is a grounded perspective that is baseclon the real Me expcnences of observers. It is used to identify acts that an centrai to a particular behavior. By using the act frcqucncy approach in the present study, the aim was to use real life expericnces of observets in an attempt to develop a

comprehensive understanding of mentoring.

The second objective was to determine which mentoring behavim are most important in order to incorporate them in a new scde of mentorhg and to explore the dimensionalityof the mentoring constnict. Two altemative methods

33

for determining importance were used: act prototypicality scores and correlations with a global measurc of mentor effectiveness. This resulted in alternative measures of mentoring. The aim was then to demonstrate convergent validity by correlating the new sales that were developed in this study with outcomcs of mentoring* Exploratory classification was used to

explore the consüuct of mentocing,

The act frequency approach was used to ident0 mentoring behaviors that were then reviewed to create a grounded measure of meutoring. In this section act frequency approach is ovexviewed, the act frequency approach is compared to traditional methods and the criticisms of the act frequency approach are discussed. The sample used for this study, the measures and the control variables used for this study are also discussed in this section. 4.1 An Overview of the Act Freqmcy Procedure

The act ûequency approach is a methodology developed by Buss and Craik (1980, 1981,1983a). It is a method for revealing the naturai cognitive categories which we use to classe behaviors. This approach has three phases. The k t phase is the nomination of acts that reprcsent a ôehavioral category. The second phase is the identification of prototypical acts. The third phase is the measurnent of act fkquencies. The result is a weii grounded

measure of a behavioral category. There are two advantages of the act ftequency approach for the present study. Fust, this method uses lay people to nomhate acts tbat represent the domain under study. This results in a measure that more closely reflects people's experiences of the phenomenon (Buss and Ctaik, 1983b). A grounded lay description of m e n t d g leads to a better understanding of the constnict of mentoring bacause it is baseci upon the actual experience of people in the workforce. Second, the act frequency approach views constnicts as categories with membership gradients (Buss and Craik, 1981). Theze are some acts that are prototypical of the constnict

35

while other acts may still bt in the category, but are more pcripheral membcrs of the catcgory. The use of prototypicality ratings helps to d e h e the wre of the mentoring consûuct, thus creating a better measure. An examination of the most prototypical acts of mentoring ealarges our understanding of the construct of mentoring and adds to our understanding regarding the roles of mentors and the functions of mentoring. For the purposes of this study the procedure consisted of three phases of data collection: the act nomination phase, the prototypicality rating phase, and the validation phase. This section describes each phase as it relates to the present study. Phase 1: Act Nomination Rcspondents were asked to identify behaviors that exempli@ mentoNig. Once the nsponses were received, the act nominations were compiled. Nominations that were overlapping, acts that were rcdundant, non-act statements such as adjectives, general tendency statements, and statements considend too vague to constitute an observable act were

discardeci following Buss and Craik (1980,1981,1983a). The aim of this phase was to secure a comprehensive list of ixts for the behavior of mentoring.

Phase II: Pmtotypicality Ratings Phase II involved determining how rcprescntative each act is of mentoring. This was acc0mpKshe-dby sending the full list of acts to respondents. Each of the subjects received a questionnaire asking them to rate each act's prototypicaiity on a 7-poht Likert scaie. A score of 7 indicated that the act was a very good example of mentoring whereas a score of 1

indicated that the act was a poor example (Dyke, 1990; Buss and Craik, 1980.1981,1983a).

36 Respondents were given the following explanatioa to differentiate between prototypicality and frequency taken from Buss and Craik (1980):

The pwpose of this study is to find out what prototypical acts people have in mind when they talk about mentoring. What 1mean by prototypical c m be best explained with an example.

Take the word red for example. Close your eyes and imagine a tnie red. Now imagine an orangish red or a purple red. Although you might stiil name the orangered or the purple-red with the terni red, they are not as good examples of red as the clear me red. In short some reds are redder than others. The acts were then ranked. The ranking was based upon the mean prototypicaiity score that each act received. The purpose of this ranking was to establish a list of the top meatoring behaviors following Buss and Craik (198 1). Phase IiL Validation of the measure

There were two objectives of this phase. The primary objective of this phase was to demonsirate convergent validity by correlating the new scale that was devcloped with outcornes of mentoring. The second objective was to explore the dimensionality of the mentaring construct.

Once acts that did not reccive high prototypicalityratings ia phase II of the study wert dropped, tbt remainiag acts were used to formulate the Phase IIIquestionnaire. These questionnaires watained a list of mentoring behaviors that were idencificd as critical in phase II. Respondents were asked whether thek mentor or mentors had demonstrated each of the

behaviors. Demographic questions were included to enable a discussion of the nsults based on

37 gender. In addition, measures of mentoring outcomes were included in the questionnaire in order to establish a Iinkbetween mentoring and outcomes.

4 3 A Cornparison of the Act Frequency Approach and Traditional Methods Block (1989) claims that the act fiequency approach does not have anything new to offer to the area of sale development. In order to point out the knefits of the act ûequency approach Dyke (1990) compareci the act frequency approach to traditional methods by reviewing the five steps in the measurement construction process. The five steps in the measurement construction process are: generating items, editing the pool of items,

judging the adequacy of items as measures of the constnict, summing items to Unprove rcliabiiity and validity, and

a sequential revision process. BIock (1989) claims that the generation of items in the act Erequency approach is equivalent to the traditional process of item generation. Dyke (1990) contends that they are not equivalent kcause traditional methods for scale construction offer tht researcher Little guidauce whcn creatiag items. The act frequency approach, tbrough the adoption of an anpirical process for the creation of measurement items, makes an important contribution to measurement development.

The second step in scale consüuction is editing the pool of items. in b o t .mcthods, redundancies are edited. The traditional method researcher edits out ceduadancies during

38

selection, while the act frequency approach researcher d i t s redundancies after generating a large number of items. Dyke (1990) daims that the act fnquency approach to item generation

and editing is WeIy to result in a more thorough sampling of the domain han editing items out in the initial selection process. The ihird step in s d e constructionis judging the adequacy ofthe items as measures of

the consmcc. Block (1989) claims that the uaditional evaluation and act frequency approach evaluation are equivalent. Dyke (1990) observes that respondents to traditional scalc development tests reflect on only their own behavior, which inîroduces random vananm. Respondents in act fkquency approach stuàics rdlect on the kbavior of prototypical others wtiich reduces the noise in the data.

The fourtb stcp of scak constniction is tbe s d n g of items to improve reliabiility and validity. This pmcedurc is c o m m a to both traditional methods and the act fiequeacy approach. According to Dyke (1990) the inclusion of al1 ont hundred acts by Buss and Craik (1980) is not accessary nor reasonable. Dyke (1990) States that summing instances of only the most prototypicai bebaviors is more valid and it p d c l s traditional psychomeîric practice.

The find step of scale consisuction is the sequentiai revision p e s s which is unique to traditional methais. This step involves assessing convergent and discriminant vdidity. According to Dyke (1990). although this step is not part of the act fhquency approach as

developed by Buss and C d (1980), act indices also mtd to be validated in relation to other measutes and consûucts. Adding this final stage to the act frequency approach removes any

potential advantage held by iraditional methods.

39

In summary, traditional scaie constmction methods and the act frequency approach follow these five steps: item generation, editing, judgements of item adequacy, summation of

items and validation involving convergent and discriminant analysis. In the item generation phase the act frequency approach offers an advantage because of the empirical process of domain sampiing. Tbe editing phase is more iikely to result in a more thorough sampling of the domain than rraditionai methods. Item summation is equivalent for both approaches when the act frequency approach is restricted to the most prototypical acts. Finally the advantage which traditional methods can offer disappean when act fkquency indices are revised according to convergent and discriminant validity analysis. 4 3 Criticlsms d the Act E'requency Approach

The act Spsucncy approach bas been smtinized by Block (1989) and Moser (1989). According to Dyke (1990), the m*ticismsby Block (1989) and Moser (1989) can be divided into three categories: those only applicable to the use of the act frequency approach for personality measuremenr; those criticisms that are applicable to traditionai scales; and criticisrns that have the potential to bc damaging to the validity of behavioral measures developed using the act fiequency appraach. As the prcsent study is not measuring a pcrsonality trait or conûibuting to the development of psychornctric theory, ody the rriticisms that have the potentiai to be damaghg to the development of behavid measures will be examined.

The first criticism of the act frequencyapproach is its Iabel. Block (1989) claims that the titie of the procedure is a misnomer because the approach does not study acts of people.

Block (1989) claims that the act fiesuency approach measmes the endorsement of act

40 statements instead of measuring acts using on-line bebavid observation (Dyke, 1990). In addition, Block (1989)claims that what an act is is not defineci, as some of the acts that are nominated by subjects have to be elimuiated as they are not act statements. According to Dyke (1990), although the above criticisms of the act frequency appmach are true, they do not

invalidate the use of the procedure. Instead, they suggest tbat the act hquency approach is not that dissimilar from traditional approaches because b t h approaches measuse act statement endotsements d e r than acts. Block (1989)also criticized Buss and Craik (1980)for assuming that high prototypicality scores indicated high inter-rater agreement. In examining the data of Buss and Craik (1980),Block (1989)found little evidence of a p m e n t among judges. Both Dyke

(1990)and Rosch and Mervis (1975)state that when demonstrating the reliability of internai structures, high reliability in the ratings of each individual judge is not a necessary condition for category coherence. Dyke (199û)States that nliability can be enhanccd by using mem ratings, and she provides evidence that mean prototypicality ratings are a reiiable indication of category

stnicm. The third dticism relates to the lack of face vaüdity of many of the act statements. Block (1989)objccts to the inclusion of acts that have low prototypicality, because these acts ~IC

by definition a poor fit or are not mcmbtrs of the category at a.Although Buss and Craik

(1980)uscd d e s composed of all100 acts that wcre nominated, conceptually only acts that demonstrate high prototypicality should be included in the measurc. To contribute to face validity in this study, only acts that received high prototypicalityscores h m the judges were

included in the h a 1measure. Block (1989) also questions how useful indices composed of prototypical acts are in making valid measures. He contends that act staternents that are too specific and require multiple conditions to be met are technically useless. This issue is especiaiiy problematic when respondents are asked to rate the number of times that they exhibited a specific behavior over a specified period of tirne. In the cumnt study, each act was constnicted as simply as possible in order to b i t the number of conditions in each act. The final cciticism of the act fnquency approach are the ambitious claims made with

regards to the approach (Dyke, 1990, Block, 1989). Buss and Cr& (1983~)claim that act indices imply a true zero point and therefore pmvide ratio measurement. Both Block (1 989) and Dyke (1990) h d that a eue zero point would rcquire the measurement of the entire

universe. The second claim by Buss and Cr& (1983~)is that the act frcqucncy opproach as a

measm is not subject to nonnal validation. Dyke (1990) argued that this clah is arrogant and r ~ ~ ~ m r n c applying nds measurement vaiidation procedures to act frequcncy mcasurcs. SA Sample

The sample was drawn h m students registered in the Professional Dtvtlopment Pmgrams at Carleton University and their coworkers. Students h m the Pmfcssiorütl Developmcnt Rograms, including the Management Dcvelopment Program for Women, were

chosen for this study becausethey have significantwork experience. These saidents are typicaiîy in lower level management positions thenfore they shouid be famibar with the bebavior

of mentoring. Moreover as employees in lower level management positions who are engaged in

42

educational upgrading*they are generally ttiought to be conccrned with caner advancement.

4.5 Measures The measutes that were used for the third,validation stage of this study are outhed in this section. Several studies have been conducted regading m e n t o ~ outcomes g and k i r measwement. In their studies of fomal and informal mentoring and mentoring functions, Chao (1997) and Chao, Walz and Gardner (1992), emphasized three outcomes of mentoring: inmased organizationd socialization, job satisfaction and salary. In theu study of mentorhg among men and women in managerial, professional and technical positions, Dreher and Ash (1990) analyzcd four outcome variables: the numbcr of promotions, the level of incarne, the level of pay satisfaction and the level of benefit satisaction. Whitely, Doughew and Dnkr (1991) examineci the relationship of mentoring to the number of promotions and the level of

total c m n t compensation rcceivcd. In a l i cases, these outcomes were found to be positively related to mentoring. There are several similatities among the above studies that should be noted. F i i each shtdy allowed respondents to use remspectivc accounts of thein experiences with menton in order to reply to questions on the m e y . Second, each of the studies accounted for the possibilîty of respondents having more han onc mentor duriag their carecrs and asked respondents to draw upon th& current or most mxnt mentoring experience for the purpose of the study. Fiialiy, the samples used for thse studics were alumni who had graduated f b m universities. This implies that respondents do not have to be part of a mentoring program to take part in this type of study.

43

For the purposes of this study the foilowing outcome measures were analyzed: number of promotions, salary progression, job satisfaction, and organizational sociaiization. These outcome measures were used because this study focused on cumulative mentoring over the course of a career. The outcome measures chosen are cumulative outcornes that are built over the course of a career.

In other research, the number of promotions has ben defined to include multiple indications of status change such as an increase in salary, and significant increases in job responsibility and scope (Whitley, Dougherty and Dreher, 1991; Dnher and Ash, 1990). For the purposes of this study, the number of promotions was measured using the same criteria. Salary progression was defined as the percentage increase in salary plus bonuses and commissions fiom the start of respondents' carcers to the present. Job satisfaction has been defined as the degree to which employees have a positive, affective orientation towards employment by the organization (Higgins, Duxbury and Lee, 1992). The measurement used was a 6 item sale developed by Seshort et al. (1982). This 6 item measure uses a 7-point

Likert scaie and mesures satisfaction with inainsic rcwards and extrinsicrewards. The six items focussed on the job satisfactionthat nspondents had rcgarding the chance to leam new

things, the chance to accomplish something worthwhile, the chauce to do something that made them feel good about themselves, k i r pay, their h g e benefits, and their job security.

44 Organizational socialization has been detÏned by Chao et al., (1994) as a dimension with six factors regarding the de-

of comfort and familiarity with the organization's: history,

language, politics, people, organizational goals and values, and performance proficiency. Chao,

Walz and Gardner (1992) and Chao (1997) used a 34item questionnaire as their measusement -1.

In their study, Chao et a1.(1994) examined the reliabiüty of each socialization dimension.

The intemal reiiability of each dimension was as follows:

performance proficiency a = -80, people a = .84,

-

organization goals and values tt .83,

-

politics a .80, history a = 34, and

-

language a -85. Thc Chao et al. (1994) socialization scale is cornposed of 6 subscales: history,

language, politics, people, organizational goals and values, perf0cma~lc.eprofîciency. The language scale was not included in this study for severai teasons. First, there was a conccrn that some of the items found in this category may have low endorsement rates. For example "1 have not mastend the specialized terminology and vocabulary of my trade/pmfession". Second, this sale was found to be higbly correlatcd with the other d e s in Chao et ai. (1994).

The average correlation of this scaie with the other d

e s develaped by Chao et al. (1994)

was .49. Fiaiiy, by eliminating this scale, it helped to reduce the respoase burden for respondcnts.

45

4.6 Conho1variables The choice of each control variable is explained below. For this study, there were six control variables: organizational level, age, duration of any career intemiptions, education, the number of mentors who were supetvisors, and the average length of the mentoring relationship. Organizational level was included, because the rate of promotion slows down as an individual reaches senior levels of the biera~chyand there are fewer openings. Age was considered important because the rate of promotion slows dom as an employee gets older and more established in his or her carter (Veiga, 1981). Dmtion of weer interruptions was exarnined because it can have a detrimental affect on caner outcomes (Lyness and Thompson, 1997). Education was included because it may be related to compensation and promotion rates (Ragins and Cotton, 1998). Chao, Walz and Gardner (1992) and Whitely, Dougherty and Dreher (1991) found that both the number of mentors who were supe~sorsand the average length of the menioring relationships were related to mentor roies and outcomes and thus these have also becn addcd as conml variables. These variables were examineci in the analysis because they may afkct the relationship

betwecn mentoring and its outcomes. Tests were conducted to detennine whether the conml variables wcre related to outcomes, and wherc ncccssary, variables were controlied for by cnating residualized outcorne variables.

5 The Four Phases of the Study The purpose, the procedures, the analysis and the results for each of the four phases of this study Phase 1- Act nomination,

O

Phase II - Prototypicality rating, Phase ïü - Measures validation, and

O

Phase IV - Exploratory classification

are outlined in this section. Each phase is discussed with separately.

-

5.1 Phase 1 Act Nomination

The purpose, pracedures, aiialysis and results obtained for the act nomination phase of

this study are outlined in this section. 5.1.1 Purpose and nuicedures

The purpose of phase 1was to gencrate a comprehensive list of acts of mentoring fkom people who had experience with mentoring. Instnictors in professional development courses were initiaiiy contacted by e-mail. The purpose of this initial contact was to iniroduce the cesearcher and to inform instnictors of the purpose of the reseatch. The researcher then contacted the instnictors to personally obtain permission to administer questionnairesduring cIass. Once permission was granted, a mutuaiiy wnvenient tirne was establisiied for questionnaires to be administcrcd.

Primary data for this phase were coliected using a four page questiOIlIlSUre package (Appendix A). The questionnaire package consisted of an informeci consent fonn and the

47

actual questionnaire. The pwpose of the infomed consent form was ta ensure that respondents understood the purpose of the study, the nature of their involvement, and to ensure that respondents had enough information to determine whether they wanted to participate in this study. The infornecl consent form was also used by respondents to request the resulis for this study. The achial questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section asked respondents to think of some mentors they have laiown and to describe five acts or behaviours that the

mentors did that iliustrate mentoring. The second section was designed to obtain demographic data to describe the sample. Demographic questions included age, gender, pars of work experience, job category and job function. The class was introduced to the nsearchcr by the insmctor and then the class was

given a bief explmation of this phase of the study. The questionnaires were then disiributcd by the researchcr, and students were given an opportunity to fil1 out the questionnaire in class.

Once the questionnaire was completed, the respondents handed the questio~airttiack to the researcher. Students who were interested in participating in the study but were not wiiiing to out the questionnaire in ciass were given the option of tetuming their questionnain by fax. 5.13 Wase 1Analysis

Phase Iemploycd qualitative analysis to edit the act nominations. The purpose was to remove statcxnents ihat were redundant, ambiguous and non-act statements. Since judgement was required, the analysis was conductcd by two researchers who worked toward consensus.

5.13 Wase 1Respondents

Seventy-two questionnaires were handcd out to students. Forty-nine questionnaires

48 were received wbicb was a response rate of 68%. Twenty percent of respondents were male,

73% of respondents were female, 7%respondents did not complete the personal information

section. To detemine whether the small sample reflecied differential response rates for men and women or their different representation in the sampling h e , the proportions of men and

women in the sample were compared to those for the sampling h e . A total of 85 students were registered in the professional âevclopment program. Since one of the larger professional

development programs run in the institution is a Management Development Program for Women (MDPW), womm were overreprcsented in the sampling frarne; there were 25% men and 75% women. It was found using a two-tailed probability that the proportion of male and

female tespondents in the sample was not significantly different from the proportion of males and femalcs in the sampiing m e . This implies that the c m n t sample reflects the sampling h

e with respect to gcnder. The average age of responàents was 40 y e m and the standard deviation was 8.82.

The average number of years of work experience for ttspondents was 17 years and the standard dcviation was 8-60. With regards to job category, 8% of respondents were in senior

management or executive level positions, 29% of respondents were in middle management or pmject manager positions, 14%of respondents were in k t kvcl manager or supewisor positions, 27%of respondents were in professional or technical positions, 12%of nspondents indicated " o k non-manageriai"job categones. Four percent of respondents had indicated that they wcre in more than one category. With regards to job functim, 1096 of respoadents were inihe area of marketing or

49

sales, 10%of tespondents were in the area of human resources management, 12% of respondents were in the area of research and development or engineering, 8% of respondents were in the area of accountiag or finance, 8% of respondents were in the area of administration,

2% were in the area of operatious, 14%of respondents indicated that they were in more than one category, and 29%of respondents were in the category "other**. The category "other" was composed of fundraising, administration, production, management consulting, information management, program delivery, operations, training, program management, mde union, altemate service delivery, public relations, political anaiyst, constniction, and social services. 5.14 Phme 1Rmults

The rcspondcnts and the results obtained a f b analysing the data h m phase ï, the act nomination phase an outiined in this section. Phase 1of the study involved the compilation of mentoring acts and behaviors. Once questiomaires were received, a list of acts was compiled. Two hundred and eighty-five items wen nominatcd by respondents as acts or behaviors that exemplifiecl rnento~g.The nominateci acts were reviewed and edited by two raters. This was an iterative process of three rounds. In the first round, like items were grouped togcther into elcven categories based on key words. The categwiw were: coach, fiend, communicator, advocatc, counselor, challenges, advisor, role moàel, h k e r , r e f d agent, and other characterîstics. Each category had subcategones. For example the category of coach consisteci of the subcatcgories of feedback, motivation, encouragement, guidance, teach, leam, explain, coaching, suggest, and other. In the second round, items in each category were edited to eliminate redundant statements and to eliminate ambiguous statements. For example tht

50

statements "provided me with f~edbackon a continuai basis" and "constanîiregular feedback-

having regularly scheduled meetings to obtain feedback on how you are pmeeding in your job." were combined to fonn the statement "provided regular feedback". Items were also edited between categories to ensure that there was no overlap between items. In the final round, the items were dited from the past tense to the present tense. For example, the statement "my mentor helped increase my profile within the organization" was editeà to the statement "your mentor helps increase your profile within the organization". Once this process was completed there was a list of 99 unique acts. The 99 nominateci acts cm be found in Table 1 (in Section 5.2.4). In general, the acts

mirroc many concepts common to the mentoring literature (e.g. providing feedback and support, assisting in career development, etc. ). They are also very positive in orientation. Only thnenegative items were nominated: "exercises power over you", "is not interested in

what is best for you", and "is condescending".

-

5 3 Phase II Pmtotypkality Ratings

The purpose, the procedures, the anaiysis and the results obtained for the prototypicality ratings of this study are outlined in this section. 53.1 Rirpose and Procedures

The putpose of phase II was to establish the membership gradients discussed in the

methodology chapter. The fint stcp involved the development of the phase II questionnaire instrument that incorporateci m e n t o ~ gacts and bchaviors identified in the phase I questiOIlIliiife. Rimary data for this phase were coiiected using an eight page questio~aire

51

package (Appcdh B). The questionnaire package consisted of an informed consent fonn and the acniai questionmire. The informed consent form dso was used by responknts to request the results for rtüs study. The actual questionnaire consisted of two sections. T h fmt section was designed to determine how prototypical behaviors were of

mentoring. The second section

was designed to obtain demographic data to describe the sample. Demographic questions

inclu&d age, gender, years of work expcrience, job category and job function.

The 99 acts fiom phase 1were used in tht phase II questionnaire. In this questionnaire, nspondents wee asked to judge how prototypical each behaviour is of the

category of mentoring where "1" meant tbat the act fits very poorly with respondents' idea of

mentoring and 'Y" indicated that the act is a very good cxample of the idea of mentoring. Section one of the questionnaire initidy consisted of 101 acts due to a word processing

error. Then w m two statcments that were repeated in the list of acts: ''serves as a sounding bard to test iW and "is non judgmentaî". Twenty-five questionnaires had bcen administercâ to rcspormdents before tbe first c m was detectcd. It was afmali the

qucstio~aireshad b e n administcredthat it was detccted thac a second statement was twice

repeatcd in the questionnaire. The corrections for îhese mors will bt dedt with in the analysis

section. Questionnaires wcre disaibutcd in professional development classes. Students w m

given an opportunity to fïii out the questioanairedirring class the. Oncc completcd the

questionnairewas banded back to the researcher. Students who were interested in participating in the study but were not wilüng to fiU out the questionnaire in class w m givcn the

option of reairning their questionnaire by fax. 5.2.2 Wase II Analysis

The focus of the analysis in phase II was to use mean prototypicality scores to detemine what the core items of mentoring are and then to test for differences between means by gender. In defining “cote'' items, Buss and Craik (1981) have üaditionally taken the top

quade of acts as ranked by prototypicality scores. However, this practice may result in the exclusion of items with almost identicai means to those in the top twenty-five. In this study, means and standard deviations of the acts were examined to determine if there was a natural

breakpoint in the means that occurred ncar ihe top quartde. In other words, judgement was applied with regards to the inclusion of the acts. Gender analysis was not conducted because,

as noted below, thete were too few male respondents to conduct a cornparison based on gender. 5.2.3 Respondents

Sixty-seven questionnaires were distriutcd to students. The sample consisted of thirtynine students therefm the nsponse rate was 58%. F

i percent of respondents were male,

85% of respondents were fcmale.

To determine whelher the smaU number of men in the sample reflcctcd differential response ratts for men and women or their diffennt representatim in the sampling frame, the proportions of men and women in the sample were compared to those for the sampling frame. A total of 86 snidents were registered in the professional devdopment programs. Since one of

the larger professional ckvelapment programs nui in this institution is a Management

53

Development Program for Women, women were over-represented in the sampling m e . There were 25% men and 75% women in tbe classes studied. It was found using two-tailed probability that the proportion of male and female respondents in the sample was not significantly different fiom the proportion of males and females in the sampling frame. This implies that the sample for this phase reflected the sampling fiame with respect to gender. The average age of respondents was 42 Yeats and the standard deviation was 8.17. The average number of years of work expenence for respondents was 20 years and the standard deviation was 7.64. With regards to job category, 10% of respondents were in senior management or executive level positions, 31% of respondents wcre in middle management or project manager positions, 21% of respondents wcre in first level manager or supervisor positions, 23% of respondents wen in professional or technical positions, and 15% of respondents indicated "other non-manageriai"job categories.

In terms of job fwiction, 5% of respondents werc in the area of marketing or sales, 3% of respondents were in the area of manufacturing, 21% of respondents were in the area of human resources management, 10%of respondtnts were in the area of rcsearch and dcvelopment or engineering, 8%of respondents were in the area of accounting or finance, 13% of respondents were in the ana of administration, 2% werc in the area of operatioas, 10% of respondents indicated that thcy were in more than one category, and 31% of respondents were in the category "other". The categCx"y"othei' consisted of administration, communications, management and professional consulting, production, planning and reportùig, information and knowledge management, policy analysis, project management, public relations and fundraising.

54

53.4 Wase II Results

The respondents and the results obtained after analysing the prototypicality ratings fiam phase II are outlined in this section. The means and the standard deviations of the prototypicality scores were calculated for a l i 99 act statements (set Table 1). To comct the word processing error that had led to the inclusion of 2 items twice, the two sets of scores for each statement were averaged and the means and the standard deviations were calculated. The means and standard deviations wcre used as selection criteria to establish the top acts. While Buss and Craik (1980) recomrnended including the top 25 acts, the choice of the top 25 acts is arbitrary. In this study, judgement was applied to determine a suitable cutoff. The top 36 acts were chosen. 'Iht top 36 acts can be identified by an asterisk, before each item in Table 1.

The mean cutoff score was 5.79. The selection of the top 36 acts was based on the judgement of the mearcher. The gap betwtcn the means of the 36th and 37th items was 0.07 which was the second largest gap in the data. The largest gap in the data below the top 10 acts is at item

60. The Merence between item 59 and item 60 was 0.08. However, 59 items was considercd too many to include in the questiomah because it would increase the nsponse

Table 1 W Unique Acts of Mentoring

*2.always deals with you honesîly

6.54

0.76

*3. &tains

6.49

1.07

6.36

0.84

*6.provides both positive and negative feedback an your performance

6.36

0.87

*7.shares the knowleûge that they possess

6.26

0.94

*S. provides advice but lets you make the decision

6.23

0.81

+9.provides replat feedback

6.21

0.77

v

*5. m&h

-

-

confiitiaiity

positive eihics and values

---

*12. sbares k i r organization knowledge

* 13, models persoaal and professional growth 1 *14. takes t h e to discuss issues with you

-

p

6.15

0.84

6.15

0.99

(6.13

(0.73

1

I

* 16.suggests alternative ways of looking at ihe problem

*19. provides advice on wolk situatioas

6.00

1.10

*20. p v i d e s encouragement

5.95

1.05

*21. helps you enhance your career goals

5.92

1.40

*24. helps you understand the organization's vision

1 *25. shares their work experience

1

*27. shows you respect

1 *28. acknowledges your accomplishments *29. supports you through failures

1 *30. pushes you to strive for higher g d s

*34. stem you to oppaminities to expIind y w r experience *35. demonstrates intetest in your cateer development

*36.clearly explains their expectations 37. demonsuates interest in your work

1 38. helps yau put things into perspective 39. expects the best h m you

40. connects you with contacts who can provide advice regarding specinc tasks 41. encourages you to empower yourself 42. helps you to visualize a goal

1 43. is open to other views 44. helps you expand your netwarL

45. demonstrates tbeir skills and abiiities in such a way that you caa mode1theii behaviour

1

1 46. praises your successes

15.59

1 1.19

48. helps you idenw career opportunities

5.56

1.43

49. encourages you to take nsks

5.54

0.94

50. helps you to gain mote responsibility

5.51

1.19

5 l exposes you to training opportunities

5.51

1.05

52. shows you the ropes

5.51

1.19

53. builds your confidence

5.49

1.05

54. helps you to gain more autonomy

5.49

1.14

55. sbares theu own experiences

5.46

1.07

56. helps create oppomuiitiesfor you to develop new skills

5.46

1.27

57. demonstrates patience

5.46

1.19

58. explains issues in detail

5.46

1.47

59. pvides advice on career goals

5.44

1.41

60. solicits your input

5.36

.

1

1.80 -

1 62. assis& you with gettinguposms bolhinside and outside ofyour 1 5.31 1 134

1

( 63. encourages you to present your work to others

15.28

11.07

1

1 64. promotes y a n abiütics w itbin the organization

15-26 11.43

1

65. shares their opinions with you

5.21

1.28

66, communicates their enthusiasm

5.13

1.04

67. is loyai to you

5.13

1.52

68. introduces you to influential othem

5.03

1.25

69- belps you maintaina positive attitude

5.03

1.44

( 70.stays in tnrh with you on a ceguiar bais

1 5.00 1 1.26 1

1 73.encouragesyou io apply for new positions 75. encourages you to Uicrease your visibility by attending meetings

4.87

1.38

76. connects you with contacts who can help with your career

4.85

1.37

1 77.helps increase your profile within the organizatim

1 4.82 1 1.47

80. champions your activities within the organization

( 82. suggests solutions to a particular situation

1 83. mmmends you to othets 84. teaches you how to stand up for what you beiieve

1 85. maices a long term cornmimient to you

4.79

1.71

1 4.72 1 1.79 1 4.63 1 1.67

1 1

1 4.59 1 1.43 I

1

1 454 1 1.62

86. represents your career interests and aspirations to management

4.49

1.79

87. helps you deal with disappointments

4.46

1.47

89. initiates meetings if ihey feel too much iUne bas elapsed between meetings

4.36

1.80

90. UndCrstands you as a person

4.26

1.4

13.82

11.60

93. volunteers tbeir views on ihe ~~Litics of the ornaniuih'ou

1

1

1

94. taices tune to discuss w d in a reiaxed social context

1 3.77 1 1.74

96.shares experiences of theu persona1 life

2.95

1.70

97. exercises power over you

1.72

1.00

98. is not interested in what is best for you

1.62

1.11

99. is condescendhg

1.21

0.81

1

* Denotes tbat the item is one of the top 36 acts. An examination of the prototypicality scores indicates that the behaviors typical of

mentorhg an al1 very positive in orientation -the three negative items received the lowest prototypicality scores. Luoking at the top 36 items suggests that some of the behaviors most typical of mentoring relate to coaching or teaching, setving as a d e model, and providing support. The ovcrlap between the act frequency items and mentoring roles previously identified in the literature is further explond in the subsidiary analysis reported ùelow. 5.2.5 Siibsidiary Analysis

in order to compare the items generated by the act fiequency approach to the roles identifieci in prewious research on mentoring, an additional questionnaire was required. This section discusses the purpase, the procedures, the analysis and the tesults obtained for the subsidiq analysis of this study. 5.2.5.1 Pucpoae and Proceduces

The purpose of the subsidiary analysis was to compare the behaviors identified in this study with the mlcs estabiished by prcvious researchers. The k

t step involved the

60

development of a questionnaire instrument that inoorporated mentoring acts and bebaviors identified in phase 1.

Pnmary data for the subsidiary analysis was coliected using four versions of a nine page questionnaire package (Appendices C to F). The questionnairepackage consisted of a definition sheet, an informed consent form, and the actual questionnaire. There were four versions of the questionnaire and correspondhg definition shects: version K,version L, version 8, and version IS. The fourversions correspondeci with four researchers roles: Kram (1983

and 198Sa), Lrvinson et al. (1978), Burke (1984). and Leibowitz and Schlosberg (1981). in the first section of the questionnaire nspondents were askd to place each statement about mentorhg behavior into one of the d e s defined by the tesearcher for that questionnaire. Niaety-nine acts h m phase I were u d in the subsidiary analysis questionnaire. The second

section was designcd to obtain demographic data to describe the sample. Demogtaphic questions includcd age, gen&r, years of work cxperience, job category and job function. Consent forms a d questioIII1IilTCS were distributad to Management Development Rogram for

Women students. Students were given an opportuni@ the.

to fil1 wt the questionnaire during class

61

5.25.2 Analysis

The purpose of the analysis was to establish the overlap between the act frequency items and previously identified mentor d e s . The subsidiary analysis employed a mixture of quantitative and qualitative analysis. The number of respondents who placed each item under each role was h

t tallied.

An item was assigned to a particular role when the largest number of

respondents placed it in that category. For example, the act frequency item " encourages you to increase your visibility by attending meetings" was assigned to Kram's (1985) exposure role because 6 out 7 respondents placed it in that category. Where the number of respondents placing an item into 2 or more categories was tied, the tie was broken by the researcher's judgement. The researchcr placed the item into the category that the was the most appropriate. 5.253 Subsidiary Analysis Respondents

Twenty-six questionnaires wcn handcd out to students, Twenty-five questionnaires were reccived wbich was a response rate of 96%. Six mspondents completed version L,6 nspondents completed version B, 6 respondents completed version L and 7 respondents completed version K. Ail twenty-five nspondents were female, but three respondents did not complete the personal information section. The average age of respondents was 44 years and

the standard deviation was 5.03. The average number of years of work experience for respondents was 22 years and the standard deviation was 6.91. With regards to job category

23%of tespondents were in the senior management or executive category, 23% of respondents were in middle management or project manager positions, 23% of respondents were in first

level manager or supervisor positions, 13% of respondents were in professional or technical

62

positions, and 18% of respondents indicated "other non-manageriai" positions. With regards to job fwiction, 5%of respondents were in the area of marketing or sales, % of respondents were in the area of human resources management, 5% of respondents were

in the area of research and development or engineering, 9% of respondents were in the area of

accounting and !hace, 5% of respondents indicated that they were in mon than one category, and 68% of respondents were in the category "other". The category "other" was composed of public relations, non-profit, information technology, competency testing for professionals, nursing/counseling, service delivery, policy andyst, foreign service, ntail, records management, and administration. S.2.5A Subsidiary Anaiysis Resuits

The results obtained after anaiysing the data from the subsidiary analysis are outlincd in this section. The complete rcsults for this phase can bc found in Appcndix G. Tables 2.1 to 2.4

are a summary of the complete results found in Appcndix G.

Table 2.1 Act Frequency Items cornparcd to Kram's Roles

Protection

O

O

Role modelling

9

3

Rovidig challenging assignments

4

1

Acccptance and confirmation

IO

5

Counseling

16

7

Ftiendship

5

O

23

8

Acts not included in this framewotk * Items in the top 36.

Table 2.2 Act Fquency Items camparcâ to ïevinson et al.3 Roles

Teacher

21

II

Sponsor

27

5

Exemplar

7

3

Counselor

22

1O

Acts not included in this

13

3

framcwork * Items in the top 36. Table 2.3 Act Frequcncy Items comparai to Burke's Roles

Go to bat for protkg6

10

O

Teachtr/Coach(Trainer

32

19

Use job assignmtats to develop protégé

7

1

Acts not included in this framework *Items m t k t o p 36.

22

4

Table 2.4 Act Frequency Items compared to Leibowitz and Schlosberg's Roles

communicatot

7

3

Counselor

6

1

Coach

6

1

Advisor

1

O

Broker

1

O

Referrai Agent

1

O

Advocate

6

O

1 Mentor

1

39

1

1

15 ~

- -- -

Appraiser

6

5

Acts not included in this

26

10

-

-

framework

* Items in the top 36. A review of Tables 2.1 through 2.4 show that many of the act frequency items were not

included in the typologies dcvclopcd by previous researchers. On average across the four researchers, there were 21 act fkquency items that had not bccn identified in the previous typologies and 6 core act fkquency items ( k m the top 36) that had not been included in the previous typologies. The typology that is most inclusive of the items nominated by lay people is

the eariiest one: Levinson et al's (1978) typology. The roks idcntined previously in the literaaire that reflected the largest numbers of c m act frequency items were Kram's coaching and counseling roles; Levinson et al's teachcr and

66 counselor d e s ; Burke's role mode1 and tcacbtrlcoachltrainer roles; and Leibowitz and Schlossberg's mentor role. A nurnùer of the items that were not included in previous typologies relate to the mentor demonsüating integrity, understanding and empathy for the protégé (see Appendix G for more details). This suggests that lay people's understanding of mentoring are broader than those of previous rescatcb. 5 3 Phase Hi Measure Vaîiàation

The purpose, the procedures, the analysis and the rtsults obtained for the merisure

vali&tion phase of this study are outlined in this section.

53.1 Phase III nirposs and Pmedares The purposes of the measure validation phase were: to M e r establish the d e s that

..

are important to the mentoring comtn~ctby determining which roles relate to mentor effectiveness; to develop a new sale of mentoring; and to validate the scale by tcsting to determine if the new instrument relates to existing theory. The phase ïïï questionnaire instrument incorporatcd the top 36 mentoring acts and behaviors ûom the phase il questionnaire. This section outlines the procedures foilowed and the analysis perfomcd in the masure validation phase. Primary data fot this phase werc coliected using a nine page questionnaire package

(Appendix H). The questionnaire package consisteci of an informeci consent fom and the actual questio~aire.The infOLmed consent form was also used by respondents to nquest the results for this study. The actud questionnaireconsisted of four sections. Section A of the questio~aireasked xespondcnts questions regarding their job

67

category, functional ma, their supcrvisocy role if applicable, the number of years of full-tirne work experience they had, and whether or not respondents had taken a leave of absence. Section B asked respondents questions regarding the number of mentors that they had over the course of their caner, whether or not these mentors were also their supervisors, and the average length of the mentoring relationships. Respon&nts were alm asked to rate the extent

to which their mentors &monstrateci the 36 prototypical acts fiom phase II and to rate the overall effectiveness of their mentor. Section C asked respondents about their level of job satisfaction, the number of promotions that they had had to date, their current salary and their sdary when they first started fidl tirne work. This section also asked respondents to rate their expcrience in their organization using the organizational socialization scales described below. Section D asked respondents demographic questions regarding age, gender, and the highest level of education completed. Questionnaires were distributeci in university professional development classes. Students were given an qportunity to fiii out the questionnaire during class tirne. Once completed rhc questionnaire was handed back ta the researcher. Studentswho were

inmcsîcd in participating in the study but wem not w i i g to f?ll out the questionnaire in class were given the option of nturning their questionnaire by fax. Students were also asked to take two additional questionnaires in envclopes to thtir workplacc to give to theh coworkers to NI out and to mail back to the rescarchcr.

5.3.1.1 Measures

The intemal nliability of each sale, except salary progression and promotion, was determined to enswe that the scale was consistent and complete. The interna1reliabilities of each outcome sale for this study can be found in Table 3 below:

Table 3 Reliab'ities for Outcorne Measures

ûrganization socialization Politics sale

0.68

ûrganization socialization People scaic

0.67

ûrganization socialization History sale

0.76

1 ûrganization Jocialization ûrganizationGds&Values seale Organization Socialization Performance Proficicncy scale

1 Job Satisfaction m i e

1 0.81

1

0.59

1 0.85

1

The job satisfaction scale and the organization socialization - organization goals and values scale were above the .O8 alpha level prcscribed by Nunnally (1978), however the othcr four organization socialization d e s w m below that Ievel. The lower alpha levels in the scales used in this study would suggest that the organization socialization d e s are not as nliable in measwing the socialization of an individual into an organization as anticipateci. This unreliabiity may attenuate any comlation between mentoring and these outcomes.

69

53.2

m ~nsl~sss

~hage

There were two objectives of the analysis in phase ILL The first objective was to further establish ttie d e s that art important to the mentorhgconsîruct by testing to determine

which items discrimùiate between effective and ineffective mentors in order to establish the roles that are important to the m e n t o ~ gconsûuct, Thc second objective was to develop a new

sale of mentoring, only thosc items celated to mentor effectiveness were includcd in the mentoring scale. In addition, an atttmpt was made to validate the scale by assessing

convergent validity. Convergent vaiidity was assessed in this phase by using known mentoring outcome mtasures and comlathg them with the new masures of rnentoring developed in this study.

5.3.3 Phase III Respondents

For this phase, a total of 135 questionnaires wert distributed to students. Forty-five

qucstionnaires were administeredto students and nintty questionnaires werc given to the students to give to their wworkers. The sample of rtsponâents consisted of sixty-men people

thercforc the response rate was 50%. Twenty-five percent of the nspondents were mak, 69% of respondents were fmale, 6%of rcspondents did not indicate iheir gender. Tests for

diffmnœs were not conductcd because thcre wcn not suffiCient male respondents to cmduct

a cornparison based on gender. The perccntage of men and women in the final sample compareci to the sampling fiame could not be testeri, because it was not possible to distinguish betwœn respandcnts who were in professional development classes and respondents who were not in pfcssional devehpment classes and for whom the gender distribution in the

70

~a~llpling fiame was unlaiown. The average age of respondents was forty years and the standard deviation was 9.42.

The average number of years of work expcrience for respondents was seventeen years and the standard deviation was 8.97. With regards to job category, 3% of respondents were in senior management or executive level positions, 22% of respondents were in middle management or p j e c t manager positions, 28% of respondents were in 6rst level manager or supewisor positions, 36% of respondents were in professionai or technical positions, and 11% of respondents indicated "other non-managerial category". Nine percent of nspondents were in the area of marketing or sales, 10% of

rcspondents were in the ana of human resources management, 9% of respondents were in the

area of research and development or engineering, 10% of respondents were in the area of accounting or hance, IO% of respondents were in the ana of administration, 6% of respondents had indicatai that they were in more than one category, and 45% of respondents indicated "other". The category "other" consistaiof communications, administration, health wt, operations, information technology, production,

sttategic planning, customer service,

management, public relations, training, policy analysis, and insurancc.

In temis of cducation, 6% of respondents completed high school, 24% completed some college, 16% had a college diplorna, 36% had a University degrce, 12% had a p s t graduate &grec, and 6% did not indicate their highest level of education completcd. Forty cight pcrceat of respondents indicated that did not s u p c ~ s other e employees, 52% indicatcd that they did supemise other employees. With regards to leaves of absence,

71

55%of respondents indicated that tbey did not take a leave of absence, 45% of respondents indicated that they did take a leave of absence. Tbe average iength of absence was 30 months.

in tenns of experience with mentors, 67% of cespudents indicated that they had been mentored. The average length of the mentoring relationship was 2 years, the average number of mentors was 2 mentors, and the average n u m k of mentors who were supervisors was 1 mentor. 5.3.4 PhasemReSults

This section outlines tbe nsults obtained

analysing the data fcom phase m.This

section is broken dom into item comlations with mentor effectiveness, the assessrnent of the ncw scale of mentoring, and the validation of the new mentoring scale. 5.3.4.1 Item Correlationwith Menrot Efectiveness

The first step in the anaiysis was to correlate each of the 36 statements with the overall mentor effectiveness item to establish the roies that arc important to the mentoring construct. Testing was conducted at the .O5 and .O1 Ievels of signincance to furthet distinguish between d e s that w m found to be important. Items with sisnifiatut cornlations were kcpt. Correction for cxperiment wise error was nor be conducted because this test was dcemcd too

stringcnt for such exploratory worir, The purposc of this step was to bt liberal and to capture the grcatest amount of variety, with regards to the items. Thirty statcmnts were correlated to

mentor effectiveness at the .O5 level of significance (see Table 4). The six acts that wtre not corielated to mentor effectivenessat the .O5 level ofsigniscance were: discussed msons for the way in which they &al with situations,

provided both positive and negative fcedback on your performance, O

shared their worlc experience, provided advice but let you make the decision, suggested areas for M e r training and development, and shand their knowledge of the organization.

Twenty three statements were cornlated to mentor effectiveness at the .O1 level of significance (see Table 3). The seven acts that were not correlated to mentor effectiveness at the .O1 level

of significance but, were correlated at the .O5 level of significance were: clearly explaineci their expectations, coached you to develop your job skills, a

sharcd the knowledge that they possess, mai as a sounding board to test ideas,

0

helped you to understand the organization's vision, insp'ûedyou to excel, and

modeled personal and pmfcssîonal growth.

Table 4 30-item and 23-item sale

1. Provides constmctivc feedback

X

X

2. Always deals with you honestly

X

X

3. Maintains confidentiality

X

X

4. Coaches you to devclop pur job skills

X

5. Models positive ettiics and values

X

6. Provides both positive and negative feedback on your performance 7. Shares the knowlednt that they possess

X

I 1

x

1 8. Provides advice but lets you make the decision 1 1 9. Rovides rcgukr fadback X

11. Develops a relationship of trust with you

X

1

1 14. Takes tune to discuss issues with you

1

1

1

10. Inspires you to excel

1 12. Shares theh organization knowlcdge

I

X

1

1 X

I

X

1

1 15. Encourages new i d a s 16. Suggests alternativt ways of looking at the probl

X

X

X

X

1 17. Makes hidherself availabie to you 19. Provides advice on work situations

1 21. Helps yni enhancc your career goals

1

X

1

X

1

1 22. Questions you to help yw to sce t b g s from 1 another perspective I X

23. Serves as a sounding board to test ideas

24. Helps you understand the organization's vision

I

1

X

1 1

1

25. Shans their work experience

1

26. Provides support

1

X

1

X

27. Shows you respect

1

X

1

X

1 28. Acknowledges your accomplishments 29. Supports you tbrough failuxes 30. Pushes you to strive for higher goals

1

31. Encourages you to iakc initiarive

!

I

X

X

X

X

X

x

1 32. Discusses reasons for the way in whkh thcy deal ( with situations

I

I

1 36. Cleady explaim thei.expsîatiom

1

l

I l

I X

35. Demonsuates interest in your carcer dcvelopmcnt

x

l 1

33. Suggesîs areas for hinhcr îraining and &velopmci)t

experience

I

X

l

I

1 34. Stcos you to opportunities to expand pur

!

I1

X

X

1

1

The 23 items most stronglycmlated with mentor effectivcness seem to clusîer around

a smali number of functions: providing Mback, demonstrating integrity, providing support, and encouraging p w t h and dcvelopment. The dimensionality of the mentoring constmct was m e r explorai in Phase IV.

75 5.3.4.2 Assessrnent of the New Scales of Mentoring

The next step was to create 2 scaies h m the signüicant mentoring items. The first sale consisted of the 30 items that were correlated to mentor effectiveness at the .O5 level of significance. The second scaie consisted of the 23 items that were correlated to mentor effectiveness at the -01level of significance. Each scaie was tested for its internai reiiabiity using Cronbach's alpha. The intemal reiiability for the 30 item scale was ,9776. The intemal reliability for the 23 item sale was -9744. Thus there was little loss in reliabiiity in shortening the scale; however the longer sale does provide a broadcr target for prediction. Thus both scalcs were employed in subsequent analysis, 5.3.4.3 Validationof the New Mentoring Suzles

The third objective of Phase ïiï was to validate the new mentoring scaies. Convergent vaiidity would be demonstratcd if the nzw measurcs were positively correlated with outcomes found in previous research. True validation would require separate samples to be used to develop and to test the measure. In this study, the same sample was used to develop, refie and test the measure, thus this research provides a biased estimate of validity. The outcomes examinai in this nseatch (organizational socialization, salary progression, promotion, and job satisfaction) may ais0 be attributable to other factors such as: organizationai level, age, duration of any ciueer intcmiptions, education, the number of mentors who were supervisors, and the average length of the mentoring relationship which were included in this study as control variables. in order to explore this possibiity, the impact of these conûol vatiables on the outcomes and the relationship bctween the new mentoring scaies

76 and outcomes was examined. The analysis is aported below in 3 sections: correlations between the mentoring scales and the original outcome variables, the relationship of the outcomes to the control variables, and correlations between the mentoring scales and the outcome variables residuaiized for the effects of the control variables. 5.3.4.3.1 CorrelationsBetween Menroring und the Original Outcorne Variables

The two mentoring scaies were correlated with 8 outcome variables (see Table 5): O

5 organization socialization sub scales: potitics* people* history* organization goals and values, and performance proficiency;

4

saiary progression;

4

promotion; and

4

job satisfaction. The two mentoring d e s were signifimtly conelated to only two outcome variables:

organizational socialization and job satisfaction. M e n t o ~ was g cornlated with organizational sociaiization - history, at the .O5 level of significance: the correlation for the 30-item scale was 31, and the correlation for the 23-item d e was .33. The two mentorhg scalcs were

correlated to job satisfaction, at the -01 level of significance: the comlation for the 30-item scak was .46, and the correlation for the 23-item scale was .45.

Table 5 Mentoring Scaies vs Outcome Variables

ûrganization Socialization Politics ûrganization Sociaiization People ûrganization Socialization History Organization Socialization ûrg. Goals & Values ûrganization Socialization Performance Mciency

I Progression Promotions

I lob satisfaction

I

*Comlation is significant at the .O5 level(2-tailed) **Correlation is signifiant at the .O1 level(2-tailed) 5.3.43.2 Control variables and Outcomes

The next step was to cotrelate the outcome variables with the control variables to determine whether the relationship bctwcen mentoring and the outcornes was attn'butabie to the other variables. The control variables in this study were: organization level, age, the number of

78

career interruptions, education, the number of mentors who were supervisors, and the length of the mentor relationship. The fust step was to run correlations between the control variables and

the outcome variables (see Table 6). Table 6 Control Variables vs Outcome Variables n-67

Org. SOC. Goals

-0.20

0.20

0.26

-0.29*

0.15

0.01

Org. SOC. Perf. pro.

-0.18

-0.05

-0.08

-0.16

0.22

0.07

Salw

-0.20

0.32*

0.61**

0.08

-0.1 1

0.08

-0.3 1*

0.18

0.39*

-0.05

0.25

0.16

4.27*

0.29*

0.34

-0.28*

0.13

0.1 1

Rognssion Job Satisfaction hmotims

*Correlation is signifiant at the .O5 level(2-taüed) ** Couelation is signiscantat the .O1 level(2-taüed) In ge~rai,organization level had a negative impact on îhe outcome variables. Age had a positive impact on tht outcome variables. Caner intmuptions had a positive impact on the

outcomc variables. Education had a negative impact on the outcome variables. Mentors who were supenrisors had a positive impact on the outcame variables. Relationship length did not have an impact on the outcome variables.

79

Where the control variables were significantly correlated with the outcome variables, regression analysis was used to mate residualized outcome variables. The control variables related to each outcome variable were regressed on that outcome variable and the unexplained variance in the outcome variable was saved as a rcsidual (see Table 7). This residualized outcome variable represents the variance in îhe outcome that is not attributable to the control variables and which is, thercfore, potentidy due to other factors such as mcntoring. Table 7

I l

Salary Progression

Age

Numbex of career intenuptions

Job Satisfaction

ûrganization level Numbcr of career interruptions

Number of promotion

Education As ûrganization ievei

l l1

Organization socialization - politics

Number of mentors who were supervisors ûrganization level

Organization socialization - history

Numbcr of mentors who were supervisors organization level

ûrganization socialization - organization goals and values

Education

80

5.3.4.3.3 Correlations Behveen Mentoring and the Residualized Outcome Variables

The next step was to correlate each residualized outcome variable with the two mentor scales: the 30-item scaie, and the 23-item scale. These correlations are reported in Table 8 and the correiations of the mentoring scales with the unresidualized outcomes are also included for comparison purposes. The correlations showed that not one of the tcsidualized outcome variables was found to be significantiy related to the mentor scales at the .O1 or the .O5 level of signiiicance (see Table 8). This shows that the mentoring scales do not help to explain outcomes once the other important variables are controiied for. Possible explmations relate to limitations of the data set used in this study a small sample, respondents who may be engaged in educational upgrading because previous mentoring was inadequate and a predomhantly female sample who may face other caner barriers.

Table 8 Outcome vs Mentor Scales

kganization 3ocialization Peopie ûrganization SrJcialization History

ûrganization Socialization Org. Goais & Values

Residuallzed Organization

SocirlizatIon 0%.Goiils & values

ûrganization Smiaiization Performance Roncicncy

'

1 ~ o satisfaction b

1 0.46..

0.07 Residuaüzed Job Satisfaction *Correlation is significant at the .OS level(2-taiied) ** Correlation is significant at the .OI level(2-taiied)

1 0.45**

1

0.07

-

53.5 Pbase IV Exploratory Classification

The third objective of this research was to explore the dimensionality of the mentorhg constnict. h i e to the smaii sample size in Phase IU,factor analysis could not be conductcd. As a general nile, ten subjects per variable is requind for diable factor analysis (Nunally, 1978). The average enrolrnent in tbc Rofessional Development Programs was only one

hundred and ten students per tenn thcrefore, each respondent was providcd with two extra copies of the questionnaire. Respondents were asked to disaibute the extra questionnaires to their pecrs at work. This procedm did not b a s e the sampk size enough to conduct factor analysis. Insteaâ, items were classified usinga Q-sort technique whereby nspondents were asked to put the 36 items into categories that they determined, then an exploratory classification of items was wnducted. This section outlines the data collection method used for this anaiysis and the results obtained.

83

Data for exploratory classification was collected using a fourth questionnaire (Appendix

I). This questionnaire package consiad of an informed consent fom, the actual questionnaire and thirty-six cards. Each card contained one of the 36 most prototypical acts of mentoring. Respondents were instnicted to separate the car& into categories using their own criteria and

r e m the cards bundled together in these categories. The questionnaire contained instructions for respondents and demographic questions regarding the respondent's age, gender, highest level of education completed, job categoq, and job function. 5.3.5.1 Respondents

Twelve questionnaires were distributed among employees of a government agency who were attending a workshop on mentoring and career developmcnt. Seven employees responded with completed questionnaires which is a response rate of S8%,however two of the seven questionnaires were incomplete. These respondents had not separated the car& into categones, therefore there were only five questionnaires that could be used in the analysis. Twenty percent of respondents wcre in the under 30 age category. Eighty percent of respondents were in the 40 to 49 age category. In terms of gender, 40% of respondents were male and 60% of respondents were female. Twenty petcent of rcspondents had completcd

some college or university, 20% of mspondents had completed a coiiege diploma, 40% of rcspondents had completed a univcrsity &gree, and 20% of respondents had completed a p s t graduate degree. h terms of job category, 40% of nspondents were in the human resources category, 40% of respandents were inthe adminisirative and fonign service category, and

20% were in the administrative support category. In terms of hction, 4096 of respondents

84

wme in the managerial category, 20%of respondents were in the support staff category, 20% werc in the administration category and 20% of respondents did not answer this question.

Fhally, the average number of years of fidl time work experience was 14years. 5.35.2 Classification of Items

In order to combine the data, each pair of items was examined to cletennine how many respondents had paired them together. if four out of the five respondents had place the two items in the same subset then that pair was assigned a pairing value of 80%. Clustering began with those items whose percentage pairing was 80% or greater. Once those items were

clustered, then the rcmaining items were added to clusters where that item's pairing score averagcd amss those items alnady in the cluster was the highest. This analysis led to the cnation of nine clusters. Each cluster was narned based on the characteristics of the items in the cluster. The clusters werc then reviewed for face validity by two mearchers and the intemal retiabilities were exarnined (see Table 9). Since the interna1 reiiabiïities of each cluster exceededthe cutoff of .60 estabiished by Nunnally (1978) for exploratory work,the

categones werc left unchanged. The nine clusters were: feedback, integrity, opemess, professional growth, encouragement,knowledge, support, coach, career and goal attainment.

Table 9 New Clusters of Mentoring Items

Cluster 1: Feedback

1. Rovided constructive

reedback. 9. Provided regular feedback. 36. Clcarly e x p l a i d theu 3xpectatiom.

Cluster 2: htegrity

3. Maintained mufïdentiality. 11. Dcveloped a relationship of trust wiîh you. 13. Modelied personal and professional growth. 14. Took time to discuss issues with you. 27. Showed you respect. 2. Always dealt with you honestlj 5. Modetled positive cthics and values.

I Cluster 3: Optnness

18. Listcned to you carcfuily. 15. Encouraged new ideas.

Cluster 4: Professional growt 6. Rovidcd b t h positive and negatiw fdback on your perf~~natlce. 19. Provided advice on work situations. 34. Sicend you to oppoaunities to expand your experience.

I

Cluster 5: Encouragement

!O. Rovided encouragement.

7. Made himnierself available 'OU.

Il. Encouraged you to take nitiative. I. Rovided advice but let you nake the decision.

Cluster 6: Knowledge

12. Questioned you to help you iee things from another ntspective. 12. Shared their knowledge of xganization. 16. Suggested alternative ways looking at the problem. 24. Helped you to understand t organization's vision. 25. Shared theù work cxpcricn 33. Suggcstcd arcas for further aaining and developmcnt.

Cluster 7: Support

28. Acknowledged your accomplishments. 10. Iaspited you ta excel. 26. Provided support. 29. Suppoacd you through failuns.

Cluster 8: Coach

32. Discussed reasons for the way in which they deal with situations. 4. Coached you to develop y01 jobs skills. 7. Sbared the knowledge that i possess.

35. Demonstraied interest in your 0.87 career dcvelopment. 21. Helped you enhance your career g d s . 23. Served as a sounding board to test ideas. 30. Pushed you to strivc for highei goals. The numbers in îhe column "items in cluster" correspond with the prototypicality ranking that the item reccived in phase II. Cluster 9: Career and goal attainment

The clusters rcpnsent the d e s of mentoring found in this study. These rolcs were named using the judgement of tbe research. The nine new roles are: feedback, integrity, opemess, professional growih, encouragement, knowledge, support, coach, and career and goal attai~uncnt.These nint roies Mer from the functions that have been developed in past research. The feedback, opemess, and integrity roles are new and are very specificroles that

are viewed as important to junior managers in this study.

5.353Relationship of Clusrers and Mentor Scales The clusters wcn then compared to the list of 30 items and the list of 23 items that wen correlated to mentor efftctivtness (sce T&le 10).

Table 10

--

-

..- . . .

-

1. Rovided constructive feedbackr

X

36. Clearly explained k i r expectations

13. Modelled personal and

X

14. Took tirne to discuss issues with you.

1

X

27. Showed you respect.

1

x

2. Always dealt witb you bnestiy

5. Modelled positive ethics and 1 values.

Cluster 4: Professional grow 6. Rovided both positive and negative feedback on your pedonnance. 19. Rovided advice on work situations.

I

1 34. Steered p u to oppoaunities 1

X

to expand your experience. Clustcr 5: Encouragement

20. Pmvided encouragement.

X

7. made himhetself available to OU. -

lx'

1. Encouraged you to take ~tiative.

8. Pmvided advice but let you

:luster 6: Knowledge ee things fiom another

terspective. 2. Shared their knowledge of the rganization. 6. Suggested alternative ways of

ooking at the pmblem. !4. Helped you to understand the rganization's vision.

!S. Shared their work experience. 53. Suggestcd areas for further raining and development. --

-

Zluster 7: Support

18. Acknowledged your iccomplishments. 10. Inspircd you to cxcel. 26. Providcd support. 29. Supporteci you through

failures.

Cluster 8: Coach

32. Diseusseci nasons for the way in which they &al with situations.

4. Coachcd you to develop your jobs skills.

7. Shiued the knowledge that thc possess.

Cluster 9: Career and goal amiment

35. Demonstratedintemtinyour w e e r development.

X

X

21. Helped you enhance your careergoals.

X

X

23. Served as a sounding board to test ideas.

X

30. Pushed you to s ~ v for e highe goals.

X

X

Table 10 indicates that the items that are correlated with mentor effectiveness are not equally distributcd across ail clusters. Cluster 2 - integrity had the most items h m the list of items that are most highly related to mentor effectiveness which may suggest that this role is centrai to the mentoring constnict. Cluster 8 - coach did not have any of the 23 items in its category. 5.35.4 Correlation of Chsrers to Outcomes

Correlation anaiysis was then conducteci betwtcn the ninc clusters and the outcome variables (see Table 11). ûrganization socialization - history was found to be significantly

-

-

comlated to cluster 7 Support, cluster 8 - Coach and cluster 9 Career goal attainrnent at

-

the .O5 level of significance. However when residualized organization socialization bistory was

-

examinai it was found to bc sisnificanrly corzclateci to only clustet 8 Coach at the .OS level of significance. This wouid suggest rhat t h e is an impact of mentoring on organization socialization - history independent of the control variables. Finally, job satisfaction was f m d to be signincantly correlatad to ail nine clusters at the .O1 level of signifîcance, however when residuaiized job satisfactionwas examincd none of these correiations remained significant.

91

Cluster 6 - Knowledge was not cortelated to organization socialization - history. This

finding was surprising since the organization socialization - history scale deals with knowledge about the organization. It is composed of the following items: 1know very littie about the hisîory behind rny work group/department; 1am not famiüar with the organization's customs, rituals, ceremouies, and celebrations; 1know the organization's long-held traditions;

1would be a good nsource in describing the background of my work groupfdepartment and; 1am familiar with the bistory of my organization.

-

Cluster 6 Knowledge also had factors reiated to one's knowledge of the organization: shared their knowledge of the organization and; helped you to understand the organization's vision for example. Yet organization socialization - history was correlateci to Cluster 7 - Support, Cluster 8 -

-

Coach, and Cluster 9 Carecr and g d attainment however, the a b v e mentioned clustcrs were not corelami ta r c s i d u h d organization socialization - history. So wbcn the wntrol variables art accounmi for, the only signifiant correlation bctwcen the new clusters and outcomes is the nlatimship bctwtcn coaching and organizational socialization - histoq. Given the small sample size, these nsults shouid be reevaiuated with a larger sample.

Table 11 Clusters vs Outcome Variables

O.S. Poütia Ilnld

-

os.

miucs O.S.

-

Paopk

O.S.

-

km'

-

Ra16

os.

BMay

O.S.

-

Gopls&

value3 R d

-

O.S. Gmh &

values O.S.

-

Paf.

m.

silrry Rog.

RcW.

Slilul Rg.

Romo. Rdd.

Pmma Job Su

Rcsid. Job Sat. P

** Corrclation is

lgnificantat the .O1 level(2-tailed) *Correlation is significant at the .O5 level(2-tailed)

93

5.4 Summacy of Resuits

This section summarizes the results obtained in aU four phases of the analysis. In phase 1a Iist of 99 acts of mentoring was generated. Phase IIestablisbed the membership gradients

of the mentoring acts. From this analysis 36 items were fond to be central to the mentoring construct. The subsidiary analysis compared the 99 acts established fiom Phase 1and compared them with the d e s that have been established by previous researchers. The act frrquency approach identifieci a number of new items not included in previous typologies. In Phase Jiï, two scales of mentoring werc created which included items comlated with mentor effectiveness: a 30-item scale and a 23-item scale both scalcs w m highiy diable. To assess the convergent validity of the scales, the two d e s wcre comlated to the outcome variables

residuaüzed for the six control variable. The two mentoring scales were correlatcd to job satisfaction and organization sociaiization - history. in Phase IV, exploratory classification of the 36 items was conducted and 9 clustcrs werc crcated. feedback, integrity, openness, professional growth, encouragement,knowledge, support, coach, and caner and goal attainment. The highlights of the results of each phase are discussed in the following section.

6 Discussion and Conclusions 6.1 Pb= I and Phase U The discussion in Phases 1and it will focus on the acts are central to the mencoring

domain. In the literaaire teview section the roles tbat were important to the mentdng constnict w m discussed. To compare my hdings with the findings of oîher researchers respondents to the subsidiary analysis were asked to place each act fquency item into 1 of the roles in an

e a r k typology. The nsuits are summarized in Tables 2.1

to 2.4

in Chapter Five. These

tables compared the 99 acts îhat were nominateci in phasc II of ihis study with the diffcrent d e s that were m t e d by nsearckrs. Thcre were four researchers: Kram (1983, 1985a),

Levinson et al. (1978), Burke (1984), and kibowitz and Schlostmg (1981). Each mearcher's roles wiü be discussed briefly.

There were fourroles of intaest for Kram's (1983,198Sa) fhmework: coaching, acctptance and conknation, counseling, and role modehg. These four foles covtrcd 26 out of the 36 items. H~wever,tbcre were 10con items that did not fit in tbe framework which

would suggest that thme are some roles of mentoring that are missing from this framework. l..evinson's (1978) ûamework had five d e s of intenst: teacher, sponsor, host and guide,

cxemplar, and counselor. These five roles covered 32 of tbc 36 corc items. This suggests that these d e s are central to the construct of mentoring. Brirke's (1984) framcwork had three d e s of in-

role modei, build selfanfidence,and teacber/co&trainer.

coveEed 31 out of the 36 core items of ment-g.

These thtee mles

This suggcsts that these d e s are centrai to

the constmct of mentoring. Finaliy,Leibowitz and SchIosberg's (1981) framework had three

9s

d e s of inîerest: communicator, mentor,and appraiser. niese three d e s covcred 23 of the 36 corn items. This suggests that there are some d e s of mentoring that are missing from this

framework. ln ccmclusion, the roles tbat are cenûd to the mentoring consmct from the

perspective of junior managers who have been mentored are that of coach, teacher, counselor,

role modei/exemplarimentor, and building self-confidence/acceptilliœand confhation. However, fiom the d y s i s conducted, it is evideat that there are other d e s of mcntoring identified in th^ act fFequency study that have not been identified previously. These d e s relate to Uiicgrity, understandingand empathy.

a2-m From the analysis that was conducted in Phase UI it is evident that thtn arc items that

are relatcd to mentor effectiveness, Effective mentors demonsîrate the following bebavim: Provides constnictive ftadback,

Always deais with you honcstly, Maintains codïdcntiality,

Models positive ediics and values, Rovides regular f#dback, Develops a nlationship of ûust with you, Takes time to discuss issues with you,

Encourages new ideas, Suggests altemative ways of looking at the problem, Makm himmerstîfavailable to you,

Listens to you carefuliy, Provides advice on work situations, Provides encouragement, Helps enhance your career goals, Questions you to help you to see things fiom another perspective, b v i d e s support, Shows respect, Acknowledges your accomplishments, Supports you through failures, Pushes you to strive for higher goals, Encourages you to take initiative, Stecrs you to opportunities to expand your experience, and Demonstrates interest in your career development.

Two scales of m e n t o ~ were g &vcloped: a 30-item scale and a 23-item scale. These items were chosen based on the correlation of thest items with a global measure of mentor effectiveness. The 23-item sale containeci the items that were wrrelated to respondents' perception of mentor effectiveness at the .O1 level of significance. Thcre was no loss of reliability when using the 23-item mie instead of the 30-item scale. Finally, both the 30-item d e and the 23-item m i e covered the majority of the clusters. However, not all the clusters

were weli represented. For example, the clusters Coach and Support were not very weli repcestnted in the items that are related to mentor effectiveness. Although the 30-item d e

97

represents a broader targct for prediction, the correlatim betwcen outcomes and the mentoring scales were not signifîcantlyaffected by the choice of mentoring scale. The 23-item scale should be used in future research because it is more parsimonious, and therefore bas less respondcnt fatigue. Both scales were correlated to the outcome of job satisfaction but the scales were not correlated to residualized job satisfaction. Mentoring is a very complex constmct as is job satisfaction and it would not be correct to infer that if a mentor were to perform al1 the behaviors of the mentoring scales kveloped in tùis study that the proté& would be satisfied with their job. Thete are othcr factors that could affect this relationship.

63PùaseLV N i d e s of mentoring werc cstablished: feedback, integrity, openness, professional growth, encouragement, knowledge, support, coach, and carccr and goal attainmcnt. The

cluster Integrity contains the most items that are most highly related COmentor effectiveness which may suggest ihat this mle is central to the m e n t d g construct. However, the cluster Coach did not contain any of the items that are most highly relatai to mentor effectiveness. This may suggest that the role coach is not as central to the mentoring constnict as suggestcd in past mscarch and that integrity should be more promulent in future research. 63.1 Nine Rdes and Rotes h m past msearcb

In this section the d e s developed in this study are compared to the mles of each

rcsearchcr outlined in tbe literatun rcview. A brief definition of each of the nine roles is provided below to facilitate the discussion.

98

Feedback is defined as providing the protégé with work related feedback that is reguiar and constructive. A mentor proviâes feedback by cleariy explainhg what he or she expects

h m the protégé. Integtity is defined as modehg personal and professional growth, ethics and values. A mentor demonstrates the role of integrity by showing the protég6 respect, dealing with him or her honestly, by developing a relationship of trust with the protégé, maintainhg confidentiality and by taking the t h e to discuss issues with the proté&. Opemess is defined as listcning to the protégé carefully and encouraging new ideas

h m the protdgé. Professional growth is defincd as providing advice to the protégé on work situations, providing the protégé with both positive and ncgative feedback on his or her petfornana and stecring the protégt to opportunitics to expand kir experience. Encouragement is defincdas providing cncouragernent ta the protégé by offering advice to the protégé but letting him or her make the final dccision and king available to the pmtkgé.

Knowlcdgt is defincd as sharing the knowldge of the organization and the vision of the organization with the protégé. A mentor demonstrates the rok of knowledge by sharing their own wodc experience, questioning the protégé to help h i . or her set things h m another perspective, suggesting alternative ways of looking at the problem, and by suggesting m a s for M e r training and development.

Support is defined as providing supporttu the protégé by supporthg the protégé through bis or her failures, acknowlcdging the protégé's accompiishmcnts and inspiring the protége to excel.

99

Coach is defined as coaching t kproté@ to develop his or her job skills, sharing the

knowledge tbat the mentor possesses, and discussing reasons for the way in which the mentor deals with situations. Career and goal attainment is definad as senhg as a sounding board for ihe protégb to test ideas, pusbg the prottgé to strive for hi@ goals, demonsuating an interest in the

ptotegé's career developrnent, and helping the protégé enhance his or ber career goals. Now that the nint mies have bcen defined, the aine roles will be cornparcd with the roles dcveloped h m past restarch. 6.3.1.1 Kram Kram's (1983,1985a) roles of mentoring are: rolt madtlliag, acccptancc and

confirmation,counseiing,fnendship, spwsahship, protection, cxposure, providing challenging assignmcnts, and coaching. Feedback Altfiough Kram (1983,1985a) does not have a role named facdback, the concept

of fccback appears to partiaüy fit in the role counseling. Kram dcfints counseling as pmviding

a souuduig boardenabling the prodgt to explore personal coaccrns, o f f h g tùe mentor's personal experience as an alternative perspective, and hlping rcsolve pmblems through

kdback and active listening. The concept of fcedback is used to help the pmt6g6 to &al with

personal .-ed

The mk feadback in ibis study appears to be m m work relatai.

Integrity Kram does not have a mle namexi integrity but, the role integrity appcars to fit in o&er foles provided by Kram. The idea of modcliing behsvior and values appears to fit with

Kram's mk of rolc modehg wherc the mentor sets a desirableexample that the protégé can

100

identify with by dcmonstrating behaviors, attitudes and values that the pmtég6 can emulate. However the i&as of maintaining comfidentiality, showing the protégk respect and taking tirne to discuss issues with the protégé are not covered in Krarn's framework.

Openness: Although Kram does not have a role called openness, the elements of the role opemess: listened to you carefuiiy, and encouraging new ideas do appear to partidy fit in Kram's roles of counseling and acceptance and confirmation. Kram describes active listening in the mtext of klping a pro3g6 to explore personal concems and helping the protégé to nsolve persanal problems. The second element, encouraging new ideas, appcars to fit with Kram's d e of acceptance and confirmation.

Professional growth: The element of providing advice on work situations fits with Kram's role of coach where the mentor suggests specific strategies for accomplishing work objectives, for achieving recognition, and for achievùig career aspirations. The element of steering you to oppotninitics to expand your experience appears ta fit with Kram's role of providing challcngingassignments whcn the mentor assigns chalienging work to enable the protégé to dcvelop specifîc cornpetencies. However, the element of ptoviding both negatk and positive

feedôack on the protég6's pcrfomaace dots not appear to fit in any of Kram's mles bccausc it deais specifically with the protégé's performance at wmk.

Enconragement: The element of providing encouragement and offerhg advice but, lettiag the protégt! makc the final decision appcars to fit with Kram's role of acçeptance and wdhmation

where the mentor provides support and encouragement to the protégé, thus allowing the protég6 to tmike risks and to txy new methods of relating to their wodc.

101

Knowkdge: The role of knowledge is made up of the elemenîs of the mentor irausferhg bis

or ber knowledge of the organization, and specific tasks related to the protégé's work. This role pdaily fits with Krarn's role of coaching where the mentor suggests strategies to help the protégé accomplish work objectives.

Support: The role of support encompasses providiig the protégb with support when tbe

protégé fails, sharing in the successes of the ptotégé and inspiring the proi6gb to excel. This role partialiy fits with Kram's role of acceptance and codhation where the mentor provides

support to the protégé. Coach: The role of coach encompasses the mentor sharing their knowledge with the protégé,

explainhg the reasons why they deal with situations, and developing strategies so that the protégé can &velop job skilis. This appcars to fit with Kram's role of coaching. Caner and Goai rittainment: The role of career and goal attainment dues not appear to fit

with any of Kram's rols. Krams role of counseling deals more with persona1 concerts whmas the idea of the mentor being a sounding board to test ideas deals with work concem.

In summary, eight of the nine mles fit in Kram's fitamework. The oniy role that does not fit is w e e r and goal attainment. 63.12 Levinson

Levinson et a1.k (1978) d e s of mentoring are: teacher, sponsor, host and guide, exemplar, ami counselor.

Feedbrick: The mle of fccdback does not appear to fit into any of the niles in n vins on's (1978) fkamewotk.

102

Integrity: The role of integrity appears to fit into Levinson's role exemplar, where the mentor sets an example for the protegé to foiiow by way of his or her own Wtues, achievements, and

way of living. Opemess: The role of openness does not appear to fit into any of Levinsan's d e s .

Rofiionai growtb: The role of professional growth does not appear to fit into any of Levinson's roles.

Encouragement: The role of encouragement does not appear to fit into any of Levinson's roles although it may implicityly fit with Levinson's role of teacher because teachers are said to encourage their snrdents. Knowledge: The elemena of the role of knowledge that deal with passing the organization's

kmwledge and vision on to che ptotég6 appcar to fit with himon's mie of host and guide where the mentor acquaints the pratégé with the organization's values, customs and cast of characters.

Support: The role of support appeacs to fit with Levinson's role of counselor where the mentor provides moral support to ihe protégé in times of s m s . Coach: The role of coach appears to partially fit with Levinson's roIe of tacher where the

mentor enhances the protkge's skilis. Caner and goal attainment The role of carter and goal attaiament dots not appear to fit

with any of levinson's ro1es. In summ;rry,five of the niae d e s do not fit into Levinson's framework. The roles that fit are support, knowledge, intt@tyl and coach.

6.3.1.3Burke

Burke's (1984) roles of mentoring are: role model, build the protégé's selfconfidence, go to bat for the protégé, use job assignments to develop their protégé, and teacher, coach, and trainer. Feedback: The role of feedback appears to fit with Burke's (1984) role of teacher, coach,

and trainer.

Integrity: The role of integrity appears to partialîy fit with Burke's role of role modcl, specifically the elements of modelling both personal and professional growth, and modelling ethics and values h m the pnsent study.

Opemess: The role of openness appears to fit with Burke's role of teacher because a teachcr must encourage new ideas in order for the student to l e m .

Prolésionai growth: The role of professional growth does not appear to fit with any of Burke's d e s .

Encouragement: The d e of encouragement appears to fit with Burke's role of teacher, coach, and miner because a l l th-

must ptovide encouragement.

hwledge: The role of knowledge appears to fit with Burke's role of teachcr, coach, and

trainer. Support The d e of suppoa appears to fit with Burke's role of building the protége's self-

COllfidcnce. C&:

The role of coach fi& with Burke's role of teacher, coach, and trainer.

Career and goal attainment This role does not appear to fit with any of Burkt's d e s .

104

In suxnmary9only two of the nine mles do not fit into Burke's framework: the role of career and goal attainment, and the role of professional growth. 6.3.1.4 Leibowitz and Schlosberg

kibowitz and Schlosberg's (1981) roles of mentorhg are: comrnunicator, counselor, coach, advisor, broker, referral agent, advocate, mentor, and appraiser.

Feedback: The role of feedback appears to fit with Leibowitz and Schiosberg's (1981) role of

appraiscr.

Iatergrity: The role of integrity does not appear to fit with into any of Leibowitz and Schlosberg's roles.

Openness: The role of opemess appears to partiaîiy fit with Lei'bowitz and Schiosberg's role of communication. In this instance the tfansfer of information is h m the protég6 to the mentor.

Profesgional growtb: The role of professionai growth appeus to fit with Leibowitz and Schiosberg's role of coach.

Encouragement: The role of encouragement appears to fit with Leibowitz and Schiosbtrg's role of counselor.

Knowldge: The role of knowIedge appearsto partialiy fit with Lcibowitz and Schlosberg's role of advisor, spccificaily the mentor suggesting areas for fuaher training and development for the protégé fits the advisor

&.

Suppport: The role of support does not appear to fit a ~ ofy Leibowitz and Schiosberg's roles.

Coach: The role of coach appears to fit with Leibowitz and Schlosberg's role of coach. Career and g d attainment: The d e of career and goal aüainment appears to partialiy fit

105

with Leibowitz and SchlostKrg's roIe of appraiser because the mentor helps the prot6g6 to wark out a developmentplan so he or she cm devclop goals and objectives that relate to his or

her current job. In summary, two of tûe nine roles do not appear to fit in Leibowitz and Schlosberg's framework: the d e of integrity and the d e of support. 6.4.1 Conclusions Drawn h m thh Research Using the act frcquency approach to study mentorhg has iadicated that many prior

typologies of mentor roles and functions overlooked mentoring d e s that are Unportant to junior managers. In particuiar, integrity, undmtaoding and empathy are much more important to how

people in organizations view mentorhg tbm has b m pviously a~:knowbdged.This research

aiso illustrates tbat it is possible to consmct scaics that rdcct these attributes of effective

mentors and ihat these d e s exhibit rcasonable reliability. Whiie further work needs to be doue to validate the findings h m this ricsearch, this stuày haî indicated that such efforts are likely to yield h a & , more accurate descriptions of mcntoring as it is a c m y practid in

organizations.

6.43 Rec~nmwdaaOnsfor Future Reseorch Although tbis study was a step in the right dktion in clanfying the d e s and the

functiom of mentoring that are important to junior managers who have been mentoreci, future rescarch in the area of mcntoang needs to use larger samples to study how managers h m all

levels coaceptualizt mentoring in t~nnsof thc mies tbat mentors perform a d the functions of mezltoring. This study should also be pLicated with a dinemt type of samplc to determine

106

how generalizable the results of this study are. Futurt research should include people at difFtrent levels of management such as middle and senior managers, people who bave bcen menton, and people working in different sectors. The scale developed in this study should be

properly v a l i h d by using separate samples to develop, cefine and test the measure. Also,

factor analysis sfiould also be conducted using a larger sample.

7 Benefits and Limitations of this Study The benefits and the limitations of this mearch are outlined in this section. 7.1 Beneflîs of this Study

There are two benefits of this study. Tbis study is a first stcp in clarifying the consûuct of mentoring by detennining what bebavim are central to mentoring. By grounding the research in the experience of people in mganizatians, new mentoring d e s were uncovered such as the importance of integrity. This is a step towards a better understanding of the concept of mentoring. It is hoped that academics wili bave a richer appreciation of what mentoring

means to people as a result. The second benefit of this study is that a grounded measure of mentoring was developed. This new masure reflacts actual expcriences of mentoring. This new measure should be usehl to both academics and to organizations. A better measm will enhance and

advance academk research. Organizationscan use this study to assess their mentoring or to

train mentors. 7 3 Limitations of this Study

There are some limitations to this study. Tbe first two limitations relate to the sample used in this study. The first limitation is rht s m d sample sizc. In order to perform factor analysis ten respondents are required for each item that is developed. To attempt to overcome this limitation, respondents were asked to distnite extra questionnaires to their p. Dcspite

these efforts, the sample s i x was stüi tcsaictcd. Thus a small sample was limiting to this study. The second limitation is that the same sample was used to develop, rehe and test the maure.

108

Ideally separate samples should have ban used at each stage, but this was not possible. The third limitation is the generalizabiltyof ibis study. The sample used for this snidy was students enrolled in the Professional Development Programs at Carleton University and

their peers. Although tbis sample represents a cross-section of organizations, the heavy emphasis in the Ottawa area on both the government and high technology sectors, and the fact that the gender of respondents weighted heavily to women may limit the generaiizabiity of these

findings to 0th- scctors.

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Company* Ogkensky, B (1995) Lookingfor Mr. Gmdmentor? A Shdy of the emotional dyMnrics and character of mentor-protégé reldonships. A proposal for dissertationrescaich pp.1-

37

Olian, J.D., SJ. Carrol, C.M. Giannantonio (1993) What do protégés lookfor in a mentor? Results of three experimental stuàies Journai of Vocational Behavior v33 pp.15-37 Ostroff, CC. and S. W. J. Kozlowski (1993) The role ofhienturing in the Information Gathering Processes of Newcomers during Early Organizational Socialization Vocationai Behavior v42 pp.170-183

of

Ragins, BR.,1. Cotton (1991) Eusier said t h done: Gender differences in perceived barriers to gaining a mentor n-t J o d v34 pp.939-95 1

Ragins, B. R., J. Cotton (1998) Mentor Functiow and Outcomes: A Cornparison of Men and Womenin Fonnal and Informal Mentoring Rehîionships A paper presented at the Academy of Management Meeting pp.1-43 San Diego. Rosch, E. and C.B.Mervis (1975) Funzily Resemblunces: Studies in the Internai Structure of Categories Copnitive Psvcholw v7 pp.57345 Scandura, T. A. (1992) h4entorshQ-J and Career Mobiliw An empirical investigation . v. of V 1 3 pp.169-174 Seashore, SB., E.E.Lawler, P. Mirvis and C. Camman (eds.) (1982) Obsewing and Memuring Organizatio~lChange: A Guide to Fieid Practice. New York: Wiiey. Sbapiro, E.C., F.P. Haseltint and M.P. Rowe (1978) Moving Up: Rule Models, Mentors and the Patron System Se-vw i ~19,110.3,pp.5 1-58 Stevens, J. (1996) Applied Mdîivariate Stm*m*csforthe Social Sciences, 3rd edition. Mahwah: Lawrence Eirlbaum Associa&s. Tabachnik B.G and L.S.Fi&U (1983) Using Multivariate Statistics. New York: Harper & Row Publishers. Treasury Board Report (1994) Self-Hlp Gutde to Mentoring

Ulrich, D. (1997) Human Resource Champions: The Next Agenda for Adding Valueand Delivering Results. Harvard Business School Rcss: Boston.

Veiga, J.F. (1981) Pùateaued vs. wn-plateaued numgers: Cmeer patterns, aîtitudes rurd v24 pp.566-578 p t h potential Aca&mv of

Whitley, W.,T.W,Dougherty, G. F.Dreher (1991) Relationship of Cmeer Mentoring and Sucioeconomic Origin to managers' and professionals' early career progress nt Jorn4 v34, no.2, pp.33 1-35 1. Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophical Investigations. New York: Macmillan.

The ptirpose of this fonn is to ensure that you undentand the purpoge of this study, the nature of ywr involvement, and to provide you enough information so tbat you have the oprtunity to detemine whether you wish to @cipatte in the study.

Purpose: This research is king conducted for a Master's thcsis in Management Studies in the School of Business at Carleton University. The purpose of this saidy is to examine wbat mentors do by basing the re-h on the observaiionsof people w b have work experience. Therefore ycn~wiJi be asked to describe somt of the behavim tbat yau associate with mentoring. ResamB P e r z w d . Brian Russeii, 224-3565, is the researcher in this pmject and Dr. Lorraine Dyke, 520-2600 extension 2389, is his supervisor. They may be conracteû at any time. if you would like to receive the d t s ofthis snidy you may e-mail your complete address to ,or leave a message at 224-3565. You may also fil1 out the "Request for Results" area on the reverse side,

Task Requbements You wiil be asked to hl1 out one questionnaire which wili take approximately 15 minutes IO complete, VduniPry Participation: Your choice to poutidpatein tbls study wili in w way affect your strindiaginthiscoiirse. AoonymityKhdidentlallty:The data coiiected in this snidy is confidential. Only the researchers associated with this ptoject will have access to ihe data To ensure your complete anmymity, ?he"Requestfor Results"fmwill remain separate from the s w e y upon wr ceceipt

of the package. Rigi~tto Withdraw: You have the tight to withdraw fiom the research at any time without penalty.

I have read the above descripiion of the study and undersrand ihe conditions of rny participation. My signature indicaies that 1agtee to patticipte iu the researcb. Participant's Name

Participant's Signature

Reqwst for Re&

To receive a copy of the results, include your name and address or fax below:

WhatDd Menton Do? Think of some mentors that you have lmown. With these individuals in mind, please describe five (ormore) acts or behaviors they did that illustrated mentoring. Other observations and comrnenn are welcome.

When 1summarize these data, 1would like to be able to describe the group of people who responded. Thus, 1would appnxiate it if you could provide some personal information. AU information wiii remriincodidential.

1. What is your age? Years 2. Whaî is your gender? (Please circle) A

B

Male Fernale

3. How many years of full-the work experience do you have?

4. Which job category best describes your job?

-Senior Management/Executive

-Middle ManagementProject Manager

-Fmt Level Manager/Supervisor -Professional ar Technicai Position -Otber Non-managerial Position

5. What functional area best describes your work experience?

-Marketingsales mufcturing -Human Resources -Purchasing -Research and Development/Engineering -Accounting and Finance -M e r (Please describe) Thrialr yoa for your participation. Brian Russell Carleton University MM.S. Rogram School of Business, Dunton Tower Omwa, Ontano K1S 5B6 Fax: (613) 520-2652

Years

A Shrdy of Whaî Mentors Do

The purpose of this fom is to ensure that you understand the purpose of this study, the nature of your involvement, and to provide you enough informationso that you have the opportunity to determine whether you wish to participate in îhe study.

Purpose: This nsearch is being conductecl for a Master's thesis in Management Studies in the Schwl of Business at Carleton University. The purpose of this study is to examine what mentors do by basing the research on the absecvations of people who have work experience. You wilI be asked to judge how prototypical behavim are of mentoring.

Researcb P e ~ o ~ eBrian l : Russell, 224-3565, is the mearcher in this pmject and Dr. Lorraine Dyke, 520-2600 extension 2389, is his supewisor. They may be contacted at any tirne. If you would like to receive the results of this study you may e-mail your complete address to * or leave a message ai 224-3565. You may also fil1 out the "Request for Results" area on the reverse side. Task Reqairements:You wili be asked to fill w t one questionnaire which will take approximateiy 15minutes to complete.

Vduntary PortidpaaO~:Your chaice to p d d p a t e in this study wiü in no way affect your standhg in Ulis course. AnoaymityKoaEldentiaüty; The data coiiected in ihis study is confldential. Only tûe cesearchers associated with this project witl have access to the data. To ensure your cmplete anonymity, the "Request for Results" fonn wüi remain separate fiom the survey upon our receipt of the package. Right to Withdrnw: You have the cight to wihdfaw from the research at any time without

penalty1have read the above description of the study aad understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that 1agree to parîicipate in the research.

Participant's Name Participant's Signature Researcher's Name Researcher's Signature

Date

(Pi-

tiun over)

Reqwstfor Resuiîs

To receive a copy of the results, include your aame and addtess or fax below:

The purpost of ihis phase of tiw study is to fînd out what pmtotypicai acts peaple have in mind when they t a k about mentoaing. What 1mean by prot~ypica!can be best explaineci with m example.

Take the word 'red' for example. Close your eyes and imagine a true mi. Now imagine an orangish red or a purple red. Althou@ you mi@ stiii mm the orange-redor the purple-redwiih the rem 'red', they are not as good examples of red as the clear 'W'red. In short, some mis are 'redder' than others.

in this snidy 1am a s b g you to judge how protatypical behaviors are of the category of mentoring. Please rate each act on a 7-point scale. A 'Y" means that you f e l the act is a very g d example of your &.a of mentoring; a "1" means you feel the act fits very poorly with your idea of mentoring (orihe act is not a member of that category at di). A "4" means that the act tits moderately weli, Use the numbers of the 7-point scale to îndicate intermediate judgements. Please circle the number which indiates your assesment

soliciis your input. helps you enhance your career goals.

provides advice on work situations.

explains issues in detail. coaches you to develop your job skills. helps you to gain more rtsponsibility. is not interestsd in what is best fm you. provides encouragement.

exescises p e r over you. shows you the ropes.

demonstrates patience.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

teaches you how to stand up for what you believe.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

exposes you to training opportunities.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

is always.there when you need them.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

models positive ethics and values.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

always de& with you honestly.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

shates experiences of their personal life.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

recommends you to others.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

clearly explains their expectations.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

acknowledges your accomplishments.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

serves as a sounding board to test ideas.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

pmises your successes.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

represents your career interests and aspirations 1 to management.

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps you deal wiîh disappointments.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

shares the knowledge that they possess.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

encourages you to take tisks.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

takes time to discuss issues with you.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps you expand your network.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

is open to ottier views.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

provides advice but lets you make the decision. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

leams and p w s when wadMg

together with you.

1

helps you IO feel cornfortable.

1

shares their organization knowledge.

1

assists you with getting exposure both inside and outside of your organization.

1

builds your confidence.

1

maintains cd~dentiality.

1

encourages you Io apply for new positions.

1

sbares their work experience.

1

helps you undersiand the organization's vision. 1 suggests solutions to a particular situation.

1

does not criticize you.

1

encourages you to increase your visibiity by attending meetings.

1

empathizes with you.

1

demonstrates interest in your work.

1

connects you with contacts who can provide advice regarding specific tasks.

1

volunteers their views on the poiitics of the orgaaizatim.

1

aüows you to shadow them so that you cau lem by obscrving* 1 champions your activities within the o r g ~ o n .

1

discusses reaswisfor the way in wbich they ded with situations.

1

is non judgmental.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps you identify career opportunities.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

makes himlherself available to you

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps remove barriers to your career development.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

encourages new ideas.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

expects the best h m you

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

promotes your abilities within the organization. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

provides advice on career goals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

is loyal to you.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps you to visualize a goal,

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

inîroduces you to influentid ottiers.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps create opportunities for you to develop new skills.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

suggests alternative ways of lodllng at the problem.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

shares their opinions with you,

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

questions you to help you to see things h m another perspective.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

takes time to discuss work in a relaxed socid context.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps you maintah a positive attitude.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

communicates management priotities to you.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

understands you as a person.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

stays in touch with you on a regular basis.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

encourages you to take initiative.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps increase your profile within the organization.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

s k s Wu own experiences.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

encourages you to empower yourself.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

models persona1 and professional growth.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

pushes you to strive for higher goals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

initiates meetings if they feel too much time has elapsed between meetings.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

rnakes a long term cornmitment to you.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

cmects you with contacts who can help with your career. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

demonstrates theù skilis and abiitics in such a way that you can mode1 their behaviour. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

provides support,

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

demo1ismtes interest in your career development.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

klps you to put things in perspective.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

inspires you to excel.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

suggests areas for M e r training and devclopment.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

shows you respect.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

is non judgmental.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

âevelops a relationship of trust with you.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

provides both positive and negative feedback on your performance. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

helps you to gain more autonomy.

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

steers you to oppamuiities to expand your experience.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

supports you through failures.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

encourages you to present your work to others, 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

seeks your input on decisions.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

serves as a sounding board to test ideas.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

m these &ta, 1would like to be able to dcscribe the gtoup of people who nspanâed. Tbus, 1would appreciaîe it if you couid provide some pefSOi1a1 inforniarim. AU

When 1s

Monnation will Ferneincon6dentiaL 1. What is your age?

Years

2. What is your d e r ? (Please circle) A Male

B

Femaie

3. How many years of full-the work experience do you have? 4. Which job category best &scribes your job?

-Senior Managemcnt/Executive Middle ManagementiProject Manager -k t LevelManager/Supervisor y

-Professional or Technical Position

-Other Non-managerial Position

S. What functional ana best describes your work experience?

-Ma&eting!Sales Manufachuhg -Human Resources -Purchasing -Research and Developmenfingineering -Accounting and F i c e -ûther Qlease describe)

Tbuilr you for your Pprtidpatioa. Brian Russeil Carleton University

M.M.S. Rogram School of Business, hinton Tower Oaawa, Ontario

K1S 5B6

Fax:(613)520-2652

Years

Deanltions Version K Instrucdons: In this study you will be asked to put sbtements into categocies. Below is a defdtim of each category that you can refer to during the exercise. On the attached questionnaire place a checkmark in tbe spitce provided if you feel that the sîatement belongs in the category. ifyou feel tbat the statement does not belong in any of the megories then check "none of these categoriesn. Remembr ihat each statement can d y be placed Uito one catww*

Role niadeling:setting a desirabk example that the prorégd can idenhfy with by dernonstrating bthaviors, attitudes and values that the protégb can emulaie.

Acceptana and confimation: providing support and encouragement to the protégé enabling the protégé to take ri& and &Otry new ways of ttlating to their work . Counseling: providing a sounding board enabhg the protégé to explore personai concem,

offerhg k i r personal experienct as an alternative perspective, and helping nsolve problems ihraugh feedback and active listening.

Frkndshlp: &g and understanding and enjoyable informal exchanges about wodr and experienas outside of w d . Spoasorshlp: actively nominating a prodg6 for Iateral moves and promotions .

R o t d o n : taking cradit and blame in controvecsial situations, as well as inimening in situations w h the protégé is ili-equipptd to achieve satisfactory remlution. Expomue: assigning responsibilities that d o w the proté& to devclop relationships with key figures in thc organizatiw who may judge h i d k potential for further advancernent . Chaknging Pssignments: assigning challe~~ging work, enabling the protégé to develop specific compcttncies and to expience a sense of accomplishment in a professional role. Coudhg suggesting sptcific smtegies for accomplishing work objectives, for achieving recognition, and for achieving carcer aspirations.

Infomm%n on ais Stirsy Version K

Tbe pwpose of this form is to ensure that you understand the purpbse of tbis study, the nanire of your involvement, and to provide you enough Monnation so that you have the opportunityto determine whether you wish to participate in the study.

Purpose: This research is being conducteci for a Master's thesis in Management Studies in the School of Business at Carleton University. The purpose of this study is to examine what mentors do by bashg the research on the observations of people who have work expetience. You will be asked to sort statements about mentoting behavior into specific categories.

-

Research P e m ~ e lBrian : Russell, 224-3565, is the researcher in this project and Dr. Lorraine Dyke, 520-2600 extension 2389, is his supervisor. They may be contacted at any time. If you would like to receive the results of this study you may e-mail your complete address to b or leave a message at 224-3565. You may also fdi out the "Request for Resuits" area on this page. Volantory Participation: Yom choice to parüdpate in this stridy will in no way affect yoai standhginthisco11l~e.

AnonymityEonfidenticility: The data coilecteâ in this study is confidential. Oaly the researchers associated with this project will have access to the data. To ensure your complete anoaymity, the "Request for Results" form will remain separate fiom the suwey upon our receipt h package. of t

Rigbt to Withdraw: You have the right to withdraw h m the research at any time. 1have read the above desaiption of the study and understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that 1agree to participate in the research.

Participant's Name Participant's Signature Date Reqwd jor Resudrr

To receive a copy of the tesuits, include your name and addrrss or fàx below:

Version K instrPctions: In this study you wüi be asked to put the foiiowing statements into categories. Attached is a dennition of each category that you wr refer to during the exercise. Place a checkmark in the space provided if you feel that the statement belongs in the category. If you feel that the statement does not belong in any of the categories then check "none of these categories". Remember that each statement can only be placed into one category.

helps you enhancc your carar

coaches you to develop your job

I

klpsyou to gain more

K wt intm~ted in what

I

is bet for

I

shows p u thC ropes.

I

teaches you how to stand up for what YOU believe,

1

I I

is always therc when you nϞ

always deais with you honestly.

I

rrmmmîs rou m O-.

I

acknowledgesyour ~~~~m~lishments.

I I I l

1 1 I I

serves as a sounding board m test ideas.

teprrjenIs your careaintbwis and

aspirations to managrnmt. beips p u deal with dhppoinmtcnts.

I I

shares ihe knowledge ihat they Poelmuaga you to iairerwks.

I

I I

takes tirne to discuss h mwith wu. helps you expmd your I is ouen to ot&t view.

I

C

~

~

Act

d

e 2 S

Y

H provides advice but lets you makc the decision. kami and grows when working

ssists you with gening wposun 0th i n s i i and outsidtof yaur

1 1

uiids your conüdence.

1 1

ncouragesyou to apply for new

tositiom.

l I

~ l pyou s undetstand the

ii-on.

i a s not criticùe mu.

I l

demonstrates their skiils and abities in such a way that you can mode1their behaviour.

provides support,

1

helps you to put thhgs in

and developmeat,

shows you nspect.

1 develops a relatianship of m a with 1 1 pmvides boih positive and ncgative 1 ( heips you to gain more amnomy. steers you to oppomuiitiesto upand your urpcrurpcricnce.cna.

supporrs p u h u g h faiiures. enroiaages you to prisent your work to oihas.

saks pur input on decisions.

1

Wben 1summarize these data, 1would iike to be able to descrii the group of people who respmded. 'Iaus, 1w d d appreciate it if you could provide some personai information. M inpormstion wül remah confidentid. 1. Wbat is your age?

Years

2. What is your gender? (Please cirde)

3. How many years of full-time work experience do you bave? 4. Which job category kst desaris your job?

-Senior Management/Executive -Middle ManagemenüRwject Manager -Firstb e l Manager/Supervisor -Ebfessiwal or Teclmical Position -Other Non-manageriai Position 5. What functionai area best descnbes your work experience?

Thiink you for your Pprficiprition. BriauRusseII Carleton University U S . Rogram S c h d of Business, Dunton Tower Ottawa, amui0

K1S 5B6 Fax: (613) 520-2652

Years

Definitions Version L Instructions: In this study you will be asked to put statements into categones. Below is a dennition of each category that you can refer to during the exercise. On the attached questionnaire place a checkmark in the space provided if you feel that the statement belongs in the category. if you feel that the statement does not belmg in any of the caîegories then check %one of these categories". Remember tht each statement can only be placed into one category.

Tacher: enhancing the protégk's skills and intellectmi dcvelopment.

Sponsor: using his or her influence to facilitate the protégé's entry into the organization and the protégd's advancement.

Eost and guide: welcoming the protégé into a new occupational and social world and aquainting the protégé with the values, customs and cast of characters. Exemplar: setting an example for the prot6g6 to foiiow by way of the mentor's own virtues, achievements and way of living. Counselor: providing moral support in tmKs of stress.

Infonnation on th& Sîuây Version L

The purpose of this fonn is to ensure that you understand the purpose of this study, and the nature of your involvement, and to provide you enough infomatim so that you have the opportunity to detennine whether you wish to participate in the study.

Purpose: This research is being conducted fot a Master's thesis in Management Studies in the Schwl of Business at Carleton University. The purpose of this study is to examine what mentors do by basing the research on the observations of people who have work experience. You wüi be asked to sort statements about mentoring behavior into specific categories. Resecireh Personnel: Brian Russell, 224-3565, is the fesearcher in this project and Dr. Lorraine Dyke, 520-26ûû extension 2389, is his supentisor. They may be contacted at any the. If you wouid like to receive the resuits of this mdy you may e-mail your compiete address to or leave a message at 224-3565. You may also tiil out the "Request for Resuits" area on this page.

Voluntary Participation: Your cbdce to participatein tbis stady WU in no way affect your standing in tbis coursa

Anonymity113oniide11ttality:The data coUected in this study is confdential. ûniy the researchers associateci wiîh this project will have access to the data. To ensure yow cornpiete anonymity, the "Request for Results" f m wüi remain scpzuate firom the m e y upon our receipt of the package.

Right to Withdraw: You have ahe right to wilhdraw h m the research at any time. I have read the above description of the study and understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that 1agree to participate in the research.

Participant's Name Participant's Signa=

To =ive

a cmpy of t&rrsults, include your aame and adQrss or fair klow:

Verdon L ïmtm&mx in this snidy you wili be asked to put the fdlowiug statemenis into categories. Attachai is a defuition of each category that p u can cefer to during the exercise. Place a checkmark in the space provided if you feel that the statement belongs in the c a t e g q . If you fixl that the statement does not belong in any of the categories then check "none of these categories". Remember that each statement can only be placed into one category.

provides c o d v e feedboick. isaniend.

communicaiestheûenlhusiasm. provide3 alvice on work

siniations.

urpiains Unies in âctaü. coaches you to develop yourpb skius.

helps you to gaiu mon rcspomibiiity. I

is not intamai in what is best for you.

provides encouragemens. -

wteteiscspomr ove yu. shows you the ropcs.

am-ptim 2

~youhowmstaadpfor what you believe. -

exposes pu ta training

oppaminitieJtieJ

is aiways thcre when you need thcm rncdeis positiveethics and values. always deais with you h o d y .

recorrrmcnds you to others. d d y uplams wu

urpectaiaw acknowlcdgcs your

afcompiïishments.

encourages you to inlte risLs.

taLes time u,d i i issues with WU.

pzovides dMce but 11% you makc the decision.

h n s and grows when wotking togedier Mth ym.

helps you tct fecl cornfortable. sharrs theii organization biowled~c.

assias you with geaing wposure both inside and ouuide of your

builds mur conilence.

I I I

encourages you to qply for new positions.

hclpspu undasoad the organllarion's vision. suggtsts solutions to a p t h h u

situaiion. doesnotcnu'cizeyou aicoumges you to incrase your visiüity by aieading meetings. ~ w i t h y o u

dewwwoatesintaestin your work.

coanectsp u with contacts who canprovideadviceneaidiag

specincrasks.

commurüeat#l management

in touch with you on a

grod.

pushes you to strivt for higha goals initiates meetings û h c y fa1 too much time has elapscd bchvcen meetings. mPkts a long tum codbnent io

you. connects you wiih coniacts Who can hdp with your c;aea. demoafaaiesthtu sltüls and

abüities in such a way that you uui mode1 k i r behavior.

When 1s u a m u b these data, 1would like to be able to describe the p u p of people who responded. Thus, 1would appreciate it if you c d d provide some personal information. AU

information wiii romain confideatial. Years

1. What is your age?

2. What is your gender? (Please circle) A

B

Male Fernale

3. How many years of full-tirne work experience do you have? 4. Which job category best describes your job?

-Senior ManagementlExecutive

-Middle ManagcmentlprojectManager -Fit Level ManagerlSugervisor -Professionai or Technical Position -M e r Non-manageriai Position

5. What functional arca best describes your work experience?

-MarketinglSales -Manufxturing -Human Resources

-Purchashg

-Research and DevelopmentEngineering -Accounting and F i c e

-M e r (Please describe)

Thank yoo for your poirtidpaüoa Bnan Russel CarletonUniversity U . S . Rogml School of Business, Duaton Tower Ottawa, Ontario RIS SB6 Fax: (613) 520-2652

Years

DeIlnitions Version B instructions: in this study you wiii be asked to put statements into categories. Below is a

dennition of each category that you can refer to during the exercise. On the attacheci questionnaireplace a checkmark in the space provided if you feel that the statement belongs in the categq. If you feel that the statement does not belong in any of the categones then check "none of these categories". Remember that each statement can only be placed into one category. A mentor should be a positive role mode1 for the protégé. A mentor should buüd the proîég4's seiîanfidence.

A mentor should go to bat for the protég4. A mentor should bt a teacher, coach and trainer. A mentor should use job assignments to develop their protég4.

The purpose oftbis fonn is to ensure that you understancl the purpose of this study, and the nature of your involvement, and to provide you enaugh information so that you have the opportunity to detennine wbether you wish to participate in the study. nirpose: This cestarch is king mnducted fm a Master's thesis in Management Suidies in the School of Business at CarietonUniversity. The p p s e of this study is to examuie what mentors do by basùig the researchon the observations of p p l e who have w d experience. You will be asked to mistatcments about mentoring behavior hto specific categories.

Resesrcli PemllIlQi: Brian Russell, 224-3565, is the re~eafcherin this project and Dr.Louaine Dyke, 520-2600 extension 2389, is his supervisor. They may be coneacted at any tirne. if you would I i e to receive tbe resuits of this study you may e-mail your complete address to , b or ieave a message at 224-3565. You may also fiil out the "Request for Results" area on tbis page* Vdmtary Paradpadon: Yom choice to partidpalein this study wiû in no way affect yoor standing in Ulis course. AiibnymityKdhîiality: The data coilected in this smdy is confîdential. Only the nsearchers associated with this project WUbave access to the data. To ensure your complete anonymity, the "Requestfor Resuits" fann wiU remah separate from the swey upon our receipt of the package.

iügbt to Withdraw: You have the right to withdraw fmm the irescarch at any time. 1have read the above description of the study and undetstand the conditions of my participation. My signature indiaites rbar I agree to participate in the research.

Participant's Signature

Version B Instnictions: In this study you will be asked to put the following statements into categories. Attached is a definitionof each category that you c m refer to during the exenrise. Place a checkmark in the space provideci if you feel that the statement belmgs in the category. if yw feel that the statementdoes not belong in any of the categories then check "none of these categories". Remember that each statement can only be placedinto one category.

coaches p u to develop yourpb helps you to gain mon nspoasi'bility-

shows you the ropen

I

I

wpuses you to uaining

oppontoities.

is aiways diae wben you need them

taLes tim to â i i ianieswith YOk

1 ptovides advice but lets you make the decision.

hclps you to f i l cornfortable.

1 assists you with guting exposun bath inside and outside of your

buüds your coafidence,

eacourages you IO apply for new positions.

I

hclps you undthe arnanization's vision.

l

sinuUion.

suggests solutionsto a panicuiar

does not critieize you. encourages yau to iacreaJeyour visibility by atienâina meetings.

anppthizcs wiih you

connecuyou with contacts who can provide advia regarding ~pecifictarks. volunt#rs theii views on the politics of the organization. dows you to shadow thcm so lhat you can leam by observiig. champimns your activitia withh the organization.

discwses reasons for ihe way in which ihey deal with situations. is non judgmental. helps you idetitify caner oppmnities.

makcs hiinnierself availableto

wu hclps remove bsmas to your canerdevelopmmt.

eacoungesnew ideas. providef ngular feedback.

expecu the b a t h m you. promoresyour abüities within thcorgenuau'011, provides adviccmcanergoais.

isloyaltoyou.

helps mate opportunitics for sugeests alternative ways of looking at the pmbkm -

7

shares th& opinions with you.

questions you to help you to sec things h m motha penpcctive. takes time to discuss work in a relaxcd sacial contut.

helps you maintain a positive aaitudc

undastands you as a pason,

conununic~ttsmanagement prioritics IO you

mys in touch with you oa a ngular basii. hclps inaeaseyour profde withïn the organization. shans thcù own wrperienccs.

encouragesyou to eaqower madeis pasonaland prof&nai

provides boih positive and aegative feedback on your perfiimiana.

L supports you through faiiures.

I

encourages you to present your wo* to othcrs.

When 1Summarize these data, 1wouid like to be able to describe the group of people who responded. Thus, 1would appreciate it if you could provide some personai infcrmaiion. AU InlmOlon remPinconûdential. 1. What is your age?

Years

2. What is yow geader? (Pleasecircle) A

B

Male Female

3. How many years of fuü-tirne work experience do you have? 4. Which job categary best describes your job?

-Senior ManagementExecutive -Middle Management/ProjectManager -First Level ManagerISupmisor -Professional or Technical Position

-m e r Non-managerial Position

5. What functional area best describes your wotk experience?

-MarkeîingMes

-Manufacturing

-Human Resources -Purchashg

-Reseatch and DevelopmentlEn@eering -Accounthg and F i c e -ûîher (Please describe) Thank yon for your parüdglition. Brian Russell Carleton University M.M.S. Program School of Business, Dunton Tower Ottawa, Ontario K1S SB6 Fax: (613) 520-2652

Yeats

DeCinitions Version LS Instn~~tions: Tn this mdy you will be asked to put statements into categories. Below is a defînition of each categary that you c m d e r to during the exercise. On the attachai questionnaire place a checkmark in the space provided if you feel that the statement belongs in the category. If you feel the statemcnt does not belong in any of the categories then check "none of these megories". Remember that each starnent can only be placed into one category.

Communicator: promoting a two-wayexchange of information with the protégé. Couuselor: helping the protég6 clarify goals and identiiy steps to take in rcaching these goals, whether or not they relate to the present organization. Coach: giving instruction or skills training to enable the protégé to do his/her job more effectively.

Advisor: giving information about career oppominities both within and outside the organization.

Broker: scrving as a an agent (go-between) for the protégd and appropriate resources such as people, and institutions for information.

Referraî agent: idcntifyingnsources to help the protdgé with specific problems. Advmte: intervening on behalf of the protégé for benefits like promotions, and the elimination of obstacles.

Mentor: serving as a sponsor to facilitate the protégé's career growtû. ApprPiser:cvaluating the prodg6 's pcrfonnance, givcs feedback to the protég6, and helping to work out a dcveiopmentplan so the protégé cau develop goals and objectives spccitic to the cumnt job.

Iqfonnadon on ais Study Version LS

The purpose of this form is to ensure that you understand the purpose of this snidy, and the nature of your involvement, and to provide you enough informatian so that you have the opportunity CO determine whether you wish to participate in the study. Rirpose: This research is beiig conducted for a Master's thesis in Management Studies in the School of Business at Carleton University. Tbe purpose of this study is to examine what mentors do by basing the research on the observations of people who have work experience. You wiU be asked to sort statements about mentoring behavior into specific categdes.

Research Personnel: Brian Russell, 224-3565, is the researcher in this project and Dr. Lonaine Dyke, 520-2J600extension 2389, is his supervisor. They may be contacteci at any tirne. If you would like to teceive the results of this study you may e-mail your complcte address to ,or leave a message at 224-3565. You may also fill out the "Request for Resuits" area on this page. Vduntary Participation: Your choice to parîidpate in tbis shidy WUin no way affect your ~dlngiathtpcourse.

Anonymity/confidentlality: The data coUccted in this study is conndential. Only the cesearchers associateci with this pmject will have access to the data. To ensure your complete anonymity, the "Request for Results" f m will reaiain sepmate h m the sutvey upon our receipt of the package. Right to Withdraw: You have the right to wittidraw from the research at any lime. 1have read the above description of the study and understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that 1agree to participate in the d.

Participant's Name - Participant's Signature

Date

To meive a copy of the d

t s , indude

your namt and addees oc fax ùclow:

Version LS Instriicîiops: In this siudy you will be asked to put the foiiowing statements into categories. Attached is a definitionof each category ihat you can refer to during the exercise. Place a checkmark in the space provideû if you feel that the statement belongs in the category. if you feel that the statement does not belong in aay of the categories then check "none of these categories". Remember that each statement cm only be placeciinto one category.

soiicits your input. klps you cnhPnce pur cmœr

go&.

I I

I I

provides advice on work situations.

cosches you to develop yourpb sküls.

I I

heips you to gain more

isnotintenstcdinwàatisûut for wu.

& I I providesencouragement,

otercimpowa over you

shows you tht ropes.

whnt you bekve.

clearly wrplains tiuir aclmowkdges your

p~ccimplistimeas. savcsasamundimgbosrdtom

ka-i. shinsihebwwlsdgethrtthey

Poss-.

.-

eiromges you to tske rirls. Eakcs t hto d

i issues witû

pmvides advice but letsyou ~ihedecisioa

dps you to fœi comfoftable.

asists you 4 t hgening cirpasm KA inside and outside of y ~ v

m o n .

your confidena.

1

1

1

1

1

1

naintains confidentiaiity. mcoiaages you to apply for new

wons.

1 1 1 1 1 I

lelps you un* the wganitation's vision. niegcsts soiutions to a mcular

situation. Soa not a i t i c h you.

mcreare yow visibüity by attendhg meetings. uicourclgesyou to

! ! !

1

! !

aüows you to shadow thcm so that you can leam by obsaving. champions your activities within the organization. i i icasons for the way in which rhcy deol with siNati*ons.

d

is nonjudgmcntol.

helps you identify c a m r oppo~ties. makes hùnniaself available to

you. helps m v e bairias to your

canerdevelaument,

exptcts the best from you.

proamtes your abiitics within the organization. provides advice on carœr goals.

is loyal to p u . heipe you to visuah a goal. r

WUECB you to ianuential ahrs.

I

helps create oppammitita for you to cievclapncw Mis. suggesu altcmative ways of

1 1 1 1

be@ you maintain a positive Etritude.

I I I

coawunratesmgailent p r i o r i ~ ty aou

the organization.

I I

I

Encourages p u IO cmpowcr yoursclf.

m&s a h g tena commimmt to you

I I I

assists indecision making. provides suppon demoasaatcs interest in your mecc development.

1 1 1 1

&Ips you to put things in pmpectivc.

inspires you to u t a L suggests anas for fiarhertraining

anâ devel~~mcnt.

I I I I

1 1 1 1

shows you nspect, develops a nlationship of trust wiih you. provida ôoth positive and ncgative fecdback on your

pn5onnance. klps you to gain m m autonomy. atan you KI oppommities to

yaur -ence. supports you tbrough faillires, eoCOUIBgnyou to pr#ent yoin

work to olhas.

sceks your input on decisioos.

I

Wben I summarize these data, 1wouid idce to be able to describe the p u p of people who respoaded Thus, 1would appreciate it if yw could provide some personal information. AU inPormatlon wili remsin COtlfjdwüai, 1. What is your age?

Years

2. What is y w r gender? (Please chle) A

B 3. How m

Male Fede y years of full-time wodr experience do you have?

4. Which job c a t e g q best describes y m job?

-Senior ManagementExecutive

-Middle MauagementRroject Manager -F i Level ManageriSupervisar

-Profcssional or Technical Position -Otber Nonmanageriai Position

5. Wbat fimctional area best &scribes your work experience?

Tbonk you for gour prtidpation. Brian Russe11 Carleton University M.M.S. ProSchool of Business, Duoton Tower Orrawa, ûatario K1S SB6 Fax: (613)520-2652

Years

ipanso~ship(carccrk octively nominating a ?roté@for lateral moves and promotions

10. C o ~ e c t syou with contacts wbo can provide

dvice regardkg specific iash. 10. Champions your activities within the 33. Recommends you to othas. M. Represents your c~ucerintcnsts and aspirations to mBllilgement.

urpo~urc(caner): assigning responsibiiitiesthat allow the proîégéto develop nlatimhips with kcy figure3 in t korgaauation w b may judge

hislher potential for hinhetadvancement

@34.Stem you to oppomuiitiesto expmdyour urpenence. 44. Helps you expand your oetwork 62. Assists you with gcttiag cxposurr boih inside and outside of your organization. 63. Encourages you to presmt your work to otbas. 64. Promotes your abiiities within the 0rg;inizoriOn. 68. lnaoduces you to influential oihers. 75. Encourages p u to incrrrtse your visibility by attcnding meetings. 76. Canaects you with contacts who cm help with yaurcarccr 77. Help incrcasc your profile wihin tht organization

coaching (camr):suggesting specific smitegics for accomplishing work objectives, fw achieviag recognition, and for achieving carcer aspirations

4. Coaches y u to develop p u r job sküls. 7. Sbaÿestht knowledge ihat chey possess. 10. Inspins you to excel. 14. Taka time to discuss issues with you. 21. Helps you enhance your caner goals. '22. Questions yw to help you to sec things from inothtrperspective. '24. Helps you understand ihc organization's rision. '30. Pushes p u to strive for higher goals. '3 1. Emuragcs you to îakc initiative. '32. Discwstsm s m s fot the way in which they ical with situations. '33. Suggests anas for furdKr trainingand ieueiopmmt $1. Encourages you to cmpower yoursclf. 42. Helps you to visuelize a goal. 18. Helps p u idmtify carœr oppomuiities. 49. Encourages you to taice risLs. 53. Buiids yourcontidence. 54. Heips you to gain m m autonorny. 58. &plains issue in detaü. 59. Provides advice on career goals.

protection (car& talgng crcdit and blam m conmvasial situations, as weii as inlervening in situations when the protégb is illquipped to achieve satisfactory nsolutioa -- -

providing chaüenging assignmcnts (caner): assigningchalltnging work, enabiimgdit proiée to devclop specific cornpetenciesand to utperîence a I~IS~of accomplishment in a profwsional role

+36. Clearly e x p b h their expcctations. 37. Demonsirates i n i m s t in your work. 39. E%pccrsthe best h m you. 56. Helps crratt opportimities for you IO dcvelop new skilis.

mie modclling (psychosacial): scttinga dcsirPble example that the proté* can idcntify with dcmonsuating bchaviors, attinidcs and values thai the pro@& can emulate

*5. Models positive ethics and valucs. *13. p n a l and professional growth. Maka a long tmn commitmcnt IO y u . *25. Shares theu wotk enpcsicnce. 45. Dcmop9trptcs theûskiiis and abilitics in such a way ihst p u caa mode1iheir khaviour. 55. ShPns iheir own experiences. 61. Allows you to shadow thcm so that p u cm

l e m by obsczviag. 66. CommMicates th& enthusiasm. 84. Tcachcs you how to stand up for what you kliew.

- ~-

acaptance & codhation (psychosocial): prowding support and encouragementto the protégé enabling the protégé to taire risks and ta try new ways of nlating to Wu work

15. Encoucages new ideas. 26. Provides support. 27. Shows you respect. '28. Acimowkdgts your accomplishments. 29. Supports you through failures. 13. Is open to othcr views. 16. naises your successes. iû. Solicitsyour input. 19. Secks your input on decisions. Pl. Das not Cnticize pu.

counseiii (psychosocial): providing a sounding board enabhg the protégé to explon petsonal conccnis, o f f d g M u penonalexpahces an alternative perspective, and helping m l v e problems through feedback and active listcning

11. Rovidcs consmictivefecdback. '6. hvides both positive and negative feedback my o u r p u f ~ c e . '8. Provides advice but lets you malce the

&ïcndship(psychosocial): W g and understanding and enjoyable U i f d exchanges about work PPd e x ~ e n c eoutside s of work

kision. '9. Rovidcs regular fetdback. 817. MPkes himnieffelf available to you. +19. Rovides advice on wok situations. *B.S~IVCS as a sounding ùoardto lest ideas. 38. Helps you to put lhings in perspective. 47. Ts nonjudgmaital. 65. Sbans theuopinions with you. 69. HeIps you maintain a positive attitude. 81. Assiits in decision making. 82. Suggests solutionsto a panicular situation. 87. Hclps you deal with disappointments. 92. E m p î h h e with yu. 94. TaLes timc to discuss work in a relaxed social conta 67. 1s loyal to you. 88. 1s always ùiae whcn you need them. 90. UadersiPnds you as a pemn. 95. 1s a Wmd. 96. Sbares expericnces of theh personal S i .

its not includd in this framtwork

-

-

Item is in the top 36.

'2. Always deais with you honestly. '3. Maintains confidentiality. '1 1. Develops a nlaiionship of trust with you. '12. Shares iheir ocganization knowledge. [IO. Suggests aitemaiive ways of looking at the ?mblem. W3. Listens to you canfully. b20. h v i d e s encouragement. W35. Demonstraw intetest in yourca~eer development, 50. Helps you to gain mon responsibility51. Exposes you to training opporrunities. 52. Shows p u the ropes 57. Demonstrates patience. 70. Smys in touch with you on a ngular b i s . 71. Helps nmove barriers to your carrer developmcnt. 72, Helps you to feel cornfortable. 73. Encourages you to apply for new positions. 74. Communicates management prioriticsta you. 78. Leams ad grows when wmkhg togahtr with you. 89. Initiates meetings if thcy fcel too much tirne has clapsed between meetings. 93. Voluntcus W i views on the politics of the organization. 97. Exercises power over you98. 1s not intacsral in what is k t for you.

1. Ravidw coaswctive fcedback. 6. Rovides both positive and ncgative feedback a your pertonaance. 7. Sharts the knowledge that ihey possess. IO. Inspins you to exœl. -14. T a h timt to d i u s issues with you. W. Encourap new ideas. b16. Suggesrs altunative ways of looking at the problem. '22. Questions p u to hclp p u to sa ihmgs firom anorher penpective. *23. Serves as a sounàingboard to test ideas. *33. Suggest arrris for furthcr training and

developmcnt. *36.ClePrly explains th& 39. Expcts the kst h m p u . 42. Rlps you to visudize a goal. 49. Encouragesp u to tnlre n s b . 51. Exposes you to training opparniniries. 54. Helps p u to gain mon autonomy. 57. Dcmoasaatcs patience. 58. Explains issues in detail. 40. Solicits youf input. 78. Leam aud grows whca workiag togcther wiîh

-ans.

W.

nnsm using hislher infiuence to nbcilitattthe mtégé's entry into the organization and ihe roté& advancement

4. Cuachts you to develop your job slrills. 9. Rovides ngular feedback 21. Wlps you enhance p u r c a n a goals. 31. Enrouragcsyou to taLe initiative. 35. Deaioastmtcs interest in your canu

tvelopment. 7. Demonsaoies intmst in your work. 10. Coanects you with contacts who can provide dvice ngarding specfic tasb. Il. Encourages you to empowcr yoursclf. 14. Helps you ex@ pur netwark. 16. Praists yw successes. iO. Heip you to gain mon nsponsibiiity. il. Helps you idcniify cancr oppotnuiities. i3. Builds your confîde~cc. $6.Helps cnate opportunities for p u to develop 1ew slrills. 59. RovidtJ advicc on cateetgoals. 52, Assists you with getting exposun both inside ind a m i & of yaur organization. 53. Enoou~~ges you to psescnt your w d to Mhm. 64. nomotes your abiüities within the Dfganizaiion. 68. inaoduces you to influential ohai. 7 1. Helps nmove b m h to your caner hlopment. M. Encourages you to apply for new positions. 75. Eacowagw p u to incnase your visibility by aaeadiagmeetisigs. 76. Coanects p u with contacts who can help

witll yw CPnn. 77. klp incrwc put profde within the organization. 80. Championsyout activities within Ihe organùation. 83. Recommcnds you to oihcrs. 86. Reprrscnts your car#tintercsts and aspimians to management.

,

-

host & guide: wekoming the prodgé hto a ncw occupational and social world and acquahtuig the proré@ with the values, customs and cast of

a'12.

Shares tbeu o q p n h h knowltdge.

''24. Helps pu understand theOrgpnization's 1rision.

'25. Shans thtir work txpcrience. 12. Helps p u eo feci comfartabIe. 14. CornmuniCates management prioritics to you. 19, initiates meetings ifthey ftcl too much thne las clapsed bctween meetings. 33. Volunteen thtir vicws on the politics of the xganization. 34. Takes time tu discuss work in a rclaxed social mtcxt. -

exemplar: sethg an cxampk foc the pro@é to follow by way of lhe mentor's own vktum, achievemniisand way of living

~p

--

. ~ --

Modcls posiiive ethics and values. *13. Modcls peftoad and professionalgrowch. q2. Discusscs rrasoas for the way in whkh they ldeal with situations. 45. Dcmoasrrnrts kir skiils and abditirs in such a way that p u can modcl thdu behnvior. 55. S b thtir own experiences. 61. Ailows you to sbadow k m so thar you can -1 by obsuving. 65. Shans theuaphions with you I

CS.

1

counsciior: provididg moral support in timcs of

'2. Aiways deals with p u tsonestiy.

stress

*3. Main*

ConfideMialiry-

'8. Provides adnce but lets you makc ihe

decision. 11. Devtlops a rebtimshipof trust with pu. 17. MaLes himlherself availoble to you. a 18. Listo you amfuliy. *19. Rovides advicc on work siniatiws. %O. Rwides encouragement. *26. Rondcs suppori.

*29. Supporis p u ihrough faüures. 38. EEeîps you to put biiags in perspective. 47. IS nonjudgmëntal. 67. 1s loyal to you. .69. Hdp you mpintaui a positive attitude. 82. Suggests solutions m a @culPr situacion. 84. Teacbrsyouhowtostaudupforwhatyou Mwc. 87. Help you deal with dïsappoinaaenrs. 88. Is always ihcrr when p u n#d them. 95. 1s a friend 90. UndetsEaadsp u as a pasoa 91. DocsnotuiticUe you. 92. Empathùes with p u .

irts DM included in ihis fiamework

Item is in the top 36.

*27. Shows you respect. *28. Acknowledges your accomplishments. *34. Stecrs you to opportunitics to expand pur utpience. 43. 1s open to oiher views. 52. Shows you the ropes. 66. Communicates k i r enthusiasm. 70. Stays in touch with you on a ngular basis. 79. Seeks your input on decisions. 85. Maks a long terni cornmimientto you %. Shans expuiences of their personai life. 97. Exercises power over you. 98. Is not interested in what is best for you. 99. Is condexending.

6.3 Burke

Aiways deals with you honestiy. *3. Maintaias confïdentiality. *5. Modets positive ethics and values. *IO. inspites you to excel. *Il. Develops a nlationship of aust with you. *I3. Models pasonal and professional growth. W. Shares thtir woxk exmence. *27. Shows you respcct. 43. Is optn to other views. 45. Demonseates their skills and abiiities in such a way that you can mode1 their khavior. 47. ïs noa judgmental. 55. Sharcs theiiown experiences. 61. Allows you to shadow them so that you can itam by obsaving. 67. 1s loyai to p u . 78. h s and grows whcn working togetha with you. 96. Shans cxpaienccs of their personal life. $2.

*8. Provides advice but leu you make the decision. '20. Provides encowpmeat. *B.Acknowlcdgcs your accompüshments. *3 1. Encouragea you to take initiative. 41. ERcwragrs you to empower yourself. 46- RaisCs your successes. 53. Builds your coatidence. 60. SoEits your input. 72. Helps you to fée1 cornfartable. 73. Encourages you to apply for new positions. 79. Saks input on decisions. 84. Teaches you how to stand up for what p u believe.

40. Connects you with contacts who can provide advice regardhg specific tasks. 62. Assists you witb gening exposun both inside and outside of your otganization. 64. Promotes your abilities within the organization. 68. Inhuduces you to influentidothus. 71. Helps nmove barriers to your caner deveiopment. 76. Connects you with contacts who can help with your carrer. 77. Helps increase your profile within the organhtion. 80. Champions your activitics within the organization. 83. Reeommends you t others. 86. Repnsenis your camtinteres&and aspirations ta management.

-

1. Pmvides consüuctive fetdback. 4. Coaches p u to dcvclop your job skills. 6. Pmvides both positive and negative fcedback n your performance. 7. Shans the knowledge thar they possess. 9. Provides ~ g u l afecdùack. r 12. Shares Wu organization knowledge. 14. Takes tirne to discuss issues with you. 15. Encourages new ideas. l16. Suggests alternative ways of Imking at the noblem. '19. Provides advice on work situations. '21. Helps you enhance p u r career goals. "22. Questions you to help you to set things h m nother perspective. '23. Serves as a sounding b d to test ides. '24. Helps you understand the organization's vision. L26. Provides support. L32. Discusses nasons for the way in which they deal with SiniatioIlS. '33. Suggests amis for funher training and development. *35. Demonsuates i n m s t in your camr &velopment. "36. Clearly explains theu exmons. 38. Helps you to put thuig in perspective. 39. Expects the best h m you. 42. Helps p u to visualize a goals. 51. Helps p u identifj carcer oppomuiities. 52. Shows you the r o p 57. Demonstrates patience. 58. Explains issues in &tail. 59. Rovides advice on careet goals. 65. Shares theuopinions with pu. 70. Stays in touch with you on a fcgular basis. 74. Communicates manB8em~tpiorities to you. 81. Assists in dacision making. 82. Suggests solutions to a particdu simation. *34. Stcas you to opporruniti~to expand your

expccicnce. 37. Demonstratesintctcst in your work. 44, Hclps you expand yout netwok 50. Help you ta gain more respoasibility. 56. Helps cmîe oppomibitics for p u 10 devclop ncw skilis. 63. Encourages p u to pt~scatyour work to oihcft. 75. Encourages p u to incrrasc your visibiiity by attending meeting.

'17. Maks him(bcrself available to you. '18. Lisîcns to you canfuiiy. '29. Supports p u iInough failuns. W. Pushcs you to saive for higher goals. 49. EMxnvages you to tnlre risks. 51. Exposes you to trainingopporau>ities. 54. Helps you to gain mon autonomy. 66. Communicates ttuir enthusiasm. 69. Helps you maintain a positiveaaitude. 05. Melres a long tum eOmmim~ntto you. 87. Helps you d d with disappointmentS. 88. 1s always then when you need them. 89. Initiates mbttiags if b y fa1 too much time has elapsed k w c n meetings. 90+ Uaderstaads you as a person. 91. Dacs notcriticizc pu. 92. En~patùizcswith p u . 93. Voiun~arstheir views on rhe politics of the

organization. 94. Takes time to discuss work in a nlaxed social Contcxt.

95. h a W. 97. Excrcises power over you. 98. 1s mot inmesud in what is k s t for you. 99. Is mdesctnding.

GA Leibowib and Schlosberg

. .. . - . --

counseUor: helping the protégé clarifjrgoals and identify steps to takc in rcaching rhese p i s , w h e k or not they relate to the ptesent organization

'8. hovides pdvice but lets p u rnake the kcision. 18. Helps p u ta put things into perspective. 12. Helps you to vWialùe a goal. i7. Demoustraiesw~ace. i9. Provides advice on c m r goals. r2. HcIps p u ta fael comfortablc.

coach: giving instruction or s k i s training to enable the protégé to do hislher job m m

'4. Coaehes you to develop your job skiils. '7. Sharcs !be kaowledp that they possess. 52. Shows you ihe ropes.

effectively

53. Builds pur confidence. 58. Explains issues in detail. 56. CornmuniCates Wuenthusiasm. advisor. giving information about carcm oppomuiities both within and outside the

I I

broker: serviPg as an agent ( g ~ k m e c afor ) the protégt and appropriatensources such as people and institutions for information r c f d agent: identifying murces to hclp the protégé with spccific problems

40. Connec&you wiîh contacts who can provide

advocatc: interveaing on khdfof the protege for bcnefits üke promotions, and the eliminatiun of obstacles

62. Assists you with geltiag exposurc both inside and ourpide of your organization. 64. Romorts your abilitics within the oqanhhon. 71. tklps nmove barriers to your a w r &velopment, 77. fIelps incrrase your profile within the

advice regardhg spccinc task.

83. Ilecommenàs you to othas. 86. Repnsentsyourcareer intensts and a3p-üatiions to management.

'5. Models positive ethics and values. 110. Inspins you to cxcel. '1 1. Develops a nlationship of aust wiih you. '12. Shans theii organizationknowledge. k13. Models personal and profcssio11ai growth. b17. Makes him/haself availabk to you.

20. Provides encouragement. 21. Helps you enhance your caner g h . 24. Helps you understand the organization's ision. 26. Rovides support. 27. Shows you respect. 30. nishes you to suive for higher goals. 31. Encourages you to rake initiative. 34. S t e m you to opporainities to apand your xperience. 15. Demonsaates intuest in your caner levelopment. 17. Demonsirates intenst in your work Il. Encourages you to empowcr purself. 14. Helps you expartcl pur neiwoik, 15. Demonsuates their skiiis Pnd abiütics in such a aay that you can madel theu Wvior. 19. Encourages you to take rislis. 54. Helps you to gain wm aumomy. 55. Sharcs Wu own c x p a i e ~ . 56. Hclps ctieattoppomuiities for you to develop new skills. 61. Aiiows you to shadow thcm so tIiar you cm leam by observing. 63. Encourages you to prisent your work to oiheft. 69. Helps you maintain a positive milude. 70. Sîays in touch with you on a ngular Wi. 73. Encoitr~gesyou tu apply for new pitioos. 75. Encomgs you to inmase ycur visibiliîy by attendhg meetings. 76. Comect~you with c o a m who c m Mp with your CBnef. 79. Secks your input on decisioas. 80, Champions your activiiies wiihin the 81. Assists in dacision making. 84. Teaches p u how to stand up f a whaî you

ùclieve. 85. Makcs a long tcrm cornmitment to p u . 87. Hclps p u d& with disappoinmients. 89. Initiates meetings iffeel too much tirne has elapsed betwecn meetings. 93. Volimtcas tbcir views on tbe politics of ibt

--

appraiscr evaluatingthe pmtege's performance, givw fccdback to the pmtége, and helping to work out adtvtlopmentplan so the proitgd cm develop p h and objactivcs spccific to th& c u m tp b

acts not hcluded in this h c w o r k

* 1. Provides constructive fécdback *6. Rovidcs both positive and negative ficdback on your pctformancc. *9. Provides ngular fadback. *33. Suggests arcas for ftnther kainhg and development. 36. Cleariy explains their expectations. 46. Praiscs your successcs. '2. Always deds with you hoficstiy. *3. Maintains confidentiality. *15. Encourages new ideas. *16. Suggests aitemative wap of loaking at the

problem. * 19. Provides advice on watk situations. *22. Questions you to hclp yw to s ethings fiom a n o k perspective. *23. Serves as a soundhg board to test ideas. *25. Shans kir wmk expcticncc. *28. Achiowledges your accompüshmeats. *29. Supporis p u h u g h failurcs. 39. Expccts the k t h m p u . 47. 1s non judgmental. 50. Helps you to gain mon nsponsibility. 51. Exposes you to trainhgoppornuiitic~. 67. 1s loyal to you. 74. Commuaicates management priontics io ym. 82. Suggests solutions to a pmicuhr situation. 88. Is always ihae whai you needthem. W. Understands you as a pcrson. 91. Das not criticize you. 92. Empathizes witb you. 95. Is a fnend. 96. Shans expaiencesof iheir p e r d Me. 97. Excrcises powcr mer p u . 98. 1s not intmsted in what is bca fot you. 99. Is condesceading.

* Item is in the top 36.

The purpose of this fom is to ensure that you understand the purpose of this study, the nature of your involvement, and to povide you enough information so that you have the oppartunity to determine whether you wish to participate in the study.

Purpose: This research is being conducted for a Master's thesis in Management Studies in the School ofBusincss at Carleton University. The purpose of this study is to examine what mentors do by basing the research on the observationsof people who have wock experience. You will be asked wbether your mentors have demonstrated certain behaviors. Research Personnel: Brian Russell, 224-3565, is the researcher in this project and Dr. Lmaine Dyke, 520-2600 extension 2389, is his supervisor. They may be contacteci at any tirne. if you would like to receive the resuits of this study you may e-mail your complete address to b-ton.a or leave a message at 224-3565. You may also üil out the "Request for Results" ana on the second page. Task Requiremenk You will be asked to fiU out one questionnaire which will take

approximately 20 minutes to complete.

VoImtary Paradpotion: Yom choice to partidpate in this study WU inOII way aIIkst your Starcdingcnthiscourse.

AnonymityKonBdentirillty: The data coUmted in this study is confidentid. ûniy the researchers associated with this ptoject will have access to the data. To ensure your comptete anonymity, h e "Request for Resuits" fonn will remain separate hmthe s w e y upon our rxeipt of the package. Rigbt to Withdrew: You have the right to withdraw fiom the tesearch at any tirne without penalty. 1have read the above description of the study and understand the conditions of my My signature indicates that 1agne to participate in the research.

Requestfor Results

To receive a copy of the resuits, indude your name and address or fax below:

Sedion A: Work Background

This section deah with infœmatim about your work history. Please c h l e or fil1 in the requed idofmation. 1. Which job category best describes your job?

-Senior ManagemenrExecutive

-Middle ManagementProjectManager -First Level ManagedSupervisor

-Professional or Technical Position -ûîher Nommanagerial Position

2. What functional area kst describes your worir expenence?

-Marketingisdes -Manufacruring -Hu-

Resources

-Airchsishg -Reseatch aiid DevelopmonüEngineering

-Accounting and F i c e -Otbet (Please describe)

3. Do you cuuently supervise the work of d m ?( P b circle)

4.

How many years of full-the work experience do you have?

S. Have yw ever taken a leave of absence h m your careet? ( P b ckle)

Yeafs

Section B: Mentor Experience This section de& with infmation regarding menton that you have had. Please fiU in the requested information or circle the most appropriaterespouse for each question.

6. How many mentors have you had over the course of your m e r ? have not had a mentor, please go to Section C on page 4)

(If YW

7. How many of your mentors were also your supervisors? 8. What was the average length of your mentoring relationships?

Yean

Months

9. Please indicate the extent to which your mentor(s) have demonstrated the foiiowing behavim: To a very Iittle extent Rovided constructive feedback Clearly explaineci their expectations Always dealt with you honestîy

Steered you to opporninities to expand your experience Maintainecl coafidcntiality Discussed reasons for the way in which they deal wiîh situations

Coachcd you to develop your job Mis Pushed you to d v e for higher goals

Moàeled positive ethics and values Supported you through failutcs

Provided borh positive and negative feedback on your perf~fmazlce Showed you respect Sharcd thekuowledge that they passes

Shared theu work experience

Somewhat

To a very little extent

To a very

Somewhat

great extent

Rovided advice but let you make the decision

1

2

3

4

5

Served as a sounding board to test ideas

1

2

3

4

5

Helped you to understand the organization's vision

1

2

3

4

5

hpired you to excel

1

2

3

4

5

Suggested areas for fuaher training and development

1

2

3

4

5

Developed a relationship of mst with you 1

2

3

4

5

Demonstrateci interest in your career &velopment

1

2

3

4

5

Shared thcir knowledge of the

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

ModeIed personal and professionai growth 1

2

3

4

5

Encourageci you to take initiative

1

2

3

4

5

Took t h e to discuss issues with you

1

2

3

4

5

Aclcnowledged your accompiishments

1

2

3

4

5

Suggested alternative ways of looking at the problem

1

2

3

4

5

Provideci advice on wodc situations

1

2

3

4

5

Rovided support

1

2

3

4

5

llstened to you carefully

1

2

3

4

5

Questicmed you to help you to see things hmamther perspective

1

2

3

4

5

Made himcrself available to you

1

2

3

4

5

organizatian

Helped you enhance your career goals

M d e d encouragement

2

1

3

4

5

10. Overall, how effective were your mentor@):

Ineffective 1

Somewhat Effective 2

3

4

Very Effective 5

6

7

Section C: Experience in Ymr Current Organization Please till in the requested information or c u d t the most appropriate response for each question. 11. Please thllik about your exprience in your organization. To what extent do you agree/disagrec with the foilowing statements:

Strongly 1have 1~1~lined how things "really work" 1

on the inside of this organization. 1know very littk about the h i s t q

1

behind my work group/&partment. I would be a good nprcscntativt of my 1 organization. 1do not consider any of my coworkers 1

as my fnends. I have not yet leamed "the ropes" of my 1 job. 1know who the most infiuential ptopk 1

are in my organization. 1have l e d how to successfully 1 perfdrm my job in an efficient manntr. 1am not familiar with the organization's 1 customs, rituals, mernonies, and,

celebratiom.

1am usuaiiy excluded in social get

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

The goals of my organization are also my goals.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Within my work group, 1would be easily iâentified as "one of the gang".

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1know the organization's long-held

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1do not always believe in îhe values set 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1would bc a good m u r c e in 1 describing the background of my work group/department.

2

3

4

5

6

7

1have not fuiiy dtveloped the

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1do not have a g d understanding of the politics in my organizacion.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1undentand what aU the duties of my job entail.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1would bt a g d examplt of an

1

2

3

4

3

6

7

1am not always sure w b t nec& to be 1 done in order to get the most desirable work assignments in my ana

2

3

4

5

6

7

togethers given by other people in the organization.

traditions. 1beiieve that 1fit in weii with my

organization. by my organization. 1have mastercd the required tasks of

my job. 1understand îhe @s of my organization.

appropriate skills and abilities to successfbliyperfonnmy job.

employa who repments my organization's values.

1am usualiy included in informai 1 networks or gatherings of people within this organization. 1have a good understanding of the motives behind the actions of other people in the organization.

1

1am familiar witb the bistory of my

1

organization. 1am pntty popular in the organization, 1 1c m iden*

the people in this

1

organization who are most imposant in getting the work dont. 1believe most of my coworkers Iike me. 1 1support the goals that an set by my

1

organization. 12. Please indicate how satisfied you are with the:

Neuüal Satisfied Dissatisfied chances you have to l e m new thuigs

4

5

6

7

chances you have to accomplish something worthwhile

4

5

6

7

chances you have to do something that makcs you feel good about yoursclf as a person

4

5

6

7

amount of pay you get

4

5

6

7

f i g e benefits you &ve

4

5

6

7

6

7

amount of job security you have

1

2

13. A promotion is defincd as involving one or more of the following: rn signifiant increases in swpe of responsibilities signincant increascs in annual saiary changes in level in the employing Company Please indicate the numbcr of promotions that you have received in pur career to date.

Promotions 14. Please indicate ywr c m n t appmximaté annual gross sdary (including any bonuses).

15. Please indicate your approximate annual gross sdary (including any bonuses) when you h t sfgliu1full-time work.

When 1swimarize these data, 1would like to be able to describe the group of people who respondcd. Thus, I would appreciate it if you could provide some persona1 information. Please fil1 in the requested information or circle the most appropriate response for each question. AU information wiii remain confidentid. 16. What is yow age?

Years

17. What is yow gender? (Please circle) A Male B Female 18. Please circle the lettcr which best describes the highest level of education you have completed.

A B C D

E

High school Some coliege 1 university Coliege diploma Universitydegrce Post graduate dcgne

Tbank you for your participation. Brian Russell Carleton University

--n.ogram

School of Business, Diinton Tower Ottawa, Ontario

Kls SB6

Fax: (613) 52û-2652

The purpose of this form is to ensure that you d a s i a d the purpose of this study, the nature of your involvement, and to provide you enaugh information so that you have the opportunity to determine whether you wish to participare in the study.

Pqwe: This research is being cducted fora Master's thesis in Management Studies in the School of Business at Carleton University. The purpose of this study is to examine what mentors do by bashg the research on the obserwitims of people who have work experience. You will be asked to sort statements about mentorhg khavior using your own criteria.

Research Personnel:Brian Russeil, 224-3565, is the resertrcher in this project and Dr. Lorraine Dyke, 520-2600 extension 2389, is bis supetvisor. They may be contacted at any time. If you would likc to receive the results of this saidy you may e-mail your complete address to ,or leave a message at 224-3565. You may also Gii out the "Request for Resuits" area on this page. Vd1111tary Parüdpation:Your choie io participate in ihis study is voiuntary.

AnonymityK:ddentlolity: The data coilected in this stuây is coddential. Only the tcse8tcbers essociated with this poject wiii have access to the data. To ensure your complete anonymity, the "Request for Results" form will remah separate h m the swey upon our receipt of the package. Right to Withdraw: Yw have the rigbt to withdraw hm the research at any the. 1have nad the above description of the study and understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that 1agnee to participate in tbe research.

Participant's Name Participant's Signature Date

To nceive a copy of the d

t s , BicIude your name and pddrrJs or fBX klow:

~caoas: You will be given 36 fardseach containhg a unique statement. Please son these statements by any critcn*a that pu fetl is rekvant Once you have finished sorthg the cvds plcase put cite car& inta piles. Use the staplers Ihat have &a prwided to staple dit cîrds of each pile logdur and ihen put al1 of the sets of staplcd cards in the envelopc. Rcnumkt 1am looking for p u r perceptions so you derermine the criteria for thc catcgongones. Onn you have complctedthe excicise please complete the section klow. Pemmdintarautlan: When 1summarizethe data, 1would i i i to bc abk to W k the group ofpaopk who responded. Thus, 1 would appreciate it if you codd provide some personal infondon. Please fül in the nquestcd information or c i d e tht must approptiaterespwise for each question. Al1 information will remain confidential. 1. Whatisyourage? A under 30 B 30 to 39 C Mt049 D 50 to 59 E 60 aud over

3. Please circk die l e m which best desuiks the highcst level of education you have compleied.

B

High sctiool Somcolkge 1 University

C D

College dipiorna Universitydegm

E

PfJStgraduP~degm

A

4. Pltasc circk the job categmy under whicl you an classificd A

Exbcutive(cg., EX)

B

Administrative8 Foreign Service (c.g., AS, CS, PM) Scicntik and Professional kg., AU, EN,ES) Tefhnicai (es&,EG,GT,SU Aaminisaative Support (e.g, CR,DA,ST) Operoiionalkg., Q1GL,GS)

C

D E

F

If you arc nor sure uaderwhich catqory yourpb is classifïcd, please Mie in youtjob classification group (IevcI is not wccssary):

5. Which of the following b a t describes the function that you most often perform

A

B C D E F G

Managaiai Administrative ResearchlScientific Policy Anaiysis Support Staff Technical 0 t h (Plcase ~ ~ spccify)

6. How many years of fuii-timeWC& expcrience do p have?

Thank you br gour partklpaîion.

Years

Always d d t with you honestly

Steered you CO opportriaitiea to expand your experience

Mscossed ~essonsforthe wayin whicb they deaI with situotio~

Coacbedgou îo deveiop gour job SkUIS

-

Shared the knowledge that they possess

- -

- -

S&ared their work experience

Pravided advice but kt you mke the ddon

Helped y011to understand the orgPriization9svision

Saggested areas for M e r trainhg and

development

1

Developed a relationshipof trust with

Sùared their knowledge of tùe 0-

Mdded personaiand professional

Encourageci you to take initiative

gni-

Took time to àisciiss issues with yoa

Encourageci new ideas

Suggesteà alternative ways of looldng at

the problem

Providedadvice on work situations

Provided support

Llsrenedto you auefully

Questioned you to help you to see things h m motber perspective

Rovidedencouragement