Idea Transcript
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1.
Systemic Functional Linguistics Although it has been mentioned in the previous chapter that Appraisal Theory
is a full-blown theory about emotion in text, the theory is still put ‘under the heading’ of another theory: Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). SFL is the linguistics school that was first introduced and developed by the English linguist Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday, emeritus professor of linguistics at the University of Sydney, Australia1. SFL analyses language from the view point of meaning; SFL is a meaningbased linguistics theory. SFL, first and foremost, views language as a resource for making meaning. It discusses how language (or, rather, elements of language) functions to convey meaning that language-users want to communicate. In a clausal (SFL does not recognize sentence) level, for example, instead of discussing what categorizes as what (Subjects and Objects are usually nouns, etc), SFL looks at who the participants are, what action is done, and in what circumstances it is done. SFL states that there are three modes of meaning, those that fall under the heading of metafunction of language. Metafunction is the function of the function of
1
After his retirement in 1987, Halliday has been visiting various universities, one of which is the Hongkong Polytechnic University (2009), as a visiting professor of linguistics [http://isfc2010. ubcconferences.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16&Itemid=5]. pdfMachine Is a pdf writer that produces quality PDF files with ease! Produce quality PDF files in seconds and preserve the integrity of your original documents. Compatible across Sumatera Utara nearly all Windows platforms, if you can print from a windows application youUniversitas can use pdfMachine. Get yours now!
language. The term metafunction thus is used to avoid confusing the notion of what being talked about with the common word: function. As Halliday puts it “We could have called them [i.e. the functions] simply ‘functions’; however there is a long tradition of talking about the functions of language contexts where ‘function’ simply means purpose or way of using language, and has no significance for the analysis of language itself…the systemic analysis shows that functionality is intrinsic to language…[thus] The term ‘metafunction’ was adopted to suggest that function was an integral component within the overall theory” (2004: 30-31). The three metafunctions of language are the ideational/experiential metafunction, the textual and the interpersonal. It must be noted that these metafunctions work simultaneously, in the same time and space, in every utterance. This means that any utterance are equipped with all these three metafunctions, therefore the three must not be separated in analysing any utterance. By this viewpoint, any clause is regarded as a unit of experience, and hence grammar as a theory of experience2. In the analysis of ideational metafunction, SFL first looks at the process, going-on that is represented in the text; then what participants are involved in the process and the circumstance of the process. SFL categorizes 6 kinds of process: material (the real, physical process that happens outside of human body, represented by verbs such as eat, kick, go, cut, etc), mental (the psychological process, the process that takes place in the mind, using verbs such as think, like, want, hate etc), verbal (the process of saying, of giving information verbally: talk, tell, instruct, say, etc), Lecture on Systemic Functional Linguistics by Prof. Amrin Saragih at USU’s postgraduate school of linguistics. 2
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relational (the process of being: is, become, stands for, symbolizes, etc), existential (the process of existing, of being a being: is, am, come, go by), and behavioural (the process made up of both mental and material activities: laugh, dream, cough). By textual metafunction, SFL means the function of language as a medium for a speaker to arrange his message. Textual function refers to how language-users encode their messages into texts, determine the flow of the messages, and relate the messages with the previous ones thus maintaining the cohesion among the messages. SFL analyses this by looking at the themes and rhemes parts of clauses, the types of the themes, and the un/marked-ness of the theme. Interpersonal metafunction is the metafunction that expresses a speaker’s attitude and judgements. Thus it is the metafunction that serves to be the basis of the whole enterprise of Appraisal Theory. In the analysis of interpersonal metafunction, we look at mood and modality. Mood in English is about the two elements (subject and finite) of a clause that determines the form of the clause: whether it is an imperative, declarative, or interrogative. Modality is about those words that mark necessity, possibility or impossibility such as should, probably, maybe, etc. Since interpersonal metafunction is the basis of Appraisal Theory, mood and modality are also objects of study in an appraisal research.
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Textual Ideational
Interpersonal
Figure 2.1. Ideational, Interpersonal, and Textual Metafunction (Martin & White, 2005: 8)
2.2.
Appraisal Theory Appraisal Theory is a linguistics theory about emotion, ethics, and aesthetics.
It is basically about the systems3 in a language that determine how speakers of the language should express themselves in relation to their interlocutor or audience and the topic(s) of their talks itself. One of the linguistic insights that underlies Appraisal Theory is that when people talk, they keep negotiating their relation with others. Simple as it may seem, the process of talking is quite a complex one: people calculating the knowledge of The notion of system here is the one defined by Halliday as simply “what could go instead of what” as opposed to “what goes together with what” [the simplified definition of structure] (Halliday & Mathiessen, 2004: 22). 3
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their interlocutor/audience, processing the proper wordings that match their calculation of their audience’s knowledge, adjusting the proper gesture and facial expression, etc4. Of all these things happening when we talk, one of the most important is our consideration of our relation with person(s) with whom we talk. In almost every utterance that we produce, we keep considering and considering our relation with our interlocutor. On the other hand, our interlocutor also does the same thing. This means that we are actually negotiating our stance with our interlocutor. Appraisal Theory documents the elements that we use in this negotiating stance process, classifies them, and provides exposition on how they function in real language-speaking situation; all for the purpose of describing the system of appraisal in a language. In short, Appraisal Theory is a systematic linguistic theory of emotion in text. The notion systematic is quite important since it will answer sceptical minds that question the use of this theory. It is quite acceptable to say that we don’t really need Appraisal Theory to analyse emotion in text as we can use our logic and natural knowledge of language to even reach the conclusion of this thesis and the like. But this question actually not only doubts the use of doing Appraisal Theory but also the whole enterprise of scientific world. For what use is it to study physics, to take an example, if we can know the physical world based on our own deduction and knowledge of it?.
4
Cf. Saeed’s Semantics (1997) especially chapter VII: Context and Inference.
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It is because of the notion scientific implies the concept of systematic and methodical that people actually doing science, linguistics included. Science makes our knowledge systematic and by turn the sytematism produces insights on the world. To sum up, the following comment by Bednarek on the importance of Appraisal Theory is quite worthy of reading The contribution of appraisal theory to the study of evaluation can hardly be overestimated, since it provides the only systematic, detailed and elaborate framework of evaluative language (in A’Beckett, 2009: 3). Continuing the discussion on appraisal system, the system meant here is actually linguistic resources: the elements of language that are used by speakers to express their emotion. Although the primary resource for evaluation of attitude is adjectives, it doesn’t mean that evaluation is only realised with adjectives. For it is clear that in our daily expression, attitude can be evaluated from any words used by speakers. This implies that the evaluation resources can be a word of any word-class, a word group/phrase, or even a clause. In other words, emotion can be encoded with a single word, a group of words, or even a clause, as can be seen in the examples below from appraisal homepage (http://www.grammatics.com/Appraisal /AppraisalGuide/ Framed/ Frame.htm).
No doubt the men want to sleep with her but they also respect, like and trust her. She is upfront and gutsy. If Mel were a man, I'd have a crush on her... I would adore her as a friend.
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In the example above we find appraisal elements which are words [respect, like, trust, upfront, gutsy, and adore] and clauses [want to sleep and have a crush on]
It [the E-type Jaguar] is a masterpiece of styling whose proportions are dramatic yet perfectly judged and well-mannered; its crisp details are in complete harmony with the broader outlines of the gorgeous general arrangement, and, symbolically, it evokes with exquisite eloquence all the ideas of speed, glamour and romance associated with travel. You can just feel air and bodies rushing and swooning all over that lascivious shape. Never, ever, has that creaking old trope about form and function had a better character witness (The Independent, Weekend Review: p.1 27/01/2001). The appraisal elements which are words in the above example are: masterpiece, dramatic, crisp, and others. Those which are in groups/phrases are: perfectly judged, well-mannered, complete harmony, etc. But, unlike example number 1, this example does not have elements of appraisal which are in clause. Appraisal Theory proposes that there are three linguistic resources to express emotions: attitude, engagement, and graduation. The difference between the three is shown in the following words (Martin and White, 2005: 35). Attitude is concerned with our feelings, including emotional reactions, judgements of behaviour and evaluation of things. Engagement deals with sourcing attitudes fand the play of voices around opinions in discourse. Graduation attends to grading phenomena whereby feelings are amplified and categories blurred.
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ENGAGEMENT
A P P R A I S A L
monogloss
heterogloss
Affect... ATTITUDE Judgement… Appreciation…
raise GRADUATION
force lower focus
sharpen soften
Figure 2.2. An Overview of Appraisal Resources (Martin & White, 2005: 38) As has been stated in chapter I, this thesis discusses only the Attitude subsystem of Appraisal Theory. The following is an exposition of the sub-system. 2.2.1. Attitude Attitude is the sub-system of Appraisal Theory that, on the whole, covers feelings. The feelings meant here are the feelings that are either explicitly stated or implicitly stated. The explicit feelings—technically called inscribed attitude—are the feelings that are clear enough to be seen without employing interpretation. On the other hand, the implicit feelings—the invoked attitude—are the feelings that are results of the interpretation of what are actually said. The following is an example of the difference:
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1. He is an incompetent fool. [explicit/inscribed] 2. I don’t think he can comprehend anything. [implicit/invoked] In example number (1), the word “fool” is an explicit statement of negative attitude towards someone. People hardly need interpretation to get the intended meaning of the word. On the other hand, in the second example, the clause “don’t think he can comprehend anything” is an implicit statement of a negative attitude. While people will not find it difficult to get the intended meaning, the actual, literal meaning of the clause is merely a statement of an opinion. We can only say that it is a negative attitude after we employ what linguists term as “pragmatic inference” of the clause. In other words, the meaning of the clause is not literal. This difference is of importance since it gives an idea that although Appraisal Theory works on lexis level (Martin and White, 2005: 8), it proves to be difficult to be completely lexis-minded in doing appraisal. To name one factor for the difficulty, metaphors, which almost always work as a way of evaluating, can hardly be reduced to a simpler form, not to mention a word. It is only acceptable that we analyse metaphors based on the whole words they are made of. And this is Martin and White’s ‘invoked’ stance if we read their explanation on indirect realisation (Ibid: 6167). Pertaining to the above difficulty, the position the writer takes in this thesis is the one of lexis base: in the tables in chapter IV, the writer presents only the important words in the clauses in the text; and yet, in the inaugural texts, the writer bolds the whole units/group of words (be it phrases or clauses) that make up the pdfMachine Is a pdf writer that produces quality PDF files with ease! Produce quality PDF files in seconds and preserve the integrity of your original documents. Compatible across Sumatera Utara nearly all Windows platforms, if you can print from a windows application youUniversitas can use pdfMachine. Get yours now!
complete meaning of the words. As for metaphors, the writer first gets their literal meanings, picks the core word [or, rather, the word that can regarded as the core], then finally puts it in the table. Since Attitude are linguistic elements by which speakers realize their attitudes, each of the three subdivisions of Attitude are grouped into two regions: the positive (or, the likable) attitude and the negative (or, the unlikable attitude). Further, the negative feeling is differentiated from the negation of positive feeling and vice versa. This is because the two are different, although on certain contexts they may be seemingly similar. For example sad (which is a negative attitude) is differentiated from not happy (which is a negated positive attitude) because, to name a simple fact, a person can be “not happy” without being “sad”.
affect
judgement
appreciation
dis/inclination: desire, fear un/happiness: happy, sad in/security: confident, anxious dis/satisfaction: pleased, angry
esteem mm
normality: fortunate, hapless capacity: powerful, weak tenacity: resolute, reckless
sanction
veracity: truthful, dishonest propriety: ethical, immoral
reaction
impact: exciting, tedious quality: good, nasty
composition
balance: unified, discordant complexity: simple, simplistic
valuation: profound, shallow
Figure 2.3. Sub-systems of Attitude (adopted from Martin & White, 2005: 42-58) pdfMachine Is a pdf writer that produces quality PDF files with ease! Produce quality PDF files in seconds and preserve the integrity of your original documents. Compatible across Sumatera Utara nearly all Windows platforms, if you can print from a windows application youUniversitas can use pdfMachine. Get yours now!
Attitude is divided into three regions: affect, judgement, and appreciation. Below are explanations of each of the regions. 2.2.1.1. Affect Affect is the linguistic resource used to show positive and negative feeling; whether a speaker is bored, interested, happy, sad, etc. Several examples are grief, I’m grieved, it is a sad day. Affect is further subdivided into four types: a. dis/inclination: how the speaker inclined or disinclined to something. The typical words classified in this region are miss, long for, etc. b. un/happiness: emotional feeling of the speaker whether he is happy or sad. The typical words classified in this region are cheerful, gloomy, buoyant, etc. c. in/security: the speaker’s emotions which is related with his ecosocial wellbeing: anxiety, fear, confidence and trust. The typical words are: confident, comfortable, trusting, etc. d. dis/satisfaction: emotions concerned with telos—the pursuit of goals—ennui, displeasure, curiosity, respect. The typical words are: engrossed, satisfied, pleased, etc.
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Table 2.1. Sub-systems of Affect (Martin & White, 2005: 51) Affect
Positive
Negative
dis/inclination or desire
miss, long for, yearn for
wary, fearful, terrorised
un/happiness
cheerful, buoyant, jubilant; like, love, adore
sad, melancholy, despondent; cut-up, heart-broken … broken-hearted, heavyhearted, sick at heart; sorrowful … grief-stricken, woebegone … dejected …; dejected, joyless, dreary, cheerless, unhappy, sad; gloomy, despondent, … downcast, low, down, down in the mouth, depressed …; weepy, wet-eyed, tearful, in tears …
In/security
together, confident, assured; comfortable, confident, trusting involved, absorbed,
uneasy, anxious, freaked out; startled, surprised, astonished
dis/satisfaction
engrossed; satisfied, pleased, chuffed/ impressed, charmed, thrilled
flat, stale, jaded; cross, angry, furious; bored with, sick of, fed up with
2.2.1.2. Judgement Judgement is about attitudes towards behaviour. The linguistic resources that fall under the category of judgement are used to show or to express speakers’ positions about others’ conduct: whether he admires the behaviour or not, appreciate or condemn, etc. The following are examples taken from Bush Junior’s second inaugural address (1) Some have unwisely chosen to test America’s resolve…[-cap] (2) Democratic reformers facing repression, prison, or exile…[+prop]
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In the first example, the word ‘unwisely’ is a judgement on the capacity of the people who “have chosen to test America’s resolve”. The prefix ‘un-‘ in the word signifies that the judgement is one of negative type. In the second example, the dubbing of reformers as “democratic” is a judgement on the propriety of the reformers; and it is a positive one since in American culture “being democratic” is usually considered a good trait. Judgement is divided into two types: 1. social esteem: is the region of judgements in which the evaluation of people’s conduct is based on social ethics; on a standard of appropriateness. In this region there are judgements of a. ‘normality’ (how unusual someone is); the typical words classified in this domain are: normal, natural, familiar, lucky, stable, etc. b. ‘capacity’ (how capable someone is): powerful, vigorous, healthy, fit, etc. c. ‘tenacity’ (how resolute someone is): plucky, reliable, tireless, loyal, etc. 2. social sanction: is the region of judgements in which the evaluation of people’s conduct is based on legal/religious rules. Unlike those underlying social esteem, the rules on which social sanction are based are usually codified and written. Therefore violations of these rules are usually penalized; while on the other hand, people who violate social esteem rules are only considered “unfortunate” or, at the worst level, “strange”. The latter stigma is about the worst ‘punishment’ a violator of social esteem meet. In short, if you break social esteem rules, you need
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to see a psychiatrist; but, if you break social sanction rules, you need the help of a lawyer (Martin & White, 2005: 53 and Martin & Rose, 2008: 68). Back to social sanction, this region comprises judgement of two traits a.
‘veracity’ (how truthful someone is); the typical words classified in this region are truthful, candid, tactful, etc.
b.
‘propriety’ (how ethical someone is): polite, ethical, law abiding, etc. The table below displays what have been discussed above Table 2.2. Sub-systems of Judgement (op.cit: 53)
Social Esteem Normality ‘how special?’
capacity ‘how apable?’
tenacity ‘how dependable?’
Positive (Admire) lucky, fortunate, charmed …; normal, natural, familiar …; cool, stable, predictable …; in, fashionable, avant garde …; celebrated, unsung …
Negative (Criticise) unlucky, hapless, star-crossed …; odd, peculiar, eccentric …; erratic, unpredictable …; dated, daggy, retrograde …; obscure, also-ran …
powerful, vigorous, robust …; sound, healthy, fit …; adult, mature, experienced …; witty, humorous, droll …; insightful, clever, gifted …; balanced, together, sane …; sensible, expert, shrewd …; literate, educated, learned …; competent, accomplished …; successful, productive …
mild, weak, whimpy …; unsound, sick, crippled …; immature, childish, helpless …; dull, dreary, grave …; slow, stupid, thick …; flaky, neurotic, insane …; naive, inexpert, foolish …; illiterate, uneducated, ignorant …; incompetent; unaccomplished …; unsuccessful, unproductive …
plucky, brave, heroic …; cautious, wary, patient …; careful, thorough, meticulous tireless, persevering, resolute …; reliable, dependable …; faithful, loyal, constant …; flexible, adaptable, accommodating …
timid, cowardly, gutless …; rash, impatient, impetuous …; hasty, capricious, reckless …; weak, distracted, despondent …; unreliable, undependable …; unfaithful, disloyal, inconstant …; stubborn, obstinate, wilful …
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Table 2.2. Continued Social Sanction veracity [truth] ‘how honest?’ propriety [ethics] ‘how far beyond Reproach?’
Positive (Praise) truthful, honest, credible …; frank, candid, direct …; discrete, tactful …
Negative (Condemn) dishonest, deceitful, lying …; deceptive, manipulative, devious …; blunt, blabbermouth …
good, moral, ethical …; law abiding, fair, just …; sensitive, kind, caring …; unassuming, modest, humble …; polite, respectful, reverent …; altruistic, generous, charitable …
bad, immoral, evil …; corrupt, unfair, unjust …; insensitive, mean, cruel …; vain, snobby, arrogant …; rude, discourteous, irreverent …; selfish, greedy, avaricious …
2.2.1.3. Appreciation Appreciation is about evaluation of things, of concrete, natural objects: a novel, a scenery, a house, a musical composition, or any other objects. In the following example (op.cit), the bold parts are a speaker’s appreciation of a speech. The new president's speech was elegant and well-woven, sounding a panoply of themes without seeming scattered. Appreciation is further divided into three types: 1. reaction: related to affection. It is further sub-divided into two systems: that of impact (whether the phenomena grabs our attention) and quality (whether the phenomena is liked by the speaker). The typical words belonging in the region of impact are: arresting, captivating, fascinating, etc. The typical words of quality are: okay, fine, beautiful, splendid, etc. 2. composition: related to our view of order. It is further sub-divided into two systems: balance [whether the phenomena is orderly, has a sense of balance and connectedness in it] and complexity [whether the phenomena is easy or
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difficult to comprehend]. Typical words of balance are: symmetrical, proportioned, unified, logical, etc. Typical words of complexity are: simple, lucid, clear, intricate, reach, etc. 3. valuation: related to our considered opinions. The typical words belonging to this region are: penetrating, profound, priceless, worthwhile, etc. Table 2.3. Subsytems of Appreciation (op.cit: 56) Appreciation Reaction: impact ‘did it grab me?’
Reaction: quality ‘did I like it?’ Composition: balance ‘did it hang together?’
Composition: Complexity ‘was it hard to follow?’ Valuation ‘was it worthwhile?’
Positive arresting, captivating, engaging …; fascinating, exciting, moving …; lively, dramatic, intense …; remarkable, notable, sensational …
Negative dull, boring, tedious …; dry, ascetic, uninviting …; flat, predictable, monotonous …; unremarkable, pedestrian …
okay, fine, good … lovely, beautiful, splendid …; appealing, enchanting, welcome …
bad, yuk, nasty …; plain, ugly, grotesque …; repulsive, revolting, off-putting …
balanced, harmonious, unified, symmetrical, proportioned …; consistent, considered, logical …; shapely, curvaceous, willowly …
unbalanced, discordant, irregular, uneven, flawed …; contradictory, disorganised …; shapeless, amorphous, distorted …
simple, pure, elegant …; lucid, clear, precise …; intricate, rich, detailed, precise …
ornate, extravagant, byzantine …; arcane, unclear, woolly …; plain, monolithic, simplistic …
penetrating, profound, deep …; innovative, original, creative …; timely, long awaited, landmark …; inimitable, exceptional, unique …; authentic, real, genuine …; valuable, priceless, worthwhile …; appropriate, helpful, effective …
shallow, reductive, insignificant …; derivative, conventional, prosaic…; dated, overdue, untimely …; dime-a-dozen, everyday, common; fake, bogus, glitzy …; worthless, shoddy, pricey …; ineffective, useless, write-off …
It may seem obvious that the boundaries between the three are somewhat blurry. To name one point of blurriness: the things that “grab people’s attention” [reaction] are usually the things that are “worthwhile”, the things that they consider pdfMachine Is a pdf writer that produces quality PDF files with ease! Produce quality PDF files in seconds and preserve the integrity of your original documents. Compatible across Sumatera Utara nearly all Windows platforms, if you can print from a windows application youUniversitas can use pdfMachine. Get yours now!
valuable [valuation]. Martin and White proposes an exposition to help tackle this issue: Reaction is related to affection (emotive –‘it grabs me’, desiderative–‘I want it’); composition is related to perception (our view of order); and valuation is related to cognition (our considered opinions). Alternatively, the appreciation framework might be interpreted metafunctionally–with reaction oriented to interpersonal significance, composition to textual organisation and valuation to ideational worth. (Martin&White, 2005: 57) The following table summarises the above exposition Table 2.4. Sub-types of Appreciation (Martin&White: 57) Appreciation Reaction Composition Valuation
Mental Process Type Affection Perception Cognition
Metafunction Interpersonal Textual Ideational
2.2.1.4. Classification of modals Since modals also act as a medium to express evaluation, they are also included in the region of attitude. Modals are placed in the region of judgement. 1. For modalities of probability [surely, maybe, probably…], the classification is that of veracity. Below are examples from Bush Senior’s inaugural address. Surely, they did not do this to advance the politics of petty bickering and extreme partisanship they plainly deplore. [Judgement: veracity] The sentence above can be interpreted to be more ethical-sound and therefore its being placed in the region of veracity is more agreeable It is most probably true that they did not do this to advance….
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2. For modalities of usuality [often, normal, average…], the classification is that of normality. The following are examples. The president often forgets thing [judgement: normality] It’s unusual for him to be late [judgement: normality] 3. For modalities of ability and capacity [can, strong enough, capable of…], the classification is that of ability and capacity. Some examples are He can cook [judgement: capacity] He is powerful enough to break these four bricks [judgement: capacity] 4. For modalities of obligation, the classification is that of propriety. The following are examples. The man should wear coat; it’s freezing. [judgement: propriety] You must be on time. [judgement: propriety] 5. For modalities of inclination [will, intend to, resolved…], Martin and White proposed the clasification to be that of tenacity. Below are examples. I will do it. [judgement: tenacity] She intends to do it. [judgement: tenacity]
2.2.1.5. Differences To avoid confusion as to which is the domain of which, Martin and White defines boundaries between the three subdivisions of Attitude. The borders are especially helpful for making an objective limit of domains which will enable a researcher to check himself whether what he is doing is still according to what it should be.
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The first border to be defined is as to which entity is object to which element of attitude and what points of the entity is to be evaluated. The following table describes this. Table 2.5. Points of Differences/Borders (based on Martin & White, 2005: 57-60) Kinds of Attitude Affect Judgement Appreciation
To Evaluate Human and other conscious beings. Human and other conscious beings. Things/Phenomena; be it phenomena of nature or linguistics [language-related]
Points of Evaluation Emotion, feelings, things that happen in the heart. Behaviour/conduct/character. The values, composition, and the things impact on speakers.
To make the differences clearer, there are relational clause formulas [for affect and judgement] and mental clause ones [for appreciation] to check whether the appraisal elements fitly belong to the region they are thought to belong. This is displayed by the table below. Table 2.6. Clauses for Clearing Differences (based on Martin & White, op.cit: 58-59) Kinds of Attitude Affect
Judgement
Appreciation
Clauses to check [person feels affect about something] [it makes person feel affect that [proposition]}. [it was judgement for person/of person to do that] [(for person) to do that was judgement] [Person consider something appreciation] [Person see something as appreciation]
Examples I feel happy that… It makes happy that… It was unfair of you to… For you to …is unfair I consider it beautiful… They see it as beautiful…
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2.3.
Reason for Adopting SLT and the Appraisal Theory The title of this part may induce meaning different from what is intended. It is
actually meant to say that anybody who uses Martin & White’s Appraisal Theory automatically uses SLT. As may have been inferred from the explanation above, SLT is closely related with Appraisal Theory. SLT provides the theoretical basis for Appraisal Theory, i.e the interpersonal metafunction of SLT serves to be the basis of Appraisal Theory. As Martin and White (2005: 7) puts it: As indicated, our model of evaluation evolved within the general theoretical framework of SFL. In the part entitled Situating Appraisal in SFL of their book (2005: 33-34) Martin and White directly point out the location of Appraisal in SFL …we can locate appraisal as an interpersonal system at the level of discourse semantics. At this level it co-articulates interpersonal meaning with two other systems: negotiation and involvement. The quotation above is translated into the figure below
Solidarity Power Negotiation Appraisal Involvement
Figure 2.4. The place of Appraisal in SFL (adopted from Martin & White, ibid) pdfMachine Is a pdf writer that produces quality PDF files with ease! Produce quality PDF files in seconds and preserve the integrity of your original documents. Compatible across Sumatera Utara nearly all Windows platforms, if you can print from a windows application youUniversitas can use pdfMachine. Get yours now!
2.4.
Previous Related Researches 1. Sumarsih (2009) used appraisal theory in her dissertation entitled “Penggambaran Sikap, Pendirian, dan Penilaian dalam Teks dan Konteks melalui Bahasa Evaluatif”. In the dissertation, she examines evaluative elements in 5 text genres in Indonesian language: fiction, interview texts, scientific texts, newspaper editorials, and news texts. 2. Suriyadi (a postgraduate student at University of North Sumatera) wrote a brief paper—presented at the Pertemuan Linguistik Utara on March 2-3, 2009 in Medan—on Appraisal Theory which discusses texts presented at the scientific writing seminar at the State Polytechnic Institute of Medan (Politeknik Negeri Medan). Both the works of Sumarsih and Suriyadi contribute to the writer’s better understanding on how the Appraisal Theory works on Bahasa Indonesia. 3. A’Beckett wrote a paper (2009) entitled Appraisal in the Russian Press: the Characterisation of the Ukranian Leaders in which she does what she says as “uncover the means of inviting negative perception of Ukrainian leaders (the former President Yuschenko and Prime Minister Timoshenko) in the Russian press” (page 1). To achieve this, she uses Appraisal Theory for the analysis of evaluative language to analyse texts of Russian newspapers. This paper is especially helpful in understanding how the Appraisal Theory works on newpaper texts to reveal emotional elements in what is commonly regarded as objective news.
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4. Page, in her paper (2003) entitled An analysis of
APPRAISAL
in childbirth
narratives with special consideration of gender and storytelling style, examines child-birth narratives while simultaneously using what she termed as ‘consideration of gender and storytelling style’. There are two findings that she mentions in the paper (op.cit: 1) that the women and men in this study have subtly differing story-telling styles as indicated by the relative proportion of AFFECT and APPRECIATION found in their narratives…[and that] gender is also important in understanding the speakers’ self characterization as expressed through JUDGMENT. This paper of Ruth’s gives the writer an important view on how sex difference somehow contributes to how a speaker uses appraisal/evaluating elements of English. 5. Miller (http://www.grammatics.com/appraisal/millerD/miller-bush-gore.pdf) uses only the Engagement aspect of Appraisal Theory to analyse the decision made by the US Supreme Court on the case of Bush v. Gore 2000 (i.e the case of the year 2000’s US presidential election dispute between Bush Junior and Al Gore). Among the interesting things that she found in the research is how the justices in the Supreme Court used Engagement resources to present and strengthen their legal arguments in the debate on the case. 6. Martin, in his article in the Discourse and Society journal entitled Mourning: How We are Aligned, examines appraisal elements in the September 2001 edition of a Hong Kong-based magazine’s editorial entitled Mourning. In it, he shows how the editorial uses appraisal resources to have the readers
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sympathize with the unfortunate persons told in the editorial, to align the readers with the position and opinion of the writer(s) of the editorial. This paper is one of the important papers on Appraisal Theory in that it is from the expert on the theory that shows how the theory works to uncover people’s attitude through their writing. It therefore contributes to the writing of this thesis in the way that it shows more clearly what the writer meant his theory is and how it should be used.
pdfMachine Is a pdf writer that produces quality PDF files with ease! Produce quality PDF files in seconds and preserve the integrity of your original documents. Compatible across Sumatera Utara nearly all Windows platforms, if you can print from a windows application youUniversitas can use pdfMachine. Get yours now!