Course Code - National Open University of Nigeria [PDF]

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria Island. Lagos

COURSE DEVELOPMENT

Course Code:

MGS 712

Course Title:

ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY.

COURSE DEVELOPERS:

MARTHA ORUKU

MUMEN LUGARD

PROGRAMME LEADER:

COURSE COORDINATOR:

SHEHU ABDULAHI ARAGA

EMMANUEL ABIANGA

1

COURSE CONTENTS

MODULE1

THE CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY

Unit 1

Conceptual Clarifications.

Unit 2

Administrative Behaviour

Unit 3

Principles of Administration

Unit 4

Administrative theory.

UNIT 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS. 1.0 Introduction. 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Contents 3.1 Conceptual Clarifications. 3.2 Nature of Administration. 3.3 Management and Administration. 3.4 Politics and administration dichotomy. 3.5 Organization and Administration. 1.0 INTRODUCTION . "When two men co-operate to role a stone that neither could have rolled alone, the rudiments of administration have appeared" Simon, Smithburg, Fund (1950, 3). The study of administrative science has become necessary in modem state. The word science has two meanings, the first signifies a "branch of learning", the study of something; the second, signify a particular field of study, the exact science, mainly physics or Chemistry, as a method, a rigorous way of gaining knowledge that has rules of what constitute "evidence" and "Proof Development" of the term. The several nuances in English usage of the term 'administration' seem to have evolved in something like the following way. The classical ratio verb, as used by Cicero for instance, had two apparently distinct senses: "to help". "Assist", or "serve" lacking the dative; and to manage, direct, or govern. In Cicero, the word administers means a male attendant or servant, administration, often simply, "the giving of help". (Andrew Dun sire 1973). 2

Administer - means to carryout, implement or execute, directing or serving, completing a process of someone else have started or securing to the consequences of someone else's purposes. Accountable Administration can be seen as a relative detail, the mere devising, a means to get end or it can be concerned with the formulation of policy and direction of a nation destiny Other meaning in the use of administration in the armed services, Local governments, universities and individual professional bodies, embraces the collective noun for persons engage in the work of bookkeeping, registration, accounting and other internal communication of 'clerical' work as contrasted with the use of records in central or in policy-making of all the meaning we have listed, these are perhaps closest to the first meaning "service pure and simple", with less connotation of 'direction' or 'government' any of others; lacking both notion of the execution of purpose' and the participation in policy decision, through the strong implication of connection records and procedures undoubtedly comes from association with the form of implementation of law by non-judicial machinery found in public service at early stage of the term evolution.

2.0

OBJECTIVES, At the end of the unit , a student should be able to; *Understand the concept of administrative theory. *Explain the nature of Administration. *Understand politics and administration .

3.0

MAIN CONTENT .

3. 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS. The concept of administration has been defined in many ways. The vantage points through which authorities have defined it seem to emanate from the environment and social milieu. Dwight Waldo (1955) defines administration as a type of co-operative human behavior that has a high degree of rationality characterized by the management and organization. John Mooney (2001) , looked at administration as the attainment of common purpose . Furthermore Henri Fayol defines administration in a narrower sense of management and also regards administration as a discipline in which any organization should be involved He further maintained that administration has five elements 3

*Foresight *organization *command *Co ordination. *Control. From the above a working definition of administration as the ‘The process of rationally channeling all organizational activities for efficient and effective goal attainment’ .

3.2 NATURE OF ADMINISTRATION. Administration is a process of getting things done. It is the moving force to set and keep an institution or department in motion. It keeps the whole machinery well oiled to achieve optimum results. It saves problems arising in the execution arising in the execution of activities and more efficient administrator , possesses foresight into the problem and many check them they arise. All the relevant responsibilities lie with the administration . Smooth function’s is one of the sir of good administration. 'Mere are five clearly defined aspects of administration which throw more light on it Viz planning, organization, direction, coordination and evaluation. Planning: an unplanned administration will not go very far. Only planned approach can achieve designed results. A haphazard approach will block the channel and process of administration. The rules of administration, which make it smooth and systematic, are also a part of the planning. When administration is to act as the agency to solve problems, it must first give thought to them and plan the steps to be taken for setting any one of them. In big as well as small, organizations, there are always complexities which need to be taken for solving any one of them. There are many methods of getting things done. Before it is stopped every method must be planned in detail. Planning must proceed every performance. Organization: It is the fundamental task in every administration. Organization is the machineries for getting things done. It is chiefly concerned with the provisions, arrangements and manpower which enable the administration to carry out its obligations. Direction represents leadership, which has a key role to play in administration. This is the authority which directs work and gets things done. It is held by a person who is responsible for 4

making decision, issuing them in the form of order or directions and getting them implemented. Direction or leadership always emphasizes the presence of a group of persons. One member of the group holds authority to direct or holds the place of leadership. The efforts of the others are directed by him. He gives all of them a common direction for the common purpose, and goal. The success of direction or leadership is determined by the integration of group efforts in the solution of a common purpose and goal. .The success of direction or leadership is determined by the integration of group efforts in the solution of a common problem. Direction shows the way in administration. It channelizes the entire organization towards a common goal. Co-ordination: In administration, there is always, the involvement of a number of things and persons. It is the detail of co-ordination with procedures in all of them a sort of governess, single-mindedness and collective effort. It serves as a lubricant in administrative structure for smooth functioning. Differ functionaries of the machinery are made to pursue the same line of action, instead of pulling different directions. Various units and parts have to be interrelated to produce this co-ordination. The efficiency of an organization depends on the co- - ordination of between its units, and parts. Every unit is to be assigned its proper place; the units are to be coordinated with one another, ultimately producing a total, well integrated unity, in the whole organization. A good and successful administration will be judged from the spontaneous co-ordination between the different organs in the establishment. Evaluation: This represents the stage of stock taking of an administration. In any administrative set up, scope for manpower will always be there; since administration is a dynamic process, it has to be reviewed from time to time. Even if the organization is going on smoothly, the possibility must be explored to run it more smoothly. A search for better ways and means should constantly go on less efficient arrangements includes the followings: (i) Discovering of short-comings on the existing arrangements may be realized. (ii) Modification or enhancement of aims and objectives to be realized (iii) Change in the conditions inside and outside the organization (iv) Invention of a new technique or discovery of new of doing things better.

5

Exercise 1 What are the tools for administration in an organization.

3.3

MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION The concept management has been defined in many ways, David C. Martins (2006) defines management as the "process of achieving organizational goals by engaging in the four function of planning, organizing, leading and controlling" This definition recognizes that management is an ongoing process and activity, entails reaching important goal, and involves knowing how to perform the major functions of management. Richard Daft (1999) sees management a "the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing and controlling organization resources". This definition maintains the same structure like that of David C. Martins(1999). Furthermore, they believed that management is "dynamic and business oriented, while administration entails emphasizing status quo and not innovative". This distinction may look good but the globalization of political and management system have demeaned the difference based on sect oral distinctions. The realities emerging from these polemics, is that, administration is seen as part of management and management as part of administration. Breach cited in Osa Osawanta (1995) was one of the scholars that shared the view that administration is part of management. In his words," administration is that part of the management process concerned with the institution and carrying out of procedures by which the performance is laid down and communicated, and the process of activities is regulated and checked against targets and plans". Breach also defined "management" as "a social process entailing responsibility for the effective and economical planning and regulation of operation of an enterprise, in fulfillment of a given purpose or task, such responsibility involving judgment and decisions in determining plans. This Breachian conceptualization connotes management as a comprehensive phenomenon which administration is part. This controversies surrounding this epochal dichotomy between management 'and administration was as a result of translation of Fayol's book "administration" from French to English (1929) "Management" replaced "administration" (Laurie J. Mullin 1999) 6

Scholars, Like J.M Pfiffner, Gullick Herbert Simon, shared the view that "management is part of administration. To them management is one of the action in administration. In their words, "management activity unites controls and coordinates all other activities of a group to achieve set objectives. Despite the merits or otherwise of administration/management dichotomy lets now attempt to look at the similarities and differences in the use of the concepts.

3.4

(i)

(ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v)

3.5

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT Administration and management are distinctive academic discipline, art and science of pursuing knowledge. Both concepts are used in modem organization. They embrace organizational activities such as organizing, coordination, budgeting, evaluation or organizational activities for purposive goals. Management and administration takes place in any human organization. They are targeted at meeting individual and organizational goals. They are used for meeting human needs. Management and administration are global phenomenon cutting across cultural boundaries. Administration and management enhances how far both human and material resources are channeled for purposive enterprise. They enable organization to effectively and efficiently organize and utilize its resources for collectivism. They are targeted to enhance the attainment of goals and objectives of human organization.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT (1) Ma na ge me nt is mo re e mb rac in g a n d b road e r in s c o p e t h a n a d min is t r a t io n . T h is me a n s th a t , management is more comprehensive and complex human endeavor than administration . Besides, administration is a sub- system of management (2) Management is more profit laden than administration. Management can be quantified in monetary terms , profit before tax and return on investment , than in the use of term administration. 7

(3) Management help to formulate and define organizational plans , mission statement, objectives and goals; while administration is the instrument of meeting management decision process.

Exercise (2) Define The Term Management, Why Is It Necessary in human organization. 3.6

POLITICS /ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY. Politics have been defined by many authorities. Politics has to do with human decision, and administration is the study of the decision making Political decisions are public and authoritative politics has to do with public decision that is to say politics is inherently social. Political decision always take place within some community that we call political system. Politics is authoritative allocation of values. It is the activities associated with the control of public decisions among a given territory, where this control may be backed up by authoritative and coercive means.

Politics and administration dichotomy is the first paradigm in the study of science of administration. Paradigm is a particular way of looking at things or administrative phenomenon, formulating questions, generalizing and conducting research. It is a form of intellectual inquiry or specific approach to administrative science investigation. This term was popularized by Thomas Kuhn, a philosopher interested in the nature of scientific thought. This is an abstract in reality (Michal Sodaro 2006). The idea of separating politics and administration is one of the erudite fundamental paradigms in the study of public administration and the science of administration. This paradigm is featured by distinctive premises or definitions. Politics and administration are two separate things and that each has its functions and meanings. This paradigm was due to Woodrow Wilson's famous article that administrative decisions should not be mixed with political decision. This was due to the spoil system inherent in American politics . All government system has two primary functions. These are politics and administration. The second school of thought was championed by Appleby that "rigid (distinction) between politics and administration” cannot be defined in any political system". This presupposes that, administration and politics are mixed up in political decisions. Politics and administration separation is an American syndrome erected to defend the "spoil system" and which cannot be easily maintained. Ladipo Ademolekun (1986) highlighted the apparent contradiction in the position of the school of thought; about 8

administration/politics separation. What is common about the school of thoughts is that they reached a consensus about important doctrine of state craft; the first doctrine is that "two distinct groups of people operate the executive branch of government in a democratic polity. These two groups are elected as temporary officials, who serve as long as they get the mandate at elections. Brian Chapman cited in Ladipo Adamolekun (1986) maintained that it is clear that some civil servants are engaged in politics. Politics is a way of describing what civil servants do, when they play a part of determining ends, choosing means and fixing priorities. Policy is nothing more than the political activity of civil servants". A critical look at policy making process in different governmental administration will help to establish whether politics can be separated from administration. Policy making process have provided useful analytical tools for examining whether politics can be separated from administration. The critical skills bureaucrats brings into administrative office, their advisory role as an avatar of needed information which gives them opportunity to engage in administration and political maneuvering. When it comes to the right decision organization tend to make in a collective process, social scientist have been interested in the operative characteristics of school organization through the focus of competence that bureaucrats bring to office" (Raymond A. Bauer 1968). Based on the above, we can say that organization stand for a structure, framework, system, organized body, a set of collection, concerned with the process of regulations and facilitating work. Organization, have three aspects. (i)

(ii)

(iii)

Organization of materials: This encapsulates organization of building, campus, grounds, accommodation,' This implies arrangement of each physical facility in such a way that each item can be most efficiently used and no wastage takes place. Equipment will be proportionate to the number of people. Organization of human:This involves organization of human factors, board of management and workers. It is organization and mobilization of all the persons who are legally or legitimately concerned and interested in a firm. This includes each members joining to contribute their best in the joint activity and collective responsibility. Organizational members have to participate in the activity in conformity with planned purpose and well thought- out procedure. Organization answers effective and harmonizes utilization of their talents and emerges. Organization of ideas and principles:- This embraces the art of cementing desirable ideas, principles, e.g., norms of achievement, rules and regulations, policy formulation, and administration, and working out innovations, and institutional programs for improvement and reforms. Therefore, organization deals with making systematic arrangements so that the purposes of the entire system are achieved. Good organization ensures unity of action; efficiency, economy, optimum utilization of resources, 9

well being, all round satisfaction and good results for collective goals. Without proper organization, there would be confusion, chaos, and haphazard activity resulting into wastage of time, effort and resources.

4.0

CONCLUSION. The unit was able to give an introduction to administrative theory. It gave the conceptual clarifications to understanding the concept of administrative theory nature of administration , comparison of administration and management.

5.0

SUMMARY The unit was a summary of some of the conceptual clarifications as regards administrative theory about the organization and management.

6.0

TUTOR –MARKED ASSIGNMENT. 1) Define the term administration, attempt its conceptual clarifications.

2) State the similarities and differences between administration and management.

7.0

FURTHER READINGS. Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global view. Spectrum books. Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York. Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.

10

UNIT 2 ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR 1.0 2.0 3.0

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

1.0

Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Administrative Behaviour. 3.2 Key points in understanding Administrative Behaviour. 3.3 Administrative behavior across regimes. 3.4 Administrative Discretion. 3.5 Policy and administration 3.6 Channel of influence. 3.7 Critical Frame work. Conclusion Summary Tutor – marked Assignment Further Reading. Introduction. Behaviour is basically goal- driven. This presupposes that human behaviour is generally motivated by desire to attain some goals. The specific goal is not always consciously known by the individual. This demonstrates that, the reason for action is not always apparent to the conscious mind. The drive that energizes distinctive individual behavioural pattern (personality) is to a considerable degree subconscious and therefore not easily accessible to examine or evaluate (Paul Hevsey 1999). Behaviour, therefore, is a term given to the things that human beings do, that can be directly detected by the senses of others. People have thought processes and images of the world around them. These processes and images are part of our daily conscious expectations, they influence our behaviour and deserve to be object of study in the same as observable behaviour. (David Buchanan 1999) within this view point, activity is the term given to the things that people do and the reasons that they have for doing them. Cognitive psychologist recognizes the internal, invisible, working of the human mind as a legitimate object of investigations. Sociologist has adopted action perspective, and several approaches in esoteric names like phenomenology, symbolic interactionisrn. A political scientist regards it, as the application of behaviourism to understanding political behaviour. While public administrationists regards it as administrative behaviour. Behavioural scientist attempts to bring together from a veracity of discipline, whose concepts, theories and research, may be useful to people in making-decisions about the behaviour of individuals and groups. This means that behavioural scientists 11

use it through integration of concepts, theories, and research or empirical studies of public administration, political science, and economics in understanding and predicting human behaviour (John Roman 1983). Social scientist, therefore, deals with conscious human beings, whose behaviour is influenced by knowledge, memory, and expectations. Administrative behaviour implies a purposive behaviour on the part of the participants, therefore, the expectations of the participants, will be a factor in determining their Administrative science like any other science is concerned with pure and factual statements. There is no room for ethical ascription in the body of administration. The practical science of administration consists of propositions as to how men would behave if they wished their activity to result in the great attainment of administrative objective with scarce means (Herbert A. Simon 1976).

2.0

OBJECTIVES. At the end of the unit , a student should be able to; *Explain the concept of administrative behavior. * Identify the key points in understanding administrative behavior. *Explain administrative behavior across regimes.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT 3.1 DEFINITION OF ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR Administrative behaviour are the degree of responsible or accountable behaviour and the extent to which administrators adhere to professional norms e.g adhere to the concept of career civil service, norms of anonymity, impartiality and political neutrality. Nigerian study on regime types did not produce significant account in administrative behaviour (Ladipo Adomolelcun 1986) we must note that attempt made to enforce accountable behaviour and adherence to professional norms in civil service have been largely unsuccessful; despite the professionalsation of 1988 civil service reforms. Furthermore, administrative behaviour analyses organization in term.; of decision-making of their participants, precisely organizational system surrounding the behaviour that gives its special character (Herbert A. Simon). Administrative behaviour is scientifically base; and amenable to empirical research and is not inherent endowment, nor is it entirely a commonsense experience acquired 12

though years of administrative practice. It can be studied with the tool of behavioural science including the formulation of concepts and theories, research design, statistical interpretation through such field as political science, public administration, sociology and Psychology Administrative behaviour is growing steadily as a distinct field of knowledge. Administrative art can be acquired vicariously (D.A Edem). 3.2

KEY POINTS IN UNDERSTANDING

ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR All behaviour involves conscious or unconscious selection of particular action out of all actions of all those persons over whom he exercises influence and authority. Therefore, administration is purposiveoriented towards goals or objectives. The purposiveness brings about integration in the pattern of behahviour. If administration is getting things done by groups of people, purpose provides, the principal criterion in determining how things are to be done in administrative organization. This study on administrative behaviour will: i) ii) (iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi) (vii) (viii)

Will improve strategic tools and services for social scientist to study organization and administration. It will enable administrative scientist to construct sets of tools, concepts and vocabulary suitable for describing an organization and the way human organization operates. It will enhance our understanding of how administrative process operates, nature of decision, how value and facts entering decision-making influences behaviour of organizational members. That, an effective working knowledge of a specific organization can be acquired by working with people. We don't expect men to have competent behavioural understanding of these specific organization except as they spend their career in them. Each organization has its language, or organizational Jargon, the meaning has to be learned by organizational members and experts. Administrative behaviour, will provide the linguistic and conceptual tools for realistically and significantly for describing administrative organization. It will enable us construct useful and distinctive competence in the field of public administration. That no single principle of administration is the final tools for analyzing administrative behaviour. That decision making is complex unit of analysis to be dissected into compatible premises. That, decision-making analysis is not the only approach to the study of administrative organization. Decision making must reflect the sociological and environmental variables in the organizational milieu. One member's 13

input becomes output of another. Decision, therefore, is an organized system of relations. That the theory of administrative behaviour, provides comprehensive sociological interpretation of 3.3

ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR ACROSS REGIME TYPES A critical assessment of administrative behaviour across regime _ types will readily demonstrates that administrative behaviour despite its avowed signification, can be studied via ecological, approach Professor John Gaus of Harvard university gave recognition to ecological influence on the study of administration. Andrew Duns ire (1974) also wrote on European administrative science. The above and other reviews demonstrated that administrative behaviour are all in regime types. Nigerian administrative system epitomized Native administration or colonial administration characterized by administocracy, autocracy and exploitation. We have the British Parliamentary, military and American presidential regime types. According to Ladipo Adamolekun (1986), the idea of regime types did not produce significant changes in administrative behaviour; this is because the native administration was not people centered, the colonial officials were relatively far from the people they are administering. The parliamentary administration fashioned after the Anglo-Saxon administration, emphasis the permanence and anonymity of the civil service. The functional analysis of the European administration emphasizes strong administrative institution. This is in consonance of instrumental conception of administration. The perception, those administrative institutions is stronger than political institution is the American recognition of the instrumental conceptions of administration. Accordance to imbalance thesis, administrative institution in developing countries are better developed than one of the political institutions. The "correct" balance is one in which political institutions are stronger than administrative institution (Ladipo Ademolekun 1986-167). The predominance of career civil service that serviced all the regime types in Nigeria political administration revealed that civil service, remained an enduring legacies in Nigeria political system. The permanence of the career civil service system did not match with political parties, representative institutions in Nigeria. This is why the American conceptualization of politics as not part of Administration cannot work. A look at regime types, existing literature on administrative behaviour revealed forms of government influence on administrative behaviour. Native administration of the British colonial rule in Nigeria was described as 'administocracy', a 'dictatorship' and 'an authoritarian system of government. The behaviour that characterized the regime type is that, it was imposed on the people, the second feature of the regime type was that, there were concentration of powers in the hands of the appointed officials, who administratively and politically, were responsible to imperial government at the metropolis. There was total neglect of the consent of the governed. 14

The Governor General uses the corps of administrative officers appointed to run the colonial administration at the provincial level. These were resident officers and each resident was responsible to the governor through lieutenant-Governor. The resident was to supervise and coordinate all the activities of the colonial government within his province. The resident was not accountable to local people but to colonial administration in the metropolis. The essential duties of the resident and his staff are those in connection with the conduct of native administration, which embraces close supervision of native courts and assessment for taxation. In the Northern Nigeria, the colonial administration was regarded as AngloAfrican administration with the colonial official as master of every stage. There was power sharing between the administrative officer and the emirs. The native administration was criticized as a mere smoke screen of petty autocrat of administrative officer. The chiefs power were clearly eroded. The essential ingredient in the training of political officer was the working knowledge of original native language, which was an important qualification for promotion (Ladipo Adamelekun 1986 p.41). Furthermore, the native administration system, the chiefs were mere administrative councils, doing the job of imperial policy and dual-mandate. The colonial administration was not responsible to the wishes of the people. The raison d 'entre of a colonial administration was the notion that a 'superior race' are on a mission to "civilize" the subject people the-uncivilized people. This kind of assumption influenced governance and the nature of administration we have in Nigeria. The principle of government by consent was thrown to 'the dogs' and the rules of the bureaucrats dominated the system of administrative –relationship between politics and administration was enacted, making sure that technically sound career civil service became an enduring legacies _ that enveloped subsequent administration in Nigeria. 1952 60, the West-Minister- model was introduced. The quasi-parliamentary system of administration was introduced. This epoch, promoted the second regime type. The consequences this regime type brought to politics and administration were the role political and administrative officers in policy making process within the ambit of the doctrine of political accountability. The career civil service with principle of impartiality, neutrality and anonymity was to assist the cabinet in the formulation of public policy intents of the government. Three regional civil services were established in 1954. This era saw the generalization of the civil service. This promoted expertise of high crop of civil service across Nigeria. An overview of regime types in Nigeria system of administration, have demonstrated many points. One, the impacts of regime type on the relationship between politics and administration, and the performance and responsiveness of administration to the 15

wishes of the people is obvious in all regime types. The native administration was featured by the fusion of politics and administration. The role of political officer and administrators was not properly defined in the public policy making process. Many Nigerian in native administration occupied insignificant positions while the real power belonged to the colonial administrators. The West Minister, model, was British-inspired administrative and political institutions, principle and practices. The idea of career civil service survives the idea of confidentiality that dominated the relationship between administrative and political officers in Britain was alien to the local administration. The military regime type, spelt out new administrative doctrines. This introduces administrative diarchy with military and career civil service working together. This era brought about high political interference in the part of military administrator. The presidential regime type, the relationship between politics and administration still hold water.

3.3 ADMINISTRATIVE DISCRETION In all modern societies, whether democratic or non democratic, first and fundamental source of power for bureaucratic organization is the distinctive expertise they command - the varied skills that administrators bring to policy process, necessary both for making decisions and for putting these decision into effects. This is what Max Weber long ago saw as the distinctive attribute that gave bureaucracy its enormous influence in modem administration. Bureaucratic expertise is indispensable for effective administration of any modem organization. The presence of bureaucrats in government structure provides assurance, that the decisions of political leaders will be guided by competent, technical advice carried by skilled personnel control over implementation of policy which becomes especially important as a source of bureaucratic power. It includes the authority to exercise discretion in achieving policy or administrative goals. As used ,where, "discretion" means the ability of an administrator to choose among alternatives and decides how the politics of government of organization is to be implemented in specific cases. The range of situations in which bureaucrats exercise discretion is virtually boundless. It includes, a "street-corner" bureaucrats" deciding whether to make arrest, a regulatory agency choosing either to issue or refuse license or permit. This discretion or decision may affect the fortune of the individual whether or not discretion is, as it has been asserted, the lifeblood of administration, it exercise may contrarily affect the individual citizen and organizational members. The capacity of administrator to use discretion in this way, justifies Martin Shapiro's description of administrative agencies as "supplementary law-makers" "functioning like converts to expand the meaning of legislation through their 16

decisions and interpretation of statutes". In traditional theory of American public administration, it is assumed, that the administrators' discretion extended only to decisions on means, while the actual goals of administrative action were fixed by statute or directives of a responsible political official. This was the Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961, the unlawful intervention in tilt, domestic political process through subsides given to students and other non-governmental groups in the United States during the 1960s, and the domestic spying activities of the agency revealed in the 1970s are cogent examples of the ways in which discretionary authority vested in bureaucrats may come back to hunt office holder (Thomas Ross 2000). In Nigerian situation, many administrative agency or regulatory agency, have exceeded these administrative discretion to the discomfort of their perceived enemies. The use and abuse of administrative discretion demonstrates administrative behaviour of the office holders and how they use their personality to influence public decisions. Without administrative discretion, effective decision in governmental administration was near impossibility. For effective public administration, social control must be flexible, and such flexibility inevitably requires that administrators be given discretion to act . But the exercise of judgment involves choice, and choice means formulating policy. Hence, the high development of administrative discretion in modern society necessarily projects bureaucrats into centre of administrative policy process. As long as administrative discretion is needed for regulatory purpose, administrators in both public and private administration will always use the phenomenon to advance their self-interests discretion involves great deal of anxiety for the person who exercises it, as well as, the party subject to it. Administrators who control access to resources other people prize, the administrative becomes a politician man; instead of administrative man. 3.4

POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION "The success of government and the nation, depend in the last analysis on the quality of her career services". President J.F. Kennedy. The above experts have decried the menacing importance of career bureaucrats in' modem organization as regard policy or public policy formulation and implementation. The power in modem state is now centered in the corridors of bureaucracy. The premier purpose of this section is to inquire into the role of bureaucrats or career civil servants play in making policy decisions in contemporary political system administration. The root of this influence of career civil servants on policy process is the distinctive, critical skill, they possess and distinctive problem that arise, when - policy making is carried on, within a setting in which executives organization play a major role. In the United States, attempt is made to assimilate the study of administration, policy-making into traditional group analysis of political life. Executives agencies provides vantage channel of "access" through which segments of the public can advance or protect their interests in much the same way as they pursue their goals through other governmental institutions, political parties, the legislature and the 17

judiciary. (Karly Steve 2000). From the bureaucrat politics perspective, an agency's power to influence policy process, depends on its ability to command the support of fervent and substantial clientele groups, or its effective and efficient use of political strategies designed to advance the interest of those groups in the competitive struggle for power among executive organization, that are relevant in the political life of modem state. (Raymond Bemser 1999). There is no disputing, that, a great deal of administrative influence, can be explained within the framework of group theory, but the complete picture of the role career civil servants play, in policy making and administration is a choice on the expertise they possess and the advisory role they play in modern administration. In early history of American bureaucracy, such claim to expertise because administration was based largely on the factor of continuity. The expertise of the clerical employees who staffed government agencies came from the sustained attention they gave to particular problems. And it exacted little deference from politicians. In Nigerian political administration the sustained legacies that cut across all the regime types was the expertise the career service possess through different epochs. We must observe that the skills and technical know –how required to run a modern state have been sharply upgraded. The innovation brought about by science and technology have increasingly complicated the responsibilities of government and the environment in which it operates. The increased globalization and regulatory regimes that accompanied government , leaving business for its primary roles , makes the duties of government no longer simple. 3.6

CHANNEL OF INFLUENCE. In the study of imbalance thesis , the characteristics of organizations and the resurgence of skills of their members , promote bureaucratic expertise and influence over the development of public policy and its administration . These influences are channeled through distinctive sources . 1) Ability of bureaucrats to gather information and give advice that shapes the decision of political officials. 2) The capacity of bureaucratic organizations to carry on the task that must be performed once policy goals are determined or decided upon the power of implementation and, 3) Critical dimension of power to implement policies , the discretion with which 18

democracies are commonly vested as they carry on the work of government. Trough the supply of advice , the career civil servants , persuade political official , that a course of action should be taken . Bureaucrats have influence only if the executive politicians are willing to take their advice. When policies have been turned to bureaucrats to implement , their power to influence implementation process is direct. The president also derives tangible political benefits from his use of experts. The wisdom of his policy decision is greatly enhanced in the eye of the electorate when it appears that this rest on the best professional advice the house has been able to obtain. What we have examined from the above is to look at the role of expertise in policy and administration in a political system. We attempted to. Look at the American and the Nigerian political administration. It is obvious that expertise is a vital source of power for all bureaucrats in the field of policy administration and formulation. This entanglement with policy and politics has been prominent characteristics of presidential system of government. Policy and administration goes hand-in-hand for effective modem administration. The use of higher civil servants as policy advisers to the executive must not be overstretched; between 1979 and 1983 special adviser appointed failed to assert themselves as credible and useful sources of policy advice for government leaders. One obvious explanation was because of the newness of the institution, other critical variable like quality of quality of knowledge , experience of the advisers and their access to the chief executive also act as a limitation. 3.7

CRITICAL FRAMEWORK. There are many theoretical foundations on bureaucratic behavior in an administrative organization. Alan Peacock (2000) observed that there is a close analogy between the theory of the firm and the theory of bureaucratic operation. They are traced and treated like elites. The theory is an attempt to establish the kind of behavior that leads to over production by the bureaucrat . The conclusion of interest for government policy is that , if all bureaucrats act in the way described , there is a waste of resources in producing government services which can be avoided only by improving bureaucratic efficiency .Niskanen(1998) considers such as competition between bureaus, altering the reward system for bureaucrats (e.g.; bonuses to 'top' officials) in order to encourage economy in resource use, turning over production to private firms (e.g. refuse collection), and facilitating investigation of government departments by "watchdog" committees of the legislative. Bureaucrats are not economic eunuchs in administrative 19

office. Nevil Johnson (1999) a reader in comparative studies of institutions. Oxford uses, the relationship existing through economics of politics, government and bureaucracies to explain administrative behavour he described the political system more concretely as the rules, procedures, habits and customs by which a veracity of decisions affecting the whole society in one way or another are made with binding fashion, these together constitute political order. This demonstrates that the relationships between political and administrative practices and the modes of economic activity, through light on economics of politics, government and bureaucracy. We can construct an account of political administrative relationships, and theory of how the political system works, which treats and political system as an analogous to the goods-producing system constipated by the economic arrangements of the society (Nevil Johnson 1999 p. 135). In many societies, people have come to believe that government exist to produce goods, the very act of trying to produce goods may diminish government's authority because of its lack of success. It may diminish government's authority and capacity to maintain respect for this entitlement to act because of the conflicts it arouses, satisfying some needs rather than others. This mode suggests that, people should not necessary judge politicians, administrators and bureaucrats exclusively in terms of output of goods, they guarantee. The authority and their administrations is not derived primarily from their output-producing capacity, all these is not to deny that the goods output is an important consideration on many occasions in administrations. Finally, the relationship between economic system, the political system, and its impact on administration cannot be underrated. We can see from the eye of political thought that the traditions of liberal constitutional politician through political life, structures and institutions, procedures, administration, knowledge, experience of the advisers and their access to the chief executive also act as a limitation. Furthermore, the post of a special adviser was treated as a patronage post and no attention was paid to the knowledge and experience of the advisers. Besides, most of the advisers were interested in seeking publicity that preparing alternative policy option. Furthermore, adviser that could have make progress demands the cooperation and assistance of commissioners, ministers and higher civil servants in the ministries or department. In most cases, commissioners see special advisers as rivals and sought to bypass, rather than cooperate with customs and practice arc means by which society can facilitate the settlement of problems by people, affected by it. Besides, tradition of political thought and practice had laid _ institutions and strong emphasis on the procedural nature of politics and administration, and political institutions. These are linked with the particular body of economic ideas and thought . This link is provided by the fact that classical and neo-classical economic thought has also been concerned with providing theoretical justification for arrangement under which the satisfaction of needs can be achieved in society on the basis which maximizes the opportunities of choice 20

on the part of the individuals in society. Public choice therefore must acknowledge the relationship between economics, politics and administration. (Breton 1988).

Rent seeking analysis The theory of constitution has an affinity with the work of Rawls, so the theory of bureaucracy has an affinity with the work of those economists who have been called the proper rights theorists' such as Armen Alclin and Harold Demsetz of ULCA and Roland McKean and Virginia who initiated analysis of influence of reward and punishment structure on individual behaviour; and especially in comparison between profit and non-profit institutions (James M. Buchnan 1978). What Is "Rent-Seeking"? Rent-seeking represents the extension of standard prices theory to politics of administration. From price theory we understand that profits tend to be equalized by the flow of investment among prospects. The existence or emergency of an opportunity for differentially high profits will attract investment until returns are equalized with those generally available in the economy. What should we predict, therefore, when, politics, administration creates profit opportunities or rents? Investment must be attracted towards the prospects that seen favourable, and if 'output' cannot expand as in the standard market, adjustment we should predict that investment will take form of attempts to secure access to the security rents. When the state for example licenses an occupation, assign import or export quotas and adopt land-use planning and employs functionaries above-market wages and salaries, we can expect resources waste investments to secure the favorable plans.

(ii)

Demand for money rents are elastic. The state cannot readily 'give money away', even if it might desire to do so. The rent-seeking anaysis can be applied to many activities of the modern state and its administrations; including the making of money to classes of recipients. If mothers with \ dependent children are granted payments for being mothers, we can predict that we shall soon have more such mothers. If the unemployed are offered higher payments, we predict that the numbers of unemployed will increase. As the expansion of modern government and administration offers opportunities for rents, we must expect that the utilitymaximizing behaviour of individuals will lead them to waste more and more resources in trying to secure the 'rents' or 'profits' promised by administration. The public choice approach The public choice approach to understanding administrative behaviour attempts to analyse the process of collective decision-making by reference to techniques which have proved successful in analyzing private decision-making. Public policies are viewed as the outcome of the forces of individual demand and supply as they impinge on administrative (market) place. Individual citizens are assumed to make 21

known the profile of their individual preference over alternative social state to the extent that they deem to be economic. And they attempt to influence administration to satisfy those preferences by resorting to the instruments available, notably by voting, pressure group, social movement activities, migration or by revolution. The government and its administration are viewed as mentioning such objectives during its period of office subject to some constraint on probability of-election variable. A further important influence in the supply of public policies is seem to stem from bureaucracy, with senior bureaucrats viewed as maximizing their utility in terms of the specific reward-cost structure which confronts them. Such an approach to the determination of public policy administration, conflicts sharply both with the paradigms of Arronian collective choice theory, and with platonic notions of government administration which still haunt may corridors in political establishment. The approach has encountered resistances from economist and political scientists from a variety of methodological positions. Marxists have attacked the notion that a positive, non-value-laden analysis of political' administrative behaviour is even possible, claiming that those who engage in such exercise are prone to illusion which they designate to be 'false consciousness, in which abstractions are idealized, and then are taken for reality itself. They view public choice approach essentially as an attempt to protect corrupt systems of government administration.

CRITICISM OF PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY. Those who attach importance to realism of assumptions in positive theory often finds it difficult to continence the strong maximizing assumptions which generate the public choice approach, reject many or even all of the factors considered relevant to administrative and political behaviour, find unacceptable such characteristics of public choice models, as, for example, Breton's extreme reliance on the public good characteristics of a collective choice, and deny that the 'complex processes of politics can be captured adequately in an abstract model. Those who emphasize prediction as an ultimate test of the theory have complained that many public choice models are inadequately specified, that they failed to provide unambiguous predictions on key political/administrative market variables, such as the size of budget deficit or the pattern of subsides adopted, that they introduce variables such as power and patronage which cannot adequately be measured in empirical analysis, that they leave important relationships ill-defined, e.g. the determinants of the relative power of government and its bureaucrat in Breton model), and that, in any events, public choice analysts are more concerned with model-building than model-testing. He maintained that, "the widenening’’ the gap between reality and theory. Case study shed light on the real world different from that of theory and knowledge derived from them can be applied or put to different use than the knowledge derived from applying them". It would be unwise to ignore the partial justice of each of this criticism. For there can be little 22

doubt that some public choice analysts are influenced by ideological considerations, and that it is very easy to confuse paradigms with reality and that not all assumptions employed in public choice theory are equally well to appropriate tests, and that empirical research is an exhausting exercise. For all these reasons, the critics of public choice analysis requires serious consideration from those concerned to advance understanding of the administrative or political market-place. Equally, however, it would be foolhardy to reject one method of approaching an important subject on the ground that it has weaknesses, public choice is a young discipline (at least in its modem form), and it encounters all the well-known problems of straddling diverse discipline. Certainly, its theoretical structure has been developed from relatively primitive initial forms, and the test to which it has been exposed have been fairly simple and subsequently often proved unacceptable. But this is true of any emergence discipline. What is clear that public choice analysis now is establishing credibility in profession which initially was hostile to its reception. Scientists are jealous guardians of their disciplines, new ventures are not easily accommodated judged by the market test itself, public choice analysis is now, accepted and its future in reasonable time seems indisputably attractive as a distinct science of inquiry in behavioral thinking. 4.O

CONCLUSION. The unit was mainly about the concept of administrative behavior. It was a critical assessment of administrative behavior across regimes types. From the administration in the colonial period to the present day administration.

5.0

SUMMARY The unit defined the term administrative behavior, the key points in understanding administrative behavior. It also explained the administrative behavior across regimes types , administrative discretion, policy and administration and the channels of influence.

6.0

TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1)What are the key points in understanding administrative behaviour. 2)What is the major thrust of Administrative Behaviour theory.

23

7.0 FURTHER READINGS. Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global view. Spectrum books. Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York. Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.

UNIT THREE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION. I.O INTRODUCTION 2.0 OBJECTIVES 3.0 MAIN CONTENT

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

1.0

3.1 The rationale behind the administrative principle 3.2 Major principles of administration 3.3 Bureaucratic principle 3.4 The scientific management principle 3.5 The human relation principle 3.6 Henri Fayol and the science of administration Conclusion Summary Tutor Marked Assignment Further Reading

INTRODUCTION Administrative behaviour was first published to conduct a model of rational choice that incorporates the actual properties of human being and retain some of the formal clarity of economic- man model. Two crucial alternatives were needed to transmit the economic man into administrative man and a man of limited rationality, the administrative man, whom we recognized in everyday life. (Herbert Simon). The economic man deals with the "real world" in its complexity; while administrative man recognizes that "real world”. Administrative man recognizes that the "real world" he perceives is drastically simplified with gross simplification, because the courses and 24

effects are short, and simple. Administrative- man can make choice without first examining all possible behavioural alternatives and ignores the interrelatedness of all things. Administrative man makes rules of the thumb that does not make impossible demands upon his capacity of thought. Principle of administration enables us to deal with human behaviour. The behaviour of individual within administrative organization is purposively oriented toward goals or objectives. This concept of preposiveness brings about the interpretation of the pattern of behaviour, in absence of which, administrative science will be meaningless. Principle of administration have been researched upon or written about. Woodrow (1941) in the study of administration, Mooney and Reileye (1939) principles of organization, Taylors (1911) principles of scientific management, Gulick and Uwicks (1937) principles on the science of Administration, Dunsire (1973), administration it's word and science. Henry Fayol maintained that "certain principles of administration were there" that they could be discovered and administrators should be experts in their work, if they learn how to apply these principles". Principles of administration can be conceptualized as "a universally accepted fundamental or primary truths or proposition, a consciously recognized and adhered statement which reasoning should be true. Principles of administration must be able to describe in words, exactly how an administrative organization looks, and exactly how it works. They are criteria for describing and diagnosing administrative situations. Principles of administration work successfully everywhere irrespective of environment, culture and institutional frameworks. Principles of administration, therefore, are descriptive guides that help administrators and managers to make sound and useful decisions. They are not necessarily laws. They reveal to administrators and managers some of the most common ways of viewing and taking decisions, and actions in human organization or administrative situations.

OBJECTIVES. At the end of this unit , a student should be able to ; *Explain the rationale behind the Administrative Principles. *Discuss the major principles of administration.  Explain the scientific management principles  Explain the classical management principles.  Identify and explain the Administrative theory of Henri Fayol. 25

3.0

MAIN CONTENT 3.1

T he Ra tiona le Of Adminis tra tive Principles.

The principles of administration have the following functions; (I) they help to guide the actions of the administrators and managers in human organization. (11) They help practitioners, theoreticians, and the academics to formulate techniques for understanding and treating different administrative situations and environment. (iii) They form the basis for interpretation of administrative decision. (iv) They help organizational participants to analyze the intended and unintended consequences of administrative decisions. (v) They provide a better guide against arbitrary exercise of power and authority. (vi) It aids organizational and administrative experts, to analyse, appraise, decision makers' effectiveness and efficiency inthe attainment of defined goals. They act as instrument for measuring how well, define goals have been attained. (vii) This was why Waldo and Mandarin said that"the mission of administration is economy a nd efficiency". (viii) They provide the practitioners and theoreticians analytical tools for evaluating human decisions in an organization. It enables practitioners and theoreticians to reconstruct new administrative theories, new vocabularies, analytical scheme in the literature of administration e.g. the-design of “critical experiments and studies in empirical studies. (ix) They will enable us to deal with complex human behaviour in

administrative organization. The behaviour of individual in administrative organization is purposive i. e o r ie n te d to w a r d s g o a ls o r o b je c t iv e s . T h is purposiveness brings about an integration in the pattern of behaviours, in absence of which, administrative principles is useless, for if administration exists in "getting things done" but people, purpose, provides a principal criterion in determining what things are to be done. (x) They present an attempt to construct tools useful in the field of p ub lic

ad minis tra tio n a nd othe r bra nc h o f administration to realistically and significantly describe administrative organizations and situations. (xi) They will help us to analyse administrative behaviour and the administrative- man working in the garb of economic man. The study of administrative behaviour is a means of questioning the classical view about the 26

exercise of authority in organization the study of human thinking, and decision process. Administrative principles are written on the assumption that decision-making process holds the key to the understanding of human behaviour and organizational phenomena. We have attempted to examine some of the benefits of studying administrative principles. Principle of administration can be regarded as a general guide, to promote positive actions in specific situations. An efficient and prudent administrator is an individual who can identify and utilize these principles to pursue defined objectives, whether organizational or collective. 3.2 MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION Some authorities calls it universal principles, this is because it can be applied to all organizations whether private or public. These includes the following: Responsibility This principle authorized that each person or body of persons exercising power and authority must act responsibly within the power delegated. This means that people exercising delegated power, must act reasonably in exercising their duties and the exercise of administrative discretions. This covers the task and assignment demanded by the position and those of his superiors, and those under him. Delegation of authority The principle of delegation of authority, both sectional and departmental function is necessary to promote administrative efficiency and effective attainment of organizational goal. It may be a functional authority being delegated. The functional authority is the right to give orders within a segment of administration or management system in which the right is normally nonexistence (Samuel C. Certo 2000). The principle of delegation of authority is the process of assigning job activities or administrative activities and related authority to specific administrator in the organization to carry out the organizational functions (Richard Daft 2000) Delegated Legislation is very necessary in modern bureaucracy because over centralization breeds incompetence and delay in administration. (iii) Acceptability This is the administrative principle or management philosophy which emphasize that individual occupying administrative position are held liable or accountable, for how well they use their authority or live up to the ir res po ns ib ility o f p e rfo r ming p redetermined activities. The concept of accountability implies that, if predetermined activities are not performed, some type of sanction, or punishment, is justifiably forth coming. Another implied notion' in accountability is that some kind of reward follows if predetermined activities are performed well. 27

Communication Another fundamental principle of administration is communication. "Communication is the process by which _ information is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the intent to motivate or influence behaviour". The information must possess timeliness, that is the degree to which information is available soon after events occur and completeness refers the extent to which information contains the appropriate amount of data. The last characteristic of information is relevance which is the d e g r e e t o w h ic h i n f o r ma t i o n p e r t a i n s t o t h e p r o b l e ms , d e c is i o n s a n d t a s k s f o r w h ic h a n administrator is responsible. 3.4

Bureaucratic Principle Bureaucratic principles of administration came into focus, because of the work of a sociologist Max Weber. He saw that bureaucratic principle cut across every organization. The principle looks at organization as a whole. This is a sub-field of classical principles. Weber envisioned organization that would be managed on an impersonal, rational basis. Weber believed that an organization based on rational authority would be more efficient and adaptable to change, because centrality is related to formal structure and positions rather than a particular prison which may live or die. To Weber, rationality in organizations meant employee selection, and advancement, based on competence, rather than on "whom you know" the organizations relies on rules and written records for connectivity and continuity. The basic reason for Weber's dogged appreciation of bureaucratic organization is that, it is blessed with technical e x p e r t i s e a n d c o mp e t e n c e , e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s a n d regulations, specialization, and control. (i)

(ii)

(iii)

Stipulated rules This principles holds that the arrangement of human organization must be based on rules. This means that bureaucratic organizations should be based on established rules and regulations , which must embrace rights , duties and obligations to all members. These rules are designed to promote efficiency and effectiveness , and economy in handling men and material of an organization. Division of Labor based on functional specialization. According to bureaucratic principle of administration, it asks four area of competence and expertise, and obligation to perform duties which are based on competence and division of labour. Also the provision of the office holder with adequate authority to carry out the predetermined functions of an organization. Hierarchy of Authority This demonstrates that principle of hierarchy is necessary in all 28

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

organization. Based on this, "lower office under the supervision to a higher office". The weberian notions entails that tasks of higher leaders, are to oversee and control the lower or subordinate officers. Employment and promotion based on technical knowledge. This principle stipulates that, the promotion and employment of staff in work organization should be based on their technical known-how, not on favoritism or godfatherism. This stipulates that adequate training is required for people occupying administrative positions. Impartiality in Official Matters. The requirement for the operation of an effective bureaucracy requires expertise, and administrative officers should be impersonal in handling official matters instead of personalizing the activities in the office. Emphasis on documentation and written documents. This maintained that administrative act, discretionary. decisions, and rules and regulations be recorded in written document, and members are bound by such written down records and regulations.

Exercise I State and explain administrative principles.

3.4

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES. Administrative management principle is a sub-field of classical management perspectives that focuses on the total organization rather than the individual function of planning, coordinating and controlling. Scientific management principles focuses on the productivity of individual workers, the administrative management principles focuses on the total organization. The exponents include, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett and Chester L. Barnard. Henri Fayol a French mining engineer wrote down his concept on administration based largely on his management experience. In his work, he identified five basic elements of administration which includes; planning, organizing, commanding coordinating and controlling. These elements or functions underling much of the general approach in today’s administrative management theory. Peretomode et al (1998) cited in 0. Attah and Harry, E.A (2006) called it universal administrative principles, while MarFarland (2000) regards it as principles of management. The fourteen principles of administrative management include the followings: (i) Division of Work This philosophy of administration, entails that administrative roles, be broken into small task elements, so that individual workgroup do limited parts. This incorporates the principles of specializations of roles and task function in order to 29

improve productivity in work administration. Division of work and specialization promotes expertise and critical skills of workforce. (ii) Parity of authority and responsibility This principle emphasize that individual "workforce should be given sufficient authority to enable them carryout their assigned task and responsibilities" Authority enables individual to have legitimacy to exercise his power, while, responsibility enables the individual to be accountable for the exercise of authority in human organization. (iii) Discipline This principle of administration attempts to emphasis that those in position of administration must obey rules, regulations and procedures, to promote effectiveness and efficiency of an enterprise. This also emphasis that indiscipline amounts to disobedience which must be rewarded appropriately. Discipline is the respect and obedience to rule and agreements in organization (Ayodele 2006) (iv) Unity Of Command This principle enables subordinates in human organization to be answerable to a defined superior. This attempts to curtail the number of subordinates answerable to a single supervisor. This minimizes confusion, conflicts and promotes orderliness . An employee should receive orders from one superior only. (v)

Unity Of Direction The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common direction.

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

Subordination Of Individual Interests To General Interests. The interest of one person should not have priority over the interests of the organization as a whole. Remuneration, entails many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in determining the rate of pay a worker will receive. Centralization. Henry Fayol stated that the degree to which centralization or decentralization should be adopted, depends on the specific, organization in which the manager is working. Scalar Chain. Administrator/managers in hierarchies are actually part of a chain like authority scale. Each administrator, from the first line manager to the chief executive posses certain amount of authority, the evidence of this chain, implies that, lower-level manager should always keep 30

(x)

(xi) (xii)

(xiii)

upper level, administrators informed of their work, activities existence of and adherence to the scalar chain are necessary if organizations are to be successful. Order. For the sake of efficiency, and co-ordination, all materials and people related to a specific kind of work should be assigned to the same general location in the organization_ Equity. All employees should be treated equally as possible. Stability Of Tenure Of Personnel. Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management Recruitment and selection costs, as well as increased rejected Rates, Are Usually Associated With Hiring New Workers. Initiative. Administration should take steps to encourage worker initiative which can be defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through due direction. Esprit- De-Corps. Administration should encourage harmony and general good feelings among employees. This covers a broad range of topics, but organizational efficiency, administrative principles was also called principle of the handling of people.

Principle of administration enable us to deal with human behaviour i.e. behaviour of individual within administrative organizations which is purposive . Administrative behaviour appear as a means of questioning the classical view about the exercise of authority in organizations. The study of human thinking and decision process has been pursued vigorously within the emergence of bounded rationality, which places emphasis on empirical foundations.

3.6

HUMAN RELATIONS PRINCIPLES The human relation movement brought a new edge in human resource management. The movement emphasized that, "workforce should be seen as a human being and then a worker with fundamental human rights and not to be treated as tools to be discarded". The humanitarian principle of administration challenged the classical or scientific management principles. The basis of scientific administration principles were premised on the following philosophy: (i) Man is basically rational and is motivated by personal economic needs. (ii) Economic incentives serve as a venue to put their utmost best. (iii) Productivity of workforce is possible if "One best way" Of carrying job could be discussed. Or "the best way" 31

to perform a task .

Let's now look at principles of human relations approach to administration. Democracy Democracy is a comprehensive principle which embraces different phases of life and seeks to govern all human relationships. Yet in practice, democracy is kept restricted to a very limited sphere. Democracy is meant to govern the affairs of man; including decision making and administrative behaviour of those in the realm of public and private arena. The basis of democratic principle is the appreciation of individual and their collective worth. In all human organizations, democratic principle should reflect in decision making apparatus, as collective endeavour to promote human spirit. This reveals that formulation and implementation of administrative idea, like openness, transparency, honesty, justice and fairness in dealing with people. Democratic principle is aimed at providing each and everyone the fullest development of their personalities. Furthermore, democratic principle demands that each "human being be dealt with by those in administrative position, as living, growing, and potentially flowering organism that has right to participate in decision-making". The essence of a democratic human organization does not only lie in tolerating and welcoming the differences, but promoting collectivism that enhances the enrichment of life. A critical interpretation of empirical facts in Nigerian administrative process will reveal that the democratic elements in public and private administration are in "short supply". This could be the reasons for failures in administrative process in our public and private arenas.

Justice The idea of justice, and its definition, and meaning have greater different disciplines, ranging from Law, politics, sociology and so on. In public administration, justice cannot easily be quantified or measured; but it is accepted as concept that human organization needs to attain in its goals. In administration, justice implies rigidly in implementing rules and regulation without victimization. This is the application administrative discretion uniformly. There are some features of justice, balance fairness and equality of all before established rules and regulation. Furthermore, the principle establishes that "written rules and regulations should be definite and clear enough so that each worker will know where he or she stands". Justice enjoins those administrative agents and their administrators to use his discretion consciously in applying the norms, rules, laws or regulations on individual or groups, since differences may occur. Justice recognizes that rigid application of rules, and 32

administrators are appealed to make room for exception while employing uniform application of justice. Besides, too many exceptions weaken justice and acceptance of authority (Nwokafor and Ighalo 1999). When justice is perverted, peace is the eventual casualty. People always resist injustice in administration of the society Justice as a principle can be discovered when it exist in any administrative process. (iii) Equality of Opportunity This principle entails that administrators and managers undertaking the formulation and implementation of public and private goods and services should ensure that, enabling opportunities are provided for "individuals to develop their abilities to the fullest." Furthermore equality emphasizes that everybody should be of equal footing . Equality does not mean that all opportunities are to be equally distributed whether the individuals are able and deserving or not. Humanitarian principle entails that opportunities should be granted to an individual in proportion to his capacities. Equality of opportunities to people in administration decries quota system in public administration in Nigeria.

(Iv)

Human Relations Human relation principles attempts to "emphasis the notion of friendliness" "justice" and 'fair play' in administrative process. Most of the time spent by managers and administrators are spent in organizations, with or through people; these people have needs, expectations, emotions, and personal goals to actualize via administration of the organization. This principles implies that, respects, courtesy, consideration, trust, open mindedness, and sincerity should be ingrained in administering of any human organizations. One scholar maintained that “good administrators (manager) must maintain an accessible but respectful distance from all members of the organization . The human relations principle in administrative thinking, and practice, emphasizes satisfaction of employees, the people or target audience's basic needs, as the key to increase worker productivity. Target audience's inability to satisfy their basic needs can create problems for administration of any human organization. Furthermore, through this principle, organizations can take advantage of the imagination and intellect of their workforce, to promote organizational goals and objectives. Workforce will exercise self-control and contribute to organizational objectives when they are recognized and given the opportunity to excel. The exponents of these principles include Abraham Maslow, and Douglas McGregor. They attempted to look at the human side of organization to increase service delivery through effective administration . PRUDENTIAL PRINCIPLE Prudence is the "ability to anticipate, calculate, regulate, utilize, interpret, and control" with care both material and human resources of 33

administrative organizations. Prudential principles are the ingredient with economy , responsibility , loyalty and effective system of staffing . Other authorities have included , checks and balance . Economy. This principle entails that administration should avoid wastages of resources both human and material of the human organization .No matter the sectoral nature of administration , the economy principle entails how well organization and its administration is able to use scarce resources to achieve goals without wastages. Responsibility and Authority. Responsibility is the duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been assigned, while authority represents the formal and the legitimate. The principle demand that all responsibilities , must be accompanied with commensurate authority , to exercise it . This also embraces , the principle of accountability which epitomizes that the people with authority and responsibility tasks outcomes .The above principle is required to create a sense of accountability on those under them. Loyalty. Loyalty is like string that binds people together in human organization. Loyalty to organizational culture , mission and norms requires loyalty and co-operation of its members. They task of people in administration requires that they harness loyalty and the co-operation of its members. Checks and Balances. This a form and a tool that allows smooth administration. To check all forms of administrative abuses.

3.6

Classical Administrative Principle. The classical administrative thought was propounded by Frederick Taylor. The following are its principles. I)Scalar Concept. This concept viewed an organization as a group of grades arranged in a sequence. Superior grades carry authority which could be delegated to the immediate lower grade 34

ii)Unity of Command. This holds that an individual must only receive orders from one hierarchical superior. A related principle , is the unity of direction communicated that there should be one head and one plan of activities which contribute to the same objectives, (iii)Exception principle

Delegation should be maximized with decision being taken at the lowest level possible. The routine and ordinary (programmed) tasks should be performed by subordinates, while the exceptional tasks were entrusted to the hierarchical superior. (iv) Span of Control Concept This refers to the optimal number of subordinates to be put under the authority of one hierarchical chief. "No one brain can effectively control more than six or seven other brains" (Rosen Bloom 1993). ( v) Orga niza tional Specializa tion Management activities should be differentiated according to their objectives, processes, clientele, materials or geographical location. Besides, Nwizu (1999) cited in Emmanuel Onyebuchi Ezeani (2006) identified some broad features and assumptions of the classical school as; (i) Universal principles of management, division, scalar process, unity of command, and division of labour, (ii) Basic assumptions that workers and organization are human aspect of organization. (iii) The organization is formally planned or pre-designed. It is treated as, totally formal. A system of behaviour, predetermined by specialists'. (iv) There is element of compulsion on the worker, to carry out their functions, or duties. Willingness to work on the part of worker is lacking. (v) It is closed system. The organization itself is regarded as a closed system deprived of any connection with external environment (vi) There are accepted sets of functions of management. To these functions. Luther Gullick in 1937 game an acronym POSDC ORB which stands for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting. . (vii) (viii)

He believed that this kind of order demands, precise knowledge of the human requirements and resources of the concern and a-constraint balance between these requirements and resources. Equity. Henri Fayol defined it as justice tempered with kindness. S t a b i l i t y o f T e n u r e o f p e r s o n n e l. B o t h administrators/managers and employees, need time to learn their jobs, if they leave or are removed within short time, the learning time has been wasted. 35

(ix)

(x)

Initiative. The administrator must sacrifice his own vanity to encourage and inspire those under him to show initiative, within the limits of respect for authority and discipline. Espirit de corps. The manager must encourage cohesiveness and esprit de corps among his subordinates. The administrators may be subject to these: (i) Divide and rule, and (ii) Abuse of written communications.

Fayol believed that there is an "administrative science" applicable to all kinds of administration in any type of industry or in government. He defined the functions of administration as planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Among the most important principles or guides he developed for administrators were unity of command, unity of direction, responsibility, equally authority, and the use of "gangplanks" in cases where going through channels of the scalar chain would take too much time. Besides, ethics of the profession, and the vigilant public can also act as check against administrative abuse of discretion. Further, executive arm and the parliament, can institute a panel of inquiry to investigate abuse of administrative discretion, example the Oputa Panel. Although the panel was not granted power to implement its findings, but it demonstrated that administrative officials and their agents can be asked to give account of their stewardship. (v) Employment of Staff This staffing principle, requires that, both public administrators and managers, should make sure qualified and right workforce with experience are employed. This process entails a careful selection; appointment, and redeployment, are conducted by administrators and managers to promote organizational goals. Good administrator/managers should ensure proper personnel policies in order to enhance organizational goals. A poorly staffed organization is likely to suffer from reaching its potentials and the workforce will not achieve their individual and collective goals and objectives.

Organization represents complex human beings. This pattern, provides to each members of the group much of the information and the assumptions, goals, and attributes, that enters into decisions and provides him with a set of stable and comprehensive expectations as to what the other members of the group are doing and how they will react.

Administration represents the instrument and machinery for carrying out the process and policies of organization. Administration, and decision 36

process, gives room for rational calculation of administrative behaviour, and the process through which, organizational administrators perform their work and roles. In administration and administrative behaviour, decision making, holds the key to the understanding of organizational phenomena. Administration is the "art of getting things done" through people. Principle of administration are set forth for securing concerted action from groups of men; deciding and doing things, has been recognized, that a theory of administration blended with principles that should be concerned with the processes of decision as well as with the process of action. A general theory of administration will insure correct decision-making, as it will include principles that insure effective action. Some accepted principle of Administration (i) Administrative efficiency is increased by a specialization of the task among group. (ii) Administrative efficiency is increased by limiting the span of control at every point in the hierarchy to a small number. (iii) Administrative efficiency is increased by grouping the workers, for purposes of control, according to, purpose, process, clientele, or place. (Herbert Simon, p,21). The above appear simple but their application to concrete administrative organization on empirical test will reveal different things. Principle of Specialization. Administrative efficiency is supposed to increase with increase in specialization. 3.7

HENRI FAYOL AND THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE. The ideas of Henri Fayol a French engineer and industrialist , has formed the basis of some of the rigid ideas about organizations and other phrases of management and administration. Fayol was an advocate of contingency management . He thought that however that administrative principle is to manage successfully.

7.0

Conclusion. The unit was mainly about the rationale behind administrative theory.

8.0

Summary The unit went through the major principles of administration, the management principles, bureaucratic principles , classical principles and the classical theories.

9.0

Tutor Marked Assignment 37

Question 1 State and explain the bureaucratic principles as propounded by Max Webber. Question 2 State to explain scientific management theories.

10.0 Further Reading. Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global view. Spectrum books. Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York. Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.

38

UNIT FOUR. Theories Of Administration 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Definition of concept. 3.2 Significance of Administrative Theories. 3.3 An approach to administrative theory.

4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary. 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 Further Reading.

1.0

Introduction The basis of theories in science of administration lies in the clarity, comprehensiveness process, the nature of decision and elements of values entering into rational or irrational organizational decision. Theories of administration will provide conceptual tools for realistically describing administrative organizations, the effectiveness of its structure and operation and the ecological influence interfering with decision-making in human organization. It must be observed that, the science of organization and administration can never be substituted for specific experience in specific organizations. The usefulness of more general knowledge to the administrations and managers of organization, comes from rational understanding, it gives behaviour that is largely based on trial and error or repetitive experience. Its immediate practical use is limited. Its ultimate practical value is a great sharpening observation, preventing the neglect of important factors and redefining and reducing consistencies between behaviour and its verbal description (Herbert Simon 1976.) The theory of administration is concerned with how organizations should be constructed and operated in order to accomplish its work efficiently. Therefore, a valid approach to the study of the science of administration requires that all relevant diagnostic criteria be identified, and each administrative situation and regime types analyzed in terms of the behavioural and moral variables, entering organizational decision making. Besides, administrative theories are also concerned with some fundamental questions like, what are the limits of knowledge , how can human 39

minds accumulate and apply, how specialization in administrative organization is related to the specialization of knowledge that prevails in societal occupational structure; and what knowledge can or cannot be transmitted in organizational set up? administrative theory must also enhance, the question of weights that are to be applied in a concrete situation.

2.0

Objectives. A student should at the end of the unit be able to : Explain the significance of administrative theories. Discuss the approach to administrative theory.

3.0

Main Content. 3.1 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITTON A theory is based on the use of abstract deductive reasoning that enables conclusions to be drawn from a set of initial hypothesis, or assumptions about any real world problem. This contrasts with applied studies that are inductive in nature.(Sola Fajana 2000). Theory is one of the most elusive and misunderstood term in scientific inquiry. Brace A. Singleton (2000) regards it as "idles speculation or conjuncture" concept. McCain and Segal (1937: 98) maintained that "for an explanation to be called a theory ,it must emphasize a considerable evidence". From the above, we can say that a "complete and formal presentation of theory must embrace the definitions of concepts and a set of assumption describing circumstances under which it applies its central features, a set of interconnected, abstract principles or propositions, that have same basic form as laws but are more general' (Bruce C. Straits 2000). Theories explain law deductively in the same manner that laws explain facts. "A theory is one of the most elusive and in scientific research, its locus is directed at testing alternative theories to the extent that; It involves the fewest number of statements and assumptions. (ii) It explains the broadest range of phenomena and (iii) Its prediction is more accessible. Therefore theoretical explanations deepens our understanding by reducing the laws to a common set of principles as well as showing how accepted laws are very appropriate. Theoretical framework are network of reasoning's that embodies theories, concepts, and assumptions about some observed phenomena or events, and explanations as to how these events and phenomena are related to each other. Therefore, "a theory is a set of propositions that seeks to explain interrationship among events. Theory is said to be a systematic way of looking at a phenomena". (Simbo Banjoko 1996). Administrative theories deal with principles and behaviour governing administrative organizations and how they operate. Administrative theory casts light on the proper application of principles of administration. It is comprehensive to know 40

that "theories of administration were developed by some administrative thinkers while most administrative theories were borrowed from other disciplines, particularly business administration, or management, sociology and psychology" (Emmanuel Onyebuchi Ezeani 2005) – There are four distinctive school of administrative theory. (i) The classical (ii) The neoclassical (iii) The modem organization theory (iv) The decision making theory 3.2

SIGNIFICANCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE THEORIES. The significance of administrative theories lies in its symbolic representation of the real administrative world and situations. It enables, administrative agents, administrators, managers, practitioners and theoreticians in the science of administration to communicate with air of efficiency and effectiveness. Theory of administration acts as guide to administrative actions and nature of decision-making in administrative organization. Theories of administration enable us to carryout case studies, as regards, ecology of administration, and how regime types, influences administrative process. These new knowledge, enable scholars, to develop analytic, and diagnostic competence in science of administration; it also aids administrative capacity to identifying and certification of defined problems. (Nwizu 1999). Furthermore, theories of administration enables us to analyze some, principles of administration, and understand the contending controversies, surrounding the application of theories and practice of administration. The criteria of efficiency is somehow very problematic in its application in administrative organizations today. The efficiency criteria in commercial organizations, money, provides a common denominator for measurement; both output and input; but in government administrative set-up and quasi-nongovernmental organization where efficiency criteria is applicable in decision, where factors involved, are not directly measurable in monetary terms. Adequate understanding of theories, and principles of administrative science, which apply on efficiency criteria in management of both material and human resources of an organization .In another vein, decision theory, enable theoretician and practitioners, and student of administration, to acquire analytic tools for interpreting the role value play in decision making and the Significance of decisions in human organizations. This is why Joseph L. Bower (2000) maintained that, "organization is the characteristic mechanism that men have chosen for ordering 41

their joint efforts in order to accomplish objectives in contemporary industrial society". No matter the type of society, the human organization has remained the tool for administering their activities. The theory of self-interest of decision maker, satisfying behaviour, enable scholars to study policy making and (administration) in administrative organizations. Herbert A. Simon's finding that in a "complex situation may have multiple goals or internal goals conflict within an uncertain environment; individual may end up or engage in satisfying rather than maximizing their behaviours". Such behaviour in Simon's term, is adaptive, and consist of searching for new alternative of action when level of aspiration fall short of level of performance. Theoretically, the substitution of administrative man for economic man, involves the recognition that man must engage in costly process of acquiring knowledge about his environment, and in any case, his knowledge will be incomplete and his perception of his environment distorted. Perception and cognition intervene between decisionmaker and his objective environment (Kutis Bok 1999). The above have demonstrated that decision theory, influence administrative that decision is made for. According to Jelson (1978) "there are seven different categories of traders behaviour in relation to government policy in administration. The questionable behavior is , illegal; regulated, defensive adaptive opportunistic and supportive . The reaction of each individual trader, will depend on the nature of the severity of control mechanisms (policy) and the type of threat it causes to the individual actor. As regards, questionable behaviour, policy makers need to know whether the positive and negative consequences that result in various types of questionable behavior and to decide how much government action is needed .The policy maker can know through the theory how policy makers can be effectively be controlled. Furthermore, defensive behaviour is when the actors react in self-protection to the legislation. The actors may increase the level of conflict with government policy by fighting the expected policy change. They may engage in noncooperative behaviour. The above demonstrate that, theory assist practitioners in administration in policy formulation and decision making. According to Walker (1976:p8) "Theory is useful to practitioners to bring about desired changes in the present or the future including avoiding undesirable events" Theory is needed for academic reasons and for public and private policy administration. The policy formulation and evaluation adds advantage to the role of theory in science of administration. In another vein, theory helps to develop viable science of administration. Theory can be used for abstract deductive reasoning, which enables conclusion to be drawn from set of initial hypothesis or assumptions about any real world problem. Theories are needed to aid understanding, events, administrations and behaviour in the practical world of human organization. Theory is needed for the purpose of explaining observations of administrative or organizational phenomena. The gap between theory and practice of administration in Nigeria is predominantly attributable to insufficiency of theoretical analysis of administration situations. Finally theory of administration is needed to pose the right questions and distinctive research to provide the right answers, to 42

problem facing administration of human organization today. The lack of effective administrative theory and its application, in most third world nations help to widen the gap between reality and theory.

Another arena theory of administration can contribute to human behaviour is through the principle of rational behavior. Administrative theory, through decision theory enable us to evaluate the issues of rationality.

3.3

AN APPROACH TO ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY Unity of purpose or command, specialization of purposes, decentralization are all items to be considered in the design of efficient administrative organization. No single one of them or items is of sufficient importance to suffice as a grounding principle for administrative analysts in the design of an efficient administrative organization, the overall efficiency must be the guiding principle or criterion. A valid approach to the study of administration requires that all the relevant diagnostic criteria and research be instituted to determine how weights can be assigned to the several criteria when they are mutually incompatible (Jay M. Shafiitz 1997). One of the ways of looking at administrative theory examine the description that allots weights to various criteria includes; (i) The description of administrative situations. Before any Scientific enquiry develops valid principles, it must possess concepts. Concepts are abstractions, communicated by words or other signs that refer to common properties among phenomena. The term "weight" symbolizes a conception of a property of a social structure or group. (George Ziko 1999) The aim of science is to produce knowledge, to understand and explain the real world around us. For example before the law of gravitation could be formulated, it was necessary to have the notion of -acceleration and "weight" .Based on the above analysis, the premier job of administrative theory is to develop a set of concepts that will permit the description of terms relevant to the theory of administrative situations. For the concepts chosen to be useful or valid, it must be operational. This means, that, concepts must be empirically, factual or situational. The concept "authority" is operational and can be empirically conceptualized. For effective approach to the theory of administrative organization, attempts must be made to scientifically look at relevant description of authority, Locus of decision making and what influences the individual making the decision. We must scientifically describe allocation of functions and the formal structure of authority, and system of communication within and outside the administrative organization. This also embraces realistic analysis of centralization and decentralization and allocation of decisions, in the organization and method of influence, that are employed by higher level, to influence the decision of the lower level employers. Administrative descriptions, must reach a higher level of sophistication by 43

verifying and indentifying valid administration principles, for the construct of organizational decisions. Content plays a greater role in the application of administrative theory, and the application of administrative principles. Authorities, like Mooney and Reilly, Gullick, Wallace and Benson, have maintained that laws of administrative theories should entail "conceptual" verifications. Another approach to administrative theory is the diagnosis of administrative situations. As noted earlier , the theory of administration is concerned with how an organization should be constructed and operated in order to accomplish its work efficiently. Therefore, a good administrative theory, should embrace the proper application of administrative principles that would lead to the greatest accomplishment of tasks. (Herbert Simon). Another approached to theory of administration is to examine the factors that will determine skills, values and knowledge that the organization membership should undertake his or her work tasks. These represents the limits" to rationality, with which this principle of administration, and theory must deal with. The essential features of the classical management theory are a set of principles, concepts that might guide organizational designs. They shared the view, that these principles and concepts were applicable to all organizations irrespective of their size, technology, or employees. Structural universalism was seen as a way of achieving efficiency. These principles concerned the issue of how to allocate tasks, control work being done, and motivate and reward those doing it. The solutions they offered were anchored upon the "logic of efficiency" this logic stressed; (i) Bureaucratic forms of control (ii) Narrow supervisory control. (iii) Closely prescribed roles (iv) Formal definition of procedures, areas of specializations and hierarchical relationships. The values and techniques which underpin classical theory, held that for a technically efficient organization, one needed to achieve a unity of effort. This meant limiting the freedom and discretion of organizational members. In this manner, the classical writers had a direct similarity with those in the scientific management school due to the fact that Frederick Winslow focused on shop floor arrangements, while the former, considered the company as a whole. Emmanuel 0., Ezeani (2006) observed that, classical school comprises three slightly different appeals, namely (i))Scientific Management (ii) Administrative Management and (iii) Bureaucracy Classical schools deals almost exclusively with the anatomy of formal organization croft (1996) cited in Emmanuel 0. Ezeani (2006) maintained that all classical school emphasis the following; (i) Purpose and structure of organizations (ii) Technological requirement of each job 44

(iii) Principle of management. On the classical main point. This is a

perspective on management that emphasis finding ways to managing work and organization more efficiently. (David Martin 2000). Exercise 1 What is the composition of administrative theory. ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT Administrative management is an approach that focuses on that which can be used by administrators or managers to co-ordinate the internal activities of organizations Kathryn M. Bartol and David Martin (2000) maintained that while the advocates of scientific management concentrated on developing principles that could be used to organize individual workforce tasks, more efficiently and Weber struggled with the concept of bureaucracy, and a branch within the classical view point. The major contributors to the development of administrative science includes Henri Fayol and Chester Barnard both of whom were executives of larger enterprises. (Jim Stewart 2000). Administration is the application of administrative theory to specific fields of administrative activities, such as health, education, justice, police etc, and also administrative systems such as local government administration, state or provincial administration and international administration as well as study of administrative systems in different countries under various forms or philosophies of government and ecological studies cover the Impact of the environment on administrative activities and administrative system. Based on the above, administrative management is an attempt by administrative scientist to project effectiveness and efficiency in managing and organizing administrative activities for a defined purpose. Henri Fayol, as a practitioner in administration , thought it could be possible to develop theories about management and administration that could be taught to individuals with administrative responsibilities. His efforts toward developing such theories were published in a monograph titled General Industrial Management. Fayol delineated five functions from managerial activities. These includes, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Some authorities other called it element of administration. Thinking of administration as encompassing these functions is known as the functional approach to management. Scholars have noticed the similarity between Fayol's functions and the four functions of management planning, organizing, leading, and controlling used as framework for analyzing administrative situations. (Samuel C. Certo 2000). Henri Fayol, was the first of all influential group of writers, who were concerned about the ways in which higher level administrators should be organized into a hierarchy and how they should carryout their tasks. Fayol identified five elements of managerial work which constitute probably the first notable 45

conceptualization of management. For him, it consists of planning, organizing, command, coordination and control. These are still vital elements of modern management. Many modern management have furthermore added such as communicating, motivating, decisionmaking and others. Following Fayol,s focus on the argument, that most classical writers crystallized their ideas about the processes and structure of management into a list of principles which also was regarded as "universal prescription for success". (L. Gullick and L. Urwick). The most fundamental of all classical concepts is authority. This is the right to get things done. The classical writers were attempting to legitimize their position of influence that authority originated from ownership, and must be viewed in the same manner. Related to the idea of authority is the idea of responsibility. This is the obligation to undertake tasks and assignments. In classical point of view, no administrator should have authority without commensurate responsibility, vice versa. Having created this administrative building block, the classical writers developed the idea of hierarchy. Gullick for instance sees organizing as interrelating the subdivision of work by allotting them to men who are placed in a structure of authority, so that the work may be coordinated by the orders of superiors to subordinates, coming from the top to the bottom of the entire organization. Mooney and Reiley Chester Barnard were other contributors to administrative management. They recorded their observations about effective administration in a single classic book, The Functions of Executives’’ published in 1938. One of Chester Barn ad’s renowned contributions is his acceptance theory of authority; which holds that authority flows from the bottom to the top. How much authority administrator wields depends to a large extent on the willingness of employees to accept the directives of the administrators. Thus administrators should communicate their requirements in a way that takes the feelings and capabilities of employees into account. Furthermore, acceptance theory as postulated by Chester Barnard, entails that, "authority does not depend as much on 'persons of authority" who gives order as on the willingness to comply with those who receive the orders". This in his view, is that employee who will accept or not accept orders and direction from above. Finally, Chester Barnard as exponent of administrative management helped us to integrate concern with authority, which was growing out of the administrative and bureaucratic approaches, with emphasis on worker needs, which was simultaneously developing within behavioral frame work. (Caroline Katz 2006).

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY The literal meaning of bureaucracy is "rule by the office" or "rule by officials". In social sciences, the usage tends to follow the classical conception. Max Weber was interested in formal organization as a student of the history of 46

social organizations. He saw bureaucracy as a form of organization that had developed historically. Weber regarded bureaucracy as being rational by the fact that within its control was exercised on the basis of knowledge, expertise, and technical competence. He was especially concerned with government and in bureaucracy as a way for the state to exercise authority in an authority, based on close social relations. But he saw it, as an unambiguous form of administration, in modem society, and not as something purely confined to government. Weber’s analysis of bureaucracy was in "ideal-type' terms. This means that he was trying to identify the pure form of a certain system of administration, isolating and putting together its key, characteristic and showing certain logical consequences and correlates. Under the system, Weber was identifying, what businesses that should be conducted by a legally constituted body on a continuous basis in accordance with systematic, general, stipulated rules which defines what is to be done, by whom, and for whom and under what circumstances. The activities to be carried out are attached to specific roles, not to particular persons. Each role has its own area of jurisdiction and responsibility. The official having the prescribed duties is given the powers to a certain amount, or approve vocation times of defined categories of staff. The amount of formal principle attached to each role and role occupant is graded into a known hierarchy of authority. The higher officers have the right and duty to supervise and, if necessary to overrule the lower authority. Usually there is provision for appeal from the lower ranks. The resources used to carry out the business of the organization are the property of the organization, not of the individuals, who are employed by the organization. The officials are empowered to use those resources for the purposes of the organizations but are strictly accountable to their service for their use. They must not use it for their personal purposes. Official premises, resources and income are segregated from private premises, resources, and income. Official business is conducted largely through written documents, central files are maintained, and these the are property of the organization, and not the private property of the individuals. This enables rules to be recorded an enables spheres of jurisdiction to be precisely defined, and keeps track of the property and income that belong s to the organization. An essential characteristic of Weber bureaucracy lays on the basis of authority exerted in such a system. Weber distinguishes between three types of authority’’ "Legitimate authority" that operates in different societies, and types of organization. "Authority is traditional" where one accepts the order of certain person or groups are always done because this is the way things have always been. Based on the above, customs, precedents, and usage are central, and established practice gains a quality of sacredness. 'Authority is charismatic" where one accepts a leader's order as justified because of the quality and of the leader's extra ordinary quality or personality. One treats him as one set apart from ordinary person. The proper ways people behave are determined by the leader. Under rational legal authority or bureaucratic authority, one accepts a leader's order as justified because it is in line with and part of a more abstract, systematic, 47

comprehensive set of rules that one accepts as legitimate. Access to superior roles is theoretically open to all who are experts through acknowledge, and to be accepted as property superior in status and power because they have greater skill, more experienced, or on supervisory capacity. In this realm, it gives variety of authority rights to command and demand rationally assigned duties or a systematic scheme for relating resources to ends, and the procedures which are embodied in formal or well-understood codes and rulings which have the forces of law. CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY Certain characteristics of employment and career are associated with the bureaucratic system the individual office holder is appointed to and not elected to it, or nominated for it by a personal sponsor. His tenure and duties, and rewards are specified. His work is rewarded by a regular salary and by prospect of regular employment (probably advancement) in a life time career. His appointment, placement, and promotion are dependent on his technical qualifications and his competence as displayed in the work and by a formal examination, or equivalent form of scrutiny of his technical proficiency. 3.5

MODERN THEORIES The systems approach Socio-technical approach (iii) The contingency or situational approach Modern theories tend to be based on the concept that the organization is a system which has to adapt to changes in its environment In modem theory, an organization is defined as a designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different fields have contributed to its development, emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication and importance of integration of individual and organizational interests. These were subsequently reemphasized by Bernard (1938) who gave the first modern and comprehensive view of management. The operation research approach was suggested in 1940. It utilized the contributions of several disciplines in problem solving.

NEOCLASSICALTREORY Neoclassical theorists recognized the importance of individual or group behaviour and emphasized human relations. Based on the Hawthorne experiments, the neoclassical approach emphasized social or human relationships among the operators, researchers and supervisors (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1943). It was argued that these considerations were more consequential in determining productivity than mere changes in working conditions. Productivity increases were achieved as a result of high morale, which was influenced by the amount of individual, personal and intimate attention workers received. Principles of the neoclassical approach The classical approach stressed the formal organization. It was mechanistic and ignored 48

major aspects of human nature. In contrast, the neoclassical approach introduced an informal organizational structure and emphasized the following principles:  The individual is not a mechanical tool but a distinct social being, with aspirations beyond mere fulfillment of a few economic and security works. Individuals differ from each other in pursuing these desires. Thus, an individual should be recognized as interacting with social and economic factors.  The work group. The neoclassical approach highlighted the social facets of work groups or informal organizations that operate within a formal organization. The concept of 'group' and its synergistic benefits were considered important. Participative management or decision making permits workers to participate i process of decision making. This was a new form of management to ensure increase in productivity. 3.6

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH The systems approach views organization as a system composed of interconnected - and thus mutually dependent - sub-systems. These subsystems can have their own sub-sub-systems. A system can be perceived as composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht, 1983). Thus, the organization consists of the following three basic elements (Bakker, 1959): (i) Components: There are five basic, interdependent parts of the organizing system, namely: E The individual,  The formal and informal organization, E Patterns of behavior emerging from role demands of  the organization, D Role comprehension of the individual, and (i) The physical environment in which individuals work. (ii) Linking processes: The different components of an organization are required to operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction between them is contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of communication, balance and decision making. Communication is a means for eliciting action, exerting control and effecting coordination to link decision centers in the system in a composite form. Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another. Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system. Decision to produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the demands of the organization. Decision to participate refers to the individuals decisions to engross themselves in the organization process. That depends on what they get and what they are expected to do in participative decision making. (iii) Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth, 49

stability and interaction. Interaction implies how best the members of an organization can interact with one another to their mutual advantage. 3.7

SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also transforming technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The sociotechnical systems approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of the people, the technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988). People (the social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical system) to produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part of the organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization more effective.

4.0

Conclusion. In conclusion, we can maintain that the theory of administration enables us to evaluate actors in administrative process. The theory of "bureaucratic operation enables us to interpret bureaucrats as an elite who mould their actions, and thoughts as superior to other actors.

5.0

SUMMARY. In this unit we have attempted to examine administrative theories. We looked at the classical and neo-classical theories of administration and decisional theories. The various schools have their strong and weak points. This unit has enabled us to examine that administration is a science capable of theory building in interpreting its activities. The classical theories, administrative management, classical, scientific management increased our understanding of scientific principles in determining the task of employees. The decision theory enables us to evaluate the role, decisionmaking plays in organizational situations. Scientific management theory led to professionalization of administration and management.

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment. 1) List the salient features in the classical school of management thought. 2) Explain what you understand as administration theory. 3) What is the major difference(s) between the classical school and human relations school of management thought. 50

7.0

Further Readings. Felix, A,Lloyd , G(1996) Introduction to modern public administration. Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global view. Spectrum books. Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York. Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan. designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different field administration enables us to evaluate actors in administrative process. The theory of "bureaucratic operation enables us to interpret bureaucrats as an elite who mould their actions, and thoughts as superior to other actors.

5.0

SUMMARY. In this unit we have attempted to examine administrative theories. We looked at the classical and neo-classical theories of administration and decisional theories. The various schools have their strong and weak points. This unit has enabled us to examine that administration is a science capable of theory building in interpreting its activities. The classical theories, administrative management, classical, scientific management increased our understanding of scientific principles in determining the task of employees. The decision theory enables us to evaluate the role, decisionmaking plays in organizational situations. Scientific management theory led to professionalization of administration and management.

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment. 4) List the salient features in the classical school of management thought. 5) Explain what you understand as administration theory. 6) What is the major difference(s) between the classical school and human relations school of management thought.

designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different fields have contributed to its development, emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication and importance of integration of individual and organizational interests. These were subsequently re-emphasized by Bernard (1938) who gave the first modern and 51

comprehensive view of management Subsequently, conclusions on systems control gave insight into application of cybernetics. The operation research approach was suggested in 1940. It utilized the contributions of several disciplines in problem solving. Von Bertalanffy (1951) made a significant contribution by suggesting a component of general systems theory which is accepted as a basic premise of modem theory. Some of the notable characteristics of the modem approaches to the organization are: E. A systems viewpoint, r..1 A dynamic process of interaction, .0 Multi leveled and multidimensional. . 3.6

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH The systems approach views organization as a system composed of interconnected - and thus mutually dependent - sub-systems. These subsystems can have their own sub-sub-systems. A system can be perceived as composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht, 1983). Thus, the organization consists of the following three basic elements (Bakke, 1959): (i) Components: There are five basic, interdependent parts of the organizing system, namely: E The individual,  The formal and informal organization, E Patterns of behaviour emerging from role demands of  the organization, D Role comprehension of the individual, and Li The physical environment in which individuals work. (iv) Linking processes: The different components of an organization are required to operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction between them is contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of communication, balance and decision making. Communication is a means for eliciting action, exerting control and effecting coordination to link decision centres in the system in a composite form. Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another. Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system. Decision to produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the demands of the organization. Decision to participate refers to the individuals decisions to engross themselves in the organization process. That depends on what they get and what they are expected to do in participative decision making. (v) Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth, stability and interaction. Interaction implies how best the members of an organization can interact with one another to their mutual advantage. 3.7

SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH 52

It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also transforming technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The sociotechnical systems approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of the people, the technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988). People (the social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical system) to produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part of the organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization more effective.

MODULE 2: THE CONTEXT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Unit 1: Meaning of Public Administration Unit 2: Concept, Nature and Scope of Public Administration 53

Unit 3: Historical Development and Approaches of Public Administration Unit 4: Principles of Public Administration Unit 5: Comparison of Public and Private Administration Unit 6: Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration

MODULE 3: PUBLIC POLICY AND THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Unit 7: Public Policy Unit 8: The Concept of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Unit 9: The Functions of Chief Executive Officer

MODULE 4: BUREAUCRACY AND THE NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE Unit 14: Concept of Bureaucracy Unit 15: The Nigerian Civil Service.

MODULE 5: THE ART AND GOVERNANCE. UNIT 16: Government and Governance. Unit17:The environment and its influence. Unit 18:Constitutional Provision.

54

MODULE TWO UNIT 6 MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Meaning of Public Administration

3.2

Politic and Administration

3.3

Difference between Administration and Management

3.4

Difference between Business, Public and Private Administration

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to Public Administration discipline. You will be exposed to the meaning of Public Administration, some definitions by various scholars, the meaning of Public Administration and Management, the differences between Administration and Politics, the differences between Administration and Management, the differences between Public and Private Administration as well as the significance of Administration to any organization or establishment.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Define Public Administration. .

Examine the various contributions by different scholars.

.

Determine the differences between Administration and Management.

.

Specify the difference between Public and Private Administration. 55

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public Administration could be defined as the art and science of managing government affairs, enforcing law and fulfilling public policy. The term public administration originates from two Latin words: Public us, which means, people or the public and Ad+Ministaire, which means, to look after people or things. It also means to care for or look after people and to manage affairs (Gladden, 1972) Public Administration is a collective mechanism for the expression of the will of the people and the wellbeing of the environment. Public administration can also be referred to as the political system in action. Gulick and Urwick (1937), defines Public Administration as the function that has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of defined objectives. It is essentially concerned with the management of organizations in the pursuit of desired public goals and objectives. The ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximize, the efficiency and social effectiveness of public administrative institutions. Adamolekun (1983), states that, public administration is commonly used to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of government business and the study of these activities. In order words, it is used in distinct senses, as science or as an art; it is an art since it is concerned with the practical management of human resources and as science as it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient fulfilment of public policy. Nnoli (1986) defines public administration as the machinery and the integral processes, through which the government performs its functions. It is a network of human relationships and associated activities extending from the Head of State to the lowest officer charged with utilizing resources on behalf of the people. Public administration can also be defined as the act of decision-making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and goals, establishing and reviewing organizations, directing and supervising employees, exercising control and other functions performed by the government executions and supervisors. It also means the practice of administration in the public sector which is a sub-segment of the society. Some scholars viewed public 56

administration as the means by which the public policy will be crystallized by the political class and the administrators (bureaucrats) actualize its process. However, from the foregoing, one could be able to deduce that the term public administration involves cooperative effort also that it arises in an attempt to realise specific objectives especially as they concern the public sector.

3.2

POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION

The conventional view of the relationship between politics and administration is that of one between ends and means. Politics in its more specific sense is concerned with the acquisition and use of state power. Power in this sense can be taken as the collective powers of all duly constituted public authorities. Administration is concerned solely with the most efficient means for achieving any given set or political objectives. It is important to note that this is a simplified distinction between politics and administration because public administrators are in various ways, involved in both public policy-making and policy-implementation. One way of differentiating politics from administration is in terms of careers and vocations. With regards to this view, politics is concerned in democracies with the activities of elected representatives and those who elect them or influence them and the activities of professional administrators as advisers. But this distinction does not hold at all times in view of the enormous influence wielded by top professional administrators in public policy-making as a result of their technical expertise which most elected members of the state and National Assemblies do not possess. Another way of differentiating politics from administration is in term of process. We can envisage an arc with the left representing the political process and the right arc the administrative process. The junction at the top represents the critical point at which policies flow and energize the administrative system. It is also the point at which influences that have been generated within the administrative process flow back into the higher levels of the political process.

Figure: 1.1 Melting /Critical Point

57

Political process Administrative Process

Source: Austin Ranney, The Governing of Men, 4thed.Hinsdale; The Dryden Press, 1975, p.31 The conventional view of this image would show all, or nearly all, the lines of forces moving in opposite direction – that is from the political to the administrative. They would show political will being generated by the activities of political parties, interest groups, public opinion, elected representatives etc. and then discharged into the administrative system where they are broken down into successively more detailed stages of application. This picture contains a fair degree of truth since it is generally the case that the stronger drives and impulses originate within the political process. In summary, it can be said that the political processes are concerned with interaction and influences and also, the ability for the political will to flow into the administrative system and back to the political process while administration centred on the efficiency of the political processes.

Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the relationship between the Political process and Administrative process 2. In your own words, define Public Administration and Management

3.3

Differences Between Administration And Management

Administration and Management can be differentiated in two major ways: a.

The nature of the organization and management levels.

b.

The kind of decisions involved. The Nature of Organisation and Management Levels 58

The term administration is preferably used in public institutions e.g. churches, government departments, educational institutions, hospitals etc. and as such laid down rules, regulations, standards, code of conduct, principles and procedures guide the achievement of set goals. Hence administration is said to be rigid, and concerned with obeying the stated rules and code of conduct. Administration tends to concentrate on efficiency “doing things right” and it is somehow autocratic – seeking obedience to prescribed standards. The output in administration seeks quality which is difficult to measure. Dichotomy between Administration and Management Administration is seen as any action that is directed towards the analysis of policies, identification of options and to a substantial degree, the implementation of programmes as well as efficient allocation of resources. In addition to all these calculated decisions, a typical administrative action takes into consideration the goals of the organization as well as the environment within which the actions place (Balogun, 1983). Hermann, (1983) states that administration means the overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, identification of general purposes and laying down of broad programmes and projects. Newman, (1963) states that administration means guidance, leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals. Administration tends to concentrate on efficiency, sometimes it is very rigid and somewhat autocratic seeking obedience to prescribed standards. Management sets standard for attainment, encourages creativity, flexibility and diversification (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). There are several scholars that have contributed to the meaning of administration prominent among whom are Nwankwo (1987), Heyel (1973), Breach (1975) and Guilck (1968). Administration is the capacity of coordinating many and often conflicting social energies in single organisation. Peretomode (1980), administration is the process of working with and through others to efficiently accomplishes organisational goals and objectives. Fayol (1984), defines administration in the narrow sense of management and regarded administration as a discipline, which deserved to be taught as a universal activity that any organisation should be involved in. he maintained that administration has five elements; foresight; organisation; command; co-ordination and control. He further stated that the principles of administration includes; division of labour, authority, discipline unity of command, unity of direction, subordination to general interest, remuneration, centralization, order and hierarchy of command. Nwankwo (1987), states that administration is considered as the careful and systematic arrangements for the achievement of the specific objectives of a given organisation. He further introduced a new dimension to the definition of administration when he made mention of the use of resources, situation and opportunities. It can there be inferred that administration involves the effective and efficient use of the three Ms (Man, Money and Materials). However, the 59

above definitions revolve around the main variables which are: accomplishment of organisational goals and the cooperative effort as a means of goals accomplishment. Management on the other hand involves conceiving, initiating and bringing together the various elements; coordinating, actuating, integrating the diverse organizational components while sustaining the viability of the organization towards some pre-determined goals. In other words, it is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. Management is seen as the act of handling or controlling affairs. Management is rigid and somewhat autocratic; this is because the output is predetermined and can easily be measured. Management tends to be product-oriented (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). Drucker (1973), states that management is an objective function that ought to be grounded I the responsibility for performance. Follett (1920), defines management as the art of getting things done through people, which implies that management is an art (that is, depends on personal qualities), managers must have subordinates and that they do not do the same things as other employees. Managers’ tasks include making good use of the enterprises employees to perform whatever task that may be necessary to achieve organisational goals. Management is concerned with human beings whose behaviour is highly unpredictable. Most people would prefer to use administration for government businesses and refers to any other organisation that is non-governmental management. Peretomode (1980), states that management is the act of getting things done through and with people in formally organised groups. It is the art of creating the environment in which people can perform and individuals could cooperate towards attaining of group goals. Breach (1975), states that management requires a sequence of coordinated activities undertaken by one person or group of persons in the most effective and efficient way to direct the activities of others for the purpose of accomplishing organisational goals. He further stated that management is a set of activities which is classified as concerning with planning, organising or controlling. Management is seen ‘as giving direction to their organisations, provide leadership and how to use organisational resources to accomplish goals (Drucker, 1979). Management refers to persons who work with and through other to achieve organisational goals. He is equally of the view that, all organisations operate by the provision, combination and utilization of organisational resources of men, material (material inputs and technology) and money. (Akpala, 1988) Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims (Koontz and Weihrich, 1990) Management is more scientifically based than administration. The principles of management are different from administration. The difference between Management and Administration can be summarized under (2) two categories: 60

- Functions, and - Usage or Applicability On the basic function, table-1 below shows the major dichotomy between administration and public administration. Table: 1.1 Basis

Management

Administration

Meaning

Management is an art of getting things done through others by directing their efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals.

It is concerned with formulation of broad objectives, plans and policies.

Nature

Management is an executing function.

Administration is a decisionmaking function.

Process

Management decides who should as it and how should he do it.

Administration decides what is to be done & when it is to be done.

Function

Management is a doing function because managers get work done under their supervision.

Administration is a thinking function because plans and policies are determined under it.

Skills

Technical and Human skills

Conceptual and Human skills

Level

Middle & lower level function

Top level function

Sources: http://www.managementstudy guide.com. On the basic usage or application, the table-2 below shows the major dichotomy between administration and public administration. Table: 1.2 Basis

Management

Administration

Applicability

It is applicable to business concerns i.e. profit-making

It is applicable to non-business concerns i.e. clubs, schools,

61

organization.

hospitals etc.

Influence

The management decisions are influenced by the values, opinions, beliefs & decisions of the managers.

The administration is influenced by public opinion, govt. policies, religious organizations, customs etc.

Status

Management constitutes the employees of the organization who are paid remuneration (in the form of salaries & wages).

Administration represents owners of the enterprise who earn return on their capital invested & profits in the form of dividend.

Sources: http://www.managementstudy guide.com. Practically, there is no difference between management and administration. Every manager is concerned with both - administrative management function and operative management function as shown in the tables above. However, the managers who are higher up in the hierarchy denote more time on administrative function and the lower level denote more time on directing and controlling worker’s performance i.e. management. The table-3 below shows the degree of administration and management performed by the different levels of management. Table: 1.3

Sources: http://www.managementstudy guide.com.

3.4

Differences Between Business, Public And Private Administration 62

Business administration in simple terms is everything that encompasses a business and the concept of profit making. The administration of a business includes managing and monitoring absolutely everything to do with a business, from marketing, advertising, to the hiring and the management of staff. In business administration program, the students are trained in various sections of the field of business for example corporate accounting, communications, principles of management, and marketing. The students are trained to take risks and the importance of awareness of risk in business. The concept of business administration is the process of managing every different angle of a business so it can run, expand, grow and succeed. Without business administration, all areas of the business would go unmonitored and would eventually break down. However, the concept of business administration is to oversee the running of the company and working to ensure the business is working, running to its best ability. The process of business administration is the overseeing and controlling of a business. This includes keeping a lot of records, monitoring and overseeing every department and staffing and managing teams of employees. Public Administration is sometimes referred to as public management and sometimes the two words are used interchangeably. It is concerned with the activities of public institutions and organizations that are owned jointly or principally by the government. It is concerned with the implementation of policies and activities of the government at the three levels (federal, state and local). It is concerned with how a country administration is organised and how it functions. Woodrow (1887), public administration means the most obvious part of government or government in action. It is the most visible side of government, particularly the executive arms, that implements the plans and activities of the government. Adebayo (1986), public administration means the art of planning, assessment, appraising performance by the government executives and supervisors. Public administration also means the management of public policy, the shaping and carrying out of public policies and serviceoriented (Ladipo and Omoyele, 2003). Private administration is in the domain of private organizations or institutions which are establishments that are not owned (either jointly or principally) by the government. it means the organisation and management of human and material resources of the private sectors for the goal of the public. Whatever management decision taken and policy implemented in private organisations e.g. Nestle plc, Shell, Chevron, Lever Brothers Nigeria plc, etc belong in the realm of private administration. Their activities and operations are centred on 63

profit-making by minimizing cost of production and maximizing profit. Private organisations produce goods and render services. The differences that exist between public and private administration are in their setting, formation and structures as follows: Setting: 1. Public administration is for service orientation, that is, capitally intensive e.g. PHCN, NITEL, NTA, NPA, etc. while private organization is a profit-oriented entity. The private enterprise is essentially for profit maximization 2. Public administration performs numerous activities e.g. external defence (military services), police affairs, currency, maintenance of law and order, whereas the private organizations have limited activities e.g. engineering, industry, production, communication, textiles, commerce and banking etc. 3. Accountability in the public administration in not well established or accounted for, but in the private organizations, the level of accountability and efficiency is well established.

Formation: 1. Public administrations are being financed from various taxes or being owned by the public. They are being paid by the tax payer fund. But private organizations are owned by limited number of people not as large as a country 2. Public organization is opened to more criticism (either constructive or otherwise) while the private organizations are not all that prune to frequent criticism as their operations are not widely known Structure: 1. The size of public organizations is usually larger than those of private organizations. Many private organizations structures do not extend beyond their locality. 2. Recruitment into the public services is based on geographical spread (federal character) those of the private sector, are mostly on merit irrespective of applicant’s state of origin. 3. Personnel procurement in the public sector is done by a centralized body, civil service commission, or by ministries acting on their behalf and

64

according to the guideline formulated by it. While in the private sector, individual organization is responsible for the living of its staff. 4. Decision making in public administration is control by the government or elected officers while the Shareholders control private organizations or sectors

4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregone discussion, you have learnt that the term public administration originated from two Latin words, Public us and Ad+Ministaraire which have no universally accepted definition. It is concerned with cooperative efforts and the accomplishment of defined objectives such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing coordinating, reporting and budgeting. The major difference between politics and administration is in the areas of interaction and influences on the political process and efficiency of the administrative system. The difference between management and administration is on the nature of the organization and the kind of decisions involved. The differences that exist between public and private administration are in the setting, formation and structure.

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that, Public Administration is seen as the function that has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of defined objectives. Public administration involves around decision-making, planning, formulating objectives and goals, establishing and reviewing organizations, directing and supervising employees, exercising control and other functions performed by government executives and supervisors. Administration tends to concentrate on efficiency. Management sets standard for attainment of goals, encourages creativity and flexibility. 6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Define Public Administration.

2.

List the differences between Politics and Administration.

3.

Differentiate between Management and Administration. 65

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A (1986),.Power in politics; Ibadan, spectrum book ltd Abari, A.O and Mohammed, M.O.B (2006), Fundamentals of educational management, babs- olutunji publisher, first edition Ademolekun, L (1983), public administration. a Nigerian comparative perspective; Lagos; London ltd Akpala Agwu. (1988), Management; an introduction and search for Nigerian system; unpublished manuscript. Bartol, K. M and David, M (1988), Introduction to management; a pacific rim focus; new York mcgraw hill. Balogun M. J. (1983), public administration in Nigeria; a developmental approach; Lagos macmillian Breach, B. (1975), An introduction to public administration; london Drucker, P.F (1979), People & performance; The best of peter drucker on management London, heinemann. Gladden G.N (1972), A history of public administration; volume 1 Gulick and Urwick (1937), Organisation as a technical problem; a paper on the science of administration. new york; institution of public administration. Koontz and Weihrich (1990), Essentials of management; singapore mcgraw hill; book co Ladipo and Omoyele, Olufemi (2003) Management theory and practice, by bt and associates, ilorin Nigeria. Lawal, A. A (1993), Management in focus; published by abdul industrial enterprises, lagos Mumem, L (2009), Introduction to health administration in Nigeria: publish by bonny company, lagos Newman, William. H (1963), Administrative action, Englewood. cliff prentice hall Nnoli,O. (1986), Introduction to politics: Ibadan; longman group limited. 66

Nwankwo, G.O. (1988) Education and training for public management in Nigeria, Onitsha university publishing company Obiajulu Sunday and Obi Emeka Anthoy, (2004) Public administration in Nigeria, a developmental approach Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Public administration, a broad view. megavons (west africa) limited Peretomode, V. F (1980), Educational administration; applied concepts and theoretical perspectives. Lagos; joja educational research and publishers limited. Ranney Austin (1975), The governing of men; 4th edition; hinsdale; the dryden press. Remi Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements of politics. malthouse press limited Haimanm, Theo (1983), Conepts and practices of management, elevent edition, journal of political science and administration vol.14.no.2 boston. Victor, B.E. Abia, (1998) A ground work of public administration. olucity printers limited White, R. (1966), Introduction to public administration; essay and research note; yearn. h William, M. P. Robert, J. H and Jack, R. K. (2005), Business; eight edition, Houghton Mifflin company, Boston New York William, G. N. James, M. M and Susan, M. M (2002), Understanding business; McGraw-Hill Irwin. Woodrow, W (1887), The study of public administration; published in the political science Quarterly

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UNIT 7 CONCEPT, NATURE AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Concept of Public Administration

3.2

Nature of Public Administration 3.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria 3.2.2 The Control of Public Administration

3.3

Scope of Public Administration

3.4

Public Administration as a Discipline

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading. 68

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section you had an idea about what Public administration is all about. This unit takes you a step further into the Concept of public administration. In this unit, the focus is on the Concept of public Administration, Nature of Public Administration, Scope of Public Administration and Public Administration as a discipline. 2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able: a.

Explain the concept of public administration.

b.

List conditions leading to the evolution of public administration.

c.

Define the scope of public administration.

d.

Explain why public administration is a discipline.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1

CONCEPT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

The word public refers to an association of people who are large in numbers and who are faced with a number of issues, concerned with the problem of solving the issues and are engaged in discussing the issues. Administration involves machinery through which set goals and objectives can be achieved. Therefore, public administration can be conceived as the study of machinery and structures which can be used to achieve certain objectives which affects the lives of individuals in a particular environment. For an adequate understanding of what public administration is, an explanation of the operative concept is very imperative. Scholars are not in agreement of a common definition of Public Administration. What has been observed is a situation in which each individual tries to picture the concept from its environmental, situational and circumstantial perspective. Equally worthy of 69

note is the fact that, time and value systems also affect the definition of a concept. This being the case, we wish to present the definition offered by some scholars in the field of public administration over the years. We must stress that these definitions are not exhaustive but are representative of the numerous definitions of the concept. Dimock (1973), defines public administration as concerned with what and how of government. ‘What’ is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field which enables an administrator to perform his task. ‘How’ is the technique of management and the principle according to which corporate programmes are carried through to success. He argues that, what and how of government form the synthesis called public administration. Nnoli (1986), perceives public administration as the machinery as well as the integral processes, through which the government performs its functions. It is a network of human relationships and associated activities extending from the Head of state to the lowest officer charged with utilizing resources on behalf of the people. It’s a system of roles and relationships which defines a clear and practicable terms, detail intentions and programmes of the government. It is also a system of resources available internally and externally to accomplish them, there, when and how they are to be accomplished; who is to benefit from them. It is a system that causes these intentions and programmes of government to be realized in real life. It is a pattern of routine activities involving decision making, planning, advising, coordinating, negotiation, conciliation, arbitration, command and data gathering through which the government carries out its responsibilities. Gullick and Urwick, (1937 )promoted seven principles of administration and in so doing, he gave students of public administration that snappy acronym, POSDCORB that is, Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting. He further stated that, public administration has been 70

set firm, and it’s the functions that has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of defined objectives. His definition touches vital issues of set objectives being accomplished. White (1966), defines public administration as all those operations of which their purpose is the fulfilment or enforcement of public policies. Public administration is essentially concerned with the management of organizations in the pursuit of desired public goals and objectives. The ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximize, the rationality or efficiency and social effectiveness of public institutions. Pfiffner and Prethus (1967), defines public administration as the coordination of collective efforts to implement public policy. Public administration is a collective affair involving many people, for profit majority of the people. Ademolekun (1983), states that public administration is commonly used for the activities of government and the study of these activities; in other words, it is used in two distinct senses, as practice and as knowledge. From the foregoing one could deduce that public administration is concerned with the activities and functions of government; the services performed by some groups of officials working together for the interest of the nation. The institutional arrangement designed to achieve the objective interests and welfare of the public is what we generally refer to as public service and the process of formulation and implementation of strategies, policies and programmes by public officials for the satisfaction of social goals and public welfare is referred to as public administration. Stone (1939), views the concept of public administration as the process by which the objectives are defined, plan, and policies formulated, institutions created and managed, human energies mobilized, resources utilized and change effected in the overall public interest. However in Nigeria, there are 3 levels of public administration which are: a. Federal Government Administration b. State Government Administration 71

c. Local Government Administration Goodnow (1990), states that, the concept of public administration centred on politic and politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state, while administration has to do with the execution of these policies. Goodnow (1990), and his fellow scholars in public administration strongly believed that public administration is concerned with the bureaucracy of government. 3.2

Nature of Public Administration

The nature of public administration is broad and complex. The nature focuses attention on the concept of public administration as earlier discussed, the evolution of public administration, and the conditions that made it imperative. It’s also focuses on the features, control and the scope of public administration. For the purpose of this unit, the nature of public administration will help you understand the relevance of these issues in improving effectiveness and efficiency in the public sector. The conditions that led to the evolution of public administration are: (a) The existence of extensive empires (b)

the

rise

of

absolute monarchy(c) the need for central management of scarce resources (d) the introduction of money economy (e)

Lack of adequate communication.

(f) Increase in literacy rate and (g) Introduction of codified laws. Many scholars have written and argued about these conditions and how each has helped the origin of public administration; we shall explain in brief, how these factors have helped the emergence of public administration. The existence of empires whether old or new, has invariably called for the evolution of administration. These empires called for the setting, structure and formation of a formal organization which is necessary for the day to day running of the empire e.g. the Roman and Chinese Empires. Tout (1968), attributes the rise of Public Administration to absolute monarchs and argues that earliest bureaucracy was identified in the king’s household. He recaptured the experiences in France and Russia between 12 and 14 century and argued that,

72

the servants of the kings or absolute monarchs later became servants of the states when capitalism came into control of the European economy and society. (Scott and Blau, 1963), believes that public Administration arose in these empires due to the need for management of scarce resources. He cited an example of the Chinese empire, where as a result of scarce resources; a central management committee was constituted to manage the distribution of resources. Mere existence of empires did not bring about public administration, but the shortage of resources brought public administration because of the need to manage the scarce resources. The rise of money economy made it possible for labour to be exchanged for money. The emergence of money (because of the difficulty of trade by barter) as a medium of exchange became an essential ingredient for the rise of public administration. Weber (1964), states that, bureaucracy arose essentially because of the emergence of money economy, the armies and the empires. The need for effective contact between and amongst people made the evolution of public administration. It became absolute necessary to provide this communication. Another factor that contributed to the rise of public administration is the introduction of codified laws with specified functions. Brain (1966), believes that the influence of the Catholic Church attributed to the rise of public administration. He is of the fact that, in the early days, the Catholic Church of the Roman Empire was the largest employer of human resources. Others empires that contributed to the rise of public administration are the monarchs in France, Prussia and Britain. 3.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria. The origin and growth of Public Administration in Nigeria are articulated from two points of view, which are: a.

Tracing the origin of public administration to pre-colonial period in Nigeria and 73

b.

Public administration from the colonial period till date.

During the pre-colonial public administration, the different regions, the northern, eastern and western regions of Nigeria had means of administering themselves prior to colonialism. Nwosu (1985), analysed that; there are three dominant traditional societies in Nigeria: the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. He states that, the Hausa traditional political system was highly centralized. Unlike the Igbo system, which has more elaborate structures and organs for performance of social roles? The Hausa emirate has a central bureaucracy with structures of law enforcement, tax collection articulation and external defence. At the head of a Hausa political system is an Emir and a political sovereign. He had advisers that are purely secondary; their views may not be taken by the Emir. However, from the foregoing one could be able to deduce that the centralized system of the Hausa made the Emir to be strong and to issue instructions to his subordinates with utmost compliance. The pre-colonial public administration of the Igbo emirate was participatory in tune with the segmented system; there was no centralized and consolidated political authority. A number of villages constituted a political community. No person was as powerful as the case of the Hausa system. The Igbo’s were governed in groups and each community was administered by a council of elders. These groups includes titled men, heads of families, war lords, heads of secret societies, age grades etc. Political decisions were reached out by a single leader, but with collective efforts of the members in a village assembly. Once decisions are taken, the relevant groups were mandated to ensure implementation and execution of the decision of the council. Bureaucracy of the public administration in the Igbo’s emirate therefore, involved every committed members of the community. The Yoruba’s kingdom lacked common traditional leadership, the kingdom is divided into several political kingdoms, and their traditional political systems are classified as a centralized chiefdom. The Oba, 74

who is the administrative head of the emirate, traced his lineage to Oduduwa, he and his council of elders take many fundamental and routine decisions. Below an Oba, are the lesser provincial and village chieftains who exercised some measures of military execution and ritual powers. Each Oba of a community has a constituted council made of community’s chiefs. However, the Yoruba precolonial public administration provided a constitutional arrangement in which agents of the community such as the Ogboni society were used to execute the decisions of the councils, and thus the society. It is interesting to state here that, the then society of the various kingdoms as identified are not as complex as it is today since the needs of the communities were not as diverse as it is today. However, modern public administration in Nigeria owes its origin to the British colonial administration. The evolution of Public administration in Nigeria can be traced the handwork of the British. In the same vein, these institutions that found expression in Nigeria states came purposely to ensure adequate exploitation of the resources of Nigeria. 3.2.2 The Control of Public Administration The control of public administration in Nigeria and all over the world became necessary to ensure effectiveness and efficiency of public service and institutions, Public administration is controlled through some measures that guide against waste of public funds. Some of the controls measures of public administration are as follows: A.

Ministerial Control: The appointment of members into the public

service rest with the Federal Civil Service Commission and same goes for the state. The Civil Service Commission is under the Ministry of Labour and Productivity that appoints members of the public service and also dismiss them. B.

Parliamentary Control: Ministries, departments and agencies (MDA)

must be made available to the parliament. This is to enables the parliament to discuss, obtain – information, criticize or approve the activities of each ministries. During question time, the parliament is free to ask the minister-in75

charge of a ministry various questions about the general policy of the ministry and the way forward. C.

Judicial Control: The judiciary is empowered by law to insert some

control on the activities of public services and administration through litigations and hearing of cases, ranging from public officers embezzling public funds, dismissal of staff illegally, arbitrary use of excessive powers to oppress members of the public society etc. The independence of the judiciary has enabled it to insert some sanity into the Nigeria public administration, through fair hearing of all cases that has to do with both public and private laws. The Judiciary has equally intervened frequently in the Nigeria administrative laws. However, the judicial control of public services and administration became necessary because of the abuse of powers by public servants who hide under the disguise of performing official duties to oppress the members of the public.

D.

The Control of Ombudsman/Public Complaints Commission: The

institutionalization of the Ombudsman was a progeny of the expanded previews of the governmental and administrative activities within the last few decades in Nigeria. The word Ombudsman originated from Sweden in the early part of the 19th century and since then it has gained recognition of many magnitude in many countries including Nigeria, where it is euphemistically called Public Complaint Commission (PCC). The Public Complaint Commission was set up to enable the less privileged in the society to obtain redress to their grievances and to get protection against human rights by any functionaries or agent whether government, public or private.

E.

Public Opinion Control:

Price (1776), defines public opinion as

composite reactions of the general public. It expresses reflections of the people and the activities of the government; one could perceive public opinion as the will of the people. It is expressed through the press, radio, television and other 76

mass media. Leaders and organizers of public opinion constitute the pressure groups. However, public opinion has significant influence and control of the public administration through the expression of some ills or wrong doings by the public or civil servants. F.

Pressure Group Control: Pressure group has considerable influence and

control on government policy. It is organized to influence the context of governmental decisions without attempting to replace its members in formal government positions. The importance of pressure group is premised on the thesis, which is firmly part of the political progress, and also an attempt to reinforce the direction of government policy.

However, pressure groups

particularly the trade unions are able to have some control on the functions and role of the government in their various Ministries and Parastatals with references to salary negotiation and staff welfare. G.

Pressman: The pressmen, media houses and journalists through their

stories in the newspaper (print) radio and television (broadcast) expose public servants who err or are involved in shady deals and abuse of powers. The press ensures that, the society is governed without any biasness, sentiment and tribal lines. The newspapers and other publications medium act as the eyes of the people. The pressmen do a lot to see that justice, fair play and normalcy is adopted during the course of their duties. The press has been able to control the public administrators by expressing and exposing public office holders on any act contrary to civil service rules and regulations. The society generally has its problems vis-à-vis, corruption, embezzlement of public funds, wrongful dismissal of official etc. such issues are brought to the notice of the press in form of complaints to the appropriate quarters, particularly to the press or the Public Complaints Commissions by public servant. H.

Monetary and Funds Control: This is a special control by the heads of

the three-tiers of government in curtailing the financial misappropriation of public administration in Nigeria. The federal government allocation to states 77

and local governments is one of the measures used to ensure that public funds are well utilized and not wasted. I.

Monitoring of Projects and Programmes: It has been the practice that

public servants do not usually adhere strictly to lay down procedures for the award of contracts and project execution. A team is always set up by the federal, state and local governments to ensure that all projects are executed and delivered as specified by the award. The monitoring of projects and programmes

is

capable

of proffering solutions

to

Nigeria’s

public

administration problems. Self –Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria. 2. In your own understanding, what are the control processes of Public Administration in Nigeria 3.3

SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

The scope of public administration is wide; it involves those issues, functions, spheres and areas in the public domain. The complex natures of our modern society make public administration to be more complex. An average citizen is likely to think of public administration primarily in terms of governmental regulations of individual and group conduct. However, the scope of public administration is vast in nature and varied in form of protection, assistance, and services the government provides. Adebayo (1981), states that when administration is qualified by the word public, it simple means the practice of administration in the public sector. Public administration means the same as government administration. The scope of public administration connotes the service of the public or government. In Nigeria, the scope of public administration has increased to include the federal government and all its ministries, the federal Parastalals and Commissions, the army, the Police, the Customs department, the state ministries, Commissions and Parastatals owned by the state and the federal capital territory (FCT) Abuja 78

as well as the 774 Local government areas in the country. However, from the foregoing one could be able to deduce that the Scope of public administration can be categorized as follows: Protection: It is duties of government to provide some level of protection for the society as a whole; e.g. police, fire protection, healthcare, national and civil defence, prison services, safeguarding and conservation of natural resources of the environment. Promotion of services: The government owns and operates enterprises services, e.g. postal services, post facilities, municipal, water supply, electric power, vehicle assembly plants, cement factories, banks and allied institutions, etc. the government also provides some level of services to education and social groups e.g. farmers, factory workers, businessmen and women, women and children, the unemployed public administration and the aged. Regulation: The government through it various departments and agencies regulates the public and private sectors. The activities of NDLEA, NAFDAC, S.O.N. etc. and other regulatory bodies and boards are of significance here. Furthermore, the scope of public administration deals with intergovernmental and other functional responsibilities such as agriculture, civil aviation, high ways, housing, rural and urban development, vocational rehabilitation, care of the aged, the blind, the destitute, and the refuges. Public administration is also concerned with how a country’s administration is organized and how it functions.

It’s the machinery for implementing government policy. The

functions of public administration involve social, economic, cultural and political activities. Woodrow (1887), states that the task of public administration is to strengthen the path of government and to make its business-less, and purify its organization and to crown its duties with dutifulness. He further states that the expansion of modern societies and the complexities of societal demands have helped to make the scope of public administration rather elastic. 79

3.4

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONS AS A DISCIPLINE

Public administrators have often faced with issues of having to argue that public administration is not a field of study. That public administration now exists, as important academic field of study is no longer debatable. Public administration is concerned with the study of how a country’s administration is organized and how it functions. Since it is the machinery for implementing government policy, it follows that its study must lead to the study of the most efficient ways of organizing the executive branch of government. Public administration as a field of study deals with systematic, analytical and procedural method of arriving at facts which will in turn help in finding solutions to the problem of the society. However, public administration has gained added impetus as scientific methods are now employed to gather and analyse data and reach logical deductions. The key issue in the study of public administration is the emphasis on efficiency, the item of public administration has been economy and efficiency that is the provision of public services of the minimum cost. Although, practitioners would insist that there is a world of difference between theory and practice, it is the view of most scholars that a systematic understanding of the theoretical basis of administration would produce better results in the practical activities of administrators.

4.0

CONCLUSION

The foregoing discussion on concept, nature and scope of public administration, confirms the complex nature of public. Public Administration is concerned with the study of mechanics and structures which are used to achieve certain objectives that affect the lives of individuals. However, scholars are not in agreement on a common definition of the concept and scope of public administration. What has been observed is a situation where individuals make pictures of the concept of public administration from its environmental, situational and circumstantial perspective. The nature of public 80

administration helps you to understand the relevance of issues in improving effectiveness and efficiency in public sector. The scope of public administration involves those issues, functions, spheres and areas of public administration.

5.0 SUMMARY There is no common definition of public administration, that the concept, nature and scope of public administration are pictured from various perspectives. The scope of public administration is broad and complex in nature; it covers the areas of protection, provision of services and regulations of government activities. Public administration is the machinery through which the activities of the government are performed. The functions of public administration are social, economic, cultural and political. There are some controls of public administration in Nigeria.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: 1.

Discuss the concept, nature and scope of public administration in Nigeria.

2.

List and explain the significance of the measures of public administration performance in Nigeria

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ademolekun, L. (1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian Comparative Perspective, Lagos, Longman. Adebayo, A (1986),.Power In Politics; Ibadan, Spectrum Book Ltd Dahl, Robert .A (1995), Modern Political Analysis, Prentice Hall Of India 81

Dimock, M. E (1973), Public Administration. Newyork; Holt Rhine Hart And Winston Inc Goodnow, F. J (1900), Politics And Administration; New York Macmillan. Gulick And Urwick (1937), Organisation As A Technical Problem; A Paper On The Science Of Administration. New York; Institution Of Public Administration. Nnoli,O. (1986), Introduction To Politics: Ibadan; Longman Group Limited Nwosu, H. N (1985), Political Authority And The Nigerian Civil Service; Enugu Fourth Dimension Publishers. Obiajulu Sunday & Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach. Bookpoint Limited. Patrick Mbieli, (2006), Public Administration: A Broad View. Megavons (West Africa) Limited Price, D.K (1776), Transaction Cost Theory And Public Administration; Origin And Development. Piffner And Presthus (1967), Public Administration 5th Edition York Ronald Press Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics. Malthouse Press Limited Scoff And Blau (1963), Formal Organisation; London ;Rutledge And Kegan Paul Coy. Victor, B.E. Abia, (1998), A Ground Work Of Public Administration, Olucity Printers Ltd Woodrow, W (1887), The study of public administration; published in the political science Quarterly Weber, M. (1964), The theory of social and economic organisation collier macmillan 82

UNIT 8 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 83

Table of Content: 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objective

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Historical Development of Public Administration

3.2

Approaches to the Study of Public Administration 3.2.1 The Historical Institutional Approach 3.2.2 The Judicial/Legal Approach 3.2.3 The Structural Approach 3.2.4 The Behavioural/Administrative Approach 3.2.5 The Scientific Approach

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea about what the concept, nature and scope of public administration are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the Historical Development and Approaches to the Study of Public Administration. In this unit, the focus is on the Historical Development of Public Administration and the various approaches of the Study of Public Administration.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a.

Explain the historical development of public administration.

b.

Enumerate the various approaches to the study of public administration.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 84

Historically, the study of public administration as an independent field of political science came about in the late eighteen century, when Woodrow Wilson (1887), a constitutional lawyer and Kin near (1887), undertook and made enquiry into the field of public administration. It is an infallible fact that the British colonized Nigeria and that the institutionalization of the sphere of influence by British on Nigerian territory took place in successive stages. When Lagos was annexed in 1861, by 1862, the situation necessitated the establishment of rudimentary public administration which was confined to the Lagos colony then. No sooner had Britain settled in Nigeria, was a committee constituted in 1865, on how public administration will be administered. Goodrow (1890), states that the study of public administration commenced at about 1940 or precisely after the 2nd World War He further stated that, Robert Dahl, Fix Riggs, Fred Riggs, Sulton, David Easton, Davies are among the leaders and pioneering scholars of public administration, However, the work of Riggs is by far the most outstanding. His work on the concepts of the Sala Model and the Prismatic Society study brought into view public administration of the developing non-western countries.

3.2

APPROACHES OF THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

There are various approaches to the study of public administration since the inception of the concepts of public administration. These approaches are as follows: a.

The Historical Approach

b.

The Judicial or Legal Approach

c.

The Structural Institution

d.

The Behavioural or Administrative Approach

e.

The Scientific Approach.

3.2.1 Historical Approach of Public Administration This approach sees public administration from the perspective of historical development of events of a particular nation’s public service and administration. In this approach, scholars of public administration are categorized into two major groups. Those who have sound knowledge of public service and public administration such as Woodrow Wilson, Frank Goodrow, a professor of administrative law at Colombia University (father of American Public Administration), F. W. Willoughby, Marshall Dimock, George Frederickson, Orion White, Leonard D. etc. and those who are interested in neither public 85

service nor public administration such as the likes of Fredrick Taylor, Urwick, Gulick, Herbert Simon, Max Weber etc. However, the latter are those without sound knowledge of public administration, but are interested in the practical nature of the discipline efficiency and effectiveness of public organization. These groups of people however, are saddled with unveiling practical ways of improving work performance. In Nigeria, for example, the origin of civil service in Nigeria is traced to the administration of Lord Lugard who was governorgeneral and Head of administration at the time of amalgamation of the Northern and Southern in 1914. However, the real nucleus of public service in Nigeria evolved under Sir Hugh Clifford who succeeded Lord Lugard administration in 1921, with the establishment of a central secretariat in Lagos for administrative practice. ( Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999) In 1906, the New York Bureau of Municipal Research was founded to promote efficient and economical municipal government and the scientific study of municipal administration. This Bureau became a model, after the publication of handbooks and materials on public administration. In 1911, a training school was established for administrative practice (Simon, 1964)

3.2.2 The Judicial or Legal Approach The judicial or legal approach is one of the oldest of all of the approaches to the study of public administration since it became a distinctive field of study. The pre-occupation of this approach is the statutory provisions or legal sanctions upon which an administration is run. The Judicial approach tends to provide the codes, norms and regulations on which public administration operates within the confines of native authority and to the present modern day administration. This approach elaborates and analyses all the instruments of laws, regulations, sanctions, and penalties etc, required for the day-to-day running of any organization. Examples of instrument of laws in modern organization are government orders, civil service rules, financial memoranda, scheme of service etc. Kin near (1887), stated that, the judicial approach of public administration is the knowledge of the laws by which civil society is regulated. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). Goodnow (1952:103), the founder of administrative law expressed that “there are, then, in all governmental systems, two primary or ultimate functions of government”, which are the expression of the will of the state and the executions of that will. These functions are, respectively politics and administration. Goodnow (1893:47), states that in countries like the United States of America and England, no serious attempt had been made to classify the law in accordance with the relations upon which it is governed. 86

Administrative law is that part of the law which governs the relations of the executive and administrative authorities of the government. The rule of law is concerned with the functions of administration which is part of the administrative law. Self- Assessment Exercise 1. Explain the various approaches of the study of Public administration. 2. Which of these approaches is most appealing to you? 3.2.3 The Structural Institutional Approach In this approach, policies are clearly separated from administration. The belief is that the major role of the administrator is to implement the government policies. This approach sees public administration as an academics field of study, because it covers the political and administrative processes of an institution. It is also concerned with the distribution of power among the levels of government, public accountability, and planning of local government administration, it analyses organizational structures and constituted authorities and responsibilities of the three organs of government. However, the major criticism against this approach is that it does not specify the role of individuals and informal groups in structural organizations. Secondly, it fails to relate public administration to both internal and external environment. The basic ingredient of this approach is that, it maintains a link and separation of powers amongst the three arms of government e.g. legislative, executive and judiciary (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999) However, from the foregoing one could be able to deduce that the major features of the structural/institutional approach of public administration are planning, supervision and leadership, teamwork and group norms. 3.2.4 The Behavioural or Administrative Approach This approach is concerned with the study of administrative attitude, behaviours, actions and reactions, senses of reasoning of the decision makers and policy planners. Mayo (1927), in one of his researches, stated the importance of groups in affecting the behaviours of individuals at work. In this approach, great scholars have made significant contribution to the concept of behaviourism. Dahl (1995), states that, public administration must be viewed and studied from the aspect of human behaviour. He further argues that “to treat organization in a formal and technical way and with regards human beings at the organization as more or less materials are not desirable”. He finally, submitted that, the “study of public administration should embrace the totality 87

of man and must not presume that man is a simple machine responding to goals and self-interest”. (Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo, 1999) Simon (1976), advocated the careful study of human behaviour, using demonstrated techniques from the physical science. Such techniques are Critical Path Analysis (CPA) Programme Evaluation Review Technique (PERT), Game Probability Theory (GPT) etc. These erudite and great scholars see decision-making as the heart of administration and how to understand the behaviour of human beings in any organization. Behavioural contributions to decision-making are very significant, it tells us that decision-making determines the success or otherwise of any organization. Simeon (1976), identifies three major stages in decision-making, these are: Intelligence, Design and Choice activities. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). Mayo (1927), a psychologist and professor states that the study of public administration is basically concerned with human beings and not machines, but that machines requires human components to functions. His emphasis is on the effects of human beings on production. He believes that human beings possessed certain components that make them more efficient and hardworking in the discharge of his duties. However, he came out with the following findings: a.

There is no relationship between higher wages and increase in production.

b.

There is non-economic reward and sanctions, but self-respecter, selfbelonging, etc.

c.

Workers do not react or act as an individual but rather as a group.

d. The importance of leadership which constitute another modification of scientific management. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)

major

3.2.5 The Scientific Approach Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1917), is regarded as the father of scientific approach to the study of public administration. This approach is also referred to as the machine approach. Taylor spent most of his working life at the Steel Company. He started as a labourer and rose through the rank of a foreman to a chief Engineer and later a consultant. His vision was to develop public administration into a science from the principles of engineering and management sciences, to the study of scientific methods in management in the field of business and industry. However, Taylor believed that there is only “one best method” which should be the “scientific management principle” he sees man as an extension of the machine. His style of approach is seen today in various expressions as “Administration oils the machinery”, “the logs of the 88

business”, “a wheel within a wheel”, and as the “ex-obey”. Taylor further states that, the desire to increase production of goods and services is by motivating the workers to work harder. He emphasized that the motivation of workers can be achieved by adopting the “bottom-up” approach which is the decentralized system of management. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999) Fayol, (1841–1925) was also a contemporary of Taylor, he believes in the distribution of work in a centralized management system. He believed that an increase in production can best be achieved through division of labour rather by motivation. In one of his book, titled General and Industrial Administration and published in 1929, Fayol’s divided scientific management into a number of functions: which are technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and management. He further stated that the job of the manager is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and control of human and material resources. Other erudite scholars who contributed to the study of public administration on scientific approach are the likes of Urwick, Luther Gulick, and Professor Brit. However, in 1937 Gulick and Urwick, book titled ‘’ papers on the science of Administration ‘’ introduce the process of scientific management under the acronym POSDCORD (Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Recording and Controlling)

4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion, the approaches to the Historical Development of the study of Public Administration are numerous. Wildrow Wilson articles of 1887, on the ability to scientifically undertake and make enquiry into the field of public administration marks the beginning and approaches to Public administration as scientific if separated from the hazard of politics. Some of the pioneering scholars of public administration are Robert Dahl, Fix Riggs, Fred Riggs Sutton, David Easton Davies etc. The approaches to the study of public administration are Historical, Judicial, Structural – Institutional, Behavioural and Scientific Approach. Frederick Winslow Taylor is regarded as the father of scientific management. His methodology and approach to management (one best method) saw man as an extension of the machine. Henri Fayol, a contemporary of Taylor believed that the distribution of work and an applied centralized management system constitute the scientific approach to the study of public administration. 5.0

SUMMARY

89

Historical development of public administration started in 1887. Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henri Fayol made remarkable contributions to the history and development of the study of public administration. The judicial approach is adjudge the oldest of all the approaches to the study of public administration because it holds the instrument of law for the day–to-day running of any organisation. Intelligence, Design and Choice activities are the three major stages of decision making. Scholars of public administration are categorized into two, those with sound knowledge and those without sound knowledge of public service.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT. Question: 1. Identify the approaches to the study of Public Administration, and explain any two that appeals to you most and why?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHERREADING. Easton, D. (1965), A System Analysis Of Political Life; New York Wiley Taylor,F.W (1917), Introduction To The Study Of Public Administration; New York; Macmillan Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach, Bookpoint Limited Elton.M. (1927), Public Control And Administration; New York Patrick Mbieli (2004), Public Administration, A Broad View, Megavons (West Africa) Limited Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics. Malthouse Press Limited Simon A. Herbert (1946), Approaches To Public Administration, Book Of The Half Century 4th Edition

90

Victor Abia B. E (1998), A Ground Work Of Public Administration .Olucity Printers Limited Woodrow, W (1887), The Study Of Public Administration; Published In The Political Science Quarterly

UNIT 9 PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Henry Fayol’s Principles

3.2

Principles of Public Administration

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference/Further Reading 91

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you learnt about what Historical Development and Approaches to the study of Public Administration are all about. This unit will take you a step further on the principles of public administration. In this unit, the Principles of public administration are concerned with efficiency of services, worker welfares political direction, relation, and responsibility soldering public institutions. The principles of public administration assist the organisation towards the realization of goals and objectives. These principles are sources of action, regulations and fundamental truths capable of guiding human conduct, behaviour and performance. However, from the foregoing discussion, one can be able to deduce that the principles of public administration guide the management process of an organisation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Enumerate the principles of Public Administration 2. Explain the basic principles of Public Administration 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 HENRY FAYOL’S PRINCIPLES The principles of public administration are referred to as the principles of management. These principles can be examined from two different perspectives, firstly from the management point of view and secondly, from public administration view. However, both principles help to organise and direct the affairs of Public administration.

92

Henri Fayol (1841-1925), Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915), and Lillian Gilberth (1972), all made remarkable contributions to the approaches of the study of Public administration. Fayol, popularly known as the Father of modern Management until his death in 1925, approached Management from the upper level administration throughout his 50 years worked experience making researches on efficiency of workers in public services. He began his quest on the principles of public administration as an administrative expertise, Industrial Mining Executive, a Manager, General-Manager and finally, as a member of the Board of Directors Fayol, as manager taught about the challenges the general manager will encountered. He came-up with a logical conclusion that the activities in an organisation could be divided into six essential groups, which are: a. Technical (Production, Manufacturing, Adaptation) b. Commercial (Buying, Selling and Exchange) c. Financial (Finding and Using Capital) d. Accounting (Stock taking, Balance sheet, costing, Statistics) e. Security (Protection of property and Persons Welfare) f. Management (Planning,

Organising,

Controlling, Coordinating,

Directing) Source: (Obiajulu and Sunday, 2004). However, he states that these six essential groups do exist in all organisations whether simple or complex but that, the first five are well known, the sixth (management) required further explanation. However, his principles on public administration were credited for being the first to identify the Functions of Management as Planning, Organising, Coordinating, Controlling and Directing. Fayol, contends that the six essential groups of activities are interdependent and it is management’s role to assure the smooth relationship of the sub-units of management to achieve enterprise goals and objectives.

93

However, Fayol

formulated the 14 principles of management to guide the management process in Organisations. The Fourteen (14) Principles of Management are as follows: 1. Hierarchy: This means the pecking order of human influences in an Organisation. It is the process by which power; function; position and authority of an organisation are orderly distributed among the officers and positions in an organisation with a view of maintaining an effective coordination of both human and material resources. In essence, it means the level of graded authority in an organisation, for example, in a university setup; authority and directives comes from the Vice Chancellor, down the hierarchy to the lowest staff with full compliance.

2. Authority: Means the same as power, it is the right to give orders. Authority and responsibility go together, authority should not be considered without reference to responsibility. Authority must come from the top of the hierarchy e.g. Chief Executive, the Vice Chancellor, the Military, the Navy and others Para-Military Operatives.

3. Unity of Command: Every staff must have a superior upon whom he takes directives that is one man, one superior; no subordinate should report to more than one supervisor at a time to avoid error. The principles of Public administration presuppose that every member of an organisation should receive orders and directives from one supervisor and the same goes on and on.

4. Chain of Command: In order to attainment the goals and objectives of the organisation, there should be power and authority linkage. All operations with the same objectives should have one manager with a common plan, for example, the production manager should be abreast with information, and to give directions to all matters on production of the Organisation. 5. Division of Labour: Means the same as specialization, it is a process of narrowing down work in line with staff competency. The process permits specialization of expertise. The process leads to higher productivity of goods and services. It helps to develop practices and familiarity in an organisation.

94

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: This principle is of the opinion that the interest of one individual or groups of individuals should not take precedence over the interest of the organisation as a whole. 7. Remuneration: Wages for work done should be fair for both the employees and the organisation. The organisation should consider the cost of living and the ability to pay and motivate workers on performance. 8. Centralization: This is the extent to which authority is concentrated or dispersed. Individual circumstances will determine the grade that will ‘give the best overall yield’. The principle of centralization depends on the size and quality of management in an organisation. However a good balance should be maintained. 9. Scalar Chain: There should be a clear line of authority and directives from the top level management e.g. the Chief Executive, Vice Chancellor, Minister etc. to the lowest level of staff. 10. Order: In every organisation there should be in place some sense of order, command and direction. Everything should have its place, the right man in the right place and for the right job. 11. Equity: This is a combination of kindness and justice toward employees. The work force of an organisation should be regarded as members of the same family, guided by the same rules and procedure of the Organisation. All staff should be free and treated the same irrespective of their race, culture etc. 12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Employees need to be given time to settle with the job, though this may take a lengthy period in the case of managers. Turnover of personnel should be minimised if the goals are to be achieved. 13. Initiative: Within the limits of authority, all categories of staff should be encouraged to show some level of inventiveness of their skills and potentials. Subordinates should be allowed the freedom to conceive and execute plan in order to develop their capacity to the fullest. 14. Espirit de Corps: This is the principle of oneness; it is regarded as the father of all the Principles Management. Workers are made to understand that, they are members of one family and through their level of team work and unionism work towards achieving the organisational goals. It also emphasises the importance of communication. However, this spirit is very high among the Militaries and Para-Military and in others well organised Organisations and Institutions. However, Fayol (1925) states that different situations may require 95

different managerial techniques. He therefore summarised this principles as ‘’there is no rigid or absolutes in management affairs, it is all a question of proportion’’. He further states that allowances should be made for changing circumstances. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the essential groups of an Organisation. 2. Identify and explain the 14 Principles of Management. 3.2 Principles of Public Administration This perspective of the principles of public administration believes that, public administration as a true science of government has the capacity to organise and direct human and material resources to achieve set goals, this perspective, believed that the basic principles of public administration are as follows (Mbieli, 2006)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Political Direction Public Responsibility Efficiency Organisation Research Social Necessity Public Relations

(a) Political Direction: Public Administration as the youngest branch of political science obtains instruction from the political will of the politicians in providing essential services to the people. Political direction is instructions in form of leadership role that is, commanding attention and stimulating subordinates to achieve organisational goals. Public administration provides political directions in terms of the broad policies and laws formulated at the National and States Assemblies, and implemented by the administrative executives of the Federal, State and Local public servants. (b) Public Relations: This is concerned with informing and relating to the public. Members of the public need to be enlightened about the affairs of government. People should be well informed about policies and intentions of the government. Public relations are concerned about the reactions of the people to government policies, problems and possible solutions. The mass media has helped to achieve these principles. The media through its agencies exposes daily activities of the government, these include government ideology and intentions, 96

government budget, public office holder’s etc. public relation of the government to the people and viz-a- viz are newspapers, radio, television, magazines, etc. (c) Public Responsibility: People are elected into public offices as representatives of the people’s interest. Public responsibility ensures the exercise of certain power and authority in the execution of certain specified duties and functions for the benefit of the people. It also stimulates the need for accountability from the elected officers to the people. (d) Efficiency: For administration to be efficient in the discharge of its duties, the personnel must have acquired knowledge to execute public programmes and also to satisfy the needs of the society. Efficiency of public servants can be achieved through pre-entry and in-service training programmes for both the junior and senior cadre. These career developments are essentially meant to promote efficiency of goods and services. (e) Social Necessity: The call for public administration from political science as a field of study is purely for effectiveness and efficiency of the institutions of the government. The essence of public administration is in the process of formulating and implementing public policy and providing the citizenry with civil amenities as well as developing them socially, economically, and politically. (f) Organisation: The activities of public administration are felt in the local, state and federal levels. The organs of government are organised into legislative, the executive and the judiciary. Public administration is organised into hierarchy and auxiliary agencies which engages in different functional roles within the organisational setup. Organisations whether formal or informal bring human and material resources together for effective use and service to the people. (g) Research: Research means the process of investigating a problem. It is the capacity to probe the known and the unknown. Research in administration enables the organisation to grow and change with the law of nature. In public administration, the essence of research is to makes amends and corrections of the flaws in the past administrative records, and for improvement and achievement of new ideas. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on the principles of public administration, it could be seen that the principles of public administration is concerned with the essential tools of providing services, efficiency in production, delivery and development of effective relationships staff in an organisation and also of the 97

elected office holders. The principles of public administration are also concerned with the activities of the organisation which are technical, commercial, financial, accountability, security, and managerial as stated by Fayol’s. Management Principles of Administration are Hierarchy, Unity of Command, Division of Labour, Scalar Chain, Authority, Remuneration, Centralization, Equity, Order, Stability, Initiative, Stability of tenure of personnel and Espirit de corps etc. The functions of Management are Planning, Organising, Commanding, Coordinating and Controlling.

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt about the essentials activities of an Organisation which technical, commercial, financial, accounting security and management. The 14 Principle of Management guides the management process of any Organisation. The Principles of Public administration are political Direction, Public Responsibility, Efficiency, Organisation, Research, Social Necessary and Public Relations. No organisation can achieve its goals without the applications of the essentials of management. 6.0

7.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT. Question: 1. List and explain the Principles of administration 2. Discuss five Henry Fayol’s principle that are applicable to the Nigeria public service REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Augustus Adebayo, (1981) Principles and practices of public administration, Nigeria: spectrum Ltd Bello, S. A, Ojodu, H. O, Ogunyomi, P.O, and Legbeti, P. (2004) Public administration in Nigeria (revised edition) raamson printing services Fayol, H (1925) Elements of management; new york, macmillian Taylor,F.W (1917), Introduction to the study of public administration; new york; macmillan Ladipo, P.K.A and Omoyele, S. Olufemi (2003), Management theory and practice, published by bt and associates, ilorin Nigeria. Nwankwo, G.O. (1988) Education and training for public management in Nigeria, Onitsha university publishing company 98

Obiajulu Sunday and Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public administration in Nigeria, a developmental approach, bookpoint limited Patrick Mbieli (2006), Public administration, a broad view. megavons (west africa) limited

UNIT 10 COMPARISON OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Meaning of Public and private Administration. 3.1.1 Meaning of Administration 3.1.2 Meaning of Private Administration 3. 1.3 Meaning of Public Administration

3.2

Features of Public Organization

3.3

Similarities between Public and Private Administration

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section you learnt about what the principles of public administration are all about? This unit will take you a step further into the comparison of public and private administration. In this unit, the focus is on the meaning of 99

public and private administration, the features of public organizations, the differences between public and private administration, and the similarities between public and private administration.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a.

Define public and private administration.

b.

Identify the features of public organization.

c.

Distinguish between public and private administration.

d.

Identify the similarities between public and private administration.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

Meaning of Administration

Administration means the organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve specific set goals and objectives. (Fayol, 1925) The rudiment of administration is the coordination, evaluation and monitoring of Organization’s activities and programmes. Administration exists in all Organisations whether public or private and for the purpose of effectiveness and efficiency of services, ranges from schools Church/Mosque, Company, Ministries, Extra-Ministries, Parastatals, the Arms of government, Corporations etc. Administration exists in all these spheres of endeavours. There are need for human and material resources to be administered, if the Organisation is to attain its aim and objectives and also, of the aspirations of the Organization. However, renowned scholars of Public administration like Herbert Simon, Smith Burgh and Thompson believes that administration occurs when two men cooperate to roll a stone; which none of them can move alone, the rudiments of administration have appeared. Administration is concerned with the capacity of coordinating many and other conflicting social energies in single organisms (Simeon, 1976) 3.1.1 Meaning of Private Administration 100

There is no clear distinction between private and public administration. Private administrations are concerned with the activities of private Organizations that are not owned either jointly or principally by the government. Public administration is concerned with rendering of services to the public. Government policies and decisions have little or no impact on the affairs of private Organisations except in areas of regulations and compliance to government rules and regulations guiding their affairs. Whatever management decisions are taken and policies implemented in private organizations they belong to the realm of private administrations. Examples of Private Organisations are Doyin Groups of Companies, Shell, Nestle plc. Chevron Nigeria plc. Lever Brothers Nigeria Plc (LBN), Arthur Anderson and John Holt Ltd. Private organisation s which provides essential services is concerned with profit maximization and minimizing cost of productions. In some private organisation their services are more effective and efficient and are highly patronised by members of the public. Private organisation performs dual roles which is, profit orientation and rendering of services. For example, the African Independence Television (AIT), Silver bird Television (STV), TV Continental (TVC), etc. render effective and qualitative eservices of entertainment, informative, political, socio-economic and a lot of others in the communication industries. In private administration personnel are recruited the same way as in the public section, Training and Development of staff can be internal or external as that of public section but this depends on the type of organization and nature of services required.

3.1.2 Meaning of Public Administration The word Public Administration means the direct opposite of private administration. It is the administration of government owned institutions. The aims are for the provision of essential services to members of the public. Public administration also means the same as public management or can be used interchangeably. It can also be referred to as government administration or public sector administration. In Nigeria, there are three levels of public administration, which are: a.

Federal Government Administration

b.

State government Administration

c.

Local Government Administration 101

Public administration could also be defines as the art and science of managing government affairs, enforcing law and fulfilling public policy. Public Administration is regarded as an art since it concerns with the practical management of men and materials for public interest. And it is a science because it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient fulfilment of public policy. Early scholars regarded public administration as potentially a science that would emerge as the result of hypothesis and research findings. Woodrow Wilson (1887), referred public administration to the science of executive methods from the confusion and costliness of empirical experiment and set them on the foundations laid deep in principle. Charles A. Beard (1874), maintained that public administration is a body of “exact knowledge derived from experience and observation” (Simeon, 1976) Public administration can never become an exact science, for it relates to human behaviour and the cooperative activities of individuals in groups.. At first, the study of public administration was closely identified with the study of law, since the primary task of administration is the execution of law and its activities are circumscribed by law with ways and means of achieving efficiency and economy in the management of governmental agencies and human relations. Today the study of public administration has matured and is closely identified with political science, which is the study of government. It draws upon the other social sciences: Economics, Business Administration, Sociology, Psychology and Social Psychology, Statistics, History and Anthropology.

3.2

FEATURES OF PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS

The features of organisation are the same for every organization in all parts where public administration operates. The features of public organizations assist organizations to attain effectiveness and efficiency of the goals and objectives of such organisation. The Features are as follows: 1.

Public Organisations serve as a link between the government and the governed. Information is passed from the government to the people. Public administration helps to link these two segments.

2.

Public Servants are not allowed to take part in partisan politics; this is so because of the danger that the government which comes to power could victimize public servants, who are not in the same party. 102

3.

Appointment, discipline, dismissal and promotion into the public services are the responsibility of the Public Service Commission..

4.

Public Servants must be impartial in the discharge of their duties. Public administrators should not be influenced by party feelings; they have been barred from participating in politics. For instance, if a public servant is to take part in politics by standing for election, he has to resign from service before contesting for any political post.

5.

There is the principle of anonymity of public servants. Public administration is carried out by public servants who do not receive any credit or blame directly as they are acting on behalf of the ministers of the various ministries. While the Minister defends himself against any mistake and takes all the honours, he does not mention the name of any public servant.

6.

Neutrality of Public Administration refers to the need for public servants to protect the image of the government and without antagonizing the activities of the governments.

7.

Organizational Structure. All public organizations should possess internal structure that may be hierarchical in structure. They should also contain chain of command, unity of control, etc. for efficiency and effectiveness of such organizations.

8.

Public organizations are established through the Act of Parliament, with Constitutional provision of their services to the three tiers of government.

However, from the foregoing, one could be able to deduce that the features of Public Organisations can also be applied to private Organizations with little exception where applicable. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the relationship between public and private Administration. 2. Identify the features of public Organisation

3.3 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS OR ADMINISTRATION.

AND

PRIVATE

There exist some similarities between the public and private organizations: in the conditions of service and other operations of these organizations.

103

1.

Both Organizations are guided in differing extent by government Circulasr, Gazette, Bulletins, Constitution etc. The regulations ensure both Organizations have an enabling environment to perform.

2.

Both Organizations may have similar conditions of service in terms of pension and other welfare packages offered by these organizations.

3.

Both Organizations provide essentials services like banking services, petroleum and oil supplies, telephone services, educational services, etc.

4.

Both Organizations source for personnel in the labour market, applicants should the minimum qualification before recruitment into these organizations.

5.

Both Organizations exist simply to render goods and services, profit making and the satisfaction of the public through their various activities, programmes and products etc.

6.

Both Organizations source for capital for operations either internally and externally from the public through the sales of shares

7.

Both Organizations have one form of organisational structure or another usually a hierarchical mode of operations, chain of command, division of labour, professionalism etc.

4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on the comparison of Public and Private Administration, we can deduce that there exist some levels of similarities in the performance of their duties. Both operate by coordinating and directing of human and material resources. Public administration in government owned organisations is mostly not for profit making, but for the provision of essential services. Private organisations are purely established to provide goods and services in a profitable manner. Both organizations have conditions of services and source for personnel in a common market.

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, there exist some levels of differences between public and private Organisations. The differences are mostly felt in the features of these Organizations. Private Organizations are out for profit making irrespective of the services rendered. The differences between public and private administration are in the setting and formation of the Organizations. There also 104

exist some levels of similarities between the two organisations in terms of conditions of service and other operations of these Organizations.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: 1.

Differentiate between Public and Private Administration.

2.

What are the similarities between private and public organisations?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Anifowose Remi And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Malt House Press Limited Beard,C (1874) Introduction To Public Administration; Nym Press Limited. Fayol, H (1925) Elements Of Management; New York, Macmillan Ladipo, P.K.A And Omoyele, S. Olufemi (2003), Management Theory And Practice, Published By Bt And Associates, Ilorin Nigeria. Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony, (2004), Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach, Book point Ltd Mbieli Patrick, (2006): Public Administration, A Broad View. Megavons (West Africa) Limited Simon A. Herbert (1946), Approaches To Public Administration, Book Of The Half Century 4th Edition Victor, B.E. Abia (1998), A Ground Work Of Public Administration,. Olucity Printing Limited Woodrow, W (1887), The Study Of Public Administration; Published In the political science quarterly

105

UNIT 11 ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA TABLE OF CONTENT 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 106

3.1

Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria

3.2

Public Administration in the Pre-Colonial Northern Region of

Nigeria 3.3

Public Administration in the Pre-colonial Western Region of Nigeria

3.4

Public Administration in the Pre-Colonial Eastern Region of Nigeria

3.5

The Organization Structure of Colonial Civil Services in Nigeria

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last unit you were informed about the features of public and private organisations. This unit is on the Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria. The focus is on Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria. We shall look at the meaning of Ecology of Public Administration as well as Public Administration, during the Pre-Colonial era of the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria and the Organization Structure of Colonial Civil Service in Nigeria 2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a.

Define Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria.

b.

Explain Public Administration during the Pre-Colonia era in the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria.

c.

Analyse the Organization Structure of Colonial Civil Service in Nigeria. 107

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

Meaning of Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria

Ecology of public administration is concerned with the relation between people (ways and manner of political administration) and the environment in which they operate. Ecology of Public Administration can also be referred to the influence of public administration by the environment. The concept of ecology of public administration as a discipline, and field of study started in the late 18 th century. It started with scholars from the United States of America and Europe. The concept on the ecology of public administration varies in structure, organizations and approach. Ecology of public administration also varies from region to region due to human interrelationships and influence on the environment. Evolution of public administration on the other hand, shown the progression and trend it has made over time. In Nigeria, the essential variables of the Ecology and Evolution of public administration are the diversity of the people, culture, customs and traditions which vary from one state to another. Each of the ethnic communities has their peculiar style of administration in relations with the influence of the environment. Furthermore the history of Islam and other religious practices has great influence on the Ecology and Evolution of public administration in Nigeria and other areas of the world. However, various forms of administration existed in Nigeria during the pre-colonial period in Nigeria. 3.2

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE PRE-COLONIAL ERA.

3.2.1 Political Structure of Public Administration in Northern Region in the Pre-Colonial Era.

SULTAN EMIRS

DISTRICT HEADS 108

SARKIN DAWA

MA’AJI

DONGARIS

Figure: 6.1 Structure of Public Administration in the Northern Region of Nigeria: Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004) During the pre-colonial era, ecology and evolution of Public administration of the Northern region was divided into three main functions which are: 1. Legislator: The Sultan of Sokoto, performs the role of the Legislator in the whole of the northern region. As the overall head, he makes and enacts laws in the whole of the Hausa/Fulani Empire. 2. Executive: The Emirs are the Chief Executive of the kingdom. They perform the role of the executive. They are fully in charge of matters affecting the property and life of the whole Hausa kingdom. They operate Islamic law derived from Sharia 3. Judiciary: These are the Islamic lawyers vast with Islamic teaching; they adjudicate and punish anyone that contravenes Islamic laws. The Hausa and the Fulani’s constitute the diversity of people in the Northern region. The type of administration practiced in the Northern Region of Nigeria during the pre- colonial era was a centralized system. The system was successful due to the influence of Islamic jurisdictions and style of leadership adopted. However, public administration in the northern region during the pre109

colonial era was easy. The Sultan and its kinsmen were in charge before the advent of colonialism. The Sultan was at the apex of affairs with unquestionable powers.

He has absolute control of power and authority of the traditional

administration of the northern region. His powers were equated to that of the Governor-general, Sir Lord Lugard. The Emirs are the Heads who ruled their domains or jurisdictions on behalf of the Sultan. These emirs, head their domains and are accountable to the sultan for effective and efficiency of administration. The kingdom was divided into districts and governed by district head. Each unit of government had specialized departments handling specific duties. The Galadima’s are in charge of the daily administration of the Northern region. The treasury (internally generated revenue) was controlled by the Ma’aji, who move all over the region. Internal security and maintainer of laws and order is controlled by the Dongaris, they exercised the powers of the military and performs police duties. The Alkalis were those who interpret and enforce the laws; the alkalis are experts in Islamic jurisprudence and are Lawyers by profession. The Sarkin-Ruwas are in charge of fishing and other related aquatic activities in the region. The Sarkindawa are the officers in charge of butchers and other related activities while the Madawaki are the commanders in charge of Calvary (cemeteries) and other related activities. However, from the foregoing we can deduce that powers and authorizes flow down the seat of power (the Sultan of Sokoto) to the Madawaki, Wiziri and the Galadimas on the field. However these lines of powers and authorities are strictly adhered to. 3.3 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE PRE-COLONIAL WESTERN REGION OF NIGERIA. 3.3.1 Political Structure of Public Administration in Pre-colonial Western Region of

Nigeria. ALAFIN 110

BASHORUN (Prime Minister)

Figure 6.2 Structure of Public Administration in the Western Region of Nigeria: Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004) Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration in pre-colonial western region in Nigeria was a mixture of Centralization and Decentralization of powers and authorities. Six states constituted the Western region. There was a mixed variation in the administrative system and governance of the Western region unlike in the Northern region. The system of administration was centralized because power and authority come from the Alafin and decentralized because some groups of persons were engaged in the removal of the centralized power in areas where these powers and authorities have stronghold. The Alafin was fully-in-charge. He was the political head and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The Alafin was so powerful that he was considered as “next to God” (Obikeze and Obi, 2003.) with the cooperation of the Baale’s. He conquered villages and communities within the region paid tributes to the Alafin. Subordinating the Alafin was the Bashorun(Prime Minister) their power and functions are similar to that of the Emirs in the Northern region. The Bashorun and Cabinet ministers administered 111

their domains on behalf of the Alafin. They head functional departments of the Western region and are accountable to the Alafin.

The Oyomesi, are the

ordinary ministers whose major role is to check the excesses of the Alafin. However, the Alafin could not rule without the full co-operation of his chiefs, if his administration is autocratic, the chiefs could decide to depose him, and if convinced of an offence they pass judgement on his office. The Aare Onakakanfo is in command and control of the Army. His role is equivalent to the Dongaris of the Northern region, he exercised the powers of the military and the police; he is in control and maintenance of laws and security of the region. Other specialized departments of the Western region are the Native doctors, Sooth Sayers, Diviners, Babalawo’s and the Orisa Priest (diviner) whom are under the powers of the Aare Ona-kakanfo. However, the Alafin consults their opinions for the way forward on the entire region. Any Oba (Alafin) that defaults to carry the people along will be asked to commit suicide or to leave his seat.

Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain Public administration in Pre-Colonial Eastern Region of Nigeria 2. Comment on the Organisational Structure of the Colonial Civil Service. 3.4

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN PRE-COLONIAL ERA IN THE

EASTERN

REGION OF NIGERIA

3.4.1 Public Structure of Public Administration in Eastern Region in the Pre-Colonial Era. VILLAGE HEAD (Okpara Title) VILLAGE GROUPS (Ozo Title) AGE GRADES 112

SECRET SOCIETIES

Figure: 6.3 Structure of Public Administration in the Eastern Region of Nigeria: Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004) Ecology and Evolution of public administration in the pre-colonial era of the Eastern Region in Nigeria took a different scenario. The diffused system of authority was described as fragmented (Obikeze and Obi, 2003). During this era, political administration varied from one town to another and this undoubted encountered major problems. The central government is a mixture of politically equivalent units; such as village groups, towns’ lineages, age grades and secret societies. Each head of lineage makes law for members of his lineage. Each fragment head has full powers and control of the armed forces unlike the Western and Northern regions. Each fragment had defined obligation in community’s service. There is rivalry and power tussle among communities over trivial issues and good will. The secret societies of the Eastern region were valuable instruments of social control; there activities are not binding by law. The eldest man in every family provides political and administrative powers. A good number of families formed a lineage and every lineage is headed by the most senior person. Head of all the lineages constitutes the elders of council; the Okpara is the over-all head, he is the most senior person of the council of elders. However, the most senior Okpara title holders are crowned with the Ozo title and this automatically make them members of the elder’s council of the Igbos Empire. However, the Okpara has no power and authority on issues bordering the Igbo Empire except those one’s that affects his own lineage. The Okpara has no supreme power unlike the Emirs and Oba of the Yoruba’s and Hausa kingdoms. This is why the system was regarded as decentralized since each head makes law for members of its own lineage, there is devolution of powers and 113

authorities in the Eastern region of the Pre-Colonial Era. However, the Legislative and Executive functions where performed by the elder’s council, while judiciary functions are performed by the age grade groups. However, in some Igbo speaking states like Anambra is ruled by king. The institution of chieftaincy was alien to them, religious leaders, warriors, village heads combined to carry out the administration of the villages and to some extent, vested with powers and authorities to exercise absolute control of these areas. It was the absence of chieftaincy institution in the Eastern region that the British had to create the “warrant chief” to administer the Igbo land like their counterparts in the Northern and Western regions. However, the entire region was divided into different lineages and each lineage is made up of families.

3.5

THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF COLONIAL CIVIL

SERVICE. QUEEN

COLONIAL SECRETARY

GOVERNOR-GENERAL

PROVISIONAL COMMISSION

RESIDENT OFFICERS

DISTRICT COMMISSIONER

114 DISTRICT OFFICERS

Figure: 6.4 Structure of Colonial Civil Service Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004) In the organisational structure of the Colonial Civil Service, power and authority come from the Queen of England; the Queen was fully in charge of administration of the colonial civil service in Nigeria. She was commander in chief, all powers and authorities are confined to the Queen. The Queen together with the colonial Secretary in England makes and enacts law for the civil servants. Her Legislative functions is strictly law making. Next to the queen is the colonial secretary. He is directly accountable to the British cabinet and Member of Parliament constituted by the queen. The Governor-general was directly answerable to the colonial secretary who in turn fed the Queen with information. The Governor-general acted as the representative of the Queen of London. He exercised total control of power and authorities’ over the territories they occupied. He accounts directly to the colonial secretary in London. The provincial Commissioner acts as the Chief Secretary to the Governor-general. They coordinate the activities of the Civil Service. This includes the departmental (technical and professional) and political administration of the territory. Below the provincial commissioner were the resident officers, their major function is to assist the provincial commissioner to initiate policies, participate in legislation and to supervise the execution of re-enacted bills and approved policies as directed by the Queen of London. However, the resident officers operate from the central control of district Commissioners. The district commissioners carried out their duties without deference to any clientele. The district officers were the field officers, they are sometimes referred to as Lieutenant-Governors. These set of officers do not administer to the people 115

directly instead, they ruled the people through the indirect rule system with the aids of the Oba, Sultan and Obi. (Obikeze and Obi, 2003). However, whatever changes

and transformation that

have

occurred

to

Nigerian public

administration, the legacy of the Colonial Civil Service had an enduring effect on the character and structure of the Nigerian civil service. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on Ecology and Evolution of public administration in Nigeria, the origin of Civil Service administration in Nigeria can be traced to the British during the pre-colonial era. The diversity of the people’s culture, customs and traditions varied from one region to another. Each ethnic community has a peculiar style of administration in relation with their immediate environment. In the Northern region, the system of public administration was centralized. The Sultan of Sokoto was in control of affairs. The Alafin of Oyo Empire was in control of affairs of the Western region. The region witness a mixture of centralization and decentralization of powers and authorities. The Alafin cannot rule without the full co-operation of his chiefs. The Eastern region, witnessed a different scenario. The system of administration adopted was completely decentralized; there was devolution of powers and authorities. 5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that Ecology and Evolution of Public administration are concerned with human influences and the environment. The progression and trends that have been made over time. The concept of Ecology and Evolution varies from one region to another in term of structure, organizations and approach. In Nigeria, the diversity of the people, culture, customs, and traditions testifies to this. The essentials of Public administration in the Northern region were mainly Legislative, Executive and Judicial. In the Western region, the Bashorun was seen as the Prime Minister with so much power. Power and authority in the Northern and Western regions was Centralised, while in the 116

Eastern region the system of administration practised was decentralised. The Nigerian Civil Service structure is a legacy of the colonial Civil Service of the pre-colonial era.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Define Ecology to Public Administration?

2.

Compare the system of Public Administration of the Northern and Western Regions of the Pre-Colonial Era in Nigeria.

7.0

REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Ademolukun, L. (1983), Public administration: a Nigerian comparative perspective, Lagos, longman ltd. Bello, S.A, Ojodu, H. O, Ogunyomi, P.O and Legbeti,P (2004), Public administration system in Nigeria ,raamson printing service. Obiajulu, Sunday.Obikeze and Obi, Emeka Anthony, (2004), Public administration in Nigeria, a developmental approach. bookpoint limited Mbieli Patrick, (2006) Public administration, a broad view. megavons (west africa) limited

117

MODULE THREE UNIT

12

PUBLIC POLICY Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Meaning of Public Policy 3.1.1 Features of Public Policy 3.1.2 Significance of Public Policy

3.2

Types of Public Policy

3.3

Components/Stages of Policy Making Process

3.4

Approaches to Public Policy Analysis

`

3.4.1 Political Systems Theory 3.4.2 Group Theory 3.4.3 Elite Theory 3.4.4 Functional Process 3.4.5 Institutionalism Theory 3.5

4.0

Roles of Public Administration in Policy Making

Conclusion 118

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, you have learnt about what public personnel management is all about. This unit will take you a step further into the concept of public policy. In this unit, the focus will be on the meaning and features of public policy, the differences between public policy and decisions making, the components and types of public policy, the various approaches to Public Policy analysis, the roles and relationship between public administration and policy making process in Nigeria.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1.

Define Public Policy.

2.

Differentiate between Public Policy and Decision Making.

3.

List the types and components of Policy Making Process.

4.

Identify the various approaches to Public Policy Analysis.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

MEANING OF PUBLIC POLICY

Noticeable scholars of public administration have made contributions on what public policy is all about. The definitions of Thomas Dye, Patrick Mbieli, Ikelegbe , James Anderson, Carl Friedrich, Theodore Lowi and a host of others centred on a common concept. Policy is set of decisions put in place by individuals and governments within a given society (Nwankwo, 1988). Dye (1955), defines Public Policy as whatever governments “choose to do or not to do”. There is a rough accuracy to this definition. Dye’s definition portrays policy as a single action instead of a course of actions with a well-defined purpose. Dye explains public policy in terms of what government proposes to do instead of what it actually does. Carl (1963), defines policy as a proposed course of action of a person, group, or government within a given environment providing obstacles and opportunities which the policy was proposed to utilize and overcome in an effort to reach a goal or realize an objective or a purpose”. 119

His definition contains the idea of policy as a course of action directed towards the accomplishment of some purpose or goal. James (1960), defines Policy as a purposive course of actions followed by an actor or set of actors dealing with the problem or matter of concern. This concept of policy focuses intention on what was actually done as against what is proposed or intended, and it differentiates a policy from a decision, which is a choice among competing alternatives. Public Policies are those policies developed by governmental bodies and officials. The special characteristics of Public Policies stem from the fact that they are formulated by “authorities” in a political system. Examples of such authorities are The Provisional Ruling Council, Armed Forces, Ruling Council, the Presidency, the Legislature, Councillor etc. Mbiele (2006), defines Public Policy as the general statement of the people’s intentions, goals and objectives with the adoption of workable measures for the realization of targeted interests and satisfaction of needs. Eyestone (1971), defines Public Policy as the relationship of the governmental units to their environment”. Dye (1955), also sees public policy as “what government choose to do or not to do. It is the integrated courses and programmes of actions and practices in certain problem areas”. Public policy is simply governmental actions and programmes of action towards solving societal problems. Policy is flexible and dynamic in nature and it differs from rules which are specific and rigid. Policy is a conscious effort and it differs from custom which springs from the land of the society. Policy is of a wider nature having the goals, means and the end while decision is selection of one alternative out of several alternatives. It is pertinent to emphasize that policy consists of courses or patterns of action by governmental officials rather than their separate decisions. For example, a policy includes not only the decision to enact a law on some issue but also subsequent decisions relating to its implementation and enforcement. Public policy may be either positive or negative in form. A policy is positive, if it involves some form of overt government action to solve a particular problem. It is negative, if it involves a decision by government officials not to take action or to do nothing on some matter for which governmental involvement is sought. 3.1.1 Features of Public Policy: The features of public policy are: a.

It is subject to constant changes that is, dynamic in nature.

b.

It utilizes opportunities and states how to overcome obstacles in accomplishing a purpose.

c.

It is a course of action of activity of a person, group or government.

d.

It is an activity involving governmental and non-governmental actor and factors etc. 120

3.1.2 Significance of Public Policy Public policy is significant for the following reasons: a.

It is an instrument for expression of the will of the people.

b.

It is a chief tool of the government.

c.

It develops the administratively.

d.

It represents verbal, written or implied basic guide to all administrative management actions.

3.2

TYPES OF PUBLIC POLICY

people

socially,

economically,

politically

and

Public policy varies from one sector to another. There are different types of policies depending on different criteria of classification; there can be public policy in the areas of Housing, Education, Health, Transport, Agriculture, Industry etc. Policies can also be classified based on intent, operating process, issues and clientele. However, Lowi (1964), classified Policies into three; Distributive, Regulatory and Redistributive. a.

Distributive Policies

These are policies relating to tariff or taxes and public and, allocation of public amenities etc. Ikelegbe (1996), states that, distributive policies are those which involve incremental dispersal, unit to different segments of the population and to individuals and institutions, they are actually favours benefits or patronage policies, dispensed to a small number of people. The dispersal is continual and thus, those not favoured at one point may be accommodated through further dispersal at some other time. One distinguishing attribute of distributive policies is that it does not generate conflict among those seeking to benefit from the policy. The main reason for this is that distribution is continual and those who lose out initially are almost certain of gaining later (Ikelegbe, 1996) In this type of policy, the decision maker is neither aware of all the alternatives nor of their consequences. This condition is more rampant in real life situation as most decision making are done under conditions of uncertainty. Here, the decisions are based on the few alternatives known to the decision maker and his limited knowledge of their consequences.

b.

Regulatory Policy

Regulatory policies are meant to control the activities of different groups in the society. Regulatory policies are targeted at particular sectors and as such, they 121

generate tensions and even conflicts between competing sectors. The government in the discharge of its duties of protecting the citizens has to issue guidelines, rules and regulations that guide the conducts of various groups and sectors of the society. Regulatory policies are made for victor and losers, a lot of conflicts are usually involved since people don’t like losing, people who lose may not accept in good faith and they strive to change the policy to their favour. Examples of these policies are Labour laws, import policies, financial regulation and other government policies aimed at regulating business and the activities of groups in society. c.

Redistributive Policies

These are policies that tend to transfer resources from one sector or group to another. e.g. revenues from the Oil sector to Health or Transportation sectors. Redistributive Policies are government policies that favour a particular group to the detriment of others to achieve equity or inequity. These types of policies naturally generate conflicts and tensions. The beneficiaries of these policies are quite easy to identify because the issue in question may involve class, ideological, tribal, religious or geographical lines. Examples of these policies are government’s progressive tax policies, social welfare programmes and sect oral allocation preference policies. 3.3

STAGES OF THE POLICY MAKING PROCESS

There are three stages in the policy making process, they are (a) Policy Formulation (b) Policy Implementation and (c) Policy Evaluation. A.

Policy Formulation

The process of policy formulation varies from society to society. In most democratic societies today, the Judiciary and Legislature play a major role in the policy making process. Individuals and groups are getting more and more involved in decision making process. It is this realization that has given rise to the concept of the pluralist theory of policy formulation”. Others have argued that instead of talking of pluralism, the dominant factor is the elite. In other to balance the view of both the pluralist theory and the elite theory Lindblom (1990), came out with what is called Partisan Mutual Adjustment, which facilitates agreement among partisans on values and decisions. However in policy formulation, public involvement is very important because it helps in the implementation stage. People easily obey or accept polices they take part in formulating than those forced on them. The following are steps in Policy formulation process: i.

Identification of the problem: What is a policy problem, what makes it a policy problem, how does it get on the agenda of the government? 122

B.

ii.

Development of alternative courses of action: How are alternatives for dealing with the problem developed, who participates in policy formulation, what is the cost implication of the proposed policy?

iii.

Analysis of alternative: Where the alternatives are critical analyse for the best option.

iv.

Selection of one alternative/policy choice for adoption: How are alternatives analysed, adopted and enacted, what requirements must be met?

Policy Implementation

This is the critical stage in policy making process as it determines the overview of the quality of the decision made. This stage is very sensitive and subject to criticism. The quality of a policy is determined by its implementation, and not how good it looks on paper. The 6 – 3 – 3 – 4 policy on education looks so good on paper but how effective is it since inception? In Nigeria, it is well known fact that, the ability to implement a policy is a big problem. However, policy implementation centres on, who is involved, what is to be done to carry policy into effect, what resources are available for policy implementation, what impact does this have on policy content. The following factors are considered when policies are to be implemented. I. Clarity and Specificity of Policy: Before policies are adopted for implementation, the intention of such policies would have been known clear and specific on a particular sector, item or purpose. Any policy that is not clear, direct and specific in nature may be rejected by the masses. The interest and opinion of the people have to be considered before implementing such policy. The government should enlighten the people on public policies in order to enlist their support and cooperation. ii. Implementation Organization: Before embarking on Programme implementation there is supposed to be an appraisal of the institutional capacity of the implementing organization to know whether the policy can be implemented or not. Most government policies are not properly implemented due to inadequate institutional capabilities which need to be created or to upgrade the existing ones. iii. Identification/Assessment of the Target Group: Every policy formulation has a purpose and target group once this has been achieved, implementation of such policy takes centre stage. For instance, if a group has an organized leadership, the government may decide to penetrate the group through its leaders. iv. The Environment: The environment where the policy is to be implemented must be taken into consideration. Some salient features within the 123

environment have to be considered for the success and failure of the policies. In Nigeria, the enactment and implementation of Sharia law was restricted to few states of the country because the people’s religion or way of life permits such policies. The peculiarities of each location must be of much concern to the policy implementation team. C.

Policy Evaluation

Evaluation of policies can be done by the policy makers, the implementing organ, members of the public and public policy analysts or experts. There are some good techniques used in policy evaluation, these include the Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), the Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA), Management by Objectives (MBO), Programme planning and Budgeting System (PPBS), Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), and Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB). Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the Component of Policy Making Process. 2. Explain the factors to be considered for Policies Implementation.

3.4 APPROACHES TO PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS.

Theoretical approaches are relevant to public policy analysis in the sense that they direct our attention to important political phenomena, help clarify and simplify our thinking, and suggest possible explanations of the form and outcome of public policy. The approaches in this unit include systems theory, group theory, elite theory, functional process theory and institutionalism. 3.4.1.

Political Systems Theory

Public Policy may be viewed as the response of a political system to demands arising from its environment. Easton (1965), states that the political system theory, is composed of those identifiable and interrelated institutions and activities in a society that make authoritative decisions (or allocations of values) that are binding on society. Inputs into the system from the environment consist of demands and supports for the policy. The environment consists of all those 124

conditions and events external to the boundaries of the political system. Demands are the claims made by individuals and groups on the political system for action to satisfy their interests. Support is rendered when groups and individuals abide by election results, pay taxes, obey laws, and otherwise accept the decisions and actions of the authoritative political system made in response to demands. These authoritative allocations of values constitute public policy (David, 1965). The usefulness of systems is limited by its highly general nature. It does not say much concerning how decisions are made and policies developed within the political system. Despite these limitations, systems theory is a useful concept in organizing inquiries into policy formation. It also gives alerts of some significant aspects of the political process, such as: How do environmental inputs affect the content of public policy and the nature of the political system? How does public policy affect demands for action? What factors or forces in the environment act to generate demands upon the political system? How is the political system able to convert demands into public policy and preserve itself over time. 3.4.2 Group Theory Group theorists perceive the political system as a gigantic network of groups in a constant state of interaction with one another. This interaction takes the form of pressures and counter pressures, the outcome of which defines the state of the political system at any given time. A group may be defined as an aggregate of individuals who interact in varying degrees in pursuance of a common interest (David, 1965). Examples of groups are Trade unions, Cooperatives, Business, Ethnic and Religious Organizations; institutional interest groups such as Legislatures, Bureaucracies, Political parties, the Military, Churches etc. There are also interest groups in the form of spontaneous and eruptive aggregations such as riots, demonstrations and other manifestations of mob activity. A group becomes a political interest group when it makes claims through or upon any 125

institutions of government. This group believes that public policy is the product of the group struggle. From this perspective, public policy is the equilibrium reached in the group’s struggle at any given moment, and it represents a balance which the contending factions or groups constantly strive to weigh in their favour. Public Policy at any given time will reflect the interests of dominant groups. As groups gain and lose power and influence, public policy could be altered in favour of the interests of those gaining influence against the interests of those losing influence. Limitations of Group theory Even though it focuses attention on one of the major dynamic elements in policy formulation in pluralist societies, group theory seems both to overstate the importance of groups and to understate the independent and creative role that public officials, political leaders, institutions and ideas play in the policy process. Group analysis has traditionally assumed that individuals are bound together in order to enhance their chances of obtaining a common goal or good. Implicit in this reasoning is the assumption that groups pursue their self-interest in the same manner as individuals seek their self-interest. (Olson, 1997) Shown in his Theory of Collective Goods is that individuals within large groups will not ac t to achieve the common or group interest. This conclusion is based on the premise that individuals act rationally and in their own self-interest. However, Olson (1997) states that, If the members of a large group rationally seek to maximize their personal welfare, they will not act to advance their common or group objectives unless there is coercion to force them to do so, or unless some separate incentive, distinct from the achievement of the common or group interest, is offered to the members of the group individually on the condition that they help bear the costs or burdens involved in the achievement of group objectives. Despite these limitations, real or perceived inter-group hostilities and struggles have sometimes been exploited in the process of

126

colonial

or

neo-imperialist

penetration

of

political

systems

in

the

less/technologically developed countries.

3.4.3Elite Theory The fundamental perspective of the elite approach is summarized by the assertion that all political systems are divided into two strata – those who rule and those who are ruled. The rulers are labelled the political elite, and these elite are the most significant aspects of any political system. The political elite are that group which possesses most political power and which makes most important political decisions in a society. The elite group is composed of minority individuals who are most active in political affairs. By focusing analysis upon this particular group within the political system, one can best understand the processes of political life. However, one can deduce that public policy can be regarded as the values and preferences of governing elite. The essential argument of elite theory is that it is not the people or the “masses” who determine public policy through their demands and action; rather public policy is decided by ruling elite and carried into effect by public officials and their Organizations. Basic Elements of the Elite Theory (a)

Society is divided into few, who have power and the many who do not.

Only a small number of persons allocate values for society; the masses do not decide public policy. (b) The few who govern are not typical of the masses that are governed. Elites are drawn disproportionately from the upper socio-economic strata of society.

127

(c)The movement of non-elite positions must be slow and continuous to maintain stability and avoid revolution. Only non-elites who have accepted the basic elite consensus can be admitted to governing circles. (d) Elites share a consensus on the basic values of the social system and the preservation of the system. In the United States, for example, the elite consensus includes private enterprise, private property, limited government, and individual liberty. (e) Public policy does not reflect demands of the masses but rather the prevailing values of the elites. Changes in public policy will be incremental rather than revolutionary. (f) Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic masses. Elites influence masses more than masses influence elites. Elite theory focuses attention on the role of leadership in policy formulation and on the fact that in any political system a few govern the many. However, the crucial issue of the participation of the masses in policy formulation depends upon the types of regimes in power. 3.4.3 Functional Process Theory Another way to approach the study of policy formulation is to focus on the various functional activities that occur in the policy process. Lasswell (1954), presents a scheme involving seven categories of functional analysis that will serve as the basis for our discussion: i.

Intelligence: How is the information on policy matters that come to the attention of policy makers gathered and processed?

ii.

Recommendation: How are recommendations (or alternatives) for dealing with a given issue made and promoted?

iii.

Prescription: How are general rules adopted or enacted, and by whom?

128

iv.

Invocation: Who determines whether given behaviour contravenes rules or laws and demands application of rules or laws thereto?

v.

Application: How are laws and rules actually applied or enforced?

vi.

Appraisal: How is the operation of policies, their successes and failures appraised?

vii.

Termination: How are the original rules or laws terminated or continued in modified or changed from?

The scheme of analysis is not tied to particular institutions or political arrangements and lends itself readily to comparative analysis of policy formation. One can inquire how these different functions are performed, to what effect, and by whom in different political systems or government units. However, its emphasis on functional grounds may lead to neglect of the politics of policy formulation and the effect of environmental variables on the process. Obviously, policy formulation is more than an intellectual process. 3.4.5 Institutionalism Theory The study of government institutions is one of the oldest concerns of political science. Political life generally revolves around governmental institutions such as Legislative, Executive, Courts, and political parties. Public Policy is initially authoritatively determined and implemented by government institutions. Even though earlier studies of institutions tended to place emphasis on formal and structural aspect, they could be usefully employed in policy analysis. An institution is a set of regularized patterns of human behaviour that persist over time. As such they can affect decision making and the content of public policy. Rules and structural arrangements in organizations are not usually neutral in essence; they tend to favour some interests in society over others, some policy results rather than others.

129

3.5 Roles of Public Administrators In Public Policy Making In Nigeria The role of public administrators in policy making in Nigeria varies with the regimes in power. The First Civilian Regime (1960 – 1966) i.

Permanent Secretaries were Heads of the various Ministries and assisted in the development of policies and plans and the determination of the means of their implementation.

ii.

Top Civil Servants (in theory) are to advice the ministers on policy issues by preparing a list of possible policy options from which ministers preferred option.

iii.

Ministers relied vary greatly on technical expertise of civil servants for development of policies, the reasons is because Party bureaucracies could not deal with development of policies.

iv.

Permanent Secretaries could go for briefings with the Prime Minister when they felt that a wrong policy decision was about to be taken by the Minister or Cabinet.

The Military Regimes (1966 – 1979) i.

The military rely too heavily on public servants for advice on policies, simply because they are not trained in the art of government.

ii.

Under military regimes, Permanent Secretaries were accountable to and advised Commissioners, the Federal Executive Council, the Supreme Military Council, and sometimes the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, for example the top civil servants advised against the ratification of the Aburi accord.

iii.

The increased political role of the civil servants brought them into limelight as a political interest group. Thus, the Murtala Mohammed regime embarked on the historic “purge of 1975” in which about 11,000

130

civil servants were fired or retired from the service. He blamed public administrators, for the indecision of the Gowon Regime. The Civilian Presidential Regime i.

Top civil servants were accountable to the politicians under the civilian regimes – the President and Vice-president, the Ministers, and Special advisers to the President and the Legislature.

ii.

Public

Servants

had

indirect

influence

on

the

initiation

and

implementation of policies because of their possession of technical expertise. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on public policy, we can deduce that Public policy is the bedrock of any government whether military or civilian. It is what differentiates one government from another. The programmes and projects of the governments are usually derived from the policies. This therefore makes the development of policy management skills necessary for both public servants and public office holders. A bad policy can make a government loose an election. It is therefore important that public policy formulation process should include a very robust consultation stage which will enable all the ramifications of the policy to be considered 5.0 SUMMARY Public policy means the general statement of the people’s intentions, goals, objectives and decisions put in place by individuals and government within a society. Public policy refers to government actions and programmes towards solving societal problems. Policy can either be analysed as positive where the impact is felt and accepted and negative where the people react negatively. Policies are supposed to be flexible and dynamic in nature and not rigid. Policies are significant in that they of help to develop the people socially, economically, politically and administratively. Policies can be classified into Distributive, Regulatory and Redistributive and these can further be classified as Broad, Specific and General Policies. The stages of policy formulation process are Formulation, Implementation, and Evaluation. These processes vary from one sector or society to another. The approaches of public policy 131

analysis are systems, group, elite, functional and institutionalism theories. The oldest of public policy is the institutionalism theory which activities and concerns revolve around governmental institutions. The roles of public administrators in policy making in Nigeria vary with the regimes in power. 6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

a.

Define Public Policy.

b.

List and explain the types of policies

2.

List and discuss the approaches to public policy analysis.

7.0

References/Further Reading

Anderson, James E. (1960), Public Policy Making; New York, Mcgraw – Hill.Easton, David (1965), A System Analysis Of Political Life; New York, Wiley Eyestone, R (1971), Public Administration; Decision Making Books; New York, Macmillan Friedrich, Carl J. (1963) Man And His Government, New York Mcgraw – Hill. Ikelegbe, A. O. (1996) Public Policy Making And Analysis, Benin; Uri Publishing Ltd Lasswell, H. D (1954), Public Administration; New York; Meridian Books Lindblom, C. E (1990), The Science Of Muddling Through; Public Administration Review Nwankwo G. O. (1988) Education And Training For Public Management In Nigeria, Onitsha; University Publishing Company Obiajulu, Sunday O And Obi, Emeka (2004) Public Administration In Nigeria; A Developmental Approach. Bookpoint Limited Olson, M. (1997), The logic of collective action in bill, comparative politics: the quest for theory Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Public administration a broad view. megavons (west africa) limited Thomas, Dye R. (1955) Understanding public policy, Englewood cliffs, n. u. prentice – hall 2nd ed. 132

UNIT 13 THE CONCEPT OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO) Table of Content: 1.0

Introduction 133

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Definition of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

3.2

Types of Chief Executive Officer

3.3

Responsibilities of Chief Executive Officer

3.4

Roles and Functions of the Chief Executive Officer 3.4.1 Roles of the Chief Executive Officer 3.4.2 Functions of Chief Executive Officer

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference and Further Reading …

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you have an idea about what public policy is all about. This section will take you a step further into the Concept of the Chief Executive Officer. In this unit, the focus is on the Chief Executive Officer, we shall be looking at meaning and concepts of the Chief Executive Officer. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is the term used for the Head of an organisation both in the public and the private sectors. This unit will discuss the responsibilities, roles and functions of the Chief Executive Officer. In the public service, the (CEO) comes under the nomenclature: Minister, Director General, Chairman, Commissioner or Managing Director.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 134

a.

Define the Chief Executive Officer.

b.

Identify the roles and responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officers.

c.

List and explain the functions of the Chief Executive Officer

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

DEFINITION OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO)

The Chief Executive Officer is an administrator, Head and Coordinator of all the activities in an organization. The Chief Executive Officer can be found in the following sectors e.g. educational, financial institutions, Company, Industries, firm or corporate establishments etc. He is a diplomat of his Organization. The Chief Executive Officer is at the top of the management team, and exercises full powers, authority and control over its subordinates (Lawal, 1993)The Chief Executive Officer directly or indirectly gets involved in all the major functions or activities of the Organization. He/she is basically responsible for formulating the goals of the organization with the aids of the management in place. Before any meaningful decisions about what, where and how resources would be put into use, the (CEO) must ensure that they are carefully and logically made after considering various alternatives. For his subordinates to accomplish the set goals of the Chief Executive Officers they must have common interest, to actualize the objectives of the Organization, they must be professionals or technocrats in their various fields and be able to work with minimum supervision. The Chief Executive Officer must bear in mind staff welfare, customers’ interest and the achievement of the goals and objectives of the Organization. In the public service, the Ministers at the Federal and Commissioners at the state levels could be referred to as the Chief Executive Officers because they are fully in-charge or they occupy the apex position in their various ministries or department; they exercise full powers, authority and control over their subordinates, even though they occupy elective positions. Stewart (1967), believes that a CEO is one who has the capability to achieve results through 135

other people by instructing, controlling, influencing, guiding and persuading or a mixed of these in a particular situation. From this definition, we can deduce that the Chief Executive Officer is an achiever. In private organizations, the CEO is best described as an achiever only when the organization is profitable irrespective of the qualities of services offered. In the public service, the effectiveness and efficient of the resources by the administrators or civil servants determines if the Chief Executive Officer is an achiever or not. Abrogated Decree 43 of 1988 made the Minister both the Chief Executive and Accounting Officer. This is one of the major changes in the civil service structure of 1988. The position of Chief Executive Officer is the highest rank in any Organization whether private or public service. He is in charge of job description of his personnel; he determines salary schedules and grade of staff, and takes full responsibilities of the resources (Human, Material and Finance) of the Organization. In the public service, a Minister who occupies the position of the Chief Executive take charge and responsible for the resources of a ministry. He is the person entrusted with the responsibility of the operation and functions of the ministry. In the private Organisation, the Chief Executives are the Managing Director (MD). But in the Public Service, a Minister is the Chief Executive officer (MD). He is accountable to the presidency. He acts as the Operational Head of Administration and reports to the President directly, he take decisions on the implementation of government policies.

The Chief

Executive Officer receives all types of information. He initiates changes where necessary and establish organizational goals, he formulates strategies in implementing these goals and spent more time in policy formulation 3.2

TYPES OF CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

Stewart (1967), Outlined the following types of Chief Executive Officers. a.

The Emissaries: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most

of their time outside their designated office. They work mostly as administrators

136

and delegate the main responsibilities of their jobs to competent subordinates (with close supervision). b.

The Committee Man: These are the Chief Executive Offices who spend

most of their time in attending meetings outside the Organization. They work mostly, on contracts and exist mainly in large Organizations. They also delegate most of their responsibilities to competent hands just like the Emissaries. c.

The Writers: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most of

their time in writing, reading, and dictating. Their working days are shorter compared to the Emissaries and Committee Man. These Executives are staff specialists who rise to become the Chief Executives. d.

The Trouble Shooters: These are set of Chief Executive Officers who

spend most of their time coping with crisis outside the Organization. Their working days are also fragmented. e.

The Discussers: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most

of their time discussing and negotiating with other groups for the progress of the Organization, they are involved in diverse ranges of activities. 3.3

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

(CEO) The following are the major responsibilities of the Chief Executives Officers: 1.

He/she ensures that their subordinates are well motivated, activated and trained with the set standard of the Organizational goals.

2.

He/she is responsible for disseminating information to all sectors (Internally & Externally) of the Organisation.

3.

He/she is responsible for monitoring the environment for a variety of special information required for adequate understanding and exploitation of the environment.

4.

He/she is responsible for taking corrective actions and decisions when the need arises. 137

5.

He/she is responsible for allocating organizational resources of all kind e.g. Money, Human and Materials Resources.

6.

He/she searches and explores the Organizational environment for opportunities, such as improvement of projects that would bring about change in the society.

Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officer. 2. Enumerate the types of the Chief Executive Officer 3.4

ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE

OFFICER 3.4.1 The Role of the Chief Executive Officer The basic role of the Chief Executive Officer of any organization is that, he is the Chief Accounting and Budgeting Officer. He needs to use the available resources judiciously. As the Chief Accounting Officer, his major role is to approve Budget plans, and to achieve the goals of the Organization. He makes estimate of costs and benefits of a project before the Organization can embark on such project. He will be responsible for both success and failure of the Organization. However, Mintzberg (1973) believes that, the roles of the Chief Executive Officer can be divided into three categories (1) Interpersonal Role (2) Informative Role and (3) Decisional Role. 1.

Inter-personal Role: The Chief Executive Officer is responsible for

ensuring that the policies of the Organization are clearly interpreted and implemented. He acts as a figurehead, a symbol of legal authority, handling ceremonial duties etc. As a leader, he liaises and motivates his subordinates; he serves as link in the communication chain. The Chief Executive Officer is the person entrusted with responsibilities of the operation of the Organization and usually the Managing Director (MD) in a private enterprise.

138

2.

Informative Role: The Chief Executive Officer serves as a nerve centre

receiving all types of information. He acts as a spokesman, monitors and disseminates information. He initiates changes within the Organization. 3.

Decisional Role: The Chief Executive Officer is responsible for

resources (Money, Human and Material) which are critical inputs into the management of the Organization. He acts as a disturbance handler, arbitrating labour conflicts. He establishes Organizational goals, formulates strategies for existing goals and spends more time in policy formulation. He/she acts as the operational head of the management team and reports to the Board of Directors, the results of his implemented policies, programmes and projects. 3.4.2 Functions of the Chief Executive Officer (C.E.O) The Chief Executive Officer performs daily essential and routine functions such as: 1. He/she makes complex decisions and delegates functions to qualified and competent subordinates of the Organization. 2. He/she determines goals and set priorities through others to achieve results. 3. He/she has a conceptual and analytical view, he/she is a diplomat and communicate with his employer, employee and government if need be to move the Organization forward. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on, the Chief Executive Officers (CEO) are the heads and coordinators of the activities of any organisation whether public or private. He/She is responsible for formulating policies, and supervised implementations of duties assigned. In the Public Service Ministers, Commissioners, Directors General and Councils Chairmen are Chief Executives. The responsibilities of the Chief Executives are to Decisionmaking; Monitoring, Disseminating and allocation of organisational resources. The roles of the Chief Executive Officer are divided into, Interpersonal, Informative and Decision-making. 5.0

SUMMARY 139

The Chief Executive Officer is an administrator who is fully in charge and control of the activities of an Organizational. They formulate and supervise the implementation of the policies within their Ministries. Their duties are categorized as planning, communicating; controlling, staffing, directing etc. They act as the Operational Heads of Management and reports directly or indirectly to the Board of Directors in the case of Private organisations and to the Presidency in Public Service. The Chief Executives are after the attainment of Organisational results.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Explain the Concept of the Chief Executive Officer.

2.

Identify the Roles and Functions of the Chief Executive Officer.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abari, A.O And Mohammed, M.O.B (2006), Fundamentals Of Educational Management, Babs- Olutunji Publisher, First Edition Bello, S.A, , H. O, Ogunyomi, P. O And Lagbeti, P (2004), Public Administration System In Nigeria, Raamson Printing Services. Lawal, A. A. (1993) Management In Focus, Abdul Industrial Enterprises, Lagos. Mintzberg, Henry (1973),The Nature Of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row). Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Public Administration, A Broad View, Megavons (West Africa) Limited Stewrat, L. (1967), Public Administration; Changing The Constitution; New York, Macmillan Coy Yahaya A. D. Akinyele C. 1ed. (1990).New Trends In Personnel Management; A Book Of Reading, Ascon Personnel Management Series.

140

UNIT 14

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO) TABLE OF CONTENT: 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content

3.1 Functions of the Chief Executive Officer 3.1.1 Planning and Decision-Making 3.1.2

Organising

3.1.3

Staffing

3.1.4

Planning

3.1.5

Controlling

3.1.6

Directing

3.1.7 Communicating 4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary 141

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference and Further Reading …

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea about what the Chief Executive Officer does. This unit will take you as step further into the functions of the Chief Executive Officer. In this unit, the focus will be on the detailed functions of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) which are Planning and Decision making, Organising, Staffing, Planning, Controlling, Directing and Communication. These functions are universal and are performed by all CEO’s whether in the private or public sectors. 1.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1.

Identify the duties of the Chief Executive Officer

2.

List and explain the Processes of Decision making

3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1Functions of the Chief Executive Officer The duties of the Chief Executive Officer are related in functions, these functions are also called management functions. They are: (a) Planning and Decision-making (b) Organizing (c) Staffing (d) Planning (e) Controlling (f) Directing (g) Communicating 3.1.1 Planning and Decision Making. Planning and Decision-making are part of the functions of management, all management actions depend on decision making. Decision-making is the rationale behind the success of an organisation. Most Executives are rated on the basis of the quality of planning and decisions they make in their Organizations. Decision-making is the selection of an alternative course of action from among various alternative courses of action. The decision-making 142

process is the chain of events involved in identifying, analysing and choosing the best alternative from among many causes of action (Simon, 1976) Decisions are made to tackle problems that arise in the course of an organizations business. Making good decisions demand that the decision-maker should have good understanding of the consequences before choosing the best alternative that can effectively solve the problem. Decisions are of two types, the programmed and non-programmed decisions. Programmed decisions are made to solve structured problems.

A structured problem is one that is

recurring and can be solved by the application of rule. Non-programmed decisions are used to solve unstructured problems, which are problems that do not occur often and as such have no procedure to be used in solving them. Examples of non-programmed decision are an organizational expansion scheme, introduction of new product lines etc. details of decision making and its processes are well explained in the next unit (Simon, 1976).Decision making also takes place under three (3)different conditions: a. Decision-making Under Certainty: Under this condition, the decisionmaker knows precisely all the available alternatives and the consequence outcome. Once he is sure of the certainty of the alternative, he makes the right decisions because he is already sure of the result. b.

Decision-making under Risk: Under this condition, the decision-maker

makes decisions based on probability and should be ready to face the consequence of the alternatives, if his analysis works he gains and visa-versa. c.

Decision-Making Under Uncertainty: Under this condition the

decision-maker is neither aware of all the alternatives nor of their consequences. This condition is more rampant in real life situation as most decision-making is done under conditions of uncertainty. Here the decisions are based on the few alternatives known to the decision-maker and his limited knowledge of their consequences. The steps to be taken in Decision-making are identification of problem, identification of alternative course of action, evaluation of alternative, 143

selection of best alternative, implementation of best alternative and follow-up (Simon, 1976) 3.1.2 Organizing Organizing suggests orderliness. It is the instrument by which people get things done. Organizing means that the Chief Executives has to set out the formal structure of authority and flow of work in such a way that, the work in the various sub-divisions, sections and branches are carefully arranged; clearly defined and effectively coordinated in order to accomplish the objectives of the Organization. Organizing applies not only to business organizations but also to government, educational, religious Organisations etc. (Akinyele, 1990) .If an Organization is run smoothly, it may seem to an outsider that the whole process is relatively simple. Organizing helps in coordinating, that is, blending efforts of all members for an efficient and effective result within Organizations. Organizing also means the process by which Chief Executives strives to achieve Organisational objectives by combining the efforts of the people under their supervision for the success of the Organization. Process of Organizing The processes of Organizing are: (a).

Departmentalization of the operating task to be performed.

(b).

Establishing the authority relationship among those who will, be performing the tasks.

©.

Decentralizing the managerial work, and

(d).

Determining the overall organizational structure.

Departmentalization, deals with the horizontal dimension of an Organization structure and it is the process of rationally grouping the work necessary to achieve the goals of the Organization through cooperation and coordination of the different sections or departments. The process of departmentalization takes

144

place at all levels in an Organization, and in most cases, the activities are grouped as follows: (1)

By Function: The primary task to be performed by each department e.g. marketing, production, accounts etc.

(2)

By Process: This is a specialized functional departmentalization; similar activities are grouped into one department e.g. painting, manufacturing and assembly departments.

(3)

By Geographical Areas: This is where all the organizational activities within a region or location are brought together and integrated into a single unit.

(4)

By Products: This is where associated products or sources are grouped together or departmentalized. E.g. products like cosmetics, diaries, beverages are grouped together into separate units.

(5)

By Customer: This is found in sales operation where some customers are given special treatment e.g. large customers (wholesaler) are treated differently from the smaller customers (retailers).

(b)

Establishing Authority Relationship: The Chief Executive Officer

must have an understanding of who is supposed to do what, before a managerial team is organized. In establishing authority relationship, the specific responsibility or work load of the individual must be clearly defined or outlined in the organization. Authority relationships are usually established on the bases of: (I). Line Authority Relationship: This involves the direct supervision of subordinate in the chain of command which indicates the formal authority relationships that run in a direct line from the top e.g. Chief Executive to the bottom of the Organization e.g. workers/junior staff. Line authority means the same as line manager in the chain of command, and they are responsible and concerned with the accomplishment of quantitative objectives, cost control and

145

the on-going decisions that allow them to accomplish the task of the Organization. (II).Staff Authority Relationship: This involves the relationship that exists among the staff, and it is based on expertise in specialized activities and includes the authority to advise, plan, gather information. However, there should exist a cordial relationship between the line manager or authority and the staff authority. (III).Functional Authority Relationship: This involves the rights of individual staff with functional authority to issue directives expect compliance: A marketing manager may for example, have the authority to specify marketing schedules for sales representative in any part of the company. (c) Decentralization of Managerial Process Decentralization of Managerial Processes are;

–

The

Concepts

of

(i) The span and level of management and (ii) The decentralization of managerial authority This span and levels of management is based on the executive control that is, the number of subordinates, a manager can effectively supervise, the narrower the span, the less levels that are needed. Decentralization is the delegation of authority for making managerial decisions to subordinates at lower levels in the organization. A broader span occurs when the chief executive decentralizes authority. However, certain factors such as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Competency of subordinates Nature of work Time required for the job and Organisational policies, are considered when making this decision to ensure that the delegation of authority accomplishes the organizational goals.

Common Mistakes in Organizing Some common mistakes in Organising are: a.

Failure to plan properly.

b.

Failure to clarify relationship.

c.

Failure to delegate authority.

d.

Granting authority without exacting responsibility.

e.

Misuse of functional authority.

f.

Multiples subordination. 146

g.

Holding people who do not have authority responsible etc.

These mistakes can be avoided. (d) Determine the Overall Organizational Structure – It is the duty of the Chief Executive to draw the chart of the organization. It shows the actual positions held by an employee or the relationship between the position holders and their lines of authorities that is, who is responsible to whom. 3.1.3 Planning Any Organization that fails to plan for the future plans to fail. Planning is the process of setting goals and choosing the means to achieve these goals. Planning as a management function is the act of making decisions about goals and activities that an individual, a group, a work unit or the overall Organization will pursuit in the future. Plans set the stage for action and for major achievements; it defines where the Organization wants to be in the future and how to get there. Without plans the Chief Executive cannot know how to organize people and utilize resources effectively. He may not even have a clear idea of what they need to organize. Without planning the Chief Executives have little to achieve and as a result, will stray from the set goals. Planning is deciding in advance, what to do, how to do it, who to do it and when to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are today and where we intend to be. Planning helps in shaping the future rather than accepting it the way it occurs. Lack of planning or poor planning by the Chief Executive can retard an organization’s performance. Steps in Planning There are some planning steps that managers have found useful: a. Identify goals: The objectives, mission, goals or purpose fixed must clearly indicate what is to be achieved. Where should action take place, who to perform it, how is it to be undertaken and when is it is to be accomplished. All the above can be referred as planning. b. Developing premises (collect and forecast information): This also means the same as scanning the environment in which plans are to be implemented. Since the future is uncertain, it is unrealistic for the Chief Executive to make assumption in great detail about environmental factors. c. Determine and evaluate alternative plans: Once an alternative course of action has been determined, they must be evaluated. Future uncertainties, financial problems and other intangible factors make the evaluation process difficult and complex, alternative plans are evaluated against such factors like cost, risk, benefit etc. d. Select the plan and develop the sub-plan: Once the alternative plan has been identified and accepted, a sub-plan of the accepted alternative is 147

implemented. Selection of one course of action to face future challenges introduces rigidity and inflexibility in the planning process. Managers take risks when they commit organizational resources to pursue a particular strategy. Benefits of Planning The benefits of planning are: a.

It gives a sense of direction control and purposes to an Organization.

b.

It helps Organization to achieve steady growth and development.

c.

It enables Organization to take advantage of opportunities and contains threats in the operating environment.

d.

It enables management to take calculated business risks and think ahead.

e.

It provides awareness of emerging environment so that an Organization can adapt better to it.

3.1.4 Controlling Controlling as a management function means the act of monitoring progress and making needed changes in an organization. It also means monitoring employees activities, determining whether the organization is on target toward its goals, and making correction as necessary. Every Chief Executive must make sure that the Organization is moving towards its goals. It involves using Information System to advise managers on the performances of employees. Lack of control or information is one of the reasons for organizational failure (Simon, 1976).Control in an organization focuses on individual tasks and is carved out and the strictly defined guideline issues by strategic planning and management decisions. In order to exercise control, Chief Executive must decide which goals to measure perhaps goals pertaining to productivity, quality responsiveness to customers and then they must design information and control systems that will provide the data they need to assess performances. Controlling function also allows Chief Executives to evaluate themselves in terms of performance of other functions of management. Importance of Control Control is important in that: a.

It helps in verifying whether results are in conformity with set standards.

b.

It helps to pointing out errors and weaknesses.

c.

It helps to eliminate wastages and unnecessary cost.

d.

It helps in keeping employees motivated by making them know how well they have performed. 148

However, control helps management to achieve an Organization’s objectives by providing a framework for the development of good plans. The outcome of the control process is the ability to measure performance accurately and regulate Organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Steps of Control Process Establishing Standards – Standards are criteria for measuring performance, and the first step in control process is to establish Organizational standards. Measurement and comparison of performance with standard – The Chief Executive makes comparison of the established standards of the organization with the performance of his employees through personal contact and auditing of their activities and to determine if their performance is measurable and in accordance with Organizational plan. Corrective action/shortcomings – For every established standard there must be a corrective action taken to correct undesired deviations. Corrective action should not be restricted to negative deviations but must extend to positive deviations. 3.1.5 Staffing By Staffing we mean the manpower strength of the organization. It is the duty of the Chief Executive to manage people. Staffing in an Organization is the whole process of getting a sufficient pool of candidates from among whom the most suitable are selected to fill existing vacancies in Organizations. A wellestablished organization attracts people to work but only the best are selected for employment. It is the duty of the Chief Executive to ensure that the right calibre of people are employed at the right time with the right salaries and wages to what is most profitable for the Organization, he tries to avoid under and over staffing of the Organization because of the financial implication and effects. 3.1.6 Directing This is making things happen through other people. It is the duty of the chief executive to direct the affairs of the organization to ensure that all efforts and resources, human, financial and material are directed towards the achievement of the stated Organizational goals. Directing is the managerial process of ensuring that employees do the job assigned to them. The Chief Executive who is regarded as the Accounting Officer communicates and ensures effective coordination of the activities of the subordinates to achieve the Organizational goals. The duties of the Chief Executive as far as directing are to: a.

Provide required counsel, leadership and final decision-making authority. 149

b.

Determine the broad policy and strategy of the Organization.

c.

Appraise the company’s profit planning and their profit performance.

d.

Co-ordination of inter-departmental activities within the Organization.

e.

Provide favourable working climate for workers to achieve results and to design programme aimed at attaining the predetermined goals of the Organization.

3.1.7 Communication Communication is the means whereby people in an organization exchange information regarding the operation of the organization. Communication is the transmission of information und understanding from one body to another through the use of common symbols. It is the interchange of ideas, facts and emotions by two or more persons through the use of words, letters and symbols. Bernard (1948), stressed the need for communication to occupy a central place in Organization. Communication can be regarded as the foundation upon which Organization or administration is built. The media of communication are memos, letters, news bulletin, radio, television etc. Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person/place to another and the message been understood by the receiver/encoder. It involves the transmission of a message through a medium/channel from a transmitter to a receiver. 4.0 CONCLUSION From the foregoing discussion on, the duties of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) we can deduce that the duties of the Chief Executive Officer are the same as Managerial duties or functions. He heads and coordinates the activities of an organization. He is directly or indirectly involved in all functions or activities of the Organization. He is responsible for formulating policies, and supervises implementations. The core duties of the Chief Executive Officer are Decision-making,

Staffing,

Planning,

Communicating,

Directing

and

Controlling. Each of these duties has various steps, processes and significance to the success of the Organisation. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, you have learnt about the duties of the Chief Executive Officer. Most Chief Executive Officers are rated for the quick, timely and quality of decisions they make. Decision making takes place under three different 150

conditions: under certainty, risk and uncertainty conditions. There are two of kinds of decision, the programmed and Non-Programmed.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT QUESTION: 1. Explain the duties of the Chief Executive Officer. 2. Differentiate between Planning and Directing.

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abari, A.O and Mohammed, M.O.B (2006), Fundamentals of educational management, babs- olutunji publisher, first edition Bernard, M. (1948), Approaches of public administration. New York books Bello, S. A, et al (2004), Public administration system in Nigeria, raamson printing service Mintzberg Henry, (1973) The nature of managerial work (new york: harper & row). Lawal, A. A.(1993), Management in focus, abdul industrial enterprises, Lagos. Patrick Mbieli, (2006) Administration public, a broad view, megavons (west Africa) limited Simon, A. (1976), Approaches of public administration. book of the half century 4th edition Yahaya, A. D. Akinyele C. Led. (1990), New trends in personnel management; a book of reading Ascon personnel management series

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UNIT 15 DRAFTING, MINUTING, MEMO WRITING AND OFFICIAL LETTER WRITING .

Table of Contents 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Contents

3.1

Drafting

3.1.1 Features of a good draft 3.2

Minuting

3.2.1 Forms and content of a Minute 152

3.2.2 Faults to laugh against in Minute 3.2.3 Hints on Minuting 3.3 Memo Writing 3.3.1 Essence of Memorandum 3.3.2 Format of a Memo 3.4 Official Letter Writing 3.4.1 File Copy 3.4.2 Salutations 3.4.3 Attachments 3.4.4 Re-directed Letters 3.4.5 Endorsements

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Administrative Communication is a Sine qua non for an effective conduct of government business. It is basis or vehicle for the policy cycle resulting in decisions and consequently, directives for implementation. At the level of operation, particularly the inter-personal level in the enterprise, administrative communication must be carried out through the use of our Lingua francaEnglish Language. Although directives, instructions etc could be given verbally, that which attracts more seriousness and hence makes immense impact is the directive in writing. We therefore posit that in organizations, decisions, policy 153

enunciation and more importantly approvals to carryout actions are usually made in writing. Some of the forms of writing for the aforementioned purposes constitute the subject of this chapter.

They are: (i)

Drafting

(ii)

Minuting

(iii)

Memo Writing; and

(iv)

Official Letter Writing.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: i. Explain The Term Drafting , Minuting, Memo Writing, And Official Letter Writing Ii.

Identify the Various Stages of Carrying Out Each of Them

iii. Explain the format and strategies for writing each of them to acceptable standard.

3.0MAIN CONTENTS 3.1 Drafting A draft is a proposed letter, circular, or minute, report or other document, prepared and sent by a lower officer to his superior for consideration. The process of preparing a Draft is called Drafting. If the proposed letter or suggested circular serves the prescribed purpose, it is considered good and approved. A draft may be amended by filling in the gaps in the efforts of the officer or by the incorporation of additional facts by the senior officer. A bad draft (e.g one which does not show an appreciation of the point at issue or one hastily put up without taking pains) may be rejected and scrapped. 154

When to Draft Where an item or correspondence is of a routine nature and calls for a routine reply, a letter ready for signature should be put up to the senior officer for his signature. Sometimes the writer of a minute has to submit a draft embodying a recommendation in his minute. Draft replies suggested for consideration may reduce substantially the length of a minute. When a draft has been approved, it is sent to a typist to be produced in the correct form for issue. The act of typing the letter in this form is known as ‘fairing’ and the finished document is known as a ’faired draft. 3.1.1 Features of A Good Draft Are As Follows:

(a) Clarity of thoughts and expression Say exactly what you wish to say in simple and direct language. Avoid repetition.

(b) Accuracy Verify all facts and figures before writing

(c) Grammar Weak or indifferent grammar m mars the quality of a draft. Special care is necessary in the use f punctuation mark. Avoid overworked expressions and titled phraseology. For spelling errors or any other unsure expression of English, consult your Dictionary.

(d) Courtesy All communications from Public Servants to persons inside or outside the Public Service must be polite. Even the reply to a discourteous writer should be couched in courteous terms.

Typed drafts of minutes, briefs, letters, etc should s a rule, have headings which give an idea of the matter in the drafts. Reasonable spacing is used in typed drafts so that there is ample space for amendments. Drafts should be typed drafts so that there is ample space for amendments. Drafts should be typed only on one side of the typing sheet or sheets used. For economy, the

155

reverse page of used, clean sheets with discarded typed-scripts at the front may be used for typing drafts.

Discarded papers containing classified information should never be used for drafting . When drafts of any document are given to typist for fairing, the number of copies required should always be clearly recorded at the top of page 1 of every draft. Such instructions can, for example take the form off either ‘6 copies’ meaning 6 in all or ‘1+ 5 copies’ meaning an original and five copies. It is desirable for Schedule Officers and their typist to agree on the wording to be used in describing the number of copies that should be made in addition to the original so as to save time and avoid waste of stationary.

After drafting a minute or letter for the superior officer, the drafting officer should remember to write the superior officer’s name and not his own name as the author. While a superior officer ends a “loose minute”. It is the duty of the subordinate to put it in a file before sending the reply back to him. The worst that can happen in the absence of the main file is for you to address your superior in a Temporary File (“T File). A good draft from a subordinate to a superior officer should be such that the senior has little or no addition to make.

It is important to note that it is an offence in the service to claim credit for a draft you made for your superior officer e.g. Speeches.

3.2

MINUTING

A minute could be defined as a communication in writing, usually in files between two or more officials; this definition does not apply to a letter from one officer to another. Minutes are normally used to consider and settle matters or to direct what action may be taken in a circumstance. Minuting is the act of writing a minute.

156

When Not To Minute It may not be necessary to minute on a matter when:

(a) The matter can be cleared by discussion either at a meeting (usually informal) or by telephone. The latter medium should not be used for confidential or secret matters.

(b) The action necessary is routine

(c) A more senior officer has specifically suggested that the “matter at issue” should be referred to him for further action usually because he is familiar with the background of the subject and /or he wishes to put down some drafting instructions.

(d) The matter is straight forward and no further information or guidance can usually be added.

(e) The subject matter assumed technical or professional or special knowledge which the Schedule Officer is not familiar with. In such a case, the matter should be referred as clearly as possible, to a suitable professional or expert for necessary action. It is instructive to note that the subject matter for which a Minute, Memo etc is being written is referred to, in the civil service language, as “matter at Issue”.

3.2.1 Form and Content of a Minute. The top left-hand side of a minute refers to the person, by appointment, to whom it is written. The text of the minute follows. It is concluded by the signature or initials of the writer. Immediately under his signature or initials is 157

the typewritten or stamped name of the officer writing it. Under his name, the post held is shown and the date of his minute, indicated.

A minute may be built up as follows: (a) State briefly the ‘matter at issue’

(b) State the present position and focus and facts affecting it, supporting the statement by reference to previous papers

(c) Verify whether or not the report, proposal or request accords with any laws, Public Service Rules, Financial Regulations, Circulars, or memoranda which have been circulated. Sometimes, it is helpful to quote the actual words of the Public Services Rules, etc, or to attach a copy of the relevant document.

(d) Indicate any previous decisions which may be relevant to the point at issue.

(e) Point out any facts or argument which may influence the action to be taken (or decision to be given) as they occur to you when examining papers, precedents and previous decisions. Cite relevant authorities.

(f) Finally, suggest what action you propose should be taken. The substance of a memoranda or letter in reply may be suggested in your minute which should be so drafted that the wording may be incorporated direct into the reply to issue.

3.2.2 Faults to Guard Against in Drafting and Minuting (i)

Avoid Slipshod Thinking: If one’s thinking is obscure, one’s drafts and minute may not be clear. 158

(ii)

Bad Hand-Writing Provided you can write legibly, it is not advisable to type short drafts or minutes. Unless one’s handwriting is easily readable, all minutes or drafts covering more than half of foolscap sheet be typewritten.

(iii)

Haste: It is considered bad to defer action on problems requiring considerable effort in drafting and minuting. A large accumulation of work on files tends to encourage the production of hasty drafts or minutes based on haphazard research.

(iv)

Irrelevance: Try to have a grasp of the subject at issue and do not drift away From the question being considered.

(i)

Inaccurate Information: make sure that you know intimately the provisions of Government circulars and regulations. Make a special note of alternations in the laws, Public Service Rules and other approved authorities. A conclusion based on an obsolete precedent is likely to be misleading.

(ii)

Indecision: If a draft or minute must solve or advance the situation to a problem, it should not show indecision. You’re summing up or conclusion should, therefore, indicate your stand.

(iii)

Stylistic Defects: Avoid repetitions (.eg return back, can be able, etc) unnecessary airs and graces.

159

Self Assessment Exercise.

QUESTION: What are the faults to guard against in drafting and minuting.

ANSWER: They are: I.

Slipshod thinking, (ii) Bad hand-writing; (iii) Irrelevance, ; (iv) Haste; (v) Inaccurate information; (vi) Indecision; (vii) Stylistic Defects.

3.2.3 Hints on Minuting As earlier stated, a minute is communication in writing mostly in file between two or more officers who may or may not be of equal rank. A letter on the other hand, is a correspondence from one person, group or organization to another and it insists on certain formality, which does not necessary interest the minute. To write a good minute or a good letter, the following hints are necessary and should be noted:

(i) Go through the subject matter files and other relevant documents to ensure you have facts to enable you produce a good minute or write a good letter.

(ii) Make Sure You Clearly Understand the Subject Matter Which Should Be Briefly Stated.

(iii) State The Previous Positions Or Decisions, If Any , Which May Led To The Present. 160

(iv)

Write in good English with correct spellings and avoid unnecessary flamboyant or journalistic writing.

(v)

All the facts should be arranged both logically and chronologically.

(vi)

Indicate Whether There Are Laws Or Past Decisions That May Affect The Present Case.

(vii)

Identify relevant facts and argue persuasively either for or against the matter at issues, quoting appropriate authorities or laws or precedence wherever necessary

(viii) Identify the options and make sure your argument is balanced by stressing points for and against the options that may present them.

(ix)

Highest reasons why you favour one option rather than the other.

(x)

Avoid disjointed presentation. Ensure that your presentation flows.

(xi)

Avoid bad grammar and insist on good punctuation e.g the word, however, is always isolated by commas before and after.

(xii)

Be exact and precise in your expressions an avoid irrelevant or unnecessary flowery language or journalistic writing.

(xiii) Make sure that the information you give is accurate 161

(xiv) Finally, ensure that the line of action you advocate flows from your presentation. Short titles or abbreviations are tolerated by minute but not by letters e.g perm sec., Hon Minister.

(xv)

Headings for minutes serve as quick reference points and are encouraged. For each letter, a heading is a must.

(xvi) Every minute should wherever and whenever possible, be type-written, where, however, a minute is to be submitted in long hand, it should be done neatly, legibly and should not exceed half of one foolscap sheet page.

(xvii) Remember that constant production of bad minutes or drafts could damage the sanding of an officer beyond repair, while good minutes produce pleasant opposite

3.3

MEMO WRITING

The word “Memorandum” or Memo is derived from the Latin word” “Menorare” which means ‘to remember’ of ‘to bring to The Chambers Twentieth Century defines “Memorandum “ as “something to be remembered; a note to assist the memory; a summary of the state of a question,” In its broad and loose sense, a memorandum is used in both the public and private organizations to mean notes, minutes as well as forms of letters and written documents used informally to convey information, facts or ideas from one person or group to another.

For our purpose, a memorandum will be defined as a specialized and classified government or public agency document used for the presentation of analysed 162

data, facts and ideas to aid government or particular public organization’s decisions either for a more vigorous approach to execute established policies, or exploit revision of existing policies.

3.3.1 Essence of Memorandum From the definitions provided above, it would be realized that preparing or writing a memorandum involves key activities such as : sound research into a subject problem or situation; data collection and analysis; and policy initiation and analysis as necessary inputs for decision-making at government level. Therefore, based on government’s policies and programmes, crucial issues are exampled in all their ramifications and presented in a concise, analytical form in a n memorandum to facilitate decision-making at the management level (Council, Cabinet etc) . Whatever the subject matter or the purpose, memorandum is a highly classified document. Normally, it is ‘SECRET’ and regarded as the property of the council or cabinet.

Such memorandum as identified above may be submitted to the appropriate authority in the form of concrete proposals or recommendations for the purpose of either obtaining approval or consent, decision or directive on fresh policy or amendment or modification of an existing policy. Similarly, an internal memo serves the purpose but is restricted to a particular organization.

3.3.2 FORMAT OF A MEMO Just like in a minute, a memo starts by addressing the designation of whom the memo is meant. Thereafter, we have the subject matter of discussion written and under underscored o that it will be eye-catchy. In government business, the subject matter in a memo is referred to as “Matter at issue”. Introductory aspect of the memo constitutes the first paragraph. Then major component or interrelated areas in the subject matter are, each, discussed in a paragraph subsequently. For instance, memo for seeking approval to organize a course for a group of staff will comprise of the following and to be disused in a paragraph each: The course itself; how relevant is it to the job of the staffers 163

concerned?; the institution to run it-how credible is it and where must it be run? Is it as implant or off-house etc? ; Then cost-implication which goes beyond course fee-that is all costs attendant to attending the course including “Duty Tour Allowance (DTA)” where applicable etc.

From the foregoing we already have six (6) paragraphs. Then comes the PRAYER paragraph which is either the last paragraph in which the approval is sought. It is important to note that in seeking approval finally, each of the issues discussed in the previous paragraphs should be itemized in the prayer paragraph and A prayer paragraph could sound like this:

“In view of the foregoing, the Permanent Secretary is requested to kindly consider and approve that: (i) A course on Budgeting be organized for the staffers of the Budget office; (ii)

The Administrative Staff College of Nigeria (ASCON) be chosen to run the course

(iii)

The course should take place at ASCON in Tape-Badagry, Lagos State;

(iv)

Twenty Budget officers between CONTISS 13 and 16 be released to attend the programme;

(v)

A total sum of three (3) MILLION Naira (3, 000, 000.00) as analysed in paragraph 6 be released for the course;

The final paragraph could then be: Submitted please OR submitted for the Perm Sec’s king consideration and approval please.

Therefore the officer forewarning the memo signs his signature and write his designation and date. It is important to note the following.

164

(i)

Designations are used in place of names because , in the Service , Officer re known by their designations e.g DFS meaning Director of Finance and Supplies OR Asst. Director (Training) etc.

(ii)

Aside from paragraph one other paragraphs are numbered for crossreferencing purposes.

Sometimes the word PRAYER could be written in that paragraph but the important thing Is to understand that it means request. For instance, an officer who feels unfairly treated in a disciplinary action or loss or promotion opportunity, could appeal for a re-consideration of his case. In this instance, he could use the word Prayer in that paragraph. On no account Should people be praying in this paragraph for the “Almighty God or Allah” to make the approving Authority to grant their request.

3.4

OFFICIAL LETTER WRITING

As in the case of minutes, the letters we are interested in are those that originate from government offices. Letters, like minutes, are forms of communication from one individual or group to another. Letters are used to convey decisions, give directives on the required course of action or to let people know of certain new developments. Letters differ from minutes in that they, unlike minutes invariably insist on certain formalities such as the inclusion of the addresses of both the author and the addressee, indication of the date \of the letter at the right hand side, insertion of headings and so on. Letters do not also allow the use of abbreviations such as perm Sec, or Hon Minister. Words are written in full for letters. Most letters are written on a prepared letter-headed paper which have already printed address of the sender, columns for Reference Number, and Date. The format of any letter will, to a large extent, depend on the addressee. If the letter is from one ministry to anther the format is similar. But if it is from a Ministry of Parastatal to an individual or organization outside government, the format is different. If a letter is going from one ministry to another the person who signs it will equally depend on the seriousness of the subject matter and again, on who is supposed to treat it at the other end. If the subject matter of a given letter is a 165

considerably serious one, it is normally expected that the letter be signed by a sufficiently high-ranking officer.

In fact, some letters demand that either the permanent Secretary or the Honourable Minister/Commissioner should sign them. It is important to stress here that the mere fact that an officer has been directed in a minute to issue a letter does not mean that he should also sign it. If the content of the letter is a very serious one e.g, if it is a matter of national importance or if the letter is being made for the attention of an officer much higher than himself, the schedule officer should either prepare the letter for the signature of his superior or suggest that it be signed at a level higher than his own. The signatory to a letter is perhaps much more serious when it has to do with people in regimented establishments especially the Armed Forces. A schedule officer should always “use his discretion” to know when a letter should be signed by a higher officer even though he may have been asked to issue it. When an officer is in doubt as to who should sign an outgoing letter, it is better to have the letter discussed with his superior officer.

Paragraphs are equally numbered in letters including “Thank you”, which in this instance, appears to be shortest paragraph.

3.4.1 File Copy It is important that a carbon copy of any minute or letter sent out by an officer should be made and put in the file and appropriate paged as a file copy. This file copy serves many purposes but the most important is that of providing an easy reference point for the subject matter dealt in it. It is also n invaluable guide for officers who may be posted newly to any ministry or establishment of government long after the originator of the letter had left the organization. In the file copy, should be indicated the date when the file should be brought

166

up (b.u) for a reappraisal of the content of the letter. It I also necessary for officers to keep their own flimsy copies for future reference, if need be.

3.4.2 Solutions In letters from one ministry of government establishment to another, letter, letters are addressed to the Chief Executive, e.g . Honourable Minister, in the case of Ministries or to the General Manager, Managing Director or DirectorGeneral for parastatal , as the case may be. For ministries, it is not usual to start with Dear sir, or Dear xyz. Sometimes, however, some Permanent Secretaries or Chief Executives are known to put some familiar and personal touches by starting with Dear Colleague or Dear xyz. The closing is also less formal in that yours faithfully etc., are not included. This style is not very common outside government establishments. The style differs remarkably from that of letter going outside government establishments. Letters from government ministries or departments to outsiders take a more formal format as they are started with dear XYZ and close with “Yours faithfully”. As earlier stated, in government to government correspondence, Dear Mr . XYZ may be tolerated at higher levels and where the author and the addressee are fairly familiar; otherwise it is usual not to include these.

3.4.3 Attachments Whether letters are meant for government or non-government addressees, it is necessary that attachments necessary for the circumstance of the given letter should be added. Such attachments make for faster consideration of the subject or ‘matter at issue’, ‘in addition to assisting better appreciation of the matter at hand. Attachments should be clearly indicated and signs for them either shown at the left-hand margins or all the enclosures are spelt out at the bottom end of the letter.

3.4.4 Redirected Letters

167

In situations where letters are mistakenly sent by a members of the general public to a ministry that does not deal with the subject matter of the letter, rather than sending back the letter to the author and asking to direct his letter to the appropriate ministry, the mature and correct thing to do is for the ministry that receives the misdirected letter to redirect it to appropriate destination with a short letter. The original letter should be attached while photocopy is made and retained in a file. The appropriate ministry should then be requested to deal directly with the originator. Subsequently, the author should be informed of the action taken with the advice that he or they should also deal directly with the correct ministry in matters connected with the subject matter of enquiry . This approach is superior to sending back the letter to the author, which tends to portray government as an uncoordinated organization.

3.4.5 Endorsements An endorsement is letter written at the bottom of an earlier letter to person or persons to which the original one was not addressed. The purpose is to pass information to the new addressee with the appropriate request or directive as to what he or she is required to do sequel to the body of the main letter. Since definite actions are often required, unless the endorsement is for information only, it is preferable to draw the attention of the person to whom it is endorsed to the paragraph or paragraphs requiring his action. An example is, the above is for your necessary action with particular reference e to the issues raised at paragraphs 2 and 3 of my letter or of the ministry xyz letter or circular referred to.

4.0CONCLUSION Drafting encompasses all forms of writing, if should be appropriately done , others will fall in place. Minuting , memo writing and official letter writing are all undertaken for decisions to be made officially, policies to be formulated or approvals to be given officially also. Whatever actions are carried out subsequently i.e implementations or executions must confirm with the

168

approval given in written. This underscores the importance of discussions in this unit.

5.0

SUMMARY

The importance of discussions in this unit informed the systematic approach to it in order to avoid confusion particularly with semantics. The unit therefore started by explaining the concept of Draft and Drafting which cuts-across other forms of writing and official letter writing. It must be noted however, that there are other forms of writing that serve similar purpose such as Council memo, Report and speech writing etc. These will be taken up by other units.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

-.

Outline the format of a Good Memo

-

identify the difference between a Minute and a Memo

7.0FURTHER READING Fadeyi, B. (1995); “Minuting , Drafting, Report/Letter Writing,” Paper Presentation at an Induction Programme for Newly Employed Officers of the Nigeria Public Service, Lagos. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1997); Civil Service Handbook (Abuja: Office of Establishment and Management services, the Presidency. Little, P. (1975): Communications in Business, 2nd Edition, (London: Longman Group Ltd). Maduabum, C.P (2009): “Drafting, Minuting, Memo Writing, Official Letter Writing, in Chucks P. Maduabun (Ed) Writing Techniques for the Management of Public and Private Affairs , ASCON Press, Badagry Obiaku, D., (1999): Communication Skills (Lagos: Advertising Practitioneners 169

MODULE 4 THE ART OF GOVERNANCE. UNIT16

GOVERNMENT AND GOVERNANCE.

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0

Introduction

2.0 3.0

Objectives The Concept of Government and Governance 3.1 3.2 3.3

Branches of Government in a Democratic Setting Role of the Constitution in Governance Public Administration: A tool in Governance

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment and Marking Scheme

7.0

Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION 170

This unit explores the basis of governance and the idea of government. Here, various views on the concept of government and governance are undertaken. This explanation will help you to appreciate and identify significant parameters for subsequent discussions. The unit goes further to identify those things that constitute apparatus of government. The role of the constitution in our guest is clearly explained. It is usually difficult to talk about government without discussing public administration. This is because public administration is the main apparatus of government. The constitution merely provide the legal framework for governance.

2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.

Explain the concept of government and governance

2.

Identify the branches of government in Nigeria

3.

Outline the role of the constitution in governance

4. Explain the concept of public administration as on apparatus of government.

THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT AND CONGERNANCE The International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, has this to say about governance.

“The art of exercising of legitimate authority, and protecting and Adapting the community by making and carrying out decisions” 171

(Sills, 1968:214-217)

It further explains that community here refers to a national autonomy community while the use of legitimacy entails a sanction right to exercise practical monopoly of coercive powers while carrying out the process of governance in a sovereign state. And of course the body or group of individuals charged with this responsibility, it refers to as government. From the foregoing, it becomes imperative that a Government must be established as one of the characteristics or features of a nation State. This agrees with the conceptualization of a modern state as a collection of people in a certain territory having organized government ad possessing autonomy with respect to such units. Other features of a state of course emerge from this concept as: people; territory; and sovereignty.

The term” Government” would be explained as instrument of a state by which its existence is maintained, its functions carried out and its policies and objectives realized. The interrelatedness of some of the foregoing “terms” equally makes their demarcation inevitable. While the term “state” comprises the entire community of people which of course embraces both the government and governed , Government is a mere agency which constituted by a very small proportion of the population of the state. It is, thus, one of the several societal organizations, though with its own unique characteristics. By the popular maxim that “Governments come and go while the state remains” the existence of a state as more or less permanent entity that survives every government is further elucidated. Another concept “People” appears to be the most important of all the features of a state. For it has severally been either questioned or agreed that such other features like government and the state itself cannot exist without the people because, each of them is made up of people. Membership of a state therefore, becomes imperative because it is automatic that an individual belongs to a state into which he is born. Even p in situations where a citizen denounces his citizenship of a country, he immediately acquires that of another country. This, again, underscores the point that nobody can be stateless. As a concept, “territory” comes to the 172

gore due to the need to demarcate one state from another for mutual coexistence. Every state in the world is therefore located on a particular area of the earth’s surface with clear-cut boundaries. The territory of a state therefore features such things as its geographical location, resources, technology and climate. “Sovereignty” on the other hand, entails the supreme and final legal authority on a state above and beyond, which no further legal power, exists. Thus, a sovereign state is that which is able to conduct its own affairs independently of other states.

These explanations became necessary because of their impact on our subject of discourse. For instance, Omolayo and Arowolaju (1987:35) explain that government is instituted t maintain peace, law and order in the state, to protect the citizens against external aggression or internal insurrection, to settle disputes between individual citizens, between organizations, or between citizens or organization and agencies of government, and to provide adequate social services for the welfare of the people.

There are however, different forms of government. The form of government existing in any state is sometimes used as its identity. This, therefore, presupposes that different forms of government can be identified in different states. We have such forms of government as socialist as practiced in the erstwhile USSR and its components of Eastern Europe; Communist as practiced in China, Capitalist as practiced in the Western world and their former Colonies particularly in Africa; Federal as practiced in heterogeneous states such as U.S.A., Canada, Australia, Nigeria, India etc; Unitary - the form introduced by the Military, Aristocratic as witnessed in most Medieval states, Democratic which is gradually taking over from Aristocratic form as the most modern form of government. Other types of government include: competitive or monolithic; democratic or totalitarian; pluralistic or monolithic; presidential or monarchical. The overlapping of these governments within a given state has however made it difficult to use one of them exclusively to identify a particular state. For instance, in the United State of America (USA) we find both capitals, federal and democratic forms of government all existing in that state. Although the military impacted so much on the merging world 173

particularly the second and third world countries, our interest here is in the most civilized and modern form of government, which is democracy. 3.1

GOVERNMENT IN A DEMOCRATIC SETTING

As earlier stated, the form of Government of interest to us is Democracy. Many commentators and writers have articulated various perspectives of this perception is that this form of government emerges from the people. The term originated from the Greek words, ‘demos’ meaning “the people; and ‘kratein’ meaning ‘to rule’. By integrating the two words, democracy means ‘rule by the people’. It is sometimes defined as ‘government by many’ or ‘Government of the people by the people and for the people’. Unlike the type of democracy aptly referred to as direct democracy practiced in the Ancient Greek-City states, the modern day democracy is highly representative. Infact, this model type of democracy is sometimes referred to as liberal democracy. This form of democracy, according to Heater (1964: 117) should possess five basic elements. These are; equality; sovereignty of the people; respect for human life; the rule of law; and liberty of the individual. Held (1993:16) could not agree more for, in his perception, liberal democracy in its contemporary form includes a “Cluster of rules and institutions permitting the broader participation of the majority of citizens in the selection of representatives who alone can make political decisions’. This Cluster, he further explains, includes elected government; free and fair elections in which every citizen’s vote has an equal weight; a suffrage which embraces all citizens irrespective of distinctions of race, religion, class, sex and so on, freedom of conscience, information and expression on all public matters broadly defined ; the right of adults to oppose their government and stand for office; and associational autonomy – the right to form independent associations including social movements, interest groups and political parties. While articulating the above views the deduction by Enemuo (1999:145) becomes paramount. And that is, that democracy denotes a set of ideals, institutions and processes of governance that allows the broad mass of the people to choose their leaders and that guarantees them a broad range of civil rights.

With a democratic form of government are such types as the Westminster Parliamentary System once practiced by Nigeria as a direct inheritance from her British Colonial Boss; The President-cum-Prime Minister’s system 174

effectively practiced by France; and the Presidential System successfully practiced by the United States of America (USA) and which Nigeria currently adopts.

3.1.1 Branches of Government The System of Government in Nigeria is both vertical and horizontal. Vertically we talk of three levels of government viz: Federal State and Local Governments: And horizontally are three arms of government viz: Executive; Legislature and Judiciary. All these are fully put in place in order to ensure true representativeness when it comes to protection of interest and ensuring that the government is people-oriented. These structures ensure minimal dominance, if at all, by any particular arm of level. For instance, while the legislature which at the federal level in Nigeria is bicameral and makes the laws, the judiciary which is supposed to be independent interprets the laws, while the executive made up of elected Chief Executive - President or Governor as the case may be and his appointed members of the executive council, implements the laws by translating such laws to policies for easy and smooth implementation. This is what is referred to as” separation of powers” among the three branches of government and which is a sine qua non for a successful operation of this system of government.

The interplay among these branches of government is such that hardly are they independent of one another. Their system of checks and balances gives each branch of government the means of checking the power of the other branches in certain circumstances. These checks enable each branch to keep the power of the others in proper balance with its own power. Most checks and balances involve a limited sharing of the same power by more Executive performs legislative and judiciary functions, much the same way that the legislature exercises executive and judicial powers. The Judiciary on the other hand, regulates the activities of the executive and legislative arms of

175

government. A few examples of the interface in the functioning of the three arms of government will suffice:

(i)

(ii)

Executive in a Presidential System of Government has power of veto bills already passed by the legislature. A refusal to signify assent prevents a bill from becoming a law unless the veto is overridden by the legislature through two-thirds majority votes. The veto power is a measure of control by the executive branch over the legislature. At least this bit was provided for by sections 58 (21), (3) and (4) , and 100 (3) , (4) and (5) of the 1990 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; The Legislature is specially empowered by the 1999 Constitution to investigate all activities of the executive. The Legislature is empowered to direct or cause to be directed an investigation into any matter or thing with respect to which it has power to make laws and the conduct of affairs of any person, authority, ministry or government department charged, or intended to be charged with the duty or responsibility for executing or administrating laws enacted by the national Assembly. It should be noted that the power to investigate the executive department is normally a power of the executive branch of government. Yet, the constitution specially empowers Federal and State legislature to share in the investigatory power. Other executive functions performed by the legislative arm of government include: (a) The power of impeachment of executive (section 143 and 18); (b) The power to enact treaties (section 12) (c) control over public revenue (section 80 and 120); and (d) Power over proclamation of emergency (section 305)

(iii).

through the power of judicial review, judges have power to declare unconstitutional and void any executive or legislative action which violates the constitution. This power serves as check on the excesses of the legislative and executive arms of

176

government and hereby maintaining the balance of power among all branches of government.

ACTIVITY List the different branches of government both vertically and horizontally in Nigeria. ANSWER: Vertically we have Federal State and Local governments. Horizontally we have the executive, legislature and Judicial arms of government.

3.2

ROLE OF THE CONSTITUTION IN GOVERNANCE

Different perceptions of this concept has undated the literature on the subject. Yet, a common denominator existing among these perceptions is that the constitution is a reference point and a legal entity that perhaps surpasses all other legal entities, which regulate the operation of government, or any other body for that matter. Taking a cue from Omolayo and Arowolaju (1987:52) the constitution can be defined as a body or system of fundamental principles, rules and laws according to which a state is constituted and governed. The Author cited Austin Ranney’s views as “the whole body of fundamental rules written or unwritten, legal or extra legal according to which a particular government operates. The foregoing agree with the perception of Anifowose (1999:157) that the constitution is collection of norms or standards according to which a country is governed. It contains statement intended to define the relations between rulers and ruled, the basic institutional framework of government, the rights and duties of citizens and many important procedures to be followed in connection with these matters. Again he points that the constitution defines the conditions for the exercise of legitimate power, who shall exercise political power, how they shall exercise their powers and limits of these powers.

These definitions point up to the fact that a constitution may be embodied in a single detailed document like the 1999 Constitution in Nigeria; constitutions of 177

the United State of America; and most modern states or scattered through various sources and legal documents like the British Constitution. It could even portend a vague body of unwritten laws taking the form of usages, understandings, customs or conventions which courts do not recognize as laws, but which are not less effective in regulating the operations of government. Constitutions are therefore universally regarded as embodying the fundamentals of the political system. These fundamentals have the force of law, enforceable by the courts.

In this wise, the constitution is superior to, and different from ordinary laws. The constitution is less easily changed and more binding than ordinary law which are made by the Parliament of National/State Assembly through the ordinary law-making process and orders, rules and regulations made by any person or authority in accordance with constitutional provisions. The very fact that parliament or legislature derives its power from the constitution, places the constitution over and above whatever laws made by the parliament or Legislative. The constitution,, merely lays down broad principles guiding and directing the making of ordinary laws with regards to the manner in which they should be made and who should make them. It is in this sense that a constitution is the fundamental law of the state. Even Military dictatorship which operate with peculiar laws referred to as Decrees quite often recognized the superiority of the constitution by setting aside some sections of the constitution in order to legitimize their relevance in governance. In fact, some of the decrees are coined from the constitutional provisions but made unique to the whims and caprices of the military authorities.

The point still has to be made that in modern democracies the constitution is a fundamental and highest law of the land hence, governments could hardly operate recourse to the constitution. Unlike other laws like decrees which could be a product of a few individuals, the constitution is usually a product of a cross-section of the people (citizens) constituted as representatives of the people either in a committee to draft the constitution or at an Assembly to scrutinize a draft constitution and subsequently ratify the document as containing the collective will of the people. 178

3.3

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION – A CONCEPT

The concept of public administration attracts several commentaries from different authorities. Omolayo and Arowolo (1987:366) argue that since “administration” is present in all human organizations, public or private, open or closed, it becomes necessary to begin the definition of public administration from that of ‘administration’ itself. Accordingly, they define administration as referring to organization and management of men and materials to achieve the goals of any collectivity of people. Such collectivity may be social, business, military or public. From this standpoint, the authors define Public Administration as administration in the public sector, that is, the means, arrangements, actions and processes by which the policies, programmes, purpose and goals of government are realized. In support, Dimock and Dimock (1969:13) explain that because public administration is problem solving, it is as much involved with the formulation of the policies by which agencies are guided, as it is with the execution of polices through practical, down-to-earth , action-oriented programmes.

Consequently, they opine that public administration is the action, business side of government, employing more than 90% of all public services and programmes. One name that is so easily associated with the concept that he cannot be easily glossed-over is Woodrow Wilson. In fact his recognition is in association with pioneering the work in the field of public administration. His ascertain is the public administration is the most obvious part of government; it is government in action; it is the executive, operative, the most visible side of government (Wilson, 1887: 197-222).

The foregoing definitions further confirm the inextricable linkage between government and public administration such that there would be no meaningful discussion on one without recourse to the other. One other concept however, tends to agitate one’s mind each time public administration is discussed. And that is Private Administration. This has become necessary in that in a given 179

milieu or modern state is public and private sector contributing harmoniously together towards the economic growth f the State/Nation. In other words, there are public and private sectors existing side by side when we talk of economic growth or national development. Whatever is done in the private sector is ascribed by M.J.Balogun (1983:11-12) to business and to some extent management. Hence, we have public administration representing operations of government with a focus on the public-hence, the public sector, while operations in whatever private enterprises is essentially business. Again, Omolayo and Arowolaju (1987:306-307) dichotomize the co

“Public Administration operates in a somewhat different environment from business into the

administration. Public administration is tightly integrated

political system with the attendant implication of political involvement, control and influence. On the other hand, business administration runs in a market environment in which the main test of efficiency is profit”.

4.0

CONCLUSION

In governance, particularly in a democratic setting like Nigeria, the people or citizens are the focus, the will of the people is usually the guiding principle of the leaders. Hence, government business is how to implement the will of the people. The will of the people is interpreted as their welfare. The question is what should government do and in what direction, to improve the welfare of the people? Attempts at providing answers to this question leads us to the issue of public administration and public institution as a process of ensuring

180

that the welfare of the people are improved upon through provision of education, health, food, housing , infrastructure etc.

5.0

SUMMARY

This unit discussed the concept of government and the process of governance. It explain government as an organ that has the responsibility of managing the affairs of a nation state. The process of this management it refereed to as governance. The unit equally identified the constitution as the bedrock of governance particularly in a democratic setting such as ours. The unit also explains the concept of public administration as an uncountable means of reaching the people understanding their plight and improving their welfare in order to fulfill the purpose of government.

6.0

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the role of government in Nigeria and how it performs this role.

7.0

FURTHER READING

Anifowose, R, (1999)”Constitutions and Constitutionalism” In Anifowose, Remi and Francis Enemuo (Eds) Element of Politics (Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd. Balogun, M.J (1983) Public Administration in Nigeria: A Developmental Approach (London: Enemuo, F, (1999) “Democracy, Human Rights and Rule of Law” In Anifowose, Remi and Francis Enemuo (Eds) Elements of Politics (Lagos Macmillan Press Ltd). 181

Maduabum, C.P (2008) The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria: (Badagry: ASCON Press.) Omolayo, S and B Arowolaju (1987) Elements of Government: An Introductory College Text on Political Science (Lagos: Friends Foundation Publishers ltd) Sills, L.D (Eds) (1968) International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vols 5 & 6 (New York: The Macmillan Company and Free Press)

UNIT 17 THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON GOVERANCE TABLE OF CONTENT

182

1.0 2.0 3.0

Introduction Objective The Environment 3.1 3.2

Historical Antecedents Social Factor

3.3

Human Relations Factor

3.4

Language

3.5

Educational System

3.6

Climatic Condition

3.7

Copy Cat Syndrome

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Conclusion Summary Tutor marked Assignment Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will be able to identify variable within the Nigerian environment which impact on government and the conduct of its business. Government does not exist in a vacuum. It exists in the social setting of Nigeria, conditioned by history and traditions, and by physical factors of geography, climate and resources which are fundamental to the acquisition of knowledge in this direction. The setting in this context is what the social Scientifics refer to as ecology. That setting, we must appreciate is no static. The dynamic nature of the world in which we exist has instigated efforts towards that, it is from the environment that government perceives the problems to be resolved, the alternative possibilities within which choices can be made, the resources to be employed and the support and opposition to policies and programs. Furthermore, within the environment are found the 183

clients to be served or regulated, the market focus which establish costs for the goods and services produced by government, special interest groups that have a particular concern about what the government does and other public and private institutions that may offer support or opposition. Finally, it I within that environment that the consequences of governance are to be judged right or wrong.

3.1

Historical Antecedents

It would appear that the influence of colonialism in our national discourse is gradually becoming an over-beaten path, yet it will equally appear fallacious or, should we say, an administrative suicide for any discussion to be undertaken on the history of governance in Nigeria without recourse to the influence of colonialism. Simply put, the Nigeria’s colonial experience laid the foundation for economic and political underdevelopment of the country. The structural deformities and contract dictions inherited in 1960 have continued to militate directly or indirectly against possibilities for growth, stability and development. Political initiatives and regime initiatives have had to content with structurally determined and conditioned crises and contradictions while making it possible for new problems to emerge and fetter. The post-colonial alignment and realignment of class forces in Nigeria have operated within the overall deformities and distortions introduced and nurtured by the colonial state and the colonial elite.

Political independence which Nigeria earned in 1960 without splitting any blood, introduce novel institutions, political forces, and patterns into the political terrain of the country. However, in spite of the alignment and realignment of political and social forces, it would appear that Nigeria’s political development has made very limited progress and it is hardly on the path of addressing the conditions of backwardness, underdevelopment, foreign domination, economic mismanagement, mass poverty, and marginalization in the global division of labour-conditions which continue to militate against effective development and the concrete development and strengthening of political institutions and processes. The Nigerian social formation, state and dominant elites appear to have failed woefully in 184

extricating themselves from the imposed distortions, forms of domination, unequal exchange and subservience to foreign tastes, values, relations of exchange and inability to be creative and productive.

The scenario is summarized by Ihonvbere, (2002:112) as follows:

(i) (ii)

The creation of a weak, repressive, and non hegemonic state; The development of indigenous elites and their marginalization in the internal production and exchange systems; (iii) The promotion and accentuation of primordial loyalties through the ‘divide and rule’ politics and the use of resource allocation to divide the people along primordial lines’ (iv) The unequal distribution of social and other amenities and the use of bureaucratic manipulation to slow down developments in the North and to pitch the North against the South; (v) Foreign domination of the local economy and the incorporation of the emerging elites into the structures and systems of the metropolitan elites as junior partners, agents advisers, representatives, etc; (vi) Through economic, educational, fiscal and administrative policies, the reduction, as much as possible, of contacts between the North and the South. (vii) The encouragement of a culture of repression and violence through the creation of a very violent and ruthless security and police force to collect taxes, depose traditional rulers impose cash crops, and obtain forced labour from communities. (viii) He manipulation of the policies of decolonization to heighten the differences between the emerging elites; (ix) The looting of the resources of Nigeria, discouragement of relevant and comprehensive education, the failure to create useful and democratic institutions, and the failure to build infrastructures that would facilitate mobility and contact amongst peoples; and (x) The structured incorporation of the Nigerian social formation into an exploitive and unequal international division of labour thus, concretizing its marginalization, vulnerability and dependent, a 185

condition which affects the ability of local elites to run the economy in an autonomous manner beneficial to the local economy and society in the first instance.

The consequence of the foregoing is that Nigeria is yet to recover from that experience. Many of the leaders in contemporary Nigeria were creations of the colonial system. Many of the officers in the bureaucracy were recruited and trained under the colonial system. Several officers in the army, itself originally a colonial creation was recruited and trained under the colonial system. The country’s international trade is largely shaped by economic structures and relations and entered into in the colonial era. The educational and agricultural policies, even legal forms and patterns are structured after these of the British who, ab initio had no positive designs for Nigeria as a colony.

We therefore posit that one of the main predicaments of Nigeria today is the weakness and fragility of civil society. The fragmentation of people along ethnic, class, gender, communal, religious ,regional domains.

3.2

Social Factor

The consequences of this factor are enormous. Infact, continues to shape and reshape the art of governance in Nigeria. It has tended to erode the national consciousness of Nigerians. This is because, within the Nigeria societies, we find that family, local, state and ethnic loyalties compete with and often take precedence over loyalties to the nation. These are so deeply rooted that they create problems in governance practically with their attendant nepotism in all its forms. The consequences are that supervision and control, s management functions, are difficult to exercise. Directly related to this s corruption which has equally eaten deep into the fabrics of the Nigerian society such that the Transparency International has continuously rated Nigeria for almost ten years as one of the most corrupt nations in the world despite efforts being made by the Government to reduce this practice. The tendency to see Federal 186

Government’s funds or benefits accruing there from as “national cake” that should be sliced from as much as possible is life.

The situation is even worsened by the recognition accorded such officials who have corruptly enriched themselves within the society. They are almost always welcomed with such recognitions as chieftaincy titles and the like. This category of persons is found across and among various classes of the society particularly the “political class’ which appears to be the final point of abode due to the concomitant protection enjoyed within that class. The truth of the matter is that one can hardly penetrate this class unless he is very rich. Yet, we find retired military officers, other public officers and professionals, within the rank and file of the political class. The tendency and trends have equally exposed that fallacity embedded in the art of governance as espoused by the “received wisdom” in the field. Otherwise, how else can one explain virtually unquestioned belief and sarcastic expressions and with impunity for that matter, that political appointments in a democratic dispensation is an opportunity to recoup electoral expenses rather than to render service to the people in particular, and the nation in general.

Put differently, how else can the pitiable condition of a retired official or successful businessman who sold all his landed properties both at home and abroad in order to penetrate the political class, get nominated by his political party, contest and win an election a a “Senator” are “Local Government Chairman” be salvaged ? Infact, another trend is a situation where corruptly enriched but retired public officials quickly gain entry into the political class to escape being investigated since protection by the political class is guaranteed into position =s where they use their new positions to torpedo any move that would make such investigation possible. Cases abound of “sharp practices” in various forms which influence governance in Nigeria.

3.3

Human Relations factor

187

As posited by the Udoji Commission (1974:4), governance is primarily bout dealing with people in cooperative systems. However, in Nigeria, due to lack of co-operation and teamwork between superiors and subordinates on teamwork between superiors and subordinates on the one hand and horizontal among peer mates on the other, spirit of animosity, jealousy and conflict are the in-thing. The consequence of this is the reluctance of superiors to delegate responsibilities to their subordinates and the reluctance of subordinates to accepted responsibilities from their superior officers. This reluctance results in excessive concentration of decision-making at the topmost levels, and the consequent inefficient use of the talents of both superiors and subordinates. About this, we made the following observation elsewhere: “The Civil Service today is a total write-off…. You allowed yourselves to be whipped, instead of stopping; you inflict injury on yourselves and ask others to wipe your tears” (Maduabum, 2002:16). While analyzing the foregoing statement, Okigbo (1986:6) was quoted as pointing-up the reality that the bulk of the problems faced by public administrators are ‘self-inflicted’. This is traceable to the lack of co-operation which exists among the public servants. Sometimes this uncooperative attitude snowballs to an aggression which is misplaced and transferred to the unfortunate public thereby resulting in poor public relations with its attendant consequences of inefficiency, ineffectiveness, poor performance and poor services delivery. As assessed or pronounced by the same public. 3.4

Language

Nigeria, just like many other developing and developed countries lacks as indigenous linqua franca. The implication of this is that below the topmost levels in the various sectors of the society, most people are conducting their business in a language which in varying degrees, they have not infact, mastered. This adversely affects productivity in the conduct of government business because, quite often, instructions and directives are not fully understood, a situation that corresponding affects execution of such instructions. To compound the problem, most managers in public sector organizations, understandably, lack the patience with which to deal with subordinates who lack the required proficiency in the linqua franca,, just as most of them are equally poor communicators. 3.5

Educational System 188

This evolved from a colonially – imposed elitist system of education with its focus on liberal arts. As severally argued, the colonial maters were not interested in educating members of their colonies, yet they required interpreters that would assist them with the native hence the emphasis on reading and writing only. This patterned what in later ears became popular, first , focus on Arts and Social Science; and secondly , too much emphasis on “Paper Qualification” rather than acquisition of skills” Such Paper Qualifications acquired in liberal Arts guaranteed Nigerians the much sought after “white collar” jobs. The result is that today, student’s enrolment in tertiary institutions slant more in favour of these liberal Arts than in Science and Technology. This encourages “generalists as against “specialists” in the public service. As strong apostles f Lord Fulton’s in the dictum that” the cult of generalists is obsolete at all levels and in all parts of the service” we uphold our support for Science and technology which, we do know constitutes a “passport” to economic development all over the world. It is obvious that a country which de-emphasizes science and technology when one considers interests of students in quest of advanced knowledge as demonstrate by the enrolment figures in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, could not be said to be seriously pursuing economic development.

Operations within the public service do not help matters because of the division of the service into air-tight classes which stand in a hierarchy of power and prestige and which is both undemocratic in spirit and a obstacle in efficient management. The entire educational system of the nation seems to be designed to uphold and reinforce this elitist philosophy to sort out, by stages, the most worthy, who are crowned with the laurels of’ success” certified by diplomas and degrees, from the less worthy who at one stage or another in the educational ladder, are crowed with the dunce-cap of “failure”. Hence the common phenomenon of superior and inferior cadres in the service. About this, we had severally pronounced that “Bogous Certificates do not necessarily make competent officers “This is interpreted to mean that possession of chains of degree and a certificate is not synonymous with performance because certificates do not do the job. The job can only be effectively done through demonstration by the individual about his acquired competences and skills. Akin to this, is, fact of congruity between the quality of products of our educational system and the economic direction of the nation or demonstrated 189

by the industrial sector which ought to absorb and utilize these products. The result appears to be several cases of unemployment of educationally qualified Nigerians.

3.6

Climatic Condition

Nigeria is situated within a climatic condition that is characterized by ‘heat’ all the year round. Some of the inefficiencies witnessed in operations in the public service are traceable to health factors resulting from harsh climatic conditions. Since this is a natural phenomenon, the challenge is to cope with it by establishing a positive co-relationship between climate and working conditions especially hours of work, rest periods, and recreational facilities. The developed countries of the world have conquered this natural phenomenon which is peculiar to them through various means hence their productivity is hardly affected. We, too, can do the same with regards to our harsh climate.

3.7

Copy – cat Syndrome

There is that tendency to be too conscious of the way things are done in other countries. This is particularly so in the public service, whether in the organization of ministries, the administration of justice, the education of the children or the method of keeping files This issue here is that, whereas these “model counties” may have been modernizing many of their systems. Nigerians seem to have more reverence for the past than for the present or the future. Many policies and management practices in particular, are based on experience and guess-work rather than on objective information obtained through, reliable research. In addition, the tendency to copy from our “model’ nations at the detriment of our cultural values had brought cultural conflicts in the areas of dress-code, attitude to life, mode of speaking and generally believing that looking like an irresponsible person is by keeping up with the Jones” or “ Yankees” of America. Provocative dressing among the female gender in all works of life has attracted immense criticisms in recent times leading to public discourse due to its conflict with our cultural values. These 190

have adverse effect on productivity in the governments’ organs, particularly the distractions they portend

ACTIVITY List the factor that influence the conduct of government business in Nigeria

ANSWER: These are historical Antecedent, Environmental factor such as Social , Human relations, Language ,Educational system, climatic conditions., copy-cat syndrome etc

4.0

CONCLUSION

As earlier stated, the environmental exerts immense influence on the operations within any organization. Quite often we find that there is a mutual relationship between the environment and the organizations. For instance resources are obtained from the environment by the organization and the organization releases its goods and services to the environment. This is exactly the pattern with the conduct of government business which makes our discussion in this unit a desirable exercise.

5.0

SUMMARY

Due to the influence of Environmental factors in the conduct of government business, we devoted this unit to its discussion. In it, we explained the historical antecedent antecedents, that is, the colonial administration that pattern the way Nigerian government conducts if officials. We equally pointed out how these lead to failure in policy and programme objectives. Other factors are purely environmental. They include social, human relations, language, educational system, climatic condition and the copy-cat syndrome.

191

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the environmental factors that influence the conduct of government business in Nigeria.

7.0

FURTHER READINGS

1.

Adigwe, F.(1985) Essentials of Government for West Africa: (Ibadan : Oxford University Press)

2.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1975) Main Report of the Public Service Review Commission (Lagos: Government Press).

4.

Maduabum , C.P (2003) “The Civil Services under Military Rule”, in Modupeolu Faseke, The Civil Services in Nigeria: A Historical perspective (Ibadan: Rex Charles Publications in Association with Connel Publications)

5.

Maduabum, C.P.(2008) The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria (Badary: ASCON Pres)

UNIT 18 192

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 2.0 3.0

Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Constitution? 3.2 Constitutional development in Nigeria 3.3 Implications for Political and Administrative Development in Nigeria. 3.4

The 1999 Constitution 3.4.1 Main Features 3.4.2 Chapter in the Constitution 3.4.3 Schedules in the Constitution 3.4.4 A Critique of the 1999 Constitution

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION 193

In Nigeria, as in most other successful Democracies in the world, the Rule of Law constitutes the overriding factor in enhancing such success. The constitution is recognized in such democracies as Nigeria as the most important document upon which here successful democratization relies. Infact some authorities argue that the constitution is the foundation of democracy or, put differently is the building block of democracy. This importance which the constitution commands has made it inevitable for a greater emphasis in the study of democratic government is guided by laws the highest of which is the constitution. In the process care is taken not only to resume fairness at all times but that justice is seen to prevail.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you will be able to (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Explain the concept of constitution Trace the constitutional development in Nigeria from its inception to the present day. Analyse the current constitution (1999) in use in Nigeria Derive lessons from the analyses for use in the conduct of government business.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

What is Constitution?

A Constitution is a formal document having the force of law, by which a society organizes and limits its powers and prescribes the relations of its various organs, and with the citizen. (Nwabueze, 1973:2). It could e written or unwritten.

Perhaps, a more comprehensive definition which further expands parameters for analysis is that provided the Black’s Law Dictionary according to the document:

194

“Constitution is the organic and fundamental law of a nation, which may be written or unwritten, establishing the character and conception of its government, laying the basic principles to which and internal life is to be conformed, organizing the government and regulating , and limiting the functions of the different departments, and prescribing the extent and manner of the exercise of powers. It is a charter of government deriving its whole authority from the governed…. Agreed upon by the people of the union s an absolute rule of action and decision for all departments and officers of government in respect of all the points covered by it…. And in opposition to which any act or ordinance of any such department officer is null and void”

From the above definition, six cardinal characteristics emerge for a valid constitution namely: “Fundamental law of a nation; establishes the government; prescribes the functions and powers of government; regulates the exercise of those powers; and derives its authority from the people. On the other hand, constitutionalism refers to the application of the spirit and letters of the constitution. It is the anti-thesis of arbitrary rule. It follows from the obvious fact that government is universally accepted to be necessity, since man cannot fully realize himself except within ordered society. Yet, the necessity for government creates its own problem for man, the problem of how to limit the good of society. It is this limiting of the arbitrariness of political power that is expressed in the concept of constitutionalism (Nwabueze, 1973, Ibid). Thus, between constitution and constitutional practice, we observed certain arbitrariness which now shaped the content and character of constitutional amendments in Nigeria. It is also in the light of this that we shall attempt to explain the political and administrative implications of the constitutional developments in Nigeria. 3.2

Constitutional Development in Nigeria

Constitutional Development in Nigeria refers to the series of constitutional changes, leading to land-mark political and administrative policies and structures from the colonial era to post-independence era. A summary of these constitutional developments in Nigeria is as follows: 195

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

The Lugard Council 1914 The Clifford Constitution of1922 The Richard Constitution of 1946 The Macpherson Constitution of 1951 The Littleton Constitution of 1954 The Independence Constitution 1960 The Republic Constitution of 1963 The 1979 Constitution; The 1989 Constitution The 1999 Constitution

The afore-mentioned stages of Constitutional development shall be examined but with special emphasis on the significant political and administrative changes introduced by each of them.

(i)

The Lugard Council of 1914: The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria took place in 1914. This gave rise to the formation of a Legislative Council known as the Lugard Council in 1914.

The significance of the Legislative Council were: (a) It was made up of all members of the Executive, unofficial members and minority Africans; (b) It brought about a pooling of resources for the two administrations of Southern and Northern Nigeria. For example, Northern Nigerian administration was sustained by a share of the Southern Nigerian Customs and grant in-aid from the Imperial Treasury (Faseke, 1988:8).

In 1919, educated elites both in Lagos and Calabar criticized the Lugard Council on grounds that the illiterate Chiefs and Obas in the Council could not speak English. This gave rise to the formation of the Clifford Constitution.

196

(ii)

The Clifford Constitution (1922): Sir Hugh Clifford succeeded Sir Lord Fredrick Lugard as GovernorGeneral of Nigeria in 1922. The same year, he drafted what became known as the Clifford Constitution. The significant features of the Clifford Constitution were: (a) It consists of: - Legislative Council (legislate for peace and order and to approve the estimates of expenditures for Northern provinces). - Executive Council (advisory to the Governor-General: (b)- It introduced the elective principle – the electorates in Lagos and Calabar were able to vote for the first time. In the case of Lagos, the right of franchise was restricted to about 3,000 male tax payers with an income of one hundred pounds and to return three members to the legislative council every five years. (c )

Consequent upon the above, political parties were formed . For example: On June 24, 1923, Herbert Macaulay and his Associates inaugurated into Nigeria.

The limitations of the Clifford Constitution especially in terms of Africans not being represented in the executive council, limited franchise, etc. led to the emergence of the Richard Constitution.

(iii) The Richard Constitution (1964) Sir Arthur Richard became the Governor=General in 1943 after a brief stay of Sir Bernard Bourdillion between 1935- 1943. The Richard Constitution which came into effect on 1st January 1947 had the following significant features: (a) Establishment of Regional House of Assembly, also with unofficial majorities elected through Electoral Colleges for the North, West and East. In addition, the North also had a House of Chiefs. (b) Introduction of Policy of regionalism with the division of the country into three regions.

197

(c) It marked the beginning of the regionalization of the hitherto Unitary Civil Service as some attempts were made to regionalized the central departments such as Education, Forestry, Labour, Medical and Public Relations (Faseke, 198:54). (d) Arising from the above , Sydney Phillipson was commissioned to “Study Comprehensively and make recommendations regarding the administrative and financial procedure to be adopted under the new constitution” The Report which was ltr adopted , led to the evolution of the policy of establishing Boards and Corporations such as Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) and the Nigeria Railway Corporation (NCR). (Faseke, 1988:56).The limitations of the Richard Constitution include: writing the constitution without consulting the people; division of the country into unequal regions; non-provision of House of Chiefs for the Western and Eastern regions , etc. These led to the emergence of the Macpherson Constitution.

(iv)

The Macpherson Constitution (1951) Sir John Macpherson became Governor-General of Nigeria in 1948. The significant aspects of the Macpherson Constitution ere:

(a)

For the first time, Nigerians were involved in the Drafting of the Constitution from the grass-root level to the national level. It established a central legislature and a central executive for the country. It established a council of ministers charged with the responsibility of formulating policies and directing executive action. It should be noted here that the ministers together with the Lt. Governor, the Civil Secretary, Legal , Financial and Development Secretary formed the Regional Executive Council. Under the new arrangement, head of government departments ceased to be members f the Executive Council. This was a change of great magnitude in the sense that it marked the crucial dividing line between politics and administration.

(b) (c )

(d) It provided for a supremacy of central law. The central law is supreme to regional law hence, in the event of a clash between the two over certain constitutional matters, the central law is adopted. 198

The limitations of MacPherson Constitution which were: no provision for the post of a Federal Minister or Regional Premiers: lack of responsible government at the centre; the absence of a federal structure; and problems generated by the Action Group’s move for independence in 1956 by Chief Anthony Enahoro. All these led to the emergency of the Lyttleton Constitution in 1954. It is also to be noted that the Northern People’s Congress (NPC) was averse to the Action Group’s motion, and preferred to substitute it with the clause: “as soon as practicable”.

(v)

The Lyttleton Constitution (1954) The Lyttleton Constitution was put in place in October, 1954 following the London and Lagos Conference held to review the problems which arose as a result of the demand for independence.

The significant features of Littleton Constitution were:

(a) Federalism was established as a system of government in Nigeria (b) It provided for division of powers through the three (3) legislative lists. (1)

Executive Lists: These denote the items on which the federal government has power to legislate on I.e University, currency, telecommunication, defence, mines and power.

(2) Concurrent Lists: These specify matters on which the federal and state governments have powers to legislate on i.e., Agriculture, industrial development, insurance, higher education, etc. (3) Residual Lists: This borders on items or matters not under exclusive ad concurrent lists i.e Local Government, Chieftaincy Affairs, etc (c ) There was the establishment of the Supreme Court and Regional Courts. 199

(d) Premiers and Ministers were appointed in the various regions and ministers at the Federal level were now given portfolios. (e) Apart from the institution of the Public Service Commission, other Administrative changes took place with the setting up of the Gorsuch Commission, which recommended among others the introduction of the technical grade. The Civil Service was divided into two distinct classes

1. a. b. c. d.

Sub-Clerical Clerical Executive Superscale

General Administration 2. Professional Class Minor Technical Technical Higher Technical Superscale

The

The limitations of the Lyttleton constitution which include: its failure to provide for the office of prime Minister at the Centre, division of the country into 3 regions without constitutional recognition of the status; problems of the minorities; and the growing yearnings for independence etc. led to the emergence of the independence constitution.

(iv) The Independence Constitution (1960) The Independence Constitution was the outcome of the London Constitutional Conference of 23rd may – 26th June, 1957 and the resumed conference in Lagos between 29th September and 27th October, 1958 under Mr. Alan Lennox Boyd, the Secretary of State for the Colonies as Chairman.

200

The significant features of the Independence Constitution were:

(a)

(b)

(c) (d) (e)

It granted independence to Nigeria: However, the Queen of England was represented by the Governor-General as Nigerian was still under the Queen. It provides for a parliamentary or cabinet system of government by which the post of Head of State was distinct from the head of Government. For example, whereas Alhaji Tafawa Balewa was made Prime Minister as Head of Government, Rt. Hon. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe was Governor-General as Head of State. It provided for State Creation to allay the fears of the minorities. The fundamental human rights were entrenched to safeguard the rights of the citizens. It provided for Nigerian citizenship:

-

Those born in Nigeria after 1st October, 1960; Anybody born in Nigeria after 30th September, 1960 where one of the parents was a citizen of Nigeria; and Those who have registered as Nigerian citizens and other qualifications etc.

The limitations of the Independence Constitution were: the Queen of England was still the ceremonial head of Nigeria despite Nigeria’s Independence; the Supreme Court was not the highest court in the land except the Privy Council in London; etc. These led to emergence of the 1963 Republican Constitution.

(vi) The Republican Constitution (1963) Nigeria became Republic on 1st October, 1963 with adoption of the Republican Constitution. The significant features of the Republican Constitution were:

201

(a)

(b)

(c) (d) (e)

It brought to an end the dominance of British rule as Nigeria. The Office of Governor-General was changed and replaced by the office of President, who was elected, but was only a ceremonial head. All appeals, formally going to the Privy Council in London were abolished. The Supreme Court in Nigeria became the highest court of appeal. It provided for the establishment of Federal Electoral Commission for the conduct of elections in the country. Nigeria remained a federation of four regions and a federal territory, with the creation of the mid-west region. The Federal Government had the power to declare a state of emergency in any region in cases of violence or breach of peace.

With the Republican Constitution in force, Nigeria became a sovereign nationstate. The politicians of the 1st Republic became political masters, who unfortunately could not manage the transfer of political power to them by the British. Hence, the mis-rule and the irresponsible manner the politicians conducted the affairs of the nature led to the military take-over of government on 15th of January, 1966. The bloody coup, which was led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogu was characterized by certain anomalies in terms of its operations. Thus, contradictions arose within he military class which led to counter coups in military administrations from General Aguiyi Ironsi to General Yakubu Gowon n the one hand, and from General Murtala Mohammed to General Olusegun Obasanjo, with the murder of the latter, on the other. However, the duo promised and instituted a transitional programme which was to return Nigeria to democratic rule in 1979. To achieve this lofty aim, the 1970 Constitution came into being as mid-wifed by General Olusegun Obasanjo’s regime through a 50-Man Member Committee headed by Chief F.R.A Williams (Odanye, 2002:5-106).

(vii) The 1979 Constitution: The 1978 Constitution ushered in Nigeria’s second Republic with Alhaji Shehu Shagari as President . The significant features of the Constitution were:

202

(a) It provided for a Presidential System of Government. The President was head of State and Head of Government as a means of avoiding the conflict of leadership in the parliamentary system of government witnessed in the first republic. (b) It provided for separation of powers between the executive, legislative and judicial arms of government. (c) It created a nullified Local Government System as the third their of government in other to bring about development to the rural areas. (d) The House of Chiefs was abrogated in order to insulate Chiefs from partisan politics. (e) It established the Code of Conduct Bureau and Code of Conduct tribunal. (f) It created a Bi-cameral Legislature at the Federal level (i.e Senate and House of representatives) and a Unicameral Legislature at the State level (i.e House of Assembly). (g) It proclaimed the Supremacy of the Constitution in order to avoid conflicts and arbitrariness.

(ix) The 1989 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: Following the overthrow of the Alhaji Shehu Shagari’s government of the second Republic by general Mohammadu Buhari’s led military Coup in 1983; the Nigerian State went through another trauma of military rule. By 1984, when Geneeral Ibranhim Babangida over-threw the General Buhari’s military government. It was evident that accusation of corruption against over throne leaders was no longer a factor for military intervention in Nigeria’s politics. However, it was instructive to note that General Babangida put in place a political transaction programme, which manifested in the birth of the 1989 Constitution for Nigeria’s Third Republic. But this was set aside owing to the annulment of the June 12 1993 Presidential Elections. The 1989 Constitution was a product of the transition to Civil Rule (political programme) Decree of 1987 which set up the Constitution Review Committee to review the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979, in line with the accepted recommendations of the political Bureau inaugurated by the Federal Military Government on 13th January, 1986. In summary, the 1989 Constitutions with slight modifications, adopted, among others the fundamental provisions of the 1979 constitution with respect to: 203

(a) That Nigeria remains a Federal State (b) That Nigeria shall continue to operate the Presidential System of Government; (c) That Nigerian shall apply the Federal Character for promoting national unity and to command National loyalty.

We wish to note that the Nigerian policy, being guided by Constitutional and Transitional Decrees under general Babangida, the Military Government gave a purposeful direction on the political and ideological commitment of Nigerian politicians without ethnic bias. This led to the /first generally accepted and widely acclaimed free and fare presidential elections in Nigeria. It was rather unfortunate that the acclaimed winner of the presidential election, late Chief M.K.O Abiola was prevented from exercising that mandate, thereby creating obstacles on the path of Nigeria’s match to democracy and development. But this contradiction itself has today led to another constitutional experience: the birth of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as against Decrees and Edicts (with respect to Federal and States respectively).

Activity 1

ANSWER:

List the different Constitution in Nigeria from 1944 to date.

i. Lugard Council of 1914

ii. The Clifford Constitution of 1922 iii. The Richard Constitution of 1946 iv. The MacPherson Constitution of 1951 v. The Littleton Construction of 1954 vi.The Independence Constitution of 1960 vii. The Republican Constitution of 1963 viii.The 1929 Constitution ix.The 1989 Constitution x.The 1999 Constitution

3.3Implications for Political and Administrative Development in Nigeria 204

The totality of Nigeria’s constitutional development experience is the emergence of Nigeria as an independent and sovereign nation among the comity of independent nations of the world. By this, Nigeria has achieved selfesteem, which is concerned with the feeling of self-respected and independence as espoused by Goulet, an authority in development paradigm, who argued that a society is developed when she has achieved three basic components or core values, which he calls life sustenance, self esteem and freedom (Thirlwall, 1992). This has some implications for Nigeria’s political and administrative development, some which are:

i. Nigeria is governed by her own indigenous leaders with an application of the norms of democracy. ii. Nigeria conducts her external relations in equal terms with other nations of the world, regional and sub-regional bodies like the United Nations Organisation. (UNO). Commonwealth, the African Union (AU) , Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) etc. iii. Nigerian has the choice of adopting its economic and political policies, programmes and projects, which are peculiar to her interest despite the odds of globalization and internalization. iv. Nigeria today has a civil service with an inbuilt bureaucratic and administrative disposition to serve the political masters. This separation of administration from politics is a world standard, which ensures that the civil servant moral the custodian of stability in the Nigerian nation. v.

Finally, the cumulative constitutional experience is a sine-qua-non for a better state policy initiation, formulation, implementation and evaluation for purposes of guaranteeing the unity, peace and progress of Nigeria and her citizen.

The 1999 Constitution in Focus

The 1999 Constitution starts with the following preamble: 205

(a) “We the people of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, having firmly and solemnly resolved to live in unity and harmony as one indivisible and indissoluble sovereign nation under God dedicated to the promotion of inter-African solidarity, world peace, international co-operation and understanding. (b) “And To Provide for a Constitution for the purpose of promoting the good government and welfare of all persons in our country on the principles of freedom, equality and justice, and for the purpose of consolidating the unity of our people. (c) “Do Hereby make , Enact and Give To Ourselves the following Constitution……

It contains Eight Chapters and Seven Schedules. They include: Chapter 1;

General provisions.

Chapter II: Policy

Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State

Chapter III:

Citizenship

Chapter IV

Fundamental Rights

Chapter V:

The Legislature

Chapter VI.

The Executive

Chapter VII:

The Judicature

Chapter VIII: Provisions

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and General Supplementary

Schedules:

(First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh).

3.4.1 The main features of the 1999 Constitution are outlined as follows: (a)

That the Nigerian Constitution is supreme;

(b)

That it is written, rigid and federal; 206

(c )

That Nigeria shall operate a Presidential System of Government;

(d) That Nigeria shall operate a two-chamber legislature at the federal level and a unicameral at the state’s level; (e) That there shall be rule of law and constitutional separation of powers; (f)

That there shall be an Independent Judiciary;

(g)

That there shall be code of conduct for public officers; and

(h)

That the composition of government of the federation or any of its agencies and the conduct of its affairs shall be carried out in such a manner as to reflect the federal character of Nigeria,

A brief analyses of each of the chapters is undertaken subsequently.

3.4.2 Chapters in the Constitution (a)

Chapter One This chapter is divided into two parts (Part 1 and Part 2). Issues treated under Part 1 titled: “Federal Republic of Nigeria” include: Supremacy of the Constitution and the status of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as well as its components. It also contains (in terms of making references to) schedules that help to clarify what is treated under this part like schedules 1 and 2 to the Constitution. Part 2 titles “Powers of the Federal republic of Nigeria deals with Legislative Powers; Executive Powers; Judicial Powers; Local Government System; the processes of creating new states and boundary adjustment; mode of altering provisions of the Constitution; prohibition of State Religion; Public Order and Public Security, and Implementation of Treaties. (Sections 4-12 of the Constitution).

(b )

Chapter Two This section outlines the Fundamental Objectives and directive Principles of State Policy. Section 13 of the chapter directs as a matter of 207

fundamental obligation on the part of all those who exercise governmental responsibility to conform to the provisions of the chapter and apply same in the exercise of this responsibility . Section 14, upholds the principles of democracy and social justice as the basis of the state of the federal Republic of Nigeria. In line with the motto of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, which is “Unity, Faith, Peace and Progress” the political objectives are outlined in Section 15 with the promotion of national nitration as its focus, by breaking through the visible barriers of language, religion and ethnic diversity of the people. In Section 16 the economic objectives are geared towards harnessing the resources of the nation through a fair, private and public participation in the economic activities, to promote a planned and self-reliant economy that would benefit the generality of Nigerian in equitable and justifiable order. Section 17 refers to the social objectives which are to be founded on the ideals of freedom, equality of rights, obligations, and opportunities before the law.

(c )

Chapter Three This chapter focuses on citizenship. Citizenship can be described as the Legal right which an individual acquires to belong to a particular country. The doctrine of citizenship has far-reaching implications in terms of rights, obligations and status of the citizen. According to the oxford English Dictionary, “a citizen is an inhabitant of a city; a person with full rights in a country.” The concept of citizenship therefore deals with the way and manner a country determines who her nationals are. The chapter is divided into six sub-sections that deal with the various concept of citizenship. These include: (i) Citizenship by Birth, (ii) Citizenship by Registration, (iii) Those who naturalize as Nigerians; (iv) Dual citizenship, (v) Renunciation of citizenship, and (vi) Deprivation of citizenship by the President.

(d)

Chapter Four This chapter deals with Fundamental Human Rights. Fundamental human rights complement and enhance our harmonious existence and 208

continuance of the nation –state of Nigeria. Without citizens there cannot be a country and without these rights, the citizens would be like slaves in their own country. Freedom from fear and want can be achieved if conditions are created whereby every citizen may enjoy his/her civic and political rights. Furthermore, these rights guarantee the protection of life and property of every Nigeria citizen (Abdullahi, 2000:41 and Adele, 2003:34.) Fundamental human rights are basic to the existence of every individual. They include: the rights to life (Sec. 33); right to dignity of human person (Sec . 34); right to personal liberty (Sec. 35); right to fair hearing (Sec. 36); right to private and personal life (Sec.37).

Others are the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Sec. 38); right to freedom of expression and press (Sec.39), the right to peaceful assembly and association (Sec. 40); the right to freedom of movement (Sec . 41); the right to freedom from dissimilation (Sec.42); it also dealt with compulsory acquisition of property(Sec.44); restriction on and derogation from fundamental right (Sec 45); and special jurisdiction of high court and legal aid. (Sec . 46).

(e)

Chapter Five The focus of this chapter is the Legislature; the Legislature is the sovereign organ of the state powers. It is the law-making today as far as Nigerian constitution is concerned. This fact is attested to in Sections 47-129 of this chapter which stated that there shall be a national Assembly for the Federation which shall consist of the House of Senate and House of the Senate shall consist of three senators from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. While, the House of the representative shall consist of three hundred and six members representing various constituencies of nearly equal proportion in the country. There shall be a President and a Deputy for the Senate and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker for the House of Representatives who shall be elected from among the members of those houses.

209

(f)

Chapter Six This chapter, focuses on the Executive Arm of Government at National and State levels. Various conditions for the election of the President and State Governors and their removal from office, are clearly enunciated in this chapter. There are also provisions for the setting up off special Federal and State Executive bodies (Commissions and Councils). Others important provisions are in respect of Public Revenue and the Public Services of the Federal and States. Part III of this chapter contains supplemental provisions which are in Sections A,B,C and D that pertain to the national Population Commission, the Nigeria Police Force, the Armed Forces of the Federation , and Political parties , respectively.

(g)

Chapter Seven Judicature is the subject matter of this chapter and it relates to the judicial system. It is the body of lawyers, (Judges and Lawyers in the Benches and Bars) that constitute the third estate of the realm. In essence, the Constitution of the country is the supreme law meant to regulate the conduct of affairs in both our public and personal lives. The chapter is divided into four parts. Part 1 focuses on Federal Courts; Part II, State Courts,; Part III, Election Tribunals and Part V, Supplemental.

(h)

Chapter 8 This chapter deals with the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and general supplementary provisions. The chapter consists of 4 parts. Part one is made up of sections 297 to 304. This part highlights the establishment of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, as the capital of the Federal and seat of Government of Nigeria. This part of the constitution accords the Federal Capital Territory the status state. Additionally, this section provides for the appointment of a Minister of 210

the Federal Capital Territory to oversee the Federal Capital and he/she is to be appointed by the President of the federal Republic of Nigeria. The administrative structure and the organs of government in the Federal Capital Territory are enshrined in this portion.Section 305 to 308 make up part of the Chapter. This part contains miscellaneous provisions. Some of these provisions include the procedure for declaration of the state of emergency as well as the president’s power to proclaim a state of emergency.

Part III of the chapter deals with transitional provisions and savings and these are contained in Sections 309 to 307. The concluding part of the Chapter is contained in Sections 318 to 320 and it deals with interpretation, citation and the commencement of the 1999 on 29 th May, 1999. 3.4.3 Schedules in the Constitution The schedules are 1-7, The first schedule has parts one and two whereas part I titled “States of the Federation “ lists the 36 States of Nigeria and local government areas in each state, thus totalling 747 local government areas. (Including those of the Federal Capital Territory, FCT). Part II titled: Definition of Federal Capital Territory, Abuja lists the Seven Area Councils in the FCT. Second schedule has Parts 1 to III. While Part I addresses Exclusive Legislative list, Part II addresses concurrent legislative list and Part III addresses supplemental and interpretation. As explained by Akande (2000:478), in this schedule is the distribution of legislative powers between the Federal and State Governments. There are 66 numbered items and two items of matters of incidental and supplementary to those mentioned in the Exclusive List and 12 main items on the concurrent list subdivided into 30 subsidiaries.

The third schedule equally has three (3) parts. Part I outlines Federal Executive Bodies such as Code of Conduct Bureau; Council of State; Federal Character Commission; Federal Civil Service Commission; Federal Judicial Service; Independent National Electoral Commission; national Defence Council; national Economic Council; National Judiciary Council; national Population Commission; national Security Council and Revenue Mobilization Allocation 211

and Fiscal Commission. Part II explains the States’ Executive Bodies such as State Civil Service Commission; State Independence Electoral Commission and State Judicial Service Commission. Part III on the other hand explains the Executive Body of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

The Fourth Schedule explains the functions of the Local Government Council. The Fifth schedule deals with the Code of Conduct for Public Officers which includes the Code of Conduct Bureau and the Code of Conduct Tribunal. Part II identifies public officers for the purposes of the code of conduct. The sixth schedule dwells on Election Tribunals. Here are the National Assembly Tribunal and the Governorship and Legislative Houses Election Tribunal.

Finally, the seventh schedule focuses on Oath. Here, we have Oath of Allegiance; Oath of Office of President; Oath of Office of Vice President Governor, Deputy Governor, Minister, Commissioner, Special Adviser; oath of member of the National Assembly or of a House of Assembly; and Judicial Oath.

3.4.4 The 1999 Constitution: A Critique Several commentators on the 1999 Constitution had identified certain lapses especially in the drafting of the document. The common denominator among their criticisms is that the document was initiated and midwived, by the military and as such, cannot truly and fully reflects the collective aspirations of Nigerians in a democratic setting. Infact some views are that the document is skewed towards protection of the military interests as it did not categorically pronounce on the illegitimacy of military regimes and outright condemnation of military coup d’ etat. The fact that the constitution was promulgated by an outgoing military regime without any provision for its “acceptance” either through a resolution of the National Assembly or by a Referendum ha generated a lot of debate as to the legitimacy of the document. Indeed, many 212

eminent jurists have condemned not only the process of its making but also , many of its provisions and called for its abrogation (Akande, 2000:vi).

However, the fact still remains that the present civilian administration has operated the 1999 constitution since assuming power in May, 1999. Experience garnered while the operation lasted revealed in more practical terms lapses of the constitution. In recognition of this and in response to the people’s wish for another constitution, the Federal Government inaugurated the Presidential Committee on the Review of the 1999 Constitution on 19 th October, 1999. The report of the Committee was submitted on 30 th February, 2001. On this report, Ibe, (2004: B.6) has this to say:

“However. Like all Committees constituted to serve certain interests, the committee’s Report only succeeded in identifying the problems without making any concrete efforts to offer useful suggestions to solve them”

of self-preservative machinery which they could truly call their own, thus, they established these dreaded “forces”. These forces sometimes engage in protection of lives and property thereby counting the intention of section 214 of the constitution which insists on the establishment of a centralized Nigeria Police Force. The point being made is that the burning issues of state police, sharia system, local government creation, resource control and the composition of some bodies like the National Judicial Council are some of the detectors which signal the morbid inadequacies of the constitution on the issue of true federalism.

6.

The 1999 Constitution, like its predecessors , we aver, is a myth and an expressed elitist document as against that of the people. Thus, the preamble of the constitution “We the people ………..” is a charade. 213

7.

Chapter II of the constitution contains the “fundamental objectives and directive principles of state policy.” This enunciates what the objectives of the state are. From all indications, these principles and objectives parade the socio-economic rights of citizens under another nomenclature. Apart from stating these objectives, there Is no provision to commit the state towards fulfilling them nor has the citizen the right to use the government in the law courts when the government fails to fulfil what it has promised. (Babalola 2004:43.)

In view of the foregoing, we posit that a more credible constitution is desirable. The constitution being proposed should be put together by a crosssection of Nigerians and not the National Assembly as presently constituted because, that body is weak, too weak to act independent of executive interference. More importantly, the National Assembly is a conglomeration of politicians and the constitution is not that of the politicians alone but that of the Nigerian people.

4.0

CONCLUSION

Our proposed constitution must therefore address more adequately such issues as supremacy and defence of the constitution, the structure of the federation, traditional institutions, public revenue (derivation and sharing formula), devolution of powers, local government autonomy, state and religion, legislative/executive relationship, rights, judicial powers and independence of the judiciary , status of the federal capital territory, anticorruption and transparency, political party system, state police, land use act, and tenure of elective offices.

Above all, no constitution in Nigeria has a legitimacy status hence the move for a “National Dialogue” or “Sovereign National Conference”. Here, whatever issues that are decided should be subjected to a Referendum in order to get sufficient inputs from generality of Nigerians. By so doing, the product of such 214

conference would be a Constitution that will for the first time be accorded legitimacy.

5.0

SUMMARY

A nation’s Constitution, we aver, is the bedrock of a democratically elected government practiced in such a nation. In view of this, this unit set out by explaining the concept of the constitution, traces the constitutional development in Nigeria from inception to date. Demerits or inadequacies of each constitution which lad to the formulation of another constitutions of the constitutional development for political and administrative development in Nigeria. The unit therefore focused its attention on the 1999 Constitution which is currently in use in Nigeria. It indentified the eight chapters and seven schedules of the constitutional and briefly explained the provisions of each.

Finally a critique of the constitution was undertaken which led the unit to recommend constitutional review.

It is our belief that acquisition of knowledge in this direction will assist in the adoption of Due Process in the conduct of government business.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.

Critique the 1999 Constitution and provide remedial measures.

7.0

FURTHER READINGS

1.

Akande, J.O (2000) Introduction to the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (Lagos: M.I.J Professional Publishers Ltd

2.

Faseke, M, (1998) The Civil Service in Nigeria: A Historical Perspective (Ibadan: Rex Charles Publishers). 215

3. of

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) Constitution of the Federal Republic

Nigeria (Lagos federal Ministry of Information, Painting Division).

4.

Maduabum, C. P (2008) The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria( Lagos : Concept publications

5 Nwabueze , B.) (1973) Constitutionalism in the Emergent States (London: C. Host.

216

MODULE FIVE. UNIT 19 INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Evolution of Local Government in Nigeria 3.1.1 Meaning of Local Government in Nigeria 3.1.2. History of Local Government in Nigeria

3.2

3.1.2.1

Pre-Colonial Period

3.1.3.2

Post-Colonial Period

3.1.4.3

Early Military Era (1967 – 1976)

3.1.5.4

Late Military Era (1976 – 1979)

3.1.6.5

2nd Republic Era (1979)

3.1.7.6

2nd Military Era (1987 – 1999)

The Principles Underlying the Creation of Local Government Institutions. 3.2.1 The Legal Framework of the Local Government

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION 217

In the last section, you had an idea about what the types, styles and process of planning and decision-making are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the Introduction to Local Government Administration. In this unit, the focus is on Introduction to Local Government administration, we shall be looking at the meaning and evolution of Local government institutions, in pre and post-colonial era, the Principle underlying the creation, as well as the Legal Framework of Local Government administration in Nigeria. 2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1.

Explain the evolution of Local government administration in Nigeria.

2.

Identify the Legal Framework and principles underlying the creation of Local government institutions.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

EVOLUTION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION

3.1.1 Meaning of Local Government Administration The Nigeria system of Local Government administration started with the British system and later change to the American’s System of administration. This is to achieve efficiency of service delivery. Local Governments are semi-autonomy in their votes and powers allocated to them. Local government as a tier of government has generated much interest globally. It is seen as a sub-organ of the state or central government at the Local level where government administration is practiced at the grass-root and closer to the people. A Local government institution is a subordinate existence to a State which derives its powers from the general laws made by the state. Usually, it has a less complete governmental framework. In some Francophone countries of the World, e.g. France, Local governments’ administration is rigidly supervised by the central government. In the Anglophone countries e.g. U.S.A., Local

218

government are autonomous except where they are subordinate to the state, Local government administration in Nigeria fall within this group. (Orewa and Adewumi, 1992) points that Local government is a system of Local communities and towns which are organized to maintain law and order provide some limited range of social services and co-operation of the inhabitants in join endeavours towards the improvements of their conditions of living. From the foregoing definitions on Local government, one can deduce that Local government provides the community with a formal organizational framework which enables them conduct their affairs effectively and regulates the actions of their members for the general public. The Federal Republic of Nigeria guidelines for Local government reforms of 1976, defines Local government councils as government exercised through representative councils established by law to excise specific powers within defined areas.

3.1.1 History of Local Government Administration in Nigeria For the purpose of clarity, the Evolution of the modern Local government system in Nigeria shall be discussed in six (6) analytical phases, which are: a.

The Pre-Colonial Period.

b.

Post-Colonial Period.

c.

Early Military Era (1967 – 1976).

d.

Late Military Era (1976 – 1979).

e.

The Second Republic 1979.

f.

The Second Military Era.

3.1.2. The Pre-Colonial Period 219

This period marked the beginning of modern Local government system in the country. Prior to this period; the traditional institutions were at liberty to practice any system of administration that suits their environment. This period saw the establishment of the native administration or native authorities, where the people were enlightened on political and administrative education. This system of administration allowed the traditional authorities to flourish under the closer supervision of the resident who introduce the indirect rule system. However, under this system, the British were able to penetrate and exploit the vast territory of Nigeria prior to the indirect rule system. The traditional institutions were inferior before the colonial authorities did not accept of parity of status between the Local chiefs or traditional rulers and the Resident Officers. Oyediran (1988), states that, the structure of Local government administration is described as a military-like chain of responsibility extending from the Governor and Lieutenant Governor down to the Resident, District Officer, Chief Emir, District Head, Chief and Village Head. In summary, authorities of Local government administration during this period where centralized but despite the advent of indirect rule system, the traditional native authorities were still able to carry out Legislative, Executive and Judicial functions. The problem during these periods was corruption of the chiefs and Oba’s. They were arrogant and over bearing, making Local government administration during this era a failure. 3.1.2.2

Post-Colonial Period

Local Government Administration in Nigeria during the post-colonial period was essentially the responsibility of the regions or what is termed as regionalization or Localization of Local governments in Nigeria. The system of administration varies slightly from one region to another. In the Northern region, they adopted and retained the status as it was under the colonial master, which was the native authority system. The emirs adopted and retained the enormous powers, influence and prestige of the colonial masters to have a 220

stronghold and control of the political will of the region. In the Eastern region, they practiced a two tiered system; District and Local Council System in the Local areas and a three tiered system compose of an all-purpose municipal, urban county and county councils. During this period, members of the various councils were mostly elected. These councils were supposed to be autonomous since the members were elected representatives of the people. The control over the councils was from the Ministry for Local government Inspectorate and the Local Government Service Board (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). In the western Region, the Local government administrative system was similar to that of the Eastern region in terms of administration and elections. Three tiered structure was in operation, the municipal, urban county and county councils. The councils were thus seen and used as avenues from planting the coalition’s surrogates at the grass-roots. The major achievements in the three regions during the postcolonial era were primarily to maintain laws and order, prevention of crime etc. The institutions were poorly financed and over staffed; there was no proper election into key positions. 3.1.2.3

Early Military Era (1967 – 1976)

This era witnessed a period of great political instability and all efforts were geared towards maintaining stability and combating the Biafran treat of succession. The entry of the military did witness some changes in the councils as the Local government administrations were dissolved and new care-taker imposed on them. The nature of military regime which was usually centralized and authoritarian affected the Council since the various regional governments made no pretence of allowing the Councils a semblance of authority. Nothing really remarkable happened at the Local government councils during this period.

3.1.2.4

Late Military Era (1976 – 1979) 221

This period was a watershed of the evolution of the Local government administration in Nigeria; it witnessed remarkable reforms of the Local government system in Nigeria. The main thrust of the reform was the standardization of the Councils nationwide. The objectives of the reform were: 1.

To bring even and

rapid development of

Local government

administration at all levels throughout the country. 2.

To facilitate the exercise of democratic self-government at the Local levels and to encourage initiative and leadership potentials.

3.

To mobilize human and natural resources through the involvement of members in Local development.

4.

To appropriate serious and development activities responsible to Local wishes and initiative by developing or delegating them to Local representative bodies.

5.

To provide a two way channel of communication between the Local communities and the government.

Criticism of the Reform Some scholars have argued that the changes induced by the reform were not as far-reaching as it ought to be. To this group, they believed that the changes induced were more apparent than real. Egwurube (1991), states that the reform was more symbolic than real and that the changes it introduced were cosmetic. 3.1.2.5

The Second Republic (1979)

This period is tagged to be the anti-climax in the evolution of Local government administration in Nigeria. The Councils were empowered with avenues for rewarding their political allies. Appointments were made into the Councils on partisan patronage, thereby employing corrupt and unqualified personnel to man the affairs of Local governments. This period did not record any remarkable achievement in the evolution process. Local government administration during 222

this period was highly ineffective, unnoticed and made little or no significant impact on the lives of the people. 3.1.2.6

The Second Military Era (1984 – 1999)

The second military era, led to the present status and transformation of the Local government system in Nigeria. The military were quite unsatisfied with the state of the Local governments. The Dasuki Panel (1984), was set up to look into the affairs of the Councils and stipulate guidelines for operation and efficient administration. The Committee, in its report attributed the problems of Local government as operational factors arising directly from the behaviour and attitude of the persons who operated the system. Some of the recommendations of Alhaji Ibrahim Dasuki Panel were as follows: 1.

The councils should be directly funded and granted autonomy status.

2.

The abolition of the Local Government Ministries.

3.

Decentralization of the services provided by Local Governments.

However, these recommendations of the Committee could not be implemented as Buhari’s administration was overthrown in a palace coup by General Babangida in 1985. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the phases of Local Government System in Nigeria 2. What are the main objectives of the reforms on Local Government System in the late Military era (1976-1979) 3.2 THE PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE CREATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS. The need for Local government institutions emanated from the facts that different geographical areas have diverse people, visions, and potentials. The vision and potentials of the people to a great extent influence in the creation of Local government institutions. In establishing Local government institutions 223

and in assigning powers to them to be autonomous the state should put the following into considerations. 1.

The State should attempt to set Local units that are homogenous in nature

and whose affairs need Local management. Two un-identical communities cannot stay together under the umbrella of one Local government. During the 2nd military era, General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida delineated Ife and Modakeke into two different Local Government Councils because of uncommon interest. However, a measure can be achieved if only the boundaries are shifted or adjusted to enable peace to reign. 2.

The State should guide against designating on excessive number of units as councils as would result in overlapping powers, duplication of functions and consequent wastage of public funds.

3.

The State government should properly supervise on exercise of power within Local units; they should work towards the prevention of dishonesty and inefficiency of officers. The State should reserve the executive power to appoint and remove officers entrusted with the administration of state laws.

3.2.1 The Legal Framework of the Local Government. Local government institutions are ‘’corporations with perpetual succession’’ (Bello et al 2004). They have legal – existence like an ordinary individual, they are legal entitles which can sue and be sued in the court. The Local institutions once established can never die; they are continually in existence as far as the state provides them with the necessary allocations. The Local government institutions can only act within the framework of the law in which it was established. Unlike an ordinary individual who can do anything against the law forbid him to do. The Local government institutions may only do those things which the law specifically order or permit them to do. The Local government will not for any reason assist the State in carrying out or to maintain its 224

responsibilities. Any contrary action would infringe the doctrine of ultra-vires, which means acting beyond the powers given to it. The law which binds Local government institutions may be either mandatory or permissive. A mandatory law is one which orders Local government institutions to do something e.g. the provision of schools markets etc. while a permissive law is that which permits the council to establish a rural health service centre within its jurisdiction. However, Local government institutions may pass byelaws, which is the power and authorities to enable them to carry out their responsibilities. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on, Local government administration is a suborgan entity of the state, where government administration are practiced at the grass-root areas and closer to the people. The evolution of Local government system in Nigeria could be traced back to the colonial era of the British administration. There are six analytical phases of Local government administration in Nigeria, the colonial, the past colonial, the early military era, late military era, the second republic and the second military era and all recorded remarkable achievements in the history of Nigeria. The essentials of Local government administration cannot be ignored because it brings the government closer to the people. 5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about the evolution of Local government administration in Nigeria. The powers of the Local government institutions are derived from the State. The underlying principles for the creation of Local government institutions vary in geographical areas and diversity of people and culture. 6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: 225

1.

Define Local Government Administration?

2.

Explain the Evolution of Local Government in Nigeria.

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bello, S. A,

Ojodu, H.O, Ogunyomi, P.O, Legbeti, P (2004), Public

Administration System In Nigeria, Revised Edition, Raamson Printing Service Egwurube, J. O. (1991),The Evolution Of Local Government In Nigeria. A Systemic

Government

Administration,

(Enugu

Fourth

Dimension

Publishers). Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms 1976, Kaduna Government Press. Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication. Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press. Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004) Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited. Orewa, G. O. And Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation Oyediran,O. (1988) Essays On Local Government And Administration In Nigeria, Lagos Government Press. Nwatu, D. N (1995) Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu Agatha Service Publisher Ltd

226

UNIT 20 FUNCTIONS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA

Table of Contents 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Comparative Perspective of local government functions in some

selected 3.2

countries.

Functions of Local Government in Nigeria 3.2.1 Exclusive /Mandatory Functions of Local Government

Institutions 3.2.2 Concurrent /Permissive Functions of Local Government Institutions 4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

Reference/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you learnt about introduction to local government. This unit will take you a step further into the functions of the local government in Nigeria. In this unit, we shall be looking at the roles of rural and urban local government institutions, the different between Concurrent and Exclusive functions of local government and a comparative view of some selected Local government institutions in some countries. 2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 227

a.

Explain the importance of Local government institutions.

b.

Differentiate between rural and urban Local government administration.

c.

Distinguish between concurrent and exclusive functions of the Local government institutions.

d.

Make a comparison of the functions of the Local government in USA and Nigeria.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

3.1

COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT FUNCTIONS IN SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES.

Local government as the third tier of the government performs primary functions. The central government controls more of the funds. The central government has better competence and expertise to handle secondary programmes. The urban local government takes-up greater and more sophisticated functions because of the demands and challenges of urban communities. The Acts or constitution of local government institutions established functional areas that they can engage in. Some functions are concurrent between the local government and the State, while others are exclusive such as: revenue generation, welfare, maintenance, agriculture, health, education and other functions as prescribed from time to time by the State House of Assembly (Nwatu, 1995). The Soviet Union before its disintegration operates a Central system of government. The Union was sub-divided into a variety of local government institutions each headed by a Council called Soviet. The councils are large sometimes numbering several hundred numbers and operate through a system of committees. Council men are not necessary members of the communist party but drawn from a wide cross section of the workforce. The Council has considerable decision making authorities on Local matters although all policies must operate within constraints established by the Communist party. The Soviet pattern of Local government institutions has been copied in many 228

Communist countries for example, China on either a two or three level basis (Nwatu, 1995). In France, financing local government institutions is the primary control of the Ministry of Interior. This makes the Local government to be weak and this had adverse effects on the paste of services administered both at the rural and urban centres. The most important and substantive functions of the French Local government institutions are provision of free education, that provides political education and participation as well as police services. The French Local government councils have great authority over items that are more difficult and local in character such as parks or gardens, recreations centres and street maintenance (Nwatu, 1995).In Britain, Local Government performs three broad functions and these are classified as: (A) Environmental (B) Protective and (C) Personal. The environmental functions of Local government in Britain are concerned the with the immediate physical environment via, land, air and water, through the protection of the atmosphere, road construction and maintenance, labelling, cleaning and provision of street lights, water supplies, refuse disposal etc. The protective functions are those that deal with safety of citizens, police and fire services, while the Personal service deals with individual well-being such as health, schools, housing, museum, libraries services. In Britain today, the most significant complex and cumbersome function of Local government is the provision of housing for the teeming population. However, not all Local government institutions can perform these functions. In rural districts, parish councils have limited control in matters of Local interest such as allotments, burial grounds, lighting and provision of amenities (Nwatu, 1995). In the United States, special districts are created to carry out specific functions or projects. The main function of Local government administration is the management of the public schools system. The other functions performed by Local government in the USA are policing, public works, libraries and recreation, public utilities, city planning, public health, 229

airports, harbour and housing. These are indeed gigantic functions which municipal city government can take on (Nwatu, 1995). In India, Local government administration is known as Panchyali-Raj. The functions of Local government institutions in India follow a similar pattern like that of the USA except for police and the gigantic function of harbours and airports. The functions of Local government administration are similar to the Nigerian situation. Their functions can also be classified as obligatory and discretionary, such functions include agricultural programmes, animal husbandry, building and communications, education administration, fishery, forestry, small-scale industries, medical services, security disposal etc. The urban councils could perform obligatory functions like conservation, street lighting, drainage construction, waste management and road maintenance, while the larger councils could also engage in water supply, street cleaning and labelling; refuse disposal, fire service, primary educations etc. (Nwatu, 1995). In the Nigerian situation, the functions of Local government institutions are usually spelt out by the Central government, and the local units are expected to operate within the framework of the status establishing it. The urban Councils provide more services because of challenges than their rural counterparts. The functions of Local government institutions in Nigeria as discussed in the 1999 Constitution (fourth schedule) are discussed in the next section. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Identify the functions of local government institutions in the USA, Britain, France, India and USSR. 3.2

FUNCTIONS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The functions of the Local government are usually spelt out by the central government. The administration of Local government can either be rural or urban. The functions of rural Local government institutions are simpler than their urban counterpart. The Local government institutions are subjected to the standards required by the Central government especially in the provision of 230

efficient services. Functions of Local government institutions can be divided into two, the Exclusive or Mandatory and the Concurrent or Permissive functions: 3.2.1 Exclusive or Mandatory Functions of Local Government Institutions (Revenue Generation) The exclusive functions of local government in Nigeria are: a.

The consideration and the making of recommendations to a State Commission on Economic Planning and Development; particularly in area of authority of the council.

b.

Construction and maintenance of “trunk C” roads, cleaning and labelling of houses, drains construction, open spaces or public facilities as may be prescribed from time to time by the state House of Assembly.

c.

Assessment of privately-owned houses or tenement for the purpose of levying such rates as may be prescribed by the State House of Assembly.

d.

Registration of all births, deaths and legal services e.g. marriages.

e.

Establishment and maintenance of communities, and homes for the destitute.

f.

Establishment, maintenance and regulation of slaughter houses, slaughter slab markets, motor parks, sewage and refuse disposal and public convince.

g.

Collection of rate, radio and television licenses, licenses of bicycles, trucks, (other may be mechanically propelled trucks) canoe wheel barrow and carts.

h.

Control and regulations of the following:

(i).

Licensing regulation and control of the sale of liquor.

(ii).

Movement and keeping of pets of all description.

(iii). Shops and kiosks. 231

(iv). Restaurants, bakeries and other places for sale of food to the public. 3.2.2 Concurrent

or

Permissive

Functions

of

Local

Government

Institutions The functions of a Local government institution shall include-participation of such Council in the government of a State in respect of the following matters: a.

The provision and maintenance of health and environmental services such as public health inspection of drains and sewages;

b.

The provision and maintenance of primary-adult and vocational education centre;

c.

The development of agriculture and natural resources other than mineral resources;

d.

The provision of legal services e.g. marriage registration; and

e.

Such other functions as may be conferred on a local government institution by the House of State Assembly. However, the above are social functions of the local government.

In a nutshell, local government institutions are saddled with a lot of functions from mere political enlightenment and integration of the people to the provision and maintenance of essential services. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion on, the functions of Local government institutions are virtually the same in all parts of the World. Urban Councils performed more functions due to the demands and challenges than the rural councils. In Nigeria, the functions of Local government institutions are classified into 2, Mandatory and Concurrent functions which are the provision and maintenance of essential services to the people at the grass root. In USSR and France, the primary functions of the Local governments’ administration are similar in nature. In Britain, the functions of Local governments are classified into three: environmental, protective and personal while in the USA, the major function of Local government administration is in the management of public schools. 232

5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt about the functions of Local government administration in Nigeria. The functions are classified into two, the exclusive or mandatory and the permissive or concurrent. In India, local government institutions are called Panchayali-Raj. The Urban councils performed more functions than their rural counterparts. The functions of Local government institutions in France, and USSR, are majorly in the provision of primary education. In USA, Local government institutions are classified into three; environmental, protective and personal.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: 1. Explain the functions of Local government institutions in Nigeria. 2. Explain the functions of the French system of Local government administration.

7.0

REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Ademolekun, L And Rowland, L (1979), The New Local Government System In Nigeria, Problems And Prospects For Implantation, Heinemann, Ibadan Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation Egwurube, J. O. (1991) The Evolution Of Local Government In Nigeria. A Systemic

Government

Administration,

(Enugu

Fourth

Dimension

Publishers). Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms 1976, Kaduna Government Press. Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.

233

Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press. Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Operational Guidelines For Local Government Councils, Abuja 1997 Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004) Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited. Oyediran, O.(1988) Essays On Local Government And Administration In Nigeria, Lagos Government Press. Nwatu, D. N (1995) Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu Agatha Service Publisher Ltd

234

UNIT 21 FINANCING LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Internal Sources 3.1.1 Property Tax 3.1.2 User Charges 3.1.3 General Administration Revenue

3.2

External Sources 3.2.1 Grants 3.2.2 Loans

3.3

Central Government Control over Local Government 3.3.1 Legislative Control 3.3.2 Administrative Control 3.3.3 Financial Control 3.3.4 Judicial Control

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea of what the functions of Local government are all about. This unit is on financing Local government in Nigeria. In this unit, the focus is on the finance, sources of revenue and Federal government control over Local government financing in Nigeria. We shall be looking at the sources of revenues (externally mobilized and internally generated) how funds are raised. 235

2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a.

Identify the various sources of revenue to Local government councils in Nigeria.

b. Explain the Federal government financial controls of Local government council in Nigeria.

3.0

MAIN CONTENT

Local government institutions need adequate funding to be able to service the functions assigned to them by the Federal government. Local government funds are raised in different ways. Anifowose and Enemuo (1999), states that the sources of revenue to Local government can be grouped into two categories via internally generated or domestically mobilized revenue and externally mobilized income. Internally generated revenues are funds collected within the jurisdiction of the Local government council.

The externally generated

revenues are funds mobilised outside its territories, which could be in form of grants and loans. 3.1

INTERNAL SOURCES OF REVENUE

Internal sources of Local government revenue are those generated within the tax jurisdictions of Local government. As mentioned earlier, such jurisdictions are sometime in line with the constitution while others are conventional. In the Nigerian case, these sources are specified in the constitution. There are also tax laws to support revenue generation. Local government internal revenue can be classified as Local tax revenues, user charges and administrative revenues. The most common of these three, is tax revenue or levies by the Councils on the people for services rendered. The principles of taxation are efficiency, equity and revenue productivity. Tax administrations are better managed at the city or urban areas than rural ones. A local tax is generally seen as a tax whose base or 236

rate is determined or decided by the local government (Anifowose and Enemuo 1999). Local government taxes include property rates, poll or community tax, graduate rate (based on income levied on all inhabitants of the Local authority’s area). Special rates levied on the whole or a section of the community for a particular purpose e.g. school, building of water supply and business tax. However, in the rural areas the tax system is structured in a way that it relates to either person’s property or transactions. Community taxes are easily collected in rural areas while taxes on property and transactions are more applicable to urban Local governments. 3.1.1 Property Tax/ Tax Revenue Property Tax is the tax on properties acquired by individuals and companies. It is a highly reliable tax in terms of revenue generation for the Local governments all over the World (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). Local government councils in the developed world e.g. Britain, U.S.A., France, Japan, Germany, and a host of others depend greatly on it. The percentage of tax derived varies from one urban government to another (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). In Nigeria, property taxes are collected in major cities (Lagos, Part-Harcourt, Ibadan, Kano, Benin, Abuja, etc.) than in rural areas. Examples of urban property taxes are: a.

Site value tax on vacant or unapproved vacant land (tenement)

b.

A tax on urban housing or building not subject to the site tax.

Despite the promising nature of this tax, it is associated with some problems. These constraints are mainly administrative, technical and political. The administrative problems have to do with the attitude of the tax collectors who are not usually efficient and effective. The problem is technical, where the machines for computation of data and classification of property malfunction and are limited in supply, and political, where political forces influence compliance 237

with property valuation. In Nigeria, the rating of property tax mostly in rural areas are faced with a lot of challenges such as unwillingness to comply while in the urban areas there is no clear measure of determining property tax. 3.1.2. User Charges Taxes of this kind are fees paid in exchange for a service provided by the Local government. Most of the exclusive and concurrent functions assigned to Local government as earlier mentioned are sources of revenue. These could be classified as user charges administrative or general revenues. They come from the sale of economic goods, services and resources by the government, fares in Local government buses, fees for using Local government properties, car park etc. In Nigeria, the Council generates more of these fees and charges from the urban Local government councils than the rural ones. 3.1.3. General Administrative Revenue Local government powers over revenue are largely residual. In Nigeria, the following cases are codified under the following Local government revenue heads (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). 1001 – Taxes 1002 – Rates 1003 – Local licenses, fees and fine 1004 – Earnings from commercial undertaking 1005 – Rent in Local government property 1006 – Internal payments and dividends. Part of what has been treated under property tax and user charges fall under 1001 and 1004 respectively. In Nigeria, Local governments’ heads 1003 – 1004 continue to be the mainstay of Local government revenue. A few revenue items, such as market and motor parks licences and fees from television and radio have shown to be visible sources of revenue. However, most items of internal 238

revenue in Nigeria Local governments are inelastic, this means, that the administrative cost of collecting them could exceed the benefits. Furthermore, a revenue head like Head 1003 alone covers a range of items or subhead of 1001 items. These include licenses on dogs, bicycles and other minor permits which may add up to little. From the foregoing, one can deduce that the internal sources of revenue of urban areas are likely to raise higher revenue than local areas. Hardly do rural governments in Nigeria go beyond the 10% of total Local government revenue, and in some cases less than 5%, while urban Local government may generate up to 15 – 20%. However, the survival of Local governments rests largely with external sources rather than internal ones, despite the huge internally generated revenues realized by some selected states or urban Local government council. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the differences between grants and loans as sources of revenue to Local government institutions 2. Identify and explain the central government control over Local government institutions 3.2

EXTERNAL SOURCES (GRANTS AND LOANS)

3.2.1 Grant/Statutory Allocation External sources or externally mobilized incomes of the local governments areas are revenue generated outside their jurisdiction or territory. They include inter-governmental grants and loans. External sources are the mainstay of most Local governments in most developing countries of the world. There are two main types of inter-governmental grants (A) general revenue or unconditional grants (B) specific or conditional or matching grants. Inter-governmental grants are funds from the Federal to Local government councils or government allocations to Local governments. The Federal government is required by law to transfer 20% of the federation account to the Local government and States are expected to disburse 10% of its internally derived income to Local 239

governments. The general revenue or unconditional grants where consistent and stable enable Local governments to plan their budgets effectively. In Nigeria, the proportion of sharing grants or statutory allocation has changed over time. It had changed from 10% – 20% in the past to the present 20% that Local government enjoy its share of statutory allocation, while the State governments are to pay to Local government 10% for the following reasons. a.

To augment the resources of the Local authorities;

b.

To meet the exceptional needs or the limited means of particular areas; and

c.

To influence aggregate Local government expenditure as part of the process of controlling the national economy.

The specific or conditional or matching grants are those motivational grants from the Federal to Local government council to meet specific projects e.g. the Universal Primary Education. In Nigeria, Local government areas would not have been in existence without statutory allocation from the federal government. Most Local government institutions in West African countries obtain about 40% - 50% of the incomes from the Central government. Such grants are often in the form of percentage grants or block grants (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). 3.2.2 Loans Local government institutions are empowered by law to borrow funds from external sources, usually to finance major capital projects. These loans may or not be necessary need to be guaranteed by the State governments. They can be raised either from financial institutions or specialized municipal credit agencies. This may not however apply to overdraft especially since their statutory allocation goes straight into their account for now. Local government institutions everywhere need loan (1) to provide infrastructural services such as health, roads etc. (2) for productive investment such as motor parks or mass transit-ventures etc. Local government institutions either rural or urban have 240

access to acquired loans, be it urban or rural. The purpose of such loans is purely for infrastructural development and investment projects. 3.4 FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

CONTROL

OF

LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS There are various controls or bodies charged with the supervision of Local government councils. The three main federal government organs – the Legislature Executive and Judiciary exercise different forms of control over Local government institutions. These forms of controls are: a.

Control by Service Commission.

b.

Control by the Ombudsman.

c.

Control through Administrative Tribunal.

d.

Control within each Administrative Agency.

3.3.1 Legislative Control Local governments operate within the framework of the laws passed by the legislature because Local government institutions are the creations of the supreme legislative organ of the State. The Legislative controls may include fiscal, supervisory, disciplinary and constitutive controls. The Legislature can amend the law establishing such Local government and also enact laws forbidding the Local councils to do certain things. Moreover, since Local authorities exercise only delegated powers, all bye-laws passed by such authorities must be approved by the Minister for Local government. 3.3.2 Administrative Control a.

The Federal governments through the Ministry of Local government and the Local Government Service Commissions have administrative controls and regulatory powers over the conditions of service and dismissal of Local government personnel. 241

b.

The Local Government Service Commission have the powers to appoint, suspend and dismiss staff of the Local authorities, and in some situations order for public inquiry into Local government affairs. Where this occurs, a Management Committee may be set up to take over the administrative controls of the affected councils areas.

c.

The State appoints a Commissioner who takes control and responsibility of the affairs of Local government administration in line with the directives of the Local Government Service Commission.

3.3.3 Financial Control a.

The bulk of Local government revenue comes from grants from the Federal government. The Federal government may decide to reduce the grant or to withhold it entirely if the services for such grants have been allocated are either not being provided for satisfactory, the grant to Lagos state was with-held for a while during Obasanjo’s second term in office over the creation of additional Local council’s development areas. When grants are withheld, the Local government councils can hardly function with regards to the provision of essential services.

b.

The Local governments’ institutions are compiled to prepare Annual Accounts at the end of the financial year. These accounts show actual revenue and expenditure of the Councils. The accounts are subjected to audit and all improper or unauthorized funds detected against any person’s by the auditor must be refunded to the Local government institutions.

3.3.4 Judicial Control Judicial control of Local government institutions are exercised by the courts under the doctrine of ultra-vires. The Court may declare void any act of Local authorities which is contrary to the law or in excess of the powers granted her by the legislature. Any person or group of persons who consider themselves to be aggrieved by any action of a Local government can institute a legal action 242

against the Local institutions. They have the power to pardon and grant amnesty to any person or officers that contravene Local government laws. 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion, revenues constitute the mainstay of Local government institutions in Nigeria. No Local government councils can survives without allocations from the government. Financing of Local government councils can be from internally and externally generated revenues. The most common source of internally generated revenue is the tax collection from government employees and user charges. Grants and loans constitute the external sources of revenue to Local government. Urban Councils generate more revenues than their rural counterparts. In Nigeria, the proportion of sharing grants has changed from 10 – 20%, State governments pays 10% from their revenues for the financing of Local government institutions. 5.0

SUMMARY

Local government institutions need adequate funds to operate. The sources of revenues to Local government institution are internally and externally generated. There are tax laws to support revenue generation. Local government institutors are empowered by law to borrow funds from external sources. The Federal government is required to transfer 20% of the Federal accounts to Local governments. Each state is expected to disburse 10% of its internally generated revenues to Local government.

6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: 1. Explain the Sources of Revenues of Local government institutions in Nigeria 2. Differentiate between judicial and administrative control of Local government

7.0. References And Further Reading

243

Egwurube, J. O. (1991), The Evolution Of Local Government In Nigeria. A Systemic

Government

Administration,

(Enugu

Fourth

Dimension

Publishers). Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited. Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms 1976, Kaduna Government Press. Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication. Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press. Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Operational Guidelines For Local Government Councils, Abuja 1997 Orewa, G. O. And Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation Oyediran, O.(1988), Essays On Local Government And Administration In Nigeria. Lagos, Government Press. Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Sam Iroanusi Publications Nwatu, D. N (1995), Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu Agatha Service Publisher Ltd

244

UNIT 22 PROBLEMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND REFORMS/COMMITTEES Table of Content 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Problems of Local Government Councils 3.1.1 Finance 3.1.2 Administration 3.1.3 Political and Leadership Constraints 3.1.4 Community 3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations

3.2

Local Government Reforms

3.2.1 The President Olusegun Obasanjo Reform 3.2.2 The Dasuki Reforms Committee 245

3.2.3 The Babangida Reforms 3.2.4 Local Government Reforms in the Fourth Republic 3.2.5 The 2003 Local Government Reform Committee 4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, you had an idea of what the sources of revenue and Federal government control over Local government are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the problems facing Local government and reforms of Local Government in Nigeria. This unit discussed the problems of finance, administration, inter-governmental relations among others. It also discussed the reforms under President Obasanjo and Babangida administration among other. 2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a.

Identify the problems of Local government system in Nigeria.

b.

Explain the various reforms of Local governments’ institutions in Nigeria.

3.0 PROBLEMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS The problems facing Local governments in Nigeria are enormous. It is the general consensus in Nigeria that Local governments have not made any significant mark in the country’s attempt to promote rapid social and economic change. These problems facing Local government reforms include; inadequate finance, administration, leadership community attitude, inter governmental relations, planning and ideology (Egwurube, 1991) 246

3.1.1 Finance Inadequate financial resource is a major problem facing Local government administration and in Nigeria. The collective impact of several factors have compounded these problems, for instance, some Local governments are generally poor. Many citizens do not see the need to pay taxes, as the amenities on which they are taxed are inadequate in supply or never provided. Other financial problems of Local Government in Nigeria are: a.

Too much money is spent by the Local governments on recurrent budget, sometimes up to 80 – 90% leaving a smaller percentage for social and economic services.

b.

With the low level of finance, massive corruption takes place in Local governments

institutions,

money

realized

are

either

embezzled

administratively or by elected officials. Politicians see Councils as a place for rehabilitation and not service to the community. Money that would have been channelled into projects finds its way into private pockets (Egwurube, 1991). c.

Problems of proper methods of revenue collection as mentioned earlier had in the past resulted in inadequate financial support of Local government institutions. The method of collection was inefficient.

3.1.2 Administrative a.

Despite, the Federal government controls over Local government institutions, there is lack of strict enforcement. Some Local government authorities have in certain areas neglected the performance of the statutory functions with impunity. 247

b.

Surveys have shown that in recent years, the quantum of staff has increased. Though, there have been more quality staff in administration than the technical (Engineers, Architect) and professional fields (Planning and Research) in Local government, the appointment of incompetent staff is rampant. The resultant effects of this are mismanagement, incompetence, embezzlement, misappropriation, corruption and failure to provide the necessary opportunities for the Local people (Egwurube, 1991).

c.

The problems of boundaries disputes amongst some Local government authorities have led to killings and arson. The crises in Ife-Modakeke (Oshun) and the Biliri-Kaltungo (Bauchi) have led to the splitting of these communities into different and Local Government areas. The reason for the frequent crises in the Southern part of Jos in Nigeria may not be far from this (Nwatu, 1995)

3.1.3 Political and Leadership constraints a.

Changes in government are accompanied with changes in Local government structure. These changes bring interference in the operations of the Local authorities which might affect the people negatively or positively. However, these changes in Local government structure have not provided the needed stability and performance that Local government Councils need to fulfil.

b.

Political constraint has been the lack of political or ideological framework with its consequent ill-defined functions of Local government Councils. There have been duplication of duties, operational inefficiencies and wastage of materials and human resources because the Federal government agencies at the Local level used to exercise similar functions.

c.

The problems of ineffective and incompetent political functionaries in the membership of the councils are also critical. 248

3.1.4 Community The communities often feel marginalized in development. Community development efforts are not adequately supported by Local government even where intervention occurs. The net effect of this is that, the community feels marginalized

from development programmes

and efforts.

The

more

programmes and projects are community driven and participatory, the more the community would want to own and sustain the programme. Community attitude also reinforces the corruptive attitude of politicians. Instead of demanding for accountability from politicians who amass lots of wealth and status symbols while in office, they perceive this as the ultimate objectives of politics. Such political actors are acclaimed. They have on the basis of “this is his time”. This is a very negative attitude to anti-corruption and development. 3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations Intergovernmental relationships in Nigeria exist among the three organs of government – legislature, executive and judiciary. The Legal or Constitutional Framework, within which these relations take place and the position of the government functions in the hierarchy are institutionalized. However, there exist four (4) types of intergovernmental relations; these are vertical, horizontal, diagonal and external intergovernmental relations (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). a. Vertical Intergovernmental Relations: This is where the institution at the higher level has a position of influence and authority over the institution at the lower level e.g. the influence of Public Service Commission on Local government Councils. b Horizontal Intergovernmental Relations

occur between government

institutions which find themselves at a particular level of government, for instance, State or Local governments can decide to institute a programme aimed at assisting other States or Local government in dire need e.g. “Security Watch” 249

programme of the Local governments for the purpose of overseeing the neighbourhoods and reducing armed robbery in this type of relations. c. Diagonal Intergovernmental Relations: This takes place between two or more government institutions, it occurs when liaison takes place across government institutions of different location e.g. a Local or State government, a State finds itself in a relationship with another State or Local government. d. External Intergovernmental Relations: This exists when the central or Federal government enters into relationship with another government or institutions outside its geographical areas or boundaries. There exist three sub-divisions of external intergovernmental relations, which are regional, international and external relations. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the problems facing Local government administration 2. Explain the Babangida reforms on Local government administration

3.2 LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS 3.2.1 President Olusegun Obasanjo Reforms on Local Government The 1976 Local government reforms by President Olusegun Obasanjo gave Local government areas full governmental support to manage their finances and initiate their own programmes. The reason for the reforms was due to the increase in the number of States and subsequent increase in Local governments’ institution throughout the federation without adequate consideration for their viability. The creation of Local government areas in Nigeria is clear expression of patronage by revenue distribution to favour some areas or interest groups. The reforms were carried out by a ten-man technical committee headed by Esta Nupe.

Obasanjo, believes that Nigerians have worked for democracy and

deserved qualitative lift in their living conditions at the grass-root areas (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). 250

The terms of reference for the Committee are as follows: a. To examine the problem of inefficiency, high cost of governance and to proffer solutions to reduce cost and wastage. b. To review all Local government performance from 1971-1976, and to determine the need of retaining them or not. c. The look at the possibilities of assigning specific roles to traditional institutions in the Local government areas. d.

To examine the high cost of election serving in the country.

3.2.2 The Dasuku Reform Committee Alhaji Ibrahim Dasuku Local government Reform/Committee was set up by Buhari administration in 1984 with the aim of revamping the system of the Local government administration, finance and control. Before now performance and service of the Local government areas were grossly unsatisfactory. The Committee was charged with the responsibility of looking into the problems of Local government administration and recommend solutions. Committees’ Observations 1. The major problem to Local government was attributed to operational factors, which hinder equitable distribution of amenities of Local government through the federation. 2.

A proposal for decentralization of the services provided by Local

government Councils, but these recommendations could not be implemented as Buhari’s administration was overthrown in a palace coup by General Babangida in 1985 (Egwurube, 1991 3.2.3The Babangida Reforms Babangida reforms on Local government councils complemented the reports and recommendations of the Dasuki Committee and that of the National Service Scheme for Local government employees. Babangida administration set up a 251

ten-man Committee to produce National Scheme of Service for all cadres of Local government Councils. The Committee from its findings recommended autonomy for Local government Councils. The following were some of the reforms: a.

The release of National Scheme of Service for Local government

employees, in 1988 afforded the Local government the chance to promote their staff up to grade level fifteen. This created opportunities for the employment of professionals such as engineers, legal officers, health officials, architect etc. b.

The power given to elected Local government Chairmen to appoint their

own government secretaries had made them real Chief Executives in their domains while the creation of Local Government Legislative Assemblies made the separation of powers and responsibilities complete. Local governments became a distinct third-tier level of government in the country. c.

The remitting to States of annual Local government grants was stopped.

Local government Councils started getting their grants directly from the Federal government. d.

State Ministries of Local governments were abolished and State

Governments were directed to terminate their joint services with Local governments. e.

Federal government reviewed the grants allocated to Local governments

from 10% to 15% in 1989 and to 20% in 1992. f.

The scrapping of Local government Services Commission in January,

1992, made the Local government autonomous with regards to issues of discipline, promotion and even development. The channel through which the State Government controlled and influenced Local government was thus terminated. However, the major constraint in the Babangida reforms was that staff of Local governments, were not prepared for the reform, no induction course was organised to familiarize them with the new 252

system. Secondly, government lacked the financial base to sustain the autonomy of these Local government Councils (Egwurube, 1991). 3.2.4 Local Government Reforms in the Fourth Republic (1979) The implementation of Babangida reforms boosted the performance and activities of Local government Councils but the major setback was the frequency of postponed elections. The Council Chairmen and their councilors were voted into office. Decree 36 of 1998 specified three year tenure for them which ought to expire on 29th of May, 2003 but the Council chairmen demanded of a-four year tenure. They felt that what was obtains at the Federal level should apply to them. They formed an Association of Local Government Chairmen of Nigeria (ALGON) and lobby the National Assembly for one year extension of tenure as contained in the Electoral Act 2007. However, this resulted in a court case and on the 28th of March, 2002 the Supreme Court ruled against the Local government Chairmen. The judgement was a big blow to Council bosses that were preparing to spend one more year in office; State governors thereafter started making arrangements for council polls. The Council polls that were fixed for April 13th, 2002 could not hold until March 2004. This was due to the inability of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to provide the electoral register, and the registration of new parties and all those led to the change of date till, 2004, after the general election of 2003 (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). 3.2.5. The 2003 Local Government Reforms The 2003 Local government reforms were set up due to the problems of Local governments in the fourth republic. The President in a nationwide broadcast on the 18th of June, 2003, informed the nation that the Council of State, (made up of the President, his Deputy, the 36 State Governors, all past Presidents and the leaders of National Assembly) has agreed on a reform of the nation’s Local government system. The decisions of the Council of States were based on: 253

(a) The non-performance or gross-performance of the Local government (b) The high cost of government and high cost of electioneering campaigns to individual political contestants in Nigeria and (c) Fragmentation of Local government councils etc. A technical committee was drawn from the six-geopolitical zones headed by the Etsu Nupe to examine the way forward for Local government affairs. Their terms of reference were; a. To examine the problem of inefficiency and high cost of government with a view to reducing cost and wastages. b. To review the performance of Local government within the last four years and desirability of retaining the Local government as the third tier of government. c. To examine the high cost of electioneering campaign in the country and consider any other matter of the Local government system. The report of the Committee to the President states that The Federal, State and Local governments have failed in meeting the aspirations of the people. They recommends was that, there is the need to grant the Local governments third tier status, abolish the State Joint Local government account and retain the 774 constitutionally recognized Local government councils, among others. The committee faced a lot of challenges especially from opposition parties (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). 4.0

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing discussion, Local government institutions were faced with many challenges and problems ranges from Finance, Administrative, Community, Political and Leadership and Intergovernmental Relations. Various Reforms and Committees were set-up to reviews the activities and make recommendations on Local government systems in Nigeria. The reports have similar views and intentions. There is the need to grant Local governments third 254

tier status. Changes in government are accompanied with changes in Local government structure. 5.0

SUMMARY

Inadequate funding poor administration, political and leadership constraints are among the

problems of Local government councils

in Nigeria. Grants

allocated to Local government institutions were reviewed from 10% to 15% in 1959 and to 20% since 1992 till date. 6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Question: 1.

What are the objectives of the Obasanjo Local government Reforms

2.

List two important recommendations of the Dasuki Local Government Reforms

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Ademolekun, L. and Rowland, L. (1979) New local government system in Nigeria, problems and prospects for implementation, Heinemann, Ibadan. Egwurube, J.O (1991) The evolution of local government in Nigeria, a systemic government administration (Enugu: fourth dimension publishers) Federal Republic of Nigeria, The local government reforms 1976, Kaduna government printer. Federal Republic of Nigeria, The constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria, 1979 Apapa daily times’ publication. Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, The constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria Lagos government printer. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Report of the bureau directorate for social mobilization production, 1987.

255

Federal Republic of Nigeria, Operational guideline for local government councils, Abuja 1997 Obiagulu Sunday and Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public administration in Nigeria; a developmental approach. bookpoint limited Orewa G. O. and Adewunmi D. B. (1983) Local government in Nigeria, the changing scene bein Ethiopia publishing co-operation Nwatu, D. N. (1995) Local government in Nigeria; an introduction; Enugu, agatha service Publisher Ltd.

UNIT 23 CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY TABLE OF CONTENT 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objectives 256

3.0

Main Content 3.1

Meaning of Bureaucracy 3.1.1 Forms of Power/Authority in Bureaucracy 3.1.2 Power and Authority

3.2

The Process of Bureaucratization

3.3

Elements of Bureaucracy

3.4

Functions of Bureaucracy

3.5

Criticisms of Bureaucracy

4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0

Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0

References/Further Reading.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the last section, we discussed about what training and manpower development are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the concept of bureaucracy. In this unit, the focus is on the process of bureaucracy, the elements of bureaucracy, the functions of bureaucracy, and the criticism of bureaucracy. 2.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a.

Define Bureaucracy

b.

List and explain the elements of Bureaucracy

c.

Enumerate the functions of Bureaucracy.

d. 3.0

Explain the criticism of Bureaucracy an Organization. MAIN CONTENT 257

3.1

MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY

Generally people think of bureaucracy as unexplained delay and general frustration, red-tapeism, pettiness and silly rules that seem to create barriers that prevent the working of common sense (Krimmer, 1977). Bureaucracy could be referred to as the general formal structural elements of a type of human Organization, particularly the collective personnel and structures of a government organization (Weber, 1918). The concept of bureaucracy is generally used in modern organizations to refer to orderly and structural arrangement of things in organizations. It is pertinent to note that, pure bureaucracy does not exist in the real sense of it (Mai, 1897). .However, it is believed that bureaucracy has contributed immensely to the precise and reliable ways to efficiently achieve organizational aims and objectives. The term bureaucracy is identifiable with the 19th century German sociologist. Max Weber, who was referred to as the founder and widely acclaimed to have propounded the concept of bureaucracy believes that, there was the need to differentiate universalism and particularism model and traditions, and between inscriptive and merit. He further states that, there is a difference between public administration and bureaucracy. Weber believes that public administration is all about formalized and institutionalized process where defined rules and procedures are operated in an organizational setting. Weber, (1918) states that for bureaucracy to hold there is the need for unity of command and hierarchical structure. Weber (1918) was more concerned about the concept of power. He was concerned specifically with power domination in terms of how the proportion of the population dominates or controls the rest of the society. 3.1.1 Forms of Power/Authority in Bureaucracy Weber, (1918) built his model of Bureaucracy on authority which he divided into three types as follows: (A). Traditional Power or Authority: In this form of power, authority is derived through traditional rules, customs and beliefs. In this situation authority 258

is inherited through established customs and traditions e.g. the Institution of Obaship, Emir and Igwe in Nigeria. (B). Charismatic Power or Authority: In this form of power, authority is based on the innate personal qualities and ability of the leader to command obedience of his followership. Leaders with this authority exist because of the extra-ordinary qualities they possess and authority exercised. For example, the late, Obafemi Awolowo, Moshood Kasimawo Abiola, Nmandi Azikuwe, Nwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Senegal Senghor and a host of others were charismatic leaders who had a strong control over their followers. C.

Legal – Rational Power or Authority: Legal – Rational Authority is

based on the obedience which is owed to the legally established impersonal set of rules rather than a personal ruler. Weber, (1918) Legal-rational authority and power rest in the office rather than, the occupier of the office. Legal rational authorities reside in rulers who are rationally appointed by people and can be changed through a formal process or through an established procedure. 3.1.2 Power and Authority Weber (1918), defines power as higher forces which compel a person to do what he would not have done; while authority is referred to a legitimate power which wills makes a holder responsible for certain functions. He further states that, authority is inseparable from responsibility for the achievement of goals for which any organization was established.

3.2 The Process of Bureaucratization One feature of all government organizations is to implement policies through an administrative body of officials. However, the appointment of these officials and the way they carry out their tasks differentiate one type of political structure from another. Under the Feudalism System of government, Weber observed the following Process of Bureaucratization (Weber, 1918). 259

(A). The ruler appoints his loyalist to court; he granted them powers and commissioned them to perform these tasks. (B).

Household officials and favourites were often recruited into sensitive

positions on patrimonial basis from among the slaves. (C).

Qualifications for officers depend on the rulers personal judgement of

quality among his household officials. (D). Through abrupt changes in appointment and the series of other arbitrary acts, the rulers make every efforts to prevent the identification of anyone household official or favourite with the office he occupies at any one given time. (E).

The ruler himself and his subordinates conducted the affairs of

government when appropriate. The Feudal system of government was considered an extension of the rulers’ private domain and the officials had no rights and securities. However, this was the situation before Weber’s Bureaucracy came into practice. During the Industrial Revolution and with a determined movement towards rationalization and secularization of the mind; reactions against the personal subjugation, nepotism, cruelty, and subjective judgement paved the way for the development of a new and more accommodative bureaucratic machine model. Bureaucracy emerged out of the Organization’s need for order and precision and workers demand for impartial treatment. Weber conceived an ideal type bureaucracy exhibiting some major characteristics anchored firmly on a body of impersonal rules and regulations. His ideal type bureaucracy is a triumph of complex impersonal rules and an effective separation of the organization from their incumbents. He further stated that organizational rules, orders, and structures are necessary and sufficient conditions for organizational efficiency. Ideal bureaucracy in advanced countries of the world is practiced using the merit type of bureaucracy as against the anti-merit system and quota system. 260

Weber believed that in the developed world, selection of people is based on competence, qualification and examination. Negro and Negro (1973), subscribed to this conception, they believes that in an ideal form of bureaucracy the best candidates should be able to secure jobs. The Characteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy include: (1) Knowledge of entry requisites (2) Selection based on competition and examinations (3) Adoption of Principle of equal job (4) Maintenance of rank on the job (5) Political independence of the officials (6)Incentives given for prompt performance (7) Security of tenure e.g. pensions and gratuity (Victor, 1998). However, for the purpose of clarity, Weber’s Characteristics of Bureaucracy are: (a) Uniformity (b) Continuity (c) Hierarchical Structure and (d) Competence Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the Elements of Bureaucracy 2. What are the Criticism of Bureaucracy

3.2 ELEMENTS OF BUREAUCRACY The elements of bureaucracy are discussed as follows:

A.

Hierarchy of Authority

This is the hallmark of all bureaucratic organization. The pyramidal structure assures that the superior offices direct the activities of their subordinate. The ultimate authority resides at the apex. Consequently, the pyramid narrows as it moves upward. There are more people and less power at the base and in that order until it reaches the apex. Hierarchy gives the organization its structure and allows the organization authority to follow the chain of command. The reason 261

for this supervision is to oversee the activities of the lower officers with a view to training the junior employees and ensuring their activities tilt towards realizing organizational aims and objectives. B.

The Framework of Law-Rules/Regulations

Bureaucracy operates within the framework of law which guides both the superior and the subordinates. (The rule of law requires the administration of actions affecting individual’s rights and should reflect: (i) precedents and (ii) legal sanctions not personal discretion of the official. The pre-imminent position of the rule of law means: (a) The official leans heavily toward precedents (b) He leans towards inflexibility in his actions; (c) He is dependent on legal and financial assistance (d) There is strict conformity to established rules, procedures and legal regulations. The framework of law is to regulate the employee’s behavioural patterns in the organization. This will help to coordinate activities in the organisation and ensure uniformly in the actions of the employee. C.

Technical Specialization

Weber (1918), in conjunction with Taylor (1917) believes in the preference for scientific methods of appointing employee into sensitive positions. Weber emphasized the need to base promotion on security and ability of employee to meet the targets agreed with him/her. He emphasized the need for training and development of workers through internal movement from one position to the other.

Every organization seeks

to

ensure

stability and continuity.

Organisational processes are reviewed, over and over again, to make the workers more specialized and competent. The division of activities called routinization of work and it is implicit in the idea of specialization. Another aspect of specialization is that bureaucratic Organizations tend to divide its entire aims and goals, to sub-units until it reaches the level of targets for individual. D.

Search for Rationality 262

This is the ability to think and make decisions on reasons. It was the search for rationality that hastened the development of bureaucracy. Rationality represents the systematic organization of task and individuals to maximize efficiency. Bureaucracy facilitates the channelling of individuals’ behaviour into productive ends by means of rule, regulations and sanctions. It provides its members with valuable and factual premise for decision making. The goals of rationality are promoted by the principles of unity of command, ultimate authority as well as rules and organisations. E.

Written Records/Documentation

Organizations place high importance on written records and documentation. Weber, (1918) emphasized the need for documentation of records. This allows for community decisions, instructions and adequate planning. F.

Value System

Bureaucrats work within a value system that determines the conduct of their actions. Values consist of opinion of colleagues and cultural values of the society. Bureaucracy and its characteristics vary from society to society. This phenomenon modified Weber’s contention that bureaucracy is universal. Bureaucrats identify value system with the rules of their organization; bureaucrats rarely attach loyalty to persons, but attribute loyalty to the impersonal functions they perform. This notwithstanding, they are also, under the influence of other loyalties e.g. social clubs, church, ethnic group, political parties, relations, colleagues e.g. (giving job or admission to a brother who is qualified, first before any other person). 3.4

FUNCTIONS OF BUREAUCRACY

The functions of bureaucracy are as follows: (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004) 1. Implementing Policies: The traditional role of Bureaucratic organisation is to execute the programmes and policies of government. This function is more essential and complex in this age of rapid technological and social change. 263

Modern society is becoming complex and professionalized, special knowledge and technology are brought to bear on major policies. Legislators are not well equipped in this area; naturally they fall back on the bureaucratic information, advice and deliverance. 2. Framing Legislation: When bureaucrats discover a discrepancy in Legislation, they use their discretion to fill in the gap and if the action is sustained, they help in framing Legislation. Under military regimes Bureaucrats play important role in legislation primarily because the Armed Forces were not well equipped with legislative knowledge and information. 3. Influencing Legislature: Bureaucrats influence Legislative activities at various stages. In the advanced countries e.g. United State of America for example, Bureaucrats are summoned to congressional committees to give evidence in some measure of Legislation. Bureaucrats possess the wealth of information which is necessary for effective debate of a proposed bill. In a parliamentary system of government, the Legislative influence on the Bureaucrats could be more pronounced and direct. Here a Minister could propose a Bill, which his Permanent Secretary had initiated. Since Ministers come and go bureaucrats remain. As career officers they are in better position to advise the government on any proposed Legislation. 4. Ensuring Survival and Growth: Michel (1923), describes the tendency for survival and growth as the “Iron Law of Oligarchy”. He states that Organizations tend to perpetuate themselves even when the primary goals have disappeared.

Bureaucracy ensures survival of the polity as an entity by

performing certain crucial functions. For example, during the turbulent period (1966-1970) in Nigerian, the survival of Nigeria as a nation owed much to the dedication and actions of the Federal Bureaucrats. 5. Environmental Functions: Environmental functions which are performed by bureaucrats include:

264

a.

Balancing of public and private interests: Ideally: bureaucrats weigh

every issue first and foremost against public interest. Unfortunately, there is no way of determining what public interest is, especially in situations where they are vague and ambiguous. b.

Balancing professional and ethical considerations: This happens when

a Bureaucrat is in a dilemma arising from conflict between loyalty to his supervisor and loyalty of his official function. This happens in areas where professional consideration differs from political considerations. c.

Carrying Routine Work Government: This is perhaps the most

important and least appreciated function of the Bureaucrat. Junior officers in government organizations carry out the routine work of government, ranging from refuse disposal and protections of public utilities. 6. Economic Planning and Management Functions: In contemporary societies of the world, whether developed on developing Bureaucracy is enmeshed in the planning and management of the State economy. 3.5

CRITICISMS OF BUREAUCRACY

From Weber’s (1918), submission on Bureaucracy and types of authorities, it could be observed that bureaucracy cannot be practiced in its totality in developing nations like Nigeria. Boulding, (1920), expresses concern over growing roles of Organizations in modern societies. He claimed that, ethical values as love, freedom, justice, laws etc., tend to run at cross purposes as such loose out to such Organizational features as power, impersonality etc. Argyris (1957), made a case for inevitable conflict between the needs of the individual and those of the Organization. This conflict is self-perpetuating since the employee and manager have divergent interests.

Another criticism of

Bureaucracy is that, it attempts an up-hill task of removing all undesirable – extra-organizational influence upon the behaviour of members. For example, the ideal official is supposed to conduct his office in a spirit of formalistic impersonality. Bureaucracy does not provide for rapid and unplanned changes. 265

It thrives best under stable routine conditions. Weber (1918), failed to recognize that men are endowed with limited intelligence. Men are not Omniscience and therefore all Organizations must be designed for the normal man and not for a superman. Knowledge of organizational effectiveness of operations may not always come from the superior. There are situations where the subordinate could be very relevant to the success of the Organization than the boss. Weber, (1918), did not recognize that environmental factors affect the operation of the Bureaucrats, for example, Nigeria Bureaucracy is affected by ethnicity, Federal character and Quota systems and such other cultural and environmental factors which a dynamic Bureaucracy must put into consideration for harmonious coexistence its members. Marx (1848), a prudent scholar of Bureaucracy, sees bureaucracy as an apparatus of the state, that emerged under capitalism as an “auid pro quo”. He states that bureaucracy emerged because of the division of people into social classes. To Marx, bureaucracy is not directly related to production but it constitutes the unproductive sector of economy. Lenin (1984), argues that, bureaucracy is historically contingent on the capitalist mode of production, and this mode of capitalism production pre-supposes a situation in which there is division of people into social class – namely Bourgeoisie and Proletariat (privileged and less privileged people).However, reutilization and rigid adherence to rules have made bureaucracy sluggish, drudgery and full of red tapeism. The ideal form of bureaucracy brings about precision, speed, effectiveness, efficiency and increased productivity and performance.

4.0 CONCLUSION Bureaucracy refers to orderly and structural arrangement of things in an organisation. The essentials of bureaucracy are to implement policies of large entities such as government and non-governmental organizations. The purpose and mission of bureaucracy are to determine efficiency of organisations. 266

Bureaucracy ensures division of labour, hierarchy, rules and regulations and impersonal relationship in organisational set-up. Power is a higher force that compels ones to do what he would not want to do. Power can be in the form of traditional, charismatic and legal-rational. 5.0

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that Bureaucracy centred on human organizations particularly the collective personnel and structure of government organizations. Bureaucratization processes ensures the execution of laws and commands and the need for security of tenure of officer. Pure bureaucracy does not exist in the real sense. The Functions of Bureaucracy are Policy implementation, framing legislation, influencing Legislature, ensuring survival and growth of organization, economic planning, and environmental functions etc. 6.0

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

QUESTION: 1a.

Define Bureaucracy

b.

List the process of Bureaucratization

2.

Explain the functions of Bureaucracy

7.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adamolekun, L. and Gboyega A. (Ed.) (1979), Leading issues in Nigeria public services, ile-Ife, and university of ile-Ife. Krimmer, Robert. (1917), Bureaucracy and reforms; pengum books; new york; usa Micheal, Hill.(1923), The journal of public administration; volume 2; tennessee Negro, F.O and Negro I.G (1973), Modern public administration; London; harper and row publishers. Obiajulu, Sunday O. & Obi, Emeka A. (2004), Public administration in Nigeria, a developmental approach. bookpoint Limited. 267

Patrick Mbieli (2006), Public administration, a broad view, meavons (west africa) Limited. Remi Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements of politics, sam iroanusi publications Taylor, W. (1917), Public affairs and administration; a primer and case books Victor Abia B. E. (1998), A ground work of public administration. olucity printers limited Weber, M. (1918), Characteristics and paradoxes of bureaucracy; new york, usa

UNIT 24 THE NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE TABLE OF CONTENT 1.0

Introduction

2.0

Objective

3.0

Main Content

3.1

Meaning and Evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service 3.1.1 Organisational Structure of the Nigerian Civil Service

3.2

Personnel Practices Performed by the Civil Service

3.3

Principles/Characteristics of the Civil Service 3.3.1 Hierarchy 3.3.2 Anonymity 3.3.3 Neutrality 3.3.4 Performance 3.3.5 Loyalty and Impartiality 268

3.4 Functions of the Civil Service 3.4.1 Policy Implementation 3.4.2 Continuity of Public Administration 3.4.3 Advising Policy Makers 3.4.4 Provision of Input Policy 3.4.5 Informative Functions 3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Civil Service 4.0

Conclusion

5.0

Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0References/Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION In the last section, you had an idea of what bureaucracy is all about. This section will take you a step further into the concept of the Nigerian Civil Service. In this unit, we shall be looking at the meaning and evolution of the Civil Service; the organizational chart of the service, the principles or characteristics of the Nigerian Civil Service, the functions, advantages and disadvantages of the Nigerian Civil Service. 8.0

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a)

Explain the meaning and evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service

b)

Identify the principles of the Nigerian Civil Service.

c)

List the functions of the Nigerian Civil Service 269

d)

List the advantages and disadvantages of the Civil Service

3.0MAIN CONTENT 3.1

MEANING AND EVOLUTION OF THE NIGERIAN CIVIL

SERVICE The Civil Service is an institution created by the government to take care of the various needs of the society or a country either directly or through agencies responsible or answerable to the service (Nwosu, 1977). The Civil Service had laid down rules and regulations but the service is designed primarily to govern the conduct of governmental affairs and to safeguard public interests. The service spent time taken in considering issues thoroughly and ensure that decisions are not based on wrong conclusions and premises but that facts are made available. The Civil Service is the body of permanent officials employed to assist the political executives in implementation of governmental policies. The effectiveness of the Civil Service in the discharge of its functions depends on the will of the society it serves and also on its ability to respond in practical terms to its policy decisions (Nwosu, 1977). It can therefore be said that, civil service is narrower in scope and exclude some government employees who are public servants. According to the defunct 1998 Civil Service reforms, civil servants exclude the President and Commander-in-chief of the Army Forces, Governors,

Local

Government

Chairmen,

Ministers,

Commissioners,

Supervisory Councillors etc. (precisely all political office holders). The term civil service therefore covers all employees of the State other than those holding 270

political appointments who are employed into the Civil Service. The vision of the civil service is to develop professionally sound, highly competent and qualified personnel, technological-driven and performance-oriented. The Office of the Head of Service of the Federation is responsible for providing leadership and direction to the service through the promotion of good relations between Ministers and the civil servants. The mandate of the Head of Service is to provide management leadership, training and motivation of civil servants in all the ministries and departments of the government. Ademolekun, (1983), believes that the civil Service is meant to provide social services to the populace. Public service as a term is broader in scope than civil service.

It includes not only those who are employed into government

ministries and departments but also, statutory cooperation e.g. (PHCN, NITEL) etc. and the armed forces. Public service means the totality of services that are organized under government authorities. The evolution of the Civil Services in Nigeria started from 1900 when Britain formally established her authority in most areas in Nigeria.

The British divided the country into three regions

(Colony of Lagos, and the Protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria). In 1906, the Colony of Lagos was merged with the Southern Protectorate and by 1914 the Northern and Southern protectorates were amalgamated, and subsequently became the colony and protectorate of Nigeria. Before now, the British imposed an alien Civil Service on Nigeria without giving much thought to the impact on the Nigeria traditional communities, their conflicting values, 271

interest, norms, and structures. Despite the amalgamation and its attendant unification the two regions developed at their own space. The major function of the Civil Services at that time was mainly the maintenance of law and order and secondly to raise revenue to sustain the colonial authorities. Economic and social Development were never the major objectives of the administration. However, Nwosu, (1977), outlined the structure of the colonial service in Nigeria thus: The Governor-general was the Head of Public Service; he was accountable to the colonial secretary in London. The colonial secretary was himself accountable to the British cabinet and to the parliament.

The

Governor-general delegated his authority to the Chief Secretary as the effective Head of Service. The Chief Secretary divided the activities of public services into two parts for effective coordination. A department, comprises of (technical, professional) and the political administration class. This category of personnel assists the Chief Secretary in overseeing the territory. The departmental and political heads, do not only advise the governor, but initiate policies, participates in legislation, and supervised the execution of enacted Bills and approved policies. The Head of the technical and professional departments operate from the Central Secretariat in Lagos with the assistance of the Field Officers. They carried out their duties without deference to any clientele. The Field Officers who were referred to as Lieutenant Governor do not rule the people directly; instead they ruled them through their own people-indirectly. In the North, the 272

indirect rule system was easy because the Emirs were fully in control of the people before the advent of colonialism; they had unquestionable powers. In the West, the indirect rule was also successful; the Obas were fully in control (though with some measures of checks and balances). In the East, it was a different scenario all together, with the exception of few areas. The diffused system of authority was described as segmentary /fragmented; this made it difficult for the indirect rule system to be introduced. However this did not deter the colonial officials from building an administrative. They created the warrant chief and made them to perform the roles of their counterparts in the North and Western regions. However, the system of administration in the Eastern region undoubtedly encountered many problems as stated in Unit six of module one (Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration). During this period, Nigerians were restricted to the lower echelons of the civil service. 3.1.1 Organisational Structure of the Nigerian Civil Service The defunct 1988 Civil Service reforms recommended the organisational structure of the Nigerian Civil Service as: (a)Secretary to the Government (b) Permanent Secretary (c) Directors (d) Deputy Directors (e) Assistant Directors (f) Principal Officers (g) Senior Officers(h) Administrative Officer I&ll (j) Junior Officers. However, the Structure of the Civil Service can be divided into the following categories: (A) The Administrative Class (B) The Executive Class (C) The Professional Class (D) The Junior Cadre.

273

The Administrative Class: The administrative classes are officers admitted into the Civil Service with a University degree in any discipline or with the attainment of a Professional qualification. These categories of staff are referred to as the core Civil Servants. They could rise to the peak of the Civil Service. A university graduate enlisted into the Nigeria Civil Service starts from the position of an administrative officer ll and can rise to the position of the Permanent Secretary and probably Secretary to the Government. The Executive Class: These categories of Civil Servants are called ‘Assistants’. They are admitted into this class with a Polytechnic degree, Higher National Diploma (HND) or other lower qualifications and can rise through the ranks. Unlike the administrative officers, the highest level for them in service is Grade Level 13. On the attainment of this level, they either obtain additional qualification (a degree or professional qualification or mark time on the level until they retire). These categories of Civil Servants can be converted to administrative class only if, they have the necessary qualification. The Professional Class: These categories of Civil Servants are the Engineers, Doctors, Lawyers, Architects and Accountants etc. The academic and professional qualifications they possess determine their positions as officers or assistants. They can rise to the peak of the Civil Service. The Junior Cadre: These are Officers on Grade Level 01-07, their academic qualifications may range from First School Leaving Certificate to National Certificate of Education (NCE) they are not specifically trained, and they are 274

not professional. They constitute the unskilled and semi-skilled labour. They constitute about 40-60% of the workforce of any Organisation. These categories of civil servants are the clerical officers, drivers, massagers/office assistants, cleaners, typist, gardeners, security guards, key punch operators, receptionist etc. Self-Assessment Exercise: 1. Explain the Personnel practices performed by the Civil Service 2. Explain the Organisational Structure of the Civil Service 3.2 PERSONNEL PRACTICES PERFORMED BY THE CIVIL SERVICE The Civil Service like any other organisation has organisational goals (provision of social services) Personnel management in the civil service encompasses the following functions: (a) Recruitment: The mode of recruitment into the civil service is through the Civil Service Commission for officers on grade level 08-17 on the completion of civil service form, while the individual ministries recruited officers on grade level 01-07.

A written and oral interview is conducted before suitable

candidates are offered appointment. A list of the successful candidates is sent to the Office of the Secretary of the Government for posting to the different Ministries and Departments. Civil service appointments are pensionable. There is also contract appointment (the appointment of Officers who have retired from the service of the government on the attainment of the retirement age of 6o 275

years or who has put in 35 years of service). However, this is a form of contractual agreement between the employee and the employer. This appointment is not pensionable and subject to termination with one Month Notice by either party involved or as stated in the condition of service. (b) Confirmation of Appointment: On appointment into the Civil Service, an officer will be placed on probation for two years. This period is to test the person’s abilities and behaviour on the job. On satisfactory performance during this period he or she is given Letter of Confirmation. (C)Training and Development: The defunct 1988 Civil Services reform placed emphasis on training and re-training of personnel. The reform suggested that each Ministry should have a departmental training officer to train people on level 01–12, while the office of establishment, pension to training, and train officer on level 13–17. Training makes workers to be more efficient on specific areas of the job to the accomplishment of the organisational set objectives. Training and development constitutes one of the major cardinal areas of personnel management as it entailed the process where successful employees are subjected to some systematic process to acquire technical knowledge, skill and attitude required to perform a specific task. In organising training programme either internal or external, top management staff are involved to share their worth of knowledge, experience and skills acquisition to the newly recruited employees. (d) Promotion: Civil Servants are entitled to promotion. Each Department or Ministry prepares at the end of the year a comprehensive list of staffers, showing the order of seniority of all the staffer in each grade, within each cadre officers are eligible to undertake promotion. (e) Annual Increment: Civil Servants are entitled to an annual increment of salary on the same grade, different steps until the person is due for promotion (Attwood, 1985). 276

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CIVIL SERVICE The Characteristics of the Civil Service encompass the features of the German Sociologist (Weber, 1914). 3.5.2 Hierarchy: The nature of the Civil Service in Nigeria is hierarchical in structure. It involves the supervision and control of lower officers’ from the higher class. For instance, we have the administrative class, professional class, executive class and the junior cadre. Each unit exercise some measure of control over the unit below. 3.2.2 Anonymity: The principle of anonymity states that, Civil Servants should be seen and not heard. Though they advise political office holders on issues relating to government, they either take neither the blame nor the glory for such policies. They are not expected to be seen defending such policies, that job is better left for political office holders and not the career officers. Civil servants thus work for the Minister but they are not mentioned. 3.2.3 Neutrality: The Civil servant must be politically neutral, it major responsibilities is to serve the government of the day with full dedication irrespective of what they feel about a particular government. He is not expected to carry placard or get involved in partisan politics. He is expected to vote at election time: they not expected to have a strong attachment of any particular government. This is to enable them give their best and to make government policies to succeed. 3.2.4 Performance or Permanency: Politicians are birds of passage, they are essentially temporary administrators. The Civil Service is often defined as a permanent body of officials that carry out government decisions. It is permanent and its stewardship is not tired to the life of any particular government. A Civil Servant is sure to keep his post, and pensionable unless he misbehaves. 3.5.3 Loyalty and Impartiality: The Civil Servant is expected to treat everybody with a high degree of impartiality. Favouritism is against the principle of Civil Service and should not be encouraged; they performed their duties without fear, favour and with equal loyalty to any government of whatever complexion.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL SERVICE The civil service covers all staff of ministries and departments from the Permanent Secretary to the daily rated employees in the local government 277

councils and whose remuneration are paid out of the money voted by the legislature. The following are the functions of the Civil Service: 3.4.1. Policy Implementation: The major function of the Civil Service is the implementation of government policies. Civil Servants are not policy makers and are not really in a position to question government policies. Whenever policy is made, it becomes the role of the civil servants to implement the policy the way it ought to be implemented. Often times, it is when policies are being implemented that most people become aware of the policy and its effects and where the policy is unfavourable to the masses, they may react adversely to it. Policies are subject to adjustment and the Civil Servants give feed-back to the political office holders who are policy makers. 3.4.2. Ensuring Continuity of Public Administration: The Civil Service being a body of permanent officials of the state stands for continuity, this helps to stabilise the state by ensuring the continuity of government activities mostly to societies like Nigeria with unstable political history. As governments come and go, the civil service makes sure that vital activities of the state do not break down. 3.4.3 Advising Policy Makers: Civil servants are people with a lot of experience and are expected to advice political office holders on policies (formulation and implementation). This role was more emphasized during the military regimes were young military officers with little experience found themselves in power. Being ‘novice in parade’ they had no choice than to rely on the expertise of top Civil Servants. Where the advice of the civil servant is rejected, he must go ahead to implement the decision of the government even though it is against his personal wish. 3.3.4. Provision of Input for Policy: Civil Servants with vast knowledge of experience make provision of inputs for policy formulation. Whenever a policy is to be formulated, some top level Civil Servants (professional and seasoned administrators) makes their inputs with the elected office holders (Ministers, Governors, Special advisers, Commissioners) etc. 3.3.5 Information Function: It is one of the duties of the Civil Servants to pass information from the political office holders down to the masses and vice versa. It is expected that the Civil Servants who come into contact with the masses, should give a feed-back to the political office holders who are policy makers who can then adjust the policy, to suit the demands of the people. The core civil servants are always on ground to give information to the public. 278

3.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE CIVIL SERVICE 3.5.1 Advantages of the Civil Service: (a). As a career service; there is a measure of security of tenure of Office, Pension and Gratuity etc. (b). It gives room for speed, precision, unambiguity, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination and restriction of friction of materials. (c). The sense of being fulfilled and the achievement of being appointed to a senior post call for high qualities of judgement, ability and knowledge. (d). Recruitment is usually based on the merit, quota and federal character system (e). It placed total emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency of services delivered and less on profit making. 3.5.2 Disadvantages of the Civil Service (a). There is too much red-tapeism, the excessive use of formalities and overdevotion to precedence and or reliance on established practices. (b). Lack of segmented control as Civil Servants have no opportunity to exercise individual judgement. The power of control rests on the boss (political office holders) and this does not encourage efficiency (c). Under the umbrella of anonymity, civil servants sometimes ill-advice the governments which brings about confusion in the society. Some of them exercise wide discretion of power simply because they have access to vital information and power than public office holders (d). Most officials join the service straight from the University with additional qualifications and limited experience. 4.0 CONCLUSION The Nigerian Civil Service started in 1900 when the British established her authorities in Lagos, Northern and Southern Nigeria and by 1914 the country was amalgamated into two regions, the Northern and Southern protectorate. There have been remarkable differences in the organisational structure of civil service during the British era and the current civil Service. The programmes and projects of the government are well implemented by the Civil servants. Emphases are placed on hierarchy of structure and anonymity of personnel. The 279

Nigerian civil service is characterised with security of tenure of office, pension and gratuity of personnel while the major default is on red-tapeism and lack of segmented control. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, you have learnt that, civil servants are the body of permanent officials appointed to assist the political executives in formulating and implementing governmental policies. They provide social services to the populace. The personnel practices performed by the civil services are recruitment, confirmation of appointment, training and manpower development, promotion and discipline of personnel. The principles of the civil service of Nigeria are hierarchy, neutrality, anonymity, permanent and impartial in the discharge of their duties. The functions of the civil service are policies implementation, ensuring continuity of public administration, advising policy makers, provision of inputs for policy and informative functions. There is security; gratuity and tenure of office holders in the Civil Service. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Explain the evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service 2. List the advantages and disadvantages of Civil Service 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Ademolekun, L (1983), Public Administration. A Nigeria Comparative Perspective, London Longman Attwood, M.(1985), Introduction To Personnel Management (London Breakthrough Pan Books). Bankole Akanji (2000), Principles Of Personnel Management, Published By Fadec, Ebute- Metta, Lagos Bello, S. A, Ojodu, H.O, Ogunyomi,P. O, Legbeti, P (2004), Public Administration System In Nigeria, (Revised Edition) Raamson Printing Services Nwosu, H.N (1977), Political Authority And The Nigeria Civil Service: Enugu Fourth Dimension Publishers Obiajulu Sunday And Emeka Anthony Obi (2004), Public Administration In Nigeria, A Developmental Approach. Bookpoint Limited 280

Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Sam Iroanusi Publications Weber, M. (1914), Public administration and public policy; new york, usa

281