Idea Transcript
Cultural imperialism: an approach to main discourses and criticisms
Author: MSc Maykel Perez Status of this document Last revision: May 2006 Type: Working draft. This essay was produced as a Module Seminar requested by the London Metropolitan University as part of the core examinations leading to the award of a Master’s degree in Information Services Management. The agreed mark for this module on International Communication Policies was 78. It is a draft document and may be updated as a whole or its individual sections, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to cite this document as other than work in progress. All comments, suggestions, critics, or recommendations are welcome and should be directed to the author.
Abstract The concept of Cultural Imperialism is explored and the main discourses in which this notion is deployed. The essay briefly examines the currency of debates on cultural imperialism in the context of contemporary theories of globalisation and highlights the questions rose within this debates that still constitute a concern in the Social Sciences. Table of Content Introduction Cultural Imperialism as Media Imperialism Cultural Imperialism as discourse of nationality Cultural Imperialism as a critique to global capitalism Cultural Imperialism as a critique to modernity The Cultural Imperialism debate: currency and lags As a Conclusion: a critical eye on the critics of cultural imperialism References Introduction The first trouble that arises when discussing cultural imperialism resides in the issue of how to grasp such a complex phenomenon, the broad range of issues at stake contained within the phrase, and the variety of themes, thesis, theories, and scopes that encompasses. A first plausible strategy to cope with this definitional problem may be attempting to situate cultural imperialism’s origin within its historical and academic contexts. Cultural Imperialism emerged in the nineteen sixties, after the World War II and the economic expansion of core capitalist societies – mainly the United States over Latin America –, decolonisation processes worldwide, and intense concentrations of multinational capital among other features of the capitalist system which nature and effects began to be appraised in all the spheres of the academic and political
arenas. The resulting debates on domination, dependency and control gained expression not only in economic and political terms. Scholars and analysts began to realise the instrumental power of communication and information played in the expansion of the capitalist world system, as well as its cultural effects on the Third World nations. According to Rantenen (2005: 74) the field of international communications within Media and Communication Schools was among the first to pick up the debate, developing three theoretical models: communication and development, cultural pluralism and cultural imperialism. The last one, cultural imperialism, believed that the international flows of communication technology and the media flows of cultural products, developed in accordance with and facilitated the aims and objectives of the core nations/political economic formations of the capitalist system, and were embodiments of their ideological features (Schiller, 1976: 6). Their instrumental role resided in bringing all cultures into the ambit of the capitalist culture (i.e. consumerism, commodification of all experience) reproducing patterns of colonisation in the sphere of culture, in a process of homogenisation that posed a fundamental threat to indigene (national, regional, supranational) cultures, thus enhancing the dependency of developing countries and cutting their patterns of cultural reproduction. Cultural imperialism, then, engaged with the critical analysis of cultural domination between core and periphery centres of cultural production. Some authors have attempted to present rounded up definitions. This is the case of Schiller (1976: 9) who attempts to tame the concept by restraining it to the ambit of the critical analysis of the sources, character and content of communication streams between and within nations, seeing them as vehicles of cultural domination in the context of the capitalist world system. However, even though cultural domination and the capitalist world system are central themes in cultural imperialism, a whole range of works dealing with both broader and narrower phenomena also categorise as cultural imperialism theories, such as those discussing the broader sociocultural context of modernity or the rather specific problems regarding media imperialism. This problem of definition is being pointed out by Mattelart, who states that cultural imperialism is a generic concept that refers to a broad range of similar phenomena. This is mainly why other authors avoid prescriptive definitions and opt for a more complex view of cultural imperialism. Tomlinson, for example, considers that “the concept of cultural imperialism most be assembled out of its discourse” (1991: 3). In the attempt to grasp the essentials of cultural imperialism, we will briefly explain his approach. According to this author, there are four possible ways to speak of cultural imperialism: as media imperialism as a discourse of nationality as the critique of global capitalism as the critique of modernity Cultural imperialism as media imperialism Whether cultural imperialism can be equated to media imperialism or not is a conflictive matter. It is true that within cultural imperialism theories, the Media plays a mayor role as homogenising agent; it is possibly its most influential single component (Rantenen, 2005: 75) However, some authors consider that Media Imperialism refers to a much more specific range of phenomena and define it as “the process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution or content of Media in any one country are singly or together subject to substantial external pressures from media interests of any other country or countries without reciprocation of influence by the country so affected (BoydBarrett, 1998: 117)
Media imperialism addresses mainly two forms of domination: political economic domination derived from the institutional structure of the global media (i.e. market dominance of Western News Agencies) and cultural domination. Criticisms focus on the last form of domination since it is assumed that imported cultural goods have a self evident cultural effect. They presuppose the media effects on the audience without really engaging with the study of those effects. This core assumption is challenged by several studies that assign a more active role to the audience of Media messages and talk of the resemantisation or indigenisation of the cultural products. (Mattelart, 1991: 17) Probably the paradigmatic work that best represent this view is How to read Donald Duck, from Dorfman and Mattelart (1985) Cultural imperialism as a discourse of nationality Cultural imperialism is also associated with nationalist discourses. General hegemonic cultural formations (i.e. Western modernity), particular national cultures (i.e. the American culture) or politicaleconomic formations (transnational capitalism) are seeing as a threat to indigenous cultures (Tomlinson, 1991: 175). The effect of any of the aforementioned agents of cultural domination is represented as an invading force – the language of cultural imperialism is a rather martial one – that draws into its ambit authentic cultures, absorbing them or limiting their autonomy. The underlying claims of cultural authenticity and cultural autonomy have been focus of numerous attacks by the critics of cultural imperialism. These assumptions imply a rather static view of culture, a romantic, folkloric depiction of national cultures (MartinBarbero, 1993: 112) Cultural imperialism as the critique of global capitalism Within this discourse, the central issue of cultural domination is reduced to questions of ownership, control and transfer of cultural goods within the global capitalist system. The processes of cultural imperialism are seen as having a functional role to play in the spread of capitalism as an economic system and a set of class relations (Tomlinson, 1991: 25). Instead of focusing on particular core nations such as the United States as representative of a centre of cultural production that irradiates downwards to peripheral cultures, this form of cultural imperialism theory addresses the issue of cultural domination within the broader context of the capitalist world system. It is within the context of this discourse that the definition of cultural imperialism presented by Schiller fits better: “The concept of cultural imperialism today best describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system” (Schiller, 1976: 9) Cultural imperialism as a process is the result of the global dominance of capitalist culture, since capitalism does not only refers to a mode of production, but also implies a cultural totality of technicaleconomic, political, sociorelational, experiencial and symbolic moments, a lesson learned from Marx (Tomlinson, 1991: 26). The main claim within this discourse is that capitalism is a homogenising cultural force that responds to the imperatives of multinational capitalism. The spread of capitalism implies the spread of a culture of consumerism, the commodification of all experience. Cultural imperialism as the critique of modernity
In chasing the roots and effects of cultural imperialism, some authors have engaged in the critique of “modernity and its discontents”. These authors associate cultural domination to a number of interrelated factors, including capitalism as a set of productive and consumerist practices which include the cultural sphere, but also other global dominant determinants which are said to define modernity: urbanism, mass communications, technicalscientificrationalist dominant ideology, a system of (mainly) secular nation states, a particular way of organising social space and experience, and certain subjectiveexistential mode of individual self awareness (Tomlinson, 1991: 27). In a sense, this approach attempts to overcome the limitations of the economic reductionism, taking the debate to a more complex stratum. However, it also leads to the despolitization of the debate in contrast with the previous discourse were capitalist relations of production are placed at the centre of the issue of cultural domination.
The cultural imperialism debate: currency and lags The most revitalising discussions regarding cultural imperialism nowadays occur within the context of contemporary theories of globalisation. It is within that field were cultural imperialism have found its most incisive critics and perpetuators. For some, globalisation is simply the global working through of a process of global domination in which the West (or America, or transnational capitalism) draws all cultures into its ambit, thus the critical focus and issues raised by cultural imperialism stand. Tomlinson cites a number of authors for which globalisation is “an aspect of the hierarchical nature of imperialism, that is the increasing hegemony of particular central cultures, the diffusion of American values, consumer goods and lifestyles” (Tomlinson, 1997: 174). For others, cultural imperialism brings the globalisation process into an immediate critical focus which is premature, misses the proper object of critique and do not account for a number of phenomena that have become apparent only recently through the processes of globalisation, thus rendering the cultural imperialism discourses outdated or meriting revision (idem). Within the globalisation framework – and beyond – certain assumptions and concerns traditionally associated to cultural imperialism find eco in the works of contemporary cultural critics, such as Stuart Hall, cultural policy issues demonstrate how seriously some national governments continue to take the threat of cultural imperialism (the Cuban cultural policies can serve as a good example) and a number of concerns first identified and discussed within the scope of cultural imperialism still emerge as issues of central concern to anyone viewing the globalisation processes with a critical eye (take, for example, the processes of concentration and merger into multinational conglomerates that continue to happen in the communications and information sector – e.g. Times WarnerAOLGoogle – letting the scenario of international communications in the hands of a few players). There is the issue, of course, of the ubiquity of Western – American, Western European– cultural goods. If the examination of the centres of cultural production focuses on the visual and graphic arts, the idea of the cultural Americanisation becomes a persuasive one. When focused on these empirical facts, the processes of globalisation that many authors ambiguously refer to as a “complex web of interconnections” starts to make sense, since it makes visible the concentric nature of that web, with points of origin and concentration of power located at the centre (were core nations, centres of cultural production or multinational corporation’s concentrated power may be represented) The question is whether all cultures belong to this web or, on the contrary, are bound and enmeshed by this web, precisely one of the central issues in cultural imperialism. For Giddens, for example, cultural globalisation is action at distance (Giddens, 1990: 19), that is, social
influences operating locally are configured and shaped from quite distant places, and still they are the locus of lived experience. Another factor that keeps cultural imperialism in the research agenda of cultural critics and theorists of globalisation is the uneven power geometry of the world system. Third world/first world, core/periphery, North/South dichotomies still stand as the representation of the power relations – including cultural power – between these poles. As Tomlinson acknowledges, “the analysis of cultural globalisation needs to begin with a critique of the capacity and the tendency of the West has to impose its versions of reality on the rest of the world (Tomlinson, 1997: 178) Another good reason to keep cultural imperialism in mind is the inextricable interrelation of globalisation and the expansion of capitalism. The cultural implications of this expansion have being pointed out by theorists of cultural imperialism: incorporation into consumer culture and cultural homogenisation (Schiller, 1975). Under this scope, globalisation responds to the expansionary imperatives of the capitalist production process and market (Tomlinson, 1997: 179) In spite of such strong arguments in favour of cultural imperialism, a number of authors highlight that its discourses are too rigid and need revision in the light of cultural phenomena which emerged or became more apparent in the late 20 th century. For example, the rather monolithic representation of cultural production centres (i.e. the United States) and a peripheral stratum of culturalconsumers obscures the significance of geolinguistic factors and specific cultural references in the consumption of cultural products. The dominance of TV corporations such as Globo in Brasil or Televisa in Mexico over domestic and international markets which share language and specific cultural references are taken as examples of successful peripheral cultural production centres. Another key criticism focus on the representation of the audience/consumers of cultural products as passive, unreflective recipients of alien cultural goods, and the associated representation of cultural processes as a unidirectional flow of power. (Tomlinson, 1997: 181) The reception of cultural products in contemporary theory is represented as “the oppositional interplay between local involvements and globalising tendencies” (Giddens, 1990: 242) The dialectic interaction between external cultural influence and local cultural practice have been exposed by Latin American authors as well ( Garcia Canclini and MartinBarbero among the most well renown) MartinBarbero, for example, expresses that “ What is central to the experience of cultural modernity in Latin America is the way in which the steady, predictable tempo of homogenising development is upset by the counter tempo of profound differences and cultural discontinuities” (MartinBarbero, 1993: 149) In this case, the language of cultural imposition that distinguishes cultural imperialism is being replaced by evidences of complex processes of resemantisation, indigenisation, transculturation or hybridisation occurring in the reception of cultural products. There is another phenomenon that clearly challenges the unidirectional model of cultural influence and the notions of cultural authenticity and autonomy which are central to cultural imperialism discourses: the increasing development of diasporic cultures. Under the circumstances of multicultural societies, the idea of an authentic culture as an internally cohesive and autonomous space becomes untenable (Rosaldo, 1989 cited by Tomlinson, 1997: 183). In this context the rigid conception of authentic cultures under threat lends spurious support to the enemies of multiculturalism. According to Tomlinson, the hybrid culture resulting from migrations does not only affect migrants, but also the “host” cultures. One expression of the process of cultural mixing on the core cultures can be found in the commodification of the exotic and the ethnic in Western Societies – in food, fashion,
and so on. Britain – London in particular may provide very good examples of this mixture, with curry among the national favourites and abraded, working class clothing for sale at Top Shop as the ultimate fashion. As a conclusion: a critical eye on the critics of cultural imperialism An examination of how the social phenomena highlighted by the various discourses of cultural imperialism have evolved through time may certainly lead to the conclusion that some of its theoretical assumptions need reformulation. Those discourses, as evidenced in the essay, are presented in a rather absolute, rigid way. However, recognising the theoretical limitations of cultural imperialism should not lead to an uncritical, passive stage. For a start, some of the claims of the critics of cultural imperialism raise questions. Can we really talk of the pluralisation of cultural production centres as opposed to the core/periphery dichotomy established by cultural imperialism? What about the continuous processes of concentration of power within the communication sector? How do claims of pluralism work, for example, for the recent merge between the giants of telecommunications AOL, Times Warner and Google? Tomlinson sees in the commodification of the exotic and the ethnic an indicative of some sort of inverted cultural influence. Is that so, or the confirmation that all cultural expressions are drawn into the logic of the capitalist culture, based on the commodification of all experiences? How about the structural inequalities in terms of communication infrastructure between core and peripheral nations: the fact, for instance, that there are more telephone lines in Honk Kong than in the entire African continent? The list of questions could be extended significantly. However, the bottom line is clear: as long as the politicaleconomic bases of the debate initiated by cultural imperialism stand, there is much to discuss and resolve, even though theoretical precisions are welcomed.
References BoydBarrett, O. (1998) Media imperialism reformulated, in Thussu, D.K. (ed) Electronic Empires. Global Media and Local Resistance. London: Arnold Publishers Dorfman, A. and Mattelart, A. (1985) How to read Donald Duck: imperialist ideology in the Disney Comic. New York: International General Giddens, A. (1990) The consequences of modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. Golding, P. and Harris, P., eds. (1997) Beyond cultural imperialism: globalization, communication and the new international order. London, Sage. Hall, S. (1992) The question of cultural identity, in S. Hall, D. Held and T. McGrew (eds) Modernity and its futures. Cambridge: Polity Press MartinBarbero, J. (1993) Communication, culture, and hegemony: From the Media to Mediations, London: Sage Mattelart, A. (1991) La recepción: el retorno al sujeto, Diálogos de la Comunicación, Vol 30, pp. 1031 Rantenen, T. (2005) The Media and Globalisation. London, Sage Publications Schiller, H. (1976) Communication and cultural domination. New York: M.E. Sharpe Schiller, H. (1989) Culture Inc: The corporate takeover of public expression, New York: Oxford University Press Tomlinson, J. (1991) Cultural imperialism: a critical introduction. London: Continuum Tomlinson, J. (1997) Cultural globalisation and cultural imperialism, in Mohammadi, A. (ed) International Communication and Globalisation. London: Sage