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Dec 15, 2008 - Benteng berbentuk persegi empat dengan ukuran panjang 290 meter, lebar 180 meter, dan tinggi 6,60 meter-7

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EnviroGreen Tech Indonesia

Bulan: Desember 2008

JURNAL (JOURNAL) ILMIAH i Rate This

Untuk rekan-rekan yang lagi menyusun Skripsi, Thesis maupun Disertasi dan kesulitan dalam mencari literatur yang up to date berupa artikel ilmiah dalam bentuk Jurnal (Journal) sengaja kami mencoba membantu menyediakannya, Jurnal (Journal) yang anda cari dapat diperoleh dengan cara klik JURNAL ILMIAH (http://campus-greenonline.blogspot.com)

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Report this ad Diposkan pada 15 Desember 200815 Desember 2008 oleh Ir. Muhtadi Arsyad Temenggung, M.SiPosted in Uncategorized2 Komentar

PELUANG KARIER (LOWONGAN KERJA) i Rate This Pada kesempatan ini kami berikan trik untuk mendapatkan peluar karir (lowongan kerja) buat Anda. Caranya sangat mudah yaitu dengan cara mengklik kata ” K E R J A ” (http://peluang-kerja-anda.blogspot.com) ini, anda akan diajak ke situs yang menyajikan cara untuk mendapatkan peluar kerja. Selamat mencoba, semoga apa yang Anda khayalkan selama ini dapat menjadi kenyataan. SELAMAT MENCOBA dengan mengklik kata ” KERJA “. (http://peluang-kerja-anda.blogspot.com/) (http://www.blogger.com/rearrange?blogID=7342822165359499039&widgetType=Text&widgetId=Text1&action=editWidget) (http://www.blogger.com/rearrange? blogID=7342822165359499039&widgetType=Text&widgetId=Text1&action=editWidget) Diposkan pada 13 Desember 200813 Desember 2008 oleh Ir. Muhtadi Arsyad Temenggung, M.SiPosted in Add new tag, Arsitek Angkat Besi Lampung, Lingkungan, UncategorizedDengan kaitkata karier, kerja, LOWONGAN KERJA, pendidikan. Tinggalkan komentar

TEMPAT BERSEJARAH DI KOTA PALEMBANG i 10 Votes

BENTENG JUTO BESAK Lokasi : Pinggiran Ilir Sungai Musi

Benteng ini dibangun selama 17 tahun (1780-1797 M). Sebagaimana umumnya bangunan benteng pada masa lalu, benteng yang kemudian dikenal dengan nama Benteng Kuto Besak (BKB) ini dibangun di atas pulau. Lahan tempatnya berdiri dikelilingi sungai. Yaitu, Sungai Kapuran (kini, alirannya merupakan bagian Jl. Merdeka, setelah ditimbun Pemerintahan Belanda sekitar tahun 1930-an) di bagian utara; Sungai Musi di bagian utara; Sungai Sekanak di bagian barat; dan Sungai Tengkuruk di bagian timur. Seperti halnya Sungai Kapuran, Sungai Tengkuruk juga ditimbun Belanda pada awal 1930-an dan dijadikan sebagai jalan. Lokasi jalan, yang kemudian dikenal sebagai Jl. Tengkuruk ini (kini menjadi landasan Jembatan Ampera dan sebagian lagi menjadi Jl. Jenderal Sudirman (sebelumnya, Jl. Talang Jawa), ini sempat berfungsi sebagai boulevard. Pada masa Palembang berbentuk Gementee (Kotapraja), Boulevard Tengkuruk ini dijadikan sebagai bagian dari rute pawai atau karnaval even tertentu Kerajaan Belanda, antara lain hari ulang tahun Ratu Wilhelmina. BKB, yang mulai difungsikan secara resmi pada Senin, 23 Sya?ban 1211 H (21 Februari 1797 M), ini dibangun oleh Sultan Muhammad Bahauddin (1776-1803 M). Pembangunannya dimu-lai pada Ahad, 15 Jumadil Awal 1193 H (1779 M). Pembangunan benteng ter-masuk keraton baru ini merupakan kelanjutan dari gagasan Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin Jayo Wikramo atau SMB I (1724-1758 M). Pendiri Masjid Agung (pada masa itu disebut sebagai Masjid Sulton) itu adalah kakek Sultan Muhammad Bahauddin. Bangunan ini menggunakan bahan batu dan semen (batu kapur serta bubuk tumbukan kulit kerang). Konon, sebagai bahan penguat tambahan, digunakan pula putih telur dan rebusan tulang serta kulit sapi dan kerbau. Benteng berbentuk persegi empat dengan ukuran panjang 290 meter, lebar 180 meter, dan tinggi 6,60 meter-7,20 meter. Di keempat sudutnya, terdapat empat bastion (buluarti) untuk menempatkan meriam. Meriamyang terdapat di keempat sudut benteng inilah yang dipakai untuk menghalau tentara dan menghancurkan armada Belanda pada Perang Palembang I tahun 1819 (Perang Menteng) dan Perang Palembang II tahun 1819. Sesuai dengan posisinya yang dikelilingi sungai, BKB memiliki pintu empat pintu. Yaitu, pintu utama yang menghadap Sungai Musi dan tiga pintu lain, yang masing-masing menghadap Sungai Tengkuruk, Sungai Kapuran, dan Sungai Sekanak.

Masjid Agung Lokasi : Pusat Kota

Mahmud Badaruddin I (Jayo Wikramo) meletakan batu pertama pendiri Mesjid Agung pada 1 Jumadil Akhir 1151 H (=1738 M). Bangunan ini berdiri dibelakang Kuto besak, Istana Sultan yang dulunya terletak disuatu Pulau yang dikelilingi oleh Sungai Musi, Sungai Sekanak, Sungai Tengkuruk, dan Sungai Kapuran Bangunan Masjid Pertama kali berukuran hampir berbentuk Persegi empat yaitu 30 x 36 m. Keempat sisi bangunan ini terdapat empat penampilan yang berfungsi sebagai pintu masuk, kecuali dibagian barat yang merupakan mihrab. Atapnya berbentuk atap tumpung, terdiri dari tiga tingkat yang melambangkan filosofi keagamaan, atap berundak adalah pengaruh dari candi. Bahan-bahan yang dupergunakan adalah bahan kelas satu eks impor dari Eropa. arsitek Masjid orang sedangkan tenaga tehnis dilapangan adalah orang-orang china. sulitnya mendatangkan material bangunan, maka pekerjaan ini cukup lama dan Masjid Baru dapat di resmikan pada Tanggal 28 Jumadil awal 1161 H atau 26 Mei 1748 M. Pada awalnya Masjid ini tidak mempunyai menara, barulah pada Tahun 1753 di buat menara yang beratap genteng dan tahun 1821 ber ganti atap sirap dan penambahan tinggi menara yang dilengkapi dengan beranda lingkar. Setelah 100 tahun lebih berdirinya masjid yaitu tahun 1848 diadakan rencana perluasan oleh Pemerintah Kolonial sebelum perluasan diadakan perubahan bentuk gerbang serambi masuk dari bentuk tradisional menjadi bentuk Doric. Pada tahun 1879 telah diadakan perunbahan masjid, perluasan bentuk gerbang serambi masuk di bongkar ditambanh serambi yang terbuka dengan tiang benton bulat sehingga bentuknya seperti Pendopo atau seperti gaya banguan kolonial ini adalah perluasan pertama dan penambahan rancangan dan tahun 1874 dilaporan bentuk menara beruba dari aslinya dan tahun 1916 menara ini disempurnakan lagi. Pada tahun 1930 diadakan perubahan yaitu menambah jarak pilar menjadi 4 m dari atap. sSetelah kemerdekaan tahun 1952 dilakukan perluasan ketiga dengan bentuk yang tidak lagi harmonis dengan aslinya dengan ditambah kubah. pengurus yayasan masjid agung 1966 -1979 meneruskan penambahan ruangan dengan menambah bangunan lantai 2 yang selesai tahun 1969. Pada tanggal 22 januari 1970 dimulai Pembanguan menara baru dengan tinggi 45 meter, bersegi 12 yang dibiayai Pertamina dan di resmikan pada Tanggal 1 Februari 1971. Sejak tahun 2000 Masjid ini di renovasi dan selesai pada tanggal 16 Juni 2003 yang diresmikan oleh Presiden RI Hj. Megawati Soekarno Putri, Masjid ini terletak di Pusat Kota Palembang.

Museum SMB II Lokasi : Samping Jembatan Ampera di bagian Ilir

Keraton Kuto Kecik atau Keraton Kuto Lamo, dibangun seiring dengan pembangunan Masjid Agung Palembang. Saat kekuasaan Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam dipegang Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin Jayo Wikramo atau SMB I (1724-1758 M), muncul ide untuk membangun masjid baru Sebelumnya, Keraton Palembang yang dibangun Ki Mas Hindi atau Sultan Abdurrahman Khalifatul Mukmin Sayyidul Imam (1659-1706 M) terletak di kawasan Beringin Janggut (kini kompleks pertokoan Beringin Janggut). Masjid kesultanan pun terletak tidak jauh dari keraton, yaitu di kawasan yang kini dikenal sebagai Jl. Masjid Lama. SMB I membangun Masjid Sulton (kini Masjid Agung SMB II) pada 1 Jumadil Akhir 1511 H dan diresmikan pemakaiannya pada 28 Jumadil Awal 1161 H. Keraton Kuto Lamo (pada saat dibangun, tentu belum bernama demikian) ini dibangun persis di tepi Sungai Tengkuruk dan berjarak sekitar 100 meter dari Masjid Sulton. Pada masa pemerintahan Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II (1803-1821 M), yang berganti-ganti kekuasaan dengan saudaranya, Sultan Husin Diauddin (18121813 M) serta Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin III Pangeran Ratu (putra SMB II, 1819-1821 M) seiring masuknya pengaruh Belanda dan Inggris, benteng ini sempat ditempati pasukan Belanda. Menjelang Perang Palembang I tahun 1819, Pemerintah Hindia Belanda mendaratkan pasukannya sebanyak 200 orang di Palembang dan menempatkannya di Keraton Kuto Lamo. Saat perang hari pertama meletus, 11 Juni 1819, tentara Belanda itu ditembaki dan dihalau hingga lari ke kapal-kapal yang berada di Sungai Musi depan BKB. Pada perang ini, dari sekitar 500 tentara Belanda, yang tersisa dan selamat sekitar 350 orang. Begitu SMB II menyerah dan ditangkap pada Perang Palembang III tahun 1821 sehingga bersama keluarganya, dia dibuang ke Ternate, pasukan Belanda melakukan perampasan, perusakan, pembongkaran dan penghancuran terhadap aset kesultanan. Termasuk, bangunan yang ada di Benteng Kuto Lamo. Bahkan, pembongkaran yang dilakukan terhadap rumah limas para Pangeran serta bangunan lain hingga ke halaman Masjid Sulton itu, dilakukan pula terhadap fondasi Keraton hingga sedalam 3 meter. Pada tahun 1823, seiring penghapusan kekuasaan Sultan Najamuddin IV Prabu Anom (1821-1823 M), Belanda mulai melakukan pembangunan di bekas tapak Benteng Kuto Lamo secara bertahap. Rumah yang dibangun ini rencananya diperuntukkan bagi Komisaris Kerajaan Belanda di Palembang. Yaitu, Yohan Isaac van Sevenhoven, seorang advokat fiskal, yang menggantikan posisi Herman Warner Muntinghe. Muntinghe menjadi Komisaris di Palembang selama November 1821-Desember 1823. Pada tahun 1824, tahap pertama rumah dikenal sebagai Gedung Siput itu selesai dibangun. Setelah itu, bagian bangunan terus dilakukan penambahan.

Jembatan Ampera Lokasi : Di atas Sungai Musi

Ide untuk menyatukan dua daratan di Kota Palembang ” Seberang Ulu dan Seberang Ilir ” dengan jembatan, sebetulnya sudah ada sejak zaman Gemeente Palembang, tahun 1906. Saat jabatan Walikota Palembang dijabat Le Cocq de Ville, tahun 1924, ide ini kembali mencuat dan dilakukan banyak usaha untuk merealisasikannya. Namun, sampai masa jabatan Le Cocq berakhir, bahkan ketika Belanda hengkang dari Indonesia, proyek itu tidak pernah terealisasi. Pada masa kemerdekaan, gagasan itu kembali mencuat. DPRD Peralihan Kota Besar Palembang kembali mengusulkan pembangunan jembatan kala itu, disebut Jembatan Musi dengan merujuk na-ma Sungai Musi yang dilintasinya pada sidang pleno yang berlangsung pada 29 Oktober 1956. Usulan ini sebetulnya tergo-long nekat sebab anggaran yang ada di Kota Palembang yang akan dijadikan modal awal? hanya sekitar Rp 30.000,00. Pada tahun 1957, dibentuk panitia pembangunan, yang terdiri atas Penguasa Perang Komando Daerah Militer IV/Sriwijaya, Harun Sohar, dan Gubernur Sumatera Selatan, H.A. Bastari. Pendampingnya, Walikota Palembang, M. Ali Amin, dan Indra Caya. Tim ini melakukan pendekatan kepada Bung Karno agar mendukung rencana itu. Usaha yang dilakukan Pemerintah Provinsi Sumatera Selatan dan Kota Palembang, yang didukung penuh oleh Kodam IV/Sriwijaya ini kemudian membuahkan hasil. Bung Karno kemudian menyetujui usulan pembangunan itu. Karena jembatan ini rencananya dibangun dengan masing-masing kakinya di kawasan 7 Ulu dan 16 Ilir, yang berarti posisinya di pusat kota, Bung Karno kemudian mengajukan syarat. Yaitu, penempatan boulevard atau taman terbuka di kedua ujung jembatan itu. Dilakukanlah penunjukan perusahaan pelaksana pembangunan, dengan penandatanganan kontrak pada 14 Desember 1961, dengan biaya sebesar USD 4.500.000 (kurs saat itu, USD 1 = Rp 200,00). Biaya ini akan dihitung dari pampasan (kompensasi) perang Jepang. Proyek Musi hingga akhir tahun 1970-an, warga Palembang menyebut Jembatan Ampera sebagai Proyek Musi?ini mulai dibangun April 1962 dan selesai pada Mei 1965. Jembatan dengan konstruksi baja yang diperkuat kawat baja itu, memiliki panjang 1.100 meter dengan lebar 22 meter. Keenam kakinya, dipancang sedalam 75 meter. Bagian atasnya, terdapat dua menara setinggi 75 meter dengan jarak bentang antar-menara 71,5 meter. Ketinggian bentang jembatan dari air 11,5 meter saat air surut dan 8 meter saat pasang naik itu dapat diangkat ketika akan dilalui kapal. Saat bentang diangkat, ketinggiannya dari air mencapai 63 meter. Kapal yang dapat melaluinya berukuran tinggi 9 meter-44,5 meter dan lebar 60 meter. Untuk mengangkat bentang jembatan seberat 994 ton ini, ditempatkanlah bandul yang masing-masing seberat 450 ton di kedua menara. Kecepatan angkatnya mencapai 10 meter per detik.

Masjid Lawang Kidul Lokasi : Di tepian Sungai Musi

Masjid Lawang Kidul adalah salah satu masjid tua di Kota Palembang. Masjid ini terletak di tepian Sungai Musi di semacam tanjung yang terbentuk oleh pertemuannya dengan muara Sungai Lawangkidul, di kawasan Kelurahan Lawangkidul, Kecamatan Ilir Timur II. Rumah ibadah ini dibangun dan diwakafkan ulama Palembang kharismatik, Ki. Mgs. H. Abdul Hamid bin Mgs. H. Mahmud alias K. Anang pada tahun 1310 H (1890 M). Ulama ini lebih dikenal sebagai Kiai Merogan. Panggilan itu merujuk pada tempat tinggal dan aktivitasnya yang banyak di kawasan muara Sungai Ogan (salah satu anak Sungai Musi) di kawasan Seberang Ulu. Ayahnya adalah seorang ulama dan pedagang yang sukses. Kiai Merogan dilahirkan pada tahun 1811 M dan wafat pada 31 Oktober 1901. Ulama ini dimakamkan di areal Masjid Ki Merogan, salah satu masjid yang dibangun selama syiar Islamnya. Selama berdakwah sebelumnya, dia menetap di Mekkah, Saudi Arabia, tetapi mendapat bisikan untuk kembali ke kampung halaman bersama murid-muridnya, Kiai Merogan menggunakan perahu hingga ke daerah pelosok di Sumatera Selatan. Karena itu pula, selain Masjid Lawang Kidul dan Masjid Kiai Merogan di Palembang serta tiga pemondokan jemaah haji di Saudi Arabia, Kiai Merogan masih memiliki peninggalan berupa masjid di Dusun Pedu Pemulutan OKI, dan masjid di Dusun Ulak Kerbau Lama Pegagan Ilir (OKI). Sayang, kebakaran hebat pernah menghanguskan Kampung Karangberahi pada antara tahun 1964-1965. Kebakaran ini juga, diduga menghanguskan peninggalan berupa karya tulis Kiai Merogan, yang makamnya dikeramatkan hingga kini dan dipercaya membawa berkah bagi para peziarah yang memanjatkan doa di makam itu. Sebagai salah satu warisannya, Masjid Lawang Kidul hingga kini masih menampakkan kekukuhan dan kemegahan perkembangan Islam di kota ini. Hingga sekarang, masjid yang bangunan induknya memiliki luas lantai lebih kurang 20 X 20 meter itu, sebagian besar masih asli. Namun, terdapat bangunan tambahan sehingga luasnya saat ini menjadi 40 X 41 meter. Pemugaran dilaksanakan pada 1983-1987 lalu. Meskipun sebagian besar materialnya asli, ada beberapa bagian yang terpaksa diganti. Bagian yang diganti itu, terutama bagian atapnya yang semula genting belah bambu. Karena genting jenis itu tidak ada lagi, diganti dengan genting kodok. Konon, material bangunan itu terdiri atas campuran kapur, telur, dan pasir. Sedangkan bahan kayunya tiang, pintu, atap, dan bagian penunjang lainnya? terbuat dari kayu unglen. Interior mesjid, juga masih menampakkan keaslian. Empat saka guru memilik ketinggian delapan meter dengan 12 pilar pendamping setinggi lebih kurang enam meter. Kesemua tiang bersudut delapan. Empat alang (penyangga) atap sepanjang 20 meter juga terbuat dari unglen tanpa sambungan.

Masjid Al-Mahmudiyah (Masjid Suro) Lokasi : Kecamatan Ilir Barat II

Terletak di Kelurahan 30 Ilir Kecamatan Ilir Barat II wilayah Suro, Olah Karena itu masjid tersebut dinamakan masyarakat sekitar lingkungan itu Masjid suro yang sekarang sejak tahun 2001 atas kesepakatan pengurus berganti nama Al Muhmadiyah. masjid ini dibangun oleh alm Ki. H.Abdurrahman Dalamat pada tahun 1310 H ( 1889 M). Tiang penyangga masjid ini terbuat dari Kayu bulat tinggi dan lebar yang sampai saat ini sampai saat ini masih tetap kokoh masjid yang dibangun dengan gotong royong karena tidak ada biaya. Konon menurut cerita Ki. H. Abdurrahman Dalamat Sholat tahajut dan berdo’a meminta rizki dan pada kenyataannya setelah selesai berdo’a telah ada uang di bawah sejadah, uang tersebut dipergunakan oleh beliau untuk pembangunan masjid ini.

Kampung Kapitan Lokasi : Kawasan 7 Ulu

NAMA Kapitan identik dengan sebuah perkampungan seluas lebih kurang 20 ha di kawasan Kelurahan 7 Ulu, Kecamatan Seberang Ulu I, Palembang. Nama ini menjadi semacam penanda bagi keberadaan komunitas marga Tionghoa yang berdiam di kampung itu. Pembatas kampung, mulai dari tepi Sungai Musi di utara hingga ke tepian Jl K.H.A. Azhary di bagian selatannya. Bagian barat berbatasan dengan Sungai Kelenteng ?kini sudah ?mati??dan timur dengan Sungai Kedemangan. Jalan masuk ke Kampung Kapitan, demikian masyarakat Palembang menyebutnya, sepanjang lebih kurang 50 meter. Saat memasuki kawasan utama kampung ini, orang melewati semacam gerbang yang sesungguhnya merupakan penghubung antara Rumah Kapitan dan Rumah Abu, yang merupakan ?simbol? kampung ini. Sebutan Rumah Abu ini, setelah berakhirnya masa Kapitan Cina terakhir, Kapitan Tjoa Ham Hin. Dia menggantikan kedudukan ayahnya, Mayor Tjoa Tjie Kuan. Rumah Kapitan berukuran asli 22 X 25 meter. Keturunan Kapitan, yang menjadi ahli waris rumah itu, membuat bangunan tambahan di bagian belakang sehingga ukuran panjangnya menjadi 50 meter. Di ruang utama, terdapat meja sembahyang, yang ditempatkan beberapa pedupaan (tempat hio), dan patung para Toa Pe Kong. Salah satunya, Toa Pe Kong Sie, yang merupakan leluhur keluarga Tjoa. Leluhur Kapitan Tjoa, menurut semacam buku harian milik keluarga ini, adalah Sie Te, yang datang ke Palembang pada masa peralihan Kerajaan Sriwijaya dan Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam, yaitu antara abad XVI-XVIII.

Masjid Kiai Merogan Lokasi : Kawasan Tepian Sungai Musi

Masjid ini dibangun lebih dahulu daripada Masjid Lang Kidul. Pada masa lalu, daerah tempat berdirinya masjid dengan atap bertumpang dua dan puncak mustaka -?sama dengan Masjid Lawang Kidul?ini bernama Kampung Karang Berahi. Apakah memang karakter lokasi masjid pada zaman itu ataukah memang kekhasan Kiai Merogan, masjid ini terletak di muara Sungai Ogan ke Sungai Musi. Jika diamati, posisinya yang demikian, juga ketinggian tanah yang lebih dibanding lahan sekitarnya itu sama persis dengan Masjid Lawang Kidul. Letaknya sekitar 13 meter dari Sungai Musi dan 75 meter sebelah selatan Sungai Ogan. Penamaannya diambil dari nama julukan bagi ulama besar Palembang yang bernama lengkap Kiai Haji Masagus Abdul Hamid bin Mahmud. Ukuran asli masjid ini ?sebelum dilakukan renovasi dan perluasan?adalah 18,8 m X 19,4 m. Sama seperti Masjid Lawang Kidul dan Masjid Sungai Lumpur, bangunannya disangga empat saka guru berbentuk persegi delapan berukuran 0,3 X 0,27 m. Tingginya mencapai 5 meter. Saka guru dikelilingi dua belas tiang penunjang setinggi 4,2 meter dan besar 0,25 m x 0,25 m. Bagian-bagian masjid sebagian besar masih asli. Antara lain, saka guru dan 12 tiang penunjangnya, rangka bangunan atap, langit-langit, dan kuda-kuda. Mimbar khas masjid ini juga masih menampakkan keaslian, baik bahan maupun hiasannya. Di samping itu, beduk yang digunakan hingga sekarang ?berukuran panjang 2,5 m dan berdiameter 0,8 meter. Meskipun terletak di tanah yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan lahan sekitarnya, menurut keterangan masyarakat dan keluarga sang ulama, lahan masjid ini awalnya adalah lebak. Kemudian, saat masjid didirkan, dilakukan penimbunan hingga tanahnya mengeras. Sedangkan makam Kiai Merogan (wafat tahun 1882 M), terletak di sebelah kanan masjid. Makam dengan ukuran 1,75 meter dan lebar 0,82 meter ini, sampai sekarang masih sering dikunjungi peziarah.

Kantor Ledeng Lokasi : Kawasan 22 Ilir

Pembangunan Menara Air, yaitu instalasi pengolahan air bersih pada masa Walikota Palembang dijabat Ir. R.C.A.F.J. Le Cocq d?Armandville dapat dikatakan sungguh luar biasa. Pasalnya, saat itu keuangan Haminte (Gemeente) Palembang sedang dalam kondisi yang sangat buruk. Ketika tercetus ide untuk membangun Menara Air ?akhirnya dikenal sebagai Kantor Ledeng? pada tahun 1928, utang Haminta Palembang sudah menumpuk. Untuk pajak jalan dan jembatan saja, mencapai 3,5 ton emas, Ini belum lagi keterpurukan akibat parahnya sistem administrasi. Setahun kemudian, 1929, setelah pembuatan master plan kotyaoleh Ir. Th. Karsten, dibangunlah sarana air bersih. Selain bangunan berupa menara ?saat ini, pendidtribusiannya dikenal sebagai sistem gravitasi?setinggi 35 meter dan luas bangunan 250 meter persegi. Bak tampungnya berkapasitas 1.200 meter kubik. Arsitek yang menangani pembangunan gedung ?juga dimanfaatkan sebagai Kantor Haminte dan Dewan Kota?ini adalah Ir. S. Snuijf. Dipilihlah lokasi gedung di tepi Sungai Kapuran dan Sungai Sekanak. Sehingga pada masa itu, posisi Kantor Ledeng tepat di tepian air. Namun kemudian, seiring dengan pembangunan jembatan yang melintasi Sungai Sekanak, Sungai Kapuran pun ditimbun. Akibatnya dapat diduga. Jalan yang melintas di depan Kantor Ledeng itu pun mengalami banjir saat musim hujan disertai pasang naik Sungai Musi. Ini terlihat pada sebuah foto yang berangka tahun 1930-an. Pada saat Kemerdekaan RI diproklamasikan, 17 Agustus 1945, Kantor Ledeng menjadi saksi heroisme pemuda di Palembang. Para pejuang yang terdiri atas bekas opsir Gyu Gun, yaitu Hasan Kasim, M. Arief, Dany Effendy, Raden Abdullah (Cek Syeh), Rivai, dan mantan opsir Gyu Gun lainnya, bekerja sama dengan kelompok pemuda yang dipimpin Mailan beserta pembantunya, Abihasan Said dan Bujang Yacob. Mereka mengibarkan bendera kebangsaan di empat sisi atas Kantor Ledeng.

Monpera Lokasi : Kawasan di depan Masjid Agung

Bangunan ini terletak di Pusat Kota tepatnya Masjid Agung. Lokasi tersebut dulunya basis pertempuran Lima Hari Lima malam. Peletakan Batu Pertama dan pemancangan tiang bangunan pada Tanggal 17 Agustus 1975 dan diresmikan pada tanggal 23 Februari 1988 oleh Menko Kesra Alamsyah ratu Perwira Negara Monumen ini dibangun untuk mengenang perjuangan rakyat Sumatera Selatan ketika melawan kaum penjajah pada masa revolusi fisik yang di kenak dengan pertempuran Lima hari Lima Malam di Palembang melawan Belanda. Di dalam Museum ini kita dapat berbagai jenis senjata yang dipergunakan dalam pertempuran tersebut termasuk berbagai dokumen perang dan bebda-benda bersejarah lainnya.

Museum Bala Putra Dewa Lokasi : Km 6

Museum ini dibangun pada tahun 1977 dengan arsitektur tradisional Palembang di atas areal seluas 23.565 meter persegi dan diresmikan pada tanggal 5 Nopember 1984. Pada mulanya museum ini bernama museum Negeri Propinsi sumatera Selatan, selanjutnya berdasarkan SK. Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Nomor 1223/1990 tanggal 4 April 1990, Museum ini diberi nama Museum Negeri Propinsi Sumatera Selatan ” Bala Putra Dewa” Nama Bala Putra Dewa berasal nama seorang raja Sriwijaya yang memerintah pada abad VIII-IX yang mencapai kerajaan maritime. Di Museum ini terdapat koleksi yang menggambarkan corak ragam kebudayaan dan alam sumatera Selatan. koleksinya terdiri dari berbagai benda histografi, etnografi, felologi, keramik, teknologi modern, seni rupa, flora dan fauna serta geologi. Selain itu terdapat rumah limas dan rumah Ulu asli, kita dapat melihat dengan menggunakan kendaraan umum trayek km12.

Taman Purbakala Kerajaan Sriwijaya (TPKS) Lokasi : Kawasan Tangga Buntung

Taman ini di bangun di atas arkeologi Karang anyar yang didasari konsep-konsep pelestarian dan pemanfaatan peninggalan purbakala. PeresmianTPKS dilakukan oleh Presiden Soeharto pada tanggal 22 Desember 1994. Ditandai dengan peletakan kembali replika kedukan Bukit yang merupakan tonggak sejarah lahirnya kerajaan sriwijaya. Berdasarkan interprestasi foto udara situs Karang Anyar merupakan bangunan air yang penting pada masa awal kerajaan Sriwijaya dan ditemukan juga sisa-sisa bangunan bata, fragmen-fragmen, gerabag, keramik, sisa perahu dan benda-benda sejarah lainnya. Di dalam lokasi taman ini terdapat tiga gedung utama yaitu gedung museum yang menyimpan arkeologi peninggalan sriwijaya dan Perahunya. Dalam perkembangan sejarah kuno indonesia meliputi kurun waktu ke 7 – 13 M. Gedung Pendopo Agung untuk keperluan pameran-pameran, temporer, seminar dan lain-lain. Dana Gedung prasasti yang menyimpan replika prasasti kedukan Bukit serta Prasasti peresmian TPKS. Disamping itu di pulau Gempaka terdapat Disflag berupa struktur bata hasil eksavasi. dalam Lingkungan taman ini juga terdapat kanal-kanal Diposkan pada 11 Desember 200813 Desember 2008 oleh Ir. Muhtadi Arsyad Temenggung, M.SiPosted in Uncategorized11 Komentar

Google AdSense Make Your Web Site Pay i Rate This (http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_g4hoVna2cVo/ST4MZoqzBJI/AAAAAAAAAGU/POldvSOAr1w/s1600-h/large_adsense.jpg)If you run a popular, information-rich Web site or blog, you can earn money from the growing online advertising market. You don’t even need to approach advertisers. Simply run pay-per-click ads provided by search engines such as Google and Yahoo on your Web site. You’ll earn money every time a visitor clicks on an ad.

If you use the Google search engine, you’ve probably noticed the text ads that run along the right-hand side and sometimes across the top of your search results. These are placed by advertisers who participate in the Google AdWords pay-per-click program. Google AdSense lets you earn a share of that money by running those ads on your site. There’s no guarantee that you’ll actually attract clicks and get paid, but it costs nothing to sign up and try it out. PPC vs. Affiliate Marketing AdSense is a pay-per-click service, not an affiliate marketing network. While both PPC ads and affiliate marketing networks allow you to earn money from your Web site, there are some significant differences in how they work. Affiliates typically earn money only when a visitor referred from their site purchases the advertiser’s product. (I discussed affiliate marketing in an August column.) But Web publishers can earn money from PPC ads when a visitor simply clicks on an ad. No purchase is necessary.

To maximize affiliate earnings, you must carefully match the interests of your site’s visitors with the products and services that you advertise. That can be relatively easy if you manage a tightly focused site. But if your site discusses different topics on different pages, it can be time-consuming to find the most appropriate products to advertise for each topic.

AdSense automates that content-product matching process. Google crawls your site to examine your pages, using content analysis technology to find appropriate ads. The technology is similar to that used by Google’s search engine. Most of the time, the process works well and serves up relevant ads. AdSense Basics (http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_g4hoVna2cVo/ST4O_WdeKWI/AAAAAAAAAGk/pvjxpDHOQCg/s1600-h/adsense-profits.jpg) To use AdSense, you start by signing up for an account at no cost. You then insert Google-supplied advertising code into your Web pages. AdSense supports a number of ad formats that should suit virtually any page layout in your Web site or blog. You can adjust the color of the text and background, if you like. In addition, you can run up to three ad units per page. Initially, you may see public service announcements displayed on your site. These PSAs earn no click-through money. Google says that in most cases relevant ads will display within 72 hours. AdSense Limitations

The automatic ad matching process doesn’t always work as smoothly as one would like. When I first put AdSense on one site a couple of years ago, the ads it served were rather generic. This resulted in a low click-through rate and poor earnings. I decided to position the ads closer to the site content. Almost immediately, I noticed that the ads changed, becoming more relevant, and my earnings soared. Google won’t accept every Web site. It won’t, for example, place ads on sites with pornographic, gambling, and other controversial content. Earning Money From AdSense

The amount of money that you earn from AdSense depends upon several factors, including the number of visitors to your Web site or blog and the nature of your content. Some content is more popular with advertisers, who will pay more for ad clicks. Google doesn’t disclose how it splits the money it earns from advertisers with the publishers on AdSense. Google accumulates your monthly earnings and pays out after the balance exceeds $100.

I’m generally pleased with my earnings from AdSense. However, I know other Web publishers who don’t believe it was worth the effort needed to enter the ad code. You risk only the investment of your time, however, so I recommend trying out AdSense to see if it earns money for you. Diposkan pada 11 Desember 200811 Desember 2008 oleh Ir. Muhtadi Arsyad Temenggung, M.SiPosted in Imron Rosadi, Uncategorized1 Komentar

Freeport and a Nation without Sovereignt i Rate This

Title : Freeport, How Have Giant Gold and Copper Mines “Colonized” Indonesia? Writer : Torry Kuswardono, Siti Maimunah, et al. Publisher: WALHI – East Java, Jakarta, 2006 Thickness: x + 90 pages

A series of pointless humanitarian tragedies. This is the portrait of Indonesia, a country lacking sovereignty, and that worships ‘objects’ rather than ‘collective dignity and prestige as citizens’. A history that tells of suffering, poverty, stupidity and shallowness. However, not a bar of this has brought the wisdom of learning and improvement. This story begins with the drama of PT Freeport Indonesia.

Since 1967 and the signing of the Generation I Mining Work Contract between the Government of Indonesia and PT Freeport Indonesia, the lives of the Amungme, Kamoro, Dani, Nduga, Damal, Moni and Mee (Ekari) ethnic groups have withered. Environmental damage as the destructive output of PT Freeport Indonesia’s mining activities has been the major factor in the wreckage of the future for these seven ‘children of the earth’. They no longer joke. The laughter of children is no longer heard. The same goes for the community kinship which once joyously and cooperatively wove the threads of the future. Conflict now emerges with regular and unceasing frequency.

Various crimes committed by PT Freeport Indonesia have eroded the quality of life of the seven ethnic groups located at the PT Freeport Indonesia mine – both humanitarian crimes and also environmental crimes. According to The New York Times (27 December 2005), the volume of PT Freeport Indonesia’s mining waste is twice the size of the Panama Canal (viii). It is no exaggeration that the Papuan land faces ruin on a massive scale.

The Republic of Indonesia Ministry for the Environment (KLH RI) is aware of the environmental destruction caused by PT Freeport Indonesia’s mining activities (23 March 2006). Unfortunately, environmental transgressions are not taken seriously at the green table, even though PT Freeport Indonesia is proven to have broken Environmental Law No. 23/1997. In contrast to KLH RI’s attitude, the Government of Norway has retracted US$ 240 million (around Rp 2.16 trillion) of pension funds that had previously been invested in Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold Inc, after observing the destructive impacts of mining carried out by PT Freeport Indonesia (ix). To borrow the phrasing of Amien Rais, what sort of nation and government do we have?

Freeport’s Crimes

Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold Inc was once a small company in the United States, the result of a merger between Freeport Sulphur and McMoran Oil and Gas Company. However, since discovering the third-largest gold and copper deposits in the world, in West Papua to be specific, Freeport has transformed into a world-scale gold mining company (p. 5).

The history of natural resources conglomerate Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold Inc involves many stakeholders, mergers, and shifts in ownership. In its operation, Freeport McMoran plays a duet of businesspeople with officials and politicians in the United States. This acts as a lubricant in its corporate expansion and capital accumulation in all corners of the globe, not excepting in West Papua, Indonesia. For example, Henry Kissinger, the former United States Minister for Foreign Affairs, became the company director. In this dance, Freeport McMoran provided some $730,000 to members of the US Congress, including President Clinton and the Democratic Party (p. 7).

PT Freeport Indonesia is a subsidiary company established by Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold Inc, who own the majority of its shares. PT Freeport Indonesia has conducted exploration at two sites in the Tembaga Pura region, Mimika Regency, Papua Province, namely the Erstberg mine (from 1967) and the Grasberg mine (since 1988).

Since exploration conducted by PT Freeport Indonesia, a number of serious crimes have been committed. First, systematic, ongoing and deliberate destruction of the environment. Second, taxation crimes. Third, humanitarian crimes, where the basic rights of seven ethnic groups in the location of the PT Freeport Indonesia mine have been violated. Moreover, PT Freeport Indonesia in 2003 acknowledged that it had paid the Indonesian military (TNI) to evict the local population from their area. According to a report by The New York Times (December 2005), total payments during 1998-2004 reached almost US$ 20 million.

Chris Ballard, an Australian anthropologist who previously worked for Freeport, and Abigail Abrash, a human rights activist from the United States, estimate that 160 people were murdered by the military between 19751997 in and around the mining area.

Marginalization of the Nation of Papua

The people used to believe in mythology related to the first man, who originated from a mother. After death he became the earth that extends throughout the Amungsal (Amungme land), an area regarded as sacred by the local people such that it is forbidden by tradition to enter it. The metaphor of ‘mother’ became symbolic of how the seven ethnic groups in Amungme Land lived in and interacted with the environment. However PT Freeport Indonesia entered this sacred area in 1971 and opened the Erstberg mine. Since 1971, the Amungme ethnic groups have been moved away from their land to the mountain foothills. Since then the environmental condition of Amungme has slowly but surely been destroyed. The lives of the Amungme, Kamoro, Dani, Nduga, Damal, Moni and Mee (Ekari) ethnic groups have become increasingly oppressed by boundless poverty and suffering.

Just look and see. When Papuan people scraped for some gain, mining the tailings in the Kabur Wanomen River, they were roughly expelled by the PT Freepart security and Indonesian defense personnel, and even shot and killed. It seems inconceivable that the people they are chasing away are our own people, scraping waste for a scrap of profit from a mountain of abundance that we actually own. Must Indonesian people lose their lives just to get a piece of gold the size of a grain of sand from the industrial waste of PT Freeport?

The sadness is even more overwhelming when we realize that there is a modern city, Kuala Kencana, near Timika, where the senior staffs of PT Freeport reside. Meanwhile, just 6-7 kilometers away, there is a Papuan orphanage where the standard of living is the same as if the children had never been “found”. Within this radius, our people can still be found wearing penis gourds.

The government seems two-faced in dealing with Papua. We grind down an abundant mountain in the name of national prosperity, but let our people live as if in the Stone Age when it comes to caring for cultural values. Papua is the pride of the United Nations of the Republic of Indonesia. Manifest that pride in the chests of Papuans. Don’t let them be forced to seek their own dignity. Isn’t Indonesia a collection of nations who historically developed unity to confront colonizers?

The clash with Freeport is indicative of Indonesia-US relations, wherein the public psyche sees a “weak country” facing a superpower. The US as a superpower with all manner of foreign policy instruments can dictate its desires, and erode our nation’s bargaining position. This perception of RI-US bilateral relations is the product of collaboration that is unequal and that is not mutually beneficial.

In view of the complexity of the Freeport problem, the authors of this book make major recommendations: first, to carry out a thorough evaluation of all aspects of PT Freeport Indonesia’s mining; second, to facilitate a full consultation with the Papuan indigenous peoples, especially peoples located around PT Freeport Indonesia’s mines; third, to follow-up on findings of legal violations through the relevant authorities; and fourth, to map and study a number of scenarios for the future of PT Freeport Indonesia, including the possibility of closure, production capacity and processing of waste (p. 69).

With a prologue narrating the identity of Freeport, their work contract, PT Freeport Indonesia’s crimes in Papua, violations of human rights and military business, plus a good epilogue touching on the attitude that the government must take in order to salvage the dignity of all citizens, especially the peoples of Papua, this 90page book is well worth the read for anyone who still cares.

posted by Ndie @ 21:10:00 (http://kampung-wayhalim.blogspot.com/2008/12/freeport-and-nationwithout-sovereignt.html) 0 comments (http://kampung-wayhalim.blogspot.com/2008/12/freeport-andnation-without-sovereignt.html#comments) (http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g? blogID=8203087565122886424&postID=8924356272167595445)

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WATER POLLUTION i Rate This

A change in the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological quality of water that is injurious to its existing, intended, or potential uses (for example, boating, waterskiing (http://www.answers.com/topic/waterskiing), swimming, the consumption of fish, and the health of aquatic organisms and ecosystems (http://www.answers.com/topic/ecosystems-1)). The term “water pollution” generally refers to human-induced (anthropogenic (http://www.answers.com/topic/anthropogenic)) changes to water quality. Thus, the discharge of toxic chemicals from a pipe or the release of livestock waste into a nearby water body is considered pollution. Conversely, nutrients that originate from animals in the wild or toxins (http://www.answers.com/topic/toxin) that originate from natural processes are not considered pollution.

The contamination of ground water, rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and oceans can threaten the health of humans and aquatic life. Sources of water pollution are generally divided into two categories. The first is point-source pollution, in which contaminants are discharged from a discrete location. Sewage outfalls and oil spills (http://www.answers.com/topic/oil-spill-1) are examples of point-source pollution. The second category is non-point-source or diffuse (http://www.answers.com/topic/diffuse) pollution, referring to all of the other discharges that deliver contaminants to water bodies. Acid rain and unconfined (http://www.answers.com/topic/unconfined) runoff from agricultural or urban areas are examples of non-point-source pollution. The principal contaminants of water include toxic chemicals, nutrients (http://www.answers.com/topic/nutrients-1) and biodegradable (http://www.answers.com/topic/biodegradable) organics, and bacterial (http://www.answers.com/topic/bacteria) and viral pathogens.

Water pollution can threaten human health when pollutants enter the body via skin exposure or through the direct consumption of contaminated (http://www.answers.com/topic/contaminate) food or drinking water. Priority pollutants, including dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (http://www.answers.com/topic/trichloroethane) (DDT) and polychlorinated biphenyls (http://www.answers.com/topic/pcb) (PCBs), persist in the natural environment and bioaccumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms. These persistent organic pollutants are transferred up the food chain (in a process called biomagnification), and they can reach levels of concern in fish species that are eaten by humans. Finally, bacteria and viral pathogens can pose a public health risk for those who drink contaminated water or eat raw shellfish (http://www.answers.com/topic/shellfish) from polluted water bodies. See also Environmental toxicology (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-toxicology); Food web (http://www.answers.com/topic/food-web).

Contaminants have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems. for example, enrichment of water bodies with nutrients (principally nitrogen and phosphorus (http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphorus)) can result in the growth of algae (http://www.answers.com/topic/alga) and other aquatic plants that shade or clog (http://www.answers.com/topic/clog) streams. If wastewater containing biodegradable organic matter is discharged into a stream with inadequate dissolved oxygen, the water downstream of the point of discharge will become anaerobic (http://www.answers.com/topic/anaerobic) and will be turbid (http://www.answers.com/topic/turbidity) and dark. Settleable solids, if present, will be deposited on the streambed (http://www.answers.com/topic/streambed), and anaerobic decomposition (http://www.answers.com/topic/decomposition) will occur. Over the reach of stream where the dissolved-oxygen concentration is zero, a zone of putrefaction (http://www.answers.com/topic/putrefaction) will occur with the production of hydrogen sulfide (http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogen-sulfide), ammonia (http://www.answers.com/topic/ammonia), and other odorous (http://www.answers.com/topic/odorous) gases. Because many fish species require a minimum of 4–5 mg of dissolved oxygen per liter of water, they will be unable to survive in this portion of the stream. Direct exposures to toxic chemicals is also a health concern for individual aquatic plants and animals. Chemicals (e.g., pesticides (http://www.answers.com/topic/pesticide)) are frequently transported to lakes and rivers via runoff, and they can have unintended (http://www.answers.com/topic/unintended) and harmful effects on aquatic life. Toxic chemicals have been shown to reduce the growth, survival, reproductive output, and disease resistance of exposed organisms. These effects can have important consequences for the viability of aquatic populations and communities. See also Insecticide (http://www.answers.com/topic/insecticide).

Wastewater discharges are most commonly controlled through effluent standards and discharge permits. Under this system, discharge permits are issued with limits on the quantity and quality of effluents. Water-quality standards are sets of qualitative (http://www.answers.com/topic/qualitative) and quantitative criteria designed to maintain or enhance the quality of receiving waters. Receiving waters are divided into several classes depending on their uses, existing or intended, with different sets of criteria designed to protect uses such as drinking water supply, bathing, boating, fresh-water and shellfish harvesting, and outdoor sports for seawater (http://www.answers.com/topic/seawater). For toxic compounds, chemical-specific or whole-effluent toxicity studies are used to develop standards and criteria. In the chemical-specific approach, individual criteria are used for each toxic chemical detected in the wastewater. Criteria can be developed to protect aquatic life against acute and chronic effects and to safeguard (http://www.answers.com/topic/safeguard) humans against deleterious (http://www.answers.com/topic/deleterious) health effects, including cancer. In the whole-effluent approach, toxicity or bioassay (http://www.answers.com/topic/bioassay) tests are used to determine the concentration at which the wastewater induces acute or chronic toxicity effects. See also Hazardous waste (http://www.answers.com/topic/hazardous-waste); Sewage disposal (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage-disposal-2); Sewage treatment (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage-treatment).

Modern Science: (http://www.answers.com/library/Modern%20Science-cid-98559) water pollution

Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > Science (http://www.answers.com/main/science.jsp) > Modern Science (http://www.answers.com/library/Modern+Science-cid-98559) water pollutionThe addition of harmful chemicals to natural water. Sources of water pollution in the United States include industrial waste, runoff from fields treated with chemical fertilizers, and runoff from areas that have been mined. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: (http://www.answers.com/library/Britannica%20Concise%20Encyclopedia-cid-98559) water pollution Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > Miscellaneous (http://www.answers.com/main/reference.jsp) > Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (http://www.answers.com/library/Britannica+Concise+Encyclopedia-cid-98559) .content{clear:both;}

State resulting when substances are released into a body of water, where they become dissolved or suspended in the water or deposited on the bottom, accumulating to the extent that they overwhelm its capacity to absorb, break down, or recycle them, and thus interfering with the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. Contributions to water pollution include substances drawn from the air (see acid rain (http://www.answers.com/topic/acid-rain)), silt from soil erosion, chemical fertilizers (http://www.answers.com/topic/fertilizer) and pesticides (http://www.answers.com/topic/pesticide), runoff from septic tanks, outflow from livestock feedlots, chemical wastes (some toxic) from industries, and sewage and other urban wastes from cities and towns. A community far upstream in a watershed may thus receive relatively clean water, whereas one farther downstream receives a partly diluted mixture of urban, industrial, and rural wastes. When organic matter exceeds the capacity of microorganisms in the water to break it down and recycle it, the excess of nutrients in such matter encourages algal water blooms (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-bloom). When these algae die, their remains add further to the organic wastes already in the water, and eventually the water becomes deficient in oxygen. Organisms that do not require oxygen then attack the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulfide, which are harmful to the oxygen-requiring forms of life. The result is a foul-smelling, waste-filled body of water. See also eutrophication (http://www.answers.com/topic/eutrophication). For more information on water pollution (http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=water+pollution), visit Britannica.com (http://www.britannica.com/). US History Encyclopedia: (http://www.answers.com/library/US%20History%20Encyclopedia-cid-98559) Water Pollution

Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > History, Politics & Society (http://www.answers.com/main/government.jsp) > US History Encyclopedia (http://www.answers.com/library/US+History+Encyclopedia-cid-98559) Extensive water pollution in the United States began in the nineteenth century as a result of urbanization, industrial development, and modern agricultural practices. Although lumbering and mining despoiled individual lakes and rivers, the nation’s cities were the sites of the most severe pollution. Early industrial by-products joined human sewage (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage) and animal waste to foul drinking water supplies. By the early 1800s, even horses declined New York City’s public water, and one quarter of Boston’s wells produced undrinkable (http://www.answers.com/topic/undrinkable) water. Severe epidemics of the waterborne diseases cholera (http://www.answers.com/topic/cholera) and typhoid fever (http://www.answers.com/topic/typhoid-fever) swept through major cities, most notably New York in 1832.

The early response to such pollution was not so much to clean the water but rather to build reservoirs and aqueducts to import fresh water for direct delivery to neighborhoods and even some individual homes. Cities built large sewer (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewer) systems to flush (http://www.answers.com/topic/flush) these waters away, usually either out to sea or down a near by river. Sewers thus spread the previously more localized pollution, often fouling the water sources of other cities.

In the 1890s, scientists decisively linked many diseases, including typhoid (http://www.answers.com/topic/typhoid) and cholera, to the presence of human waste in water supplies. Cities began to filter their drinking water with remarkable results. The national urban death rate from typhoid, 36 per 100,000 in 1900, dropped to only 3 per 100,000 by 1935 and was virtually nonexistent (http://www.answers.com/topic/nonexistence) by the twentieth century’s end. The urban water projects that combined filtration (http://www.answers.com/topic/filtration), delivery, and disposal ranked among the largest public works projects in the nation’s history. Chicago, for example, reversed the direction of the Chicago and Calumet Rivers, so by 1900 they no longer carried the city’s waste into Lake Michigan, its primary source of fresh water. By the end of the twentieth century, New York City moved about 1.5 billion (http://www.answers.com/topic/billion) gallons of fresh water through more than 300 miles of aqueducts and 27 artificial lakes.

The industrial pollution of bodies of water not used for drinking proved more difficult to control. In 1912, Congress charged the Public Health Service (PHS) with investigating water pollution. Two years later, the PHS established the first water quality standards. In the 1920s, the service investigated industrial pollution but with little effect. State governments retained the primary responsibility for water regulation. Following the lead of Pennsylvania, many states sought to balance environmental quality with the needs of industry by giving relatively high protection to waters used for drinking supplies while allowing others to be freely used for waste disposal. New Deal programs provided significant federal funds to water pollution control, and over the course of the 1930s the population served by sewage treatment (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage-treatment) nearly doubled. But those programs left pollution control in the hands of state governments.

After World War II, continued urban pollution and runoff from artificial fertilizers increasingly used in agriculture degraded (http://www.answers.com/topic/degraded) the water quality of many lakes. Eutrophication occurs when plants and bacteria grow at abnormally high rates due to elevated quantities of nitrogen or phosphorus (http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphorus). The decomposition (http://www.answers.com/topic/decomposition) of this elevated biomass (http://www.answers.com/topic/biomass) consumes much of the water’s oxygen, often leading to a cascade of changes in aquatic ecosystems (http://www.answers.com/topic/ecosystems-1). Many species of fish grow scarce (http://www.answers.com/topic/scarce) or die off altogether, and algae (http://www.answers.com/topic/alga) “blooms” can make water unsafe (http://www.answers.com/topic/unsafe) to swim in or to drink. Although small urban lakes suffered from eutrophication (http://www.answers.com/topic/eutrophication) as early as the 1840s, after World War II, population growth, increasing nitrogen-rich agricultural runoff, and the addition of phosphates to detergents polluted even bodies of water as large as Lake Erie. By 1958, the bottom portion of a 2,600square-mile portion of the lake was completely without oxygen, and algae grew in mats two feet thick over hundreds of square miles more. The nation’s economic prosperity intensified problems, as pollution from heavy industry made some rivers and streams lifeless (http://www.answers.com/topic/lifeless). In the 1960s, Cleveland authorities pronounced the Cuyahoga River (http://www.answers.com/topic/cuyahoga-river) a fire hazard, and at the end of the decade the river actually caught on fire. The more mobile and long-lasting industrial products polluted even waters remote from cities and industry. DDT, other pesticides (http://www.answers.com/topic/pesticide) and synthetic chemicals, mercury, and acid rain threatened numerous species and previously unaffected (http://www.answers.com/topic/unaffected) lakes and streams.

Such manifestations of a deepening (http://www.answers.com/topic/deepening-meteorology) pollution crisis prompted environmentalists and lawmakers to redouble (http://www.answers.com/topic/redouble) pollution-control efforts. The major response, the 1972 Clean Water Act, shifted responsibility for the nation’s waterways and water supply to the federal government. In the following decades, federal funds and regulations issued under the act’s authority significantly raised standards for water purity. Repeatedly amended, the act halted the rate of water pollution, even in the face of decades of population and economic growth. Most industries and municipalities greatly reduced their pollution discharges, with the consequent reversal of the eutrophication of many bodies of water, including Lake Erie. Nevertheless, “non-point” pollution sources, such as agricultural runoff and vehicle exhaust (http://www.answers.com/topic/exhaust), continued to degrade (http://www.answers.com/topic/degrade) water quality. The act made virtually no progress in improving groundwater contamination (http://www.answers.com/topic/groundwater-contamination). At the end of the twentieth century, regulating groundwater quality and grappling with nonpoint pollution remained the most formidable obstacles to those seeking to reverse water pollution. Bibliography Elkind, Sarah S. Bay Cities and Water Politics: The Battle for Resources in Boston and Oakland. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. Melosi, Martin V. The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. Outwater, Alice. Water: A Natural History. New York: Basic Books, 1996. Columbia Encyclopedia: (http://www.answers.com/library/Columbia%20Encyclopedia-cid-98559) water pollution, Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > Miscellaneous (http://www.answers.com/main/reference.jsp) > Columbia Encyclopedia (http://www.answers.com/library/Columbia+Encyclopedia-cid-98559) contamination of water resources by harmful wastes; see also sewerage (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewerage), water supply (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-supply), pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/pollution), and environmentalism (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmentalism).Industrial Pollution

In the United States industry is the greatest source of pollution, accounting for more than half the volume of all water pollution and for the most deadly pollutants. Some 370,000 manufacturing facilities use huge quantities of freshwater to carry away wastes of many kinds. The waste-bearing water, or effluent, is discharged into streams, lakes, or oceans, which in turn disperse the polluting substances. In its National Water Quality Inventory, reported to Congress in 1996, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency concluded that approximately 40% of the nation’s surveyed lakes, rivers, and estuaries were too polluted for such basic uses as drinking supply, fishing, and swimming. The pollutants include grit, asbestos (http://www.answers.com/topic/asbestos), phosphates (http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphate) and nitrates (http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrate), mercury (http://www.answers.com/topic/mercury), lead (http://www.answers.com/topic/lead-10), caustic soda and other sodium compounds, sulfur (http://www.answers.com/topic/sulfur) and sulfuric acid (http://www.answers.com/topic/sulfuric-acid), oils, and petrochemicals (http://www.answers.com/topic/petrochemical).

In addition, numerous manufacturing plants pour off undiluted corrosives, poisons, and other noxious byproducts. The construction industry discharges slurries of gypsum, cement, abrasives, metals, and poisonous solvents. Another pervasive group of contaminants entering food chains is the polychlorinated biphenyl (http://www.answers.com/topic/pcb) (PCB) compounds, components of lubricants, plastic wrappers, and adhesives. In yet another instance of pollution, hot water discharged by factories and power plants causes so-called thermal pollution by increasing water temperatures. Such increases change the level of oxygen dissolved in a body of water, thereby disrupting the water’s ecological balance, killing off some plant and animal species while encouraging the overgrowth of others. Other Sources of Water Pollution

Towns and municipalities are also major sources of water pollution. In many public water systems, pollution exceeds safe levels. One reason for this is that much groundwater has been contaminated by wastes pumped underground for disposal or by seepage from surface water. When contamination reaches underground water tables, it is difficult to correct and spreads over wide areas. In addition, many U.S. communities discharge untreated or only partially treated sewage into the waterways, threatening the health of their own and neighboring populations.

Along with domestic wastes, sewage carries industrial contaminants and a growing tonnage of paper and plastic refuse (see solid waste (http://www.answers.com/topic/solid-waste)). Although thorough sewage treatment would destroy most disease-causing bacteria, the problem of the spread of viruses and viral illness remains. Additionally, most sewage treatment does not remove phosphorus compounds, contributed principally by detergents, which cause eutrophication (http://www.answers.com/topic/eutrophication) of lakes and ponds. Excreted drugs and household chemicals also are not removed by present municipal treatment facilites, and can be recycled into the drinking water supply.

Rain drainage is another major polluting agent because it carries such substances as highway debris (including oil and chemicals from automobile exhausts), sediments from highway and building construction, and acids and radioactive wastes from mining operations into freshwater systems as well as into the ocean. Also transported by rain runoff and by irrigation return-flow are animal wastes from farms and feedlots, a widespread source of pollutants impairing rivers and streams, groundwater, and even some coastal waters. Antibiotics, hormones, and other chemicals used to raise livestock are components of such animal wastes. Pesticide and fertilizer residues from farms also contribute to water pollution via rain drainage. Ocean Pollution

Large and small craft significantly pollute both inland and coastal waters by dumping their untreated sewage. Oil spilled accidentally or flushed from tankers and offshore rigs (900,000 metric tons annually) sullies beaches and smothers bird, fish, and plant life. In 1989 in one of the world’s worst single instances of water pollution, the Exxon Valdez spilled 11 million gallons of oil in Prince William Sound, Alaska, causing great environmental destruction. In 1997, the 22 oil spills reported worldwide involved a total of 15 million gallons (57 million liters) of oil. In addition to its direct damage to wildlife, oil takes up fat-soluble poisons like DDT, allowing them to be concentrated in organisms that ingest the oil-contaminated water; thus such poisons enter the food chains leading to sea mammals and people (see ecology (http://www.answers.com/topic/ecology-1)).

Both DDT, which has been banned in the United States since 1972, and PCBs are manufactured in many parts of the world and are now widespread in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In addition, tarry oil residues are encountered throughout the Atlantic, as are styrofoam and other plastic rubbish. Plastic bits litter sections of the Pacific as far north as Amchitka Island near Alaska. Garbage, solid industrial wastes, and sludge formed in sewage treatment, all commonly dumped into oceans, are other marine pollutants found worldwide, especially along coastal areas. Dangers of Water Pollution

Virtually all water pollutants are hazardous to humans as well as lesser species; sodium is implicated in cardiovascular disease, nitrates in blood disorders. Mercury and lead can cause nervous disorders. Some contaminants are carcinogens. DDT is toxic to humans and can alter chromosomes. PCBs cause liver and nerve damage, skin eruptions, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, and fetal abnormalities. Along many shores, shellfish can no longer be taken because of contamination by DDT, sewage, or industrial wastes.

Dysentery (http://www.answers.com/topic/dysentery-1), salmonellosis (http://www.answers.com/topic/salmonellosis), cryptosporidium (http://www.answers.com/topic/cryptosporidium), and hepatitis (http://www.answers.com/topic/hepatitis) are among the maladies transmitted by sewage in drinking and bathing water. In the United States, beaches along both coasts, riverbanks, and lake shores have been ruined for bathers by industrial wastes, municipal sewage, and medical waste. Water pollution is an even greater problem in the Third World, where millions of people obtain water for drinking and sanitation from unprotected streams and ponds that are contaminated with human waste. This type of contamination has been estimated to cause more than 3 million deaths annually from diarrhea in Third World countries, most of them children. Legislation and Control

The United States has enacted extensive federal legislation to fight water pollution. Laws include the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (1972), the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, as amended in 1988. In the United States in 1996, nearly $10 billion was spent on water and wastewater treatment alone. International cooperation is being promoted by the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultive Organization (IMCO), a UN agency. Limitation of ocean dumping was proposed at the 80-nation London Conference of 1972, and in the same year 12 European nations meeting in Oslo adopted rules to regulate dumping in the North Atlantic. An international ban on ocean dumping in 1988 set further restrictions.

Law Encyclopedia: (http://www.answers.com/library/Law%20Encyclopedia-cid-98559) Water Pollution Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > Law & Legal Issues (http://www.answers.com/main/legal.jsp) > Law Encyclopedia (http://www.answers.com/library/Law+Encyclopedia-cid-98559) This entry contains information applicable to United States law only.

Without healthy water for drinking, cooking, fishing, and farming, the human race would perish. Clean water is also necessary for recreational interests such as swimming, boating, and water skiing. Yet, when Congress began assessing national water quality during the early 1970s, it found that much of the country’s groundwater and surface water was contaminated or severely compromised. Studies revealed that the nation’s three primary sources of water pollution — industry, agriculture, and municipalities — had been regularly discharging harmful materials into water supplies throughout the country over a number of years.

These harmful materials included organic wastes, sediments, minerals, nutrients, thermal pollutants, toxic chemicals, and other hazardous substances. Organic wastes are produced by animals and humans, and include such things as fecal matter, crop debris, yard clippings, food wastes, rubber, plastic, wood, and disposable diapers. Such wastes require oxygen to decompose. When they are dumped into streams and lakes and begin to break down, they can deprive aquatic life of the oxygen it needs to survive.

Sediments may be deposited into lakes and streams through soil erosion caused by the clearing, excavating, grading, transporting, and filling of land. Minerals, such as iron, copper, chromium, platinum, nickel, zinc, and tin, can be discharged into streams and lakes as a result of various mining activities. Excessive levels of sediments and minerals in water can inhibit the penetration of sunlight, which reduces the production of photosynthetic organisms.

Nutrients, like phosphorus and nitrogen, support the growth of algae and other plants forming the lower levels of the food chain. However, excessive levels of nutrients from sources such as fertilizer can cause eutrophication, which is the overgrowth of aquatic vegetation. This overgrowth clouds the water and smothers some plants. Over time, excessive nutrient levels can accelerate the natural process by which bodies of water evolve into dry land.

Thermal pollution results from the release of heated water into lakes and streams. Most thermal pollution is generated by power plant cooling systems. Power plants use water to cool their reactors and turbines, and discharge it into lakes and tributaries after it has become heated. Higher water temperatures accelerate biological and chemical processes in rivers and streams, reducing the water’s ability to retain dissolved oxygen. This can hasten the growth of algae and disrupt the reproduction of fish.

Toxic chemicals and other hazardous materials present the most imminent threat to water quality. The Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmentalprotection-agency)(EPA) has identified 403 highly toxic chemicals, which are produced by 577 U.S. companies, manufactured in twelve thousand plants, and stored in four-hundred thousand locations across the country. Some chemical plants incinerate toxic wastes, which produces dangerous by-products like furans and chlorinated dioxins, two of the most deadly carcinogens known to the human race. Other hazardous materials are produced or stored by households (motor oil, antifreeze, paints, and pesticides), dry cleaners (chlorinated solvents), farms (insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, and herbicides), and gas stations and airports (fuel). Water pollution regulation consists of a labyrinth of state and federal statutes, administrative rules, and common-law principles. Statutory Law

Federal statutory regulation of water pollution has been governed primarily by three pieces of legislation: the Refuse Act, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, and the Clean Water Act. The Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act of 1899, 33 U.S.C.A. § 401 et seq., commonly known as the Refuse Act, was the first major piece of federal legislation regulating water pollution. The Refuse Act set effluent standards for the discharge of pollutants into bodies of water. An effluent standard limits the amount of pollutant that can be released from a specific point or source, such as a smokestack or sewage pipe. The Refuse Act flatly prohibited pollution discharged from ship and shore installations.

The Refuse Act was followed by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 (FWPCA), 33 U.S.C.A. § 1251 et seq. Instead of focusing on sources of pollution through effluent standards, the FWPCA created water quality standards, which prescribed the levels of pollutants permitted in a given body of water. Where the Refuse Act concentrated on deterring specific types of polluters, the FWPCA concentrated on reducing specific types of pollution.

Since 1972, federal regulation of water pollution has been primarily governed by the Clean Water Act (CWA), which overhauled FWCPA. The CWA forbids any person to discharge pollutants into U.S. waters unless the discharge conforms with certain provisions of the act. Among those provisions are several that call upon the EPA to promulgate effluent standards for particular categories of water polluters.

To implement these standards, the CWA requires each polluter to obtain a discharge permit issued by the EPA through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Although the EPA closely monitors water pollution dischargers through the NPDES, primary responsibility for enforcement of the CWA rests with the states. Most states have also drafted permit systems similar to the NPDES. These systems are designed to protect local supplies of groundwater, surface water, and drinking water. Persons who violate either the federal or state permit system face civil fines, criminal penalties, and suspension of their discharge privileges.

The CWA also relies on modern technology to curb water pollution. It requires many polluters to implement the best practicable control technology, the best available technology economically achievable, or the best practicable waste treatment technology. The development of such technology for nontoxic polluters is based on a cost-benefit analysis in which the feasibility and expense of the technology is balanced against the expected benefits to the environment.

The CWA was amended in 1977 to address the nation’s increasing concern about toxic pollutants. Pursuant to the 1977 amendments, the EPA increased the number of pollutants it deemed toxic from nine to sixty-five, and set effluent limitations for the twenty-one industries that discharge them. These limitations are based on measures of the danger these pollutants pose to the public health rather than on cost-benefit analyses. Many states have enacted their own water pollution legislation regulating the discharge of toxic and other pollutants into their streams and lakes.

The mining industry presents persistent water pollution problems for state and federal governments. It has polluted over a thousand miles of streams in Appalachia with acid drainage. In response, the affected state governments now require strip miners to obtain licenses before commencing activity. Many states also require miners to post bonds (http://www.answers.com/topic/bond) in an amount sufficient to repair potential damage to surrounding lakes and streams. Similarly, the federal government, under the Mineral Leasing Act, 30 U.S.C.A. § 201 et seq., requires each mining applicant to “submit a plan of construction, operation and rehabilitation” for the affected area, that takes into account the need for “restoration, revegetation and curtailment of erosion.”

The commercial timber industry also presents persistent water pollution problems. Tree harvesting, yarding (the collection of felled trees), and road building can all deposit soil sediments into watercourses, thereby reducing the water quality for aquatic life. State governments have offered similar responses to these problems. For instance, clear-cutting (the removal of substantially all the trees from a given area) has been prohibited by most states. Other states have created buffer zones around particularly vulnerable watercourses, and banned unusually harmful activities in certain areas. Enforcement of these water pollution measures has been frustrated by vaguely worded legislation and a scarcity of inspectors in several states. Common Law

State and federal water pollution statutes provide one avenue of legal recourse for those harmed by water pollution. The common-law doctrines of nuisance, trespass, negligence, strict liability, and riparian ownership provide alternative remedies.

Nuisances can be public or private. Private nuisances interfere with the rights and interests of private citizens, whereas public nuisances interfere with the common rights and interests of the people at large. Both types of nuisance must result from the “unreasonable” activities of a polluter, and inflict “substantial” harm on neighboring landowners. An injury that is minor or inconsequential will not result in liability (http://www.answers.com/topic/liability) under common-law nuisance. For example, dumping trace amounts of fertilizer into a stream abutting neighboring property will not amount to a public or private nuisance.

The oil and agricultural industries are frequently involved in state nuisance actions. Oil companies often run afoul of nuisance principles for improperly storing, transporting, and disposing of hazardous materials. Farmers represent a unique class of persons who fall prey to water pollution nuisances almost as often as they create them. Their abundant use of fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, and rodenticides makes them frequent creators of nuisances, and their use of streams, rivers, and groundwater for irrigation systems makes them frequent victims.

Nuisance actions deal primarily with continuing or repetitive injuries. Trespass actions provide relief even when an injury results from a single event. A polluter who spills oil, dumps chemicals, or otherwise contaminates a neighboring water supply on one occasion might avoid liability under nuisance law but not under the law of trespass. Trespass does not require proof of a substantial injury. However, only nominal damages (http://www.answers.com/topic/nominal-damages-2) will be awarded to a landowner whose water supply suffers little harm from the trespass of a polluter.

Trespass requires proof that a polluter intentionally or knowingly contaminated a particular course of water. Yet, water contamination often results from unintentional behavior, such as industrial accidents. In such instances, the polluter may be liable under common-law principles of negligence. Negligence occurs when a polluter fails to exercise the degree of care that would be reasonable under the circumstances. Thus, a landowner whose water supply was inadvertently contaminated might bring a successful lawsuit against the polluter for common-law negligence where a lawsuit for nuisance or trespass would fail.

Even when a polluter exercises the utmost diligence to prevent water contamination, an injured landowner may still have recourse under the doctrine of strict liability. Under this doctrine, polluters who engage in “abnormally dangerous” activities are held responsible for any water contamination that results. Courts consider six factors when determining whether a particular activity is abnormally dangerous: the probability that the activity will cause harm to another, the likelihood that the harm will be great, the ability to eliminate the risk by exercising reasonable care, the extent to which the activity is uncommon or unusual, the activity’s appropriateness for a particular location, and the activity’s value or danger to the community. The doctrine of strict liability arose out of a national conflict between competing values during the industrial revolution. This conflict pitted those who believed it was necessary to create an environment that promoted commerce against those who believed it was necessary to preserve a healthy and clean environment. For many years, courts were reluctant to impose strict liability on U.S. businesses, out of concern over retarding industrial growth.

Since the early 1970s, courts have placed greater emphasis on preserving a healthy and clean environment. In Cities Service Co. v. State, 312 So. 2d 799 (Fla. App. 1975), the court explained that “though many hazardous activities … are socially desirable, it now seems reasonable that they pay their own way.” Cities Service involved a situation in which a dam burst during a phosphate mining operation, releasing a billion gallons of phosphate slime into adjacent waterways, where fish and other aquatic life were killed. The court concluded that this mining activity was abnormally dangerous.

Some activities inherently create abnormally dangerous risks to abutting waterways. In such cases, courts do not employ a balancing (http://www.answers.com/topic/balancing-1) test to determine whether an activity is abnormally dangerous. Instead, they consider these activities to be dangerous in and of themselves. The transportation and storage of high explosives and the operation of oil and gas wells are activities courts have held to create inherent risks of abnormally dangerous proportions.

The doctrine of riparian ownership forms the final prong of common-law recovery. A riparian proprietor is the owner of land abutting a stream of water, and has the right to divert the water for any useful purpose. Some courts define the term useful purpose broadly to include almost any purpose whatsoever, whereas other courts define it more narrowly to include only purposes that are reasonable or profitable.

In any event, downstream riparian proprietors are often placed at a disadvantage because the law protects upstream owners’ initial use of the water. For example, an upstream proprietor may construct a dam to appropriate a reasonable amount of water without compensating a downstream proprietor. However, cases involving thermal pollution provide an exception to this rule. For example, downstream owners who use river water to make ice can seek injunctive relief to prevent upstream owners from engaging in any activities that raise the water temperature by even one degree Fahrenheit.

See: Environmental Law (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-law); Fish and Fishing (http://www.answers.com/topic/fish-and-fishing); Law of the Sea (http://www.answers.com/topic/united-nations-convention-on-the-law-of-the-sea); Mine and Mineral Law (http://www.answers.com/topic/mine-and-mineral-law); Pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/pollution); Riparian Rights (http://www.answers.com/topic/riparian-right); Solid Wastes, Hazardous Substances, and Toxic Pollutants (http://www.answers.com/topic/solid-wastes-hazardous-substances-and-toxic-pollutants); Tort Law (http://www.answers.com/topic/tort-law-legal-term); Water Rights (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-rights). Science Dictionary: (http://www.answers.com/library/Science%20Dictionary-cid-98559) water pollution

Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > Science (http://www.answers.com/main/science.jsp) > Science Dictionary (http://www.answers.com/library/Science+Dictionary-cid-98559) The addition of harmful chemicals to natural water. Sources of water pollution in the United States include industrial waste, run-off from fields treated with chemical fertilizers, and run-off from areas that have been mined. Wikipedia: (http://www.answers.com/library/Wikipedia-cid-98559) Water pollution Home (http://www.answers.com/) > Library (http://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsp) > Miscellaneous (http://www.answers.com/main/reference.jsp) > Wikipedia (http://www.answers.com/library/Wikipedia-cid-98559) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Drinking_water.jpg)

Water portal (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Water)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG) Raw sewage (http://www.answers.com/topic/wastewater) and industrial waste (http://www.answers.com/topic/industrial-waste) flows into the U.S. from Mexico as the New River passes from Mexicali (http://www.answers.com/topic/mexicali), Baja California to Calexico, California (http://www.answers.com/topic/calexico-california)

Water pollution is the contamination of water (http://www.answers.com/topic/water) bodies such as lakes (http://www.answers.com/topic/lake), rivers (http://www.answers.com/topic/river), oceans (http://www.answers.com/topic/ocean), and groundwater (http://www.answers.com/topic/groundwater) caused by human activities, which can be harmful to organisms and plants that live in these water bodies.

Contents [hide (toggleToc())] 1 Introduction (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Introduction) 2 Water pollution categories (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Water_pollution_categories) 2.1 Point source pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Point_source_pollution) 2.2 Non-point source pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Non-point_source_pollution) 2.3 Groundwater pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Groundwater_pollution) 3 Materials and phenomena contributing to water pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Materials_and_phenomena_contributing_to_water_pollution) 3.1 Chemical and other contaminants (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Chemical_and_other_contaminants) 4 Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Transport_and_chemical_reactions_of_water_pollutants) 5 Measurement of water pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Measurement_of_water_pollution) 5.1 Sampling (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Sampling) 5.2 Physical testing (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Physical_testing) 5.3 Chemical testing (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Chemical_testing) 5.4 Biological testing (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Biological_testing) 6 Regulatory framework (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#Regulatory_framework) 6.1 United Kingdom (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#United_Kingdom) 6.2 United States (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#United_States) 7 References (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#References) 8 See also (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#See_also) 9 External links (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#External_links) //

Introduction Pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/pollution)

v (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Pollution) • d (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution) • e (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Pollution& Air pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/air-pollution)

Acid rain (http://www.answers.com/topic/acid-rain) • Air Quality Index (http://www.answers.com/topic/air-quality-index) • Atmospheric dispersion modeling (http://www.answers.com/topic/atmospheric-dispersion-modeling) • Chlorofluorocarbon (http://www.answers.com/topic/haloalkane-1) • Global dimming (http://www.answers.com/topic/global-dimming) • Global distillation (http://www.answers.com/topic/global-distillation)• Global warming (http://www.answers.com/topic/global-w Indoor air quality (http://www.answers.com/topic/air-quality) • Ozone depletion (http://www.answers.com/topic/ozone-depletion) • Particulate (http://www.answers.com/topic/pa Smog (http://www.answers.com/topic/smog) Water pollution

Eutrophication (http://www.answers.com/topic/eutrophication) • Hypoxia (http://www.answers.com/topic/hypoxia-environmental) • Marine pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/marine-pollution) • Marine debris (http://www.answers.com/topic/marine-debris) • Ocean acidification (http://www.answers.com/topic/ocean-acid Oil spill (http://www.answers.com/topic/oil-spill-1) • Ship pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/ship-pollution-1) • Surface runoff (http://www.answers.com/topic/surface-r Thermal pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/thermal-pollution) • Wastewater (http://www.answers.com/topic/wastewater) • Waterborne diseases (http://www.answers.com/topic/waterborne-diseases-1) • Water quality (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-quality) • Water stagnation (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-s Soil contamination (http://www.answers.com/topic/soil-contamination)

Bioremediation (http://www.answers.com/topic/bioremediation) • Electrical resistance heating (http://www.answers.com/topic/electrical-resistance-heating-remediation) • He (http://www.answers.com/topic/herbicide) • Pesticide (http://www.answers.com/topic/pesticide) • Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) (http://www.answers.com/topic/soil-guideline-val Radioactive contamination (http://www.answers.com/topic/radioactive-contamination)

Actinides in the environment (http://www.answers.com/topic/actinides-in-the-environment) • Environmental radioactivity (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-radioa Fission product (http://www.answers.com/topic/fission-product) • Nuclear fallout (http://www.answers.com/topic/nuclear-fallout) • Plutonium in the environment (http://www.answers.com/topic/plutonium-in-the-environment) • Radiation poisoning (http://www.answers.com/topic/radiation-poisoning) • Radium in the environment • Uraniu environment (http://www.answers.com/topic/uranium-in-the-environment) Other types of pollution

Invasive species (http://www.answers.com/topic/invasive-species) • Light pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/light-pollution) • Noise pollution (http://www.answers.com/to pollution) • Radio spectrum pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/radio-spectrum-pollution) • Visual pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/visual-pollution) Inter-government treaties

Montreal Protocol (http://www.answers.com/topic/montreal-protocol) • Kyoto Protocol (http://www.answers.com/topic/kyoto-protocol) • CLRTAP (http://www.answers.com/topic/convention-on-long-range-transboundary-air-pollution) • OSPAR (http://www.answers.com/topic/convention-for-the-protection-of-the-marine-en of-the-north-east-atlantic) • Stockholm Convention Major organizations (http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-environmental-organizations)

DEFRA (http://www.answers.com/topic/department-for-environment-food-and-rural-affairs) • EPA (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-protection-agency) • Global A Watch (http://www.answers.com/topic/global-atmosphere-watch) • EEA (http://www.answers.com/topic/european-environment-agency) • Greenpeace (http://www.answers.com/topic/greenpeace) • American Lung Association (http://www.answers.com/topic/american-lung-association) Related topics

Environmental Science (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-science-1) • Natural environment (http://www.answers.com/topic/natural-environment) • Acid Rain Pr (http://www.answers.com/topic/acid-rain-program)

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic (http://www.answers.com/topic/anthropogenic) contaminants and either does not support a human use, like serving as drinking water (http://www.answers.com/topic/drinking-water-wordnet), or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish (http://www.answers.com/topic/fish). Natural phenomena such as volcanoes (http://www.answers.com/topic/volcano), algae blooms (http://www.answers.com/topic/algal-bloom-1), storms (http://www.answers.com/topic/storm), and earthquakes (http://www.answers.com/topic/earthquake) also cause major changes in water quality (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-quality) and the ecological status of water. Water pollution has many causes and characteristics.

Water pollution categories

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated.[1] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_notecirc1139-0) Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

Point source pollution

Point source pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/point-source-pollution-1) refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pipe) or ditch (http://www.answers.com/topic/ditch). Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage-treatment) plant or a factory (http://www.answers.com/topic/factory), or a leaking underground storage tank (http://www.answers.com/topic/storage-tank). The U.S. Clean Water Act (http://www.answers.com/topic/clean-water-act) (CWA) defines point source for regulatory (http://www.answers.com/topic/regulation-3) enforcement purposes.[2] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-1)

Non-point source pollution

Non-point source (http://www.answers.com/topic/nonpoint-source-pollution) (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often a cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. Nutrient runoff in stormwater (http://www.answers.com/topic/stormwater) from “sheet flow” over an agricultural field, or metals and hydrocarbons from an area with highly impervious surfaces and vehicular traffic are sometimes cited as examples of NPS pollution.[3] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-2)

The primary focus of legislation and efforts to curb water pollution for the past several decades was first aimed at point sources. As point sources have been effectively regulated, greater attention has been placed on NPS contributions, especially in rapidly urbanizing (http://www.answers.com/topic/urbanization) or developing areas.

Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution.[1] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-circ1139-0) By its very nature, groundwater aquifers (http://www.answers.com/topic/aquifer) are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. nonpoint source may be irrelevant. A spill of a chemical contaminant on soil, located away from a surface water body, may not necessarily create point source or non-point source pollution, but nonetheless may contaminate the aquifer below. Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on soil (http://www.answers.com/topic/soil) characteristics and hydrology (http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrology), as well as the nature of the contaminant itself.

Materials and phenomena contributing to water pollution

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals (http://www.answers.com/topic/chemical-substance), pathogens (http://www.answers.com/topic/pathogen), and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant.

Oxygen (http://www.answers.com/topic/oxygen)-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant (http://www.answers.com/topic/plant) matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (http://www.answers.com/topic/turbidity) (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.

Many of the chemical substances are toxic (http://www.answers.com/topic/toxicity-disambiguation). Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases (http://www.answers.com/topic/waterborne-diseases-1) in either human or animal hosts. Alteration of water’s physical chemistry include acidity, electrical conductivity (http://www.answers.com/topic/conductivity), temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication (http://www.answers.com/topic/eutrophication) is the fertilization (http://www.answers.com/topic/fertilize) of surface water (http://www.answers.com/topic/surface-water-1) by nutrients (http://www.answers.com/topic/nutrient) that were previously scarce (http://www.answers.com/topic/scarcity-1). Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[4] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-death-3)[5] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-death2-4) and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.[5] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-death2-4)

Chemical and other contaminants

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Muddy_USGS.jpg)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Muddy_USGS.jpg) Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photo courtesy of United States Geological Survey (http://www.answers.com/topic/united-states-geological-survey). Contaminants may include organic (http://www.answers.com/topic/organic-compound) and inorganic (http://www.answers.com/topic/inorganic-compound-2) substances. Organic water pollutants include:

Insecticides (http://www.answers.com/topic/insecticide) and herbicides (http://www.answers.com/topic/herbicide), a huge range of organohalides (http://www.answers.com/topic/halocarbon) and other chemical compounds (http://www.answers.com/topic/chemical-compound-1) Bacteria (http://www.answers.com/topic/bacteria) from sewage (http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage) or livestock (http://www.answers.com/topic/livestock) operations Food processing (http://www.answers.com/topic/food-processing) waste, which can oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease Tree (http://www.answers.com/topic/tree) and brush debris from logging (http://www.answers.com/topic/logging) operations VOCs (http://www.answers.com/topic/volatile-organic-compound) (volatile organic compounds), such as industrial solvents (http://www.answers.com/topic/solvent), from improper storage DNAPLs (http://www.answers.com/topic/dnapl) (dense non-aqueous phase liquids), such as chlorinated solvents (http://www.answers.com/topic/organochloride), which may fall at the bottom of reservoirs, since they don’t mix well with water and are denser Petroleum (http://www.answers.com/topic/petroleum) hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline (http://www.answers.com/topic/gasoline), diesel fuel (http://www.answers.com/topic/diesel), jet fuels, and fuel oil (http://www.answers.com/topic/fuel-oil)) and lubricants (motor oil). (Note: VOCs include gasoline-range hydrocarbons.) Detergents (http://www.answers.com/topic/detergent) Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene (http://www.answers.com/topic/hygiene) and cosmetic (http://www.answers.com/topic/cosmetic-1) products Disinfection by-products (http://www.answers.com/topic/disinfection-by-product) found in chemically disinfected (http://www.answers.com/topic/disinfectant-1) drinking water (http://www.answers.com/topic/drinking-water-wordnet) Inorganic water pollutants include:

Ammonia (http://www.answers.com/topic/ammonia) from food processing waste Heavy metals including acid mine drainage Acidity (http://www.answers.com/topic/acid) caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide (http://www.answers.com/topic/sulfur-dioxide) from power plants) Pre-production industrial raw resin pellets, an industrial pollutant Chemical waste (http://www.answers.com/topic/chemical-waste) as industrial by-products Fertilizers (http://www.answers.com/topic/fertilizer), in runoff from agriculture (http://www.answers.com/topic/agriculture) including nitrates (http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrate) and phosphates (http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphate) Silt (http://www.answers.com/topic/silt) (sediment (http://www.answers.com/topic/sediment)) in surface runoff (http://www.answers.com/topic/surface-runoff) from construction (http://www.answers.com/topic/construction) sites, logging (http://www.answers.com/topic/logging), slash and burn (http://www.answers.com/topic/slash-andburn) practices or land clearing sites

Macroscopic pollution–large visible items polluting the water–may be termed “floatables” in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris (http://www.answers.com/topic/marine-debris) when found on the open seas, and can include such items as:

trash (http://www.answers.com/topic/waste) items (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, and that are washed by rainfall (http://www.answers.com/topic/rain) into storm drains (http://www.answers.com/topic/storm-drain) and eventually discharged into surface waters Nurdles (http://www.answers.com/topic/nurdle), small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets Shipwrecks (http://www.answers.com/topic/shipwreck), large derelict ships

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models (http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrological-transport-model). Advanced computer models (http://www.answers.com/topic/computer-simulation-1) such as SWMM (http://www.answers.com/topic/storm-water-management-model) or the DSSAM Model (http://www.answers.com/topic/dssam-model) have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding (http://www.answers.com/topic/filter-feeder) species such as copepods (http://www.answers.com/topic/copepod) have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight (http://www.answers.com/topic/new-york-bight), for example. The highest toxin (http://www.answers.com/topic/toxin) loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River (http://www.answers.com/topic/hudson-river), but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic (http://www.answers.com/topic/plankton) tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force (http://www.answers.com/topic/coriolis-effect). Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion (http://www.answers.com/topic/hypoxia-environmental), caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms (http://www.answers.com/topic/algal-bloom-1), caused by excess nutrients (http://www.answers.com/topic/nutrient) from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish (http://www.answers.com/topic/shellfish) kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods (http://www.answers.com/topic/copepod), then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury (http://www.answers.com/topic/mercury)) and persistent organic pollutants (http://www.answers.com/topic/persistent-organic-pollutant) such as DDT (http://www.answers.com/topic/ddt). This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation.

Large gyres (vortexes (http://www.answers.com/topic/vortex-4502)) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris (http://www.answers.com/topic/marine-debris). The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called “Great Pacific Garbage Patch (http://www.answers.com/topic/great-pacific-garbage-patch)” that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay (http://www.answers.com/topic/decay-5) or chemically change especially over long periods of time in groundwater (http://www.answers.com/topic/groundwater) reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons (http://www.answers.com/topic/organochloride) such as trichloroethylene (http://www.answers.com/topic/trichloroethylene) (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene (http://www.answers.com/topic/tetrachloroethylene) used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens (http://www.answers.com/topic/carcinogen) themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers (http://www.answers.com/topic/aquifer). Non-porous aquifers such as clays (http://www.answers.com/topic/clay) partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants (http://www.answers.com/topic/soil-contamination). Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns (http://www.answers.com/topic/cave) is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes (http://www.answers.com/topic/sinkhole) as dumps in areas of Karst (http://www.answers.com/topic/karst-topography) topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. Some of these secondary impacts are:

Silt-bearing surface runoff (http://www.answers.com/topic/surface-runoff) from can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis (http://www.answers.com/topic/photosynthesis) in aquatic plants. Thermal pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/thermal-pollution) can induce fish kills and invasion by new thermophilic (http://www.answers.com/topic/thermophile) species. This can cause further problems to existing wildlife.

Measurement of water pollution This article or section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (August 2008)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Research-_water_sampling_equipment.jpg)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Research-_water_sampling_equipment.jpg) Environmental Scientists (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-science-1) preparing water autosamplers. Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Each method involves collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events.[6] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-5) See also: Water quality (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-quality)

Sampling

Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason “grab” samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge (http://www.answers.com/topic/discharge-hydrology) intervals. Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals.

Physical testing Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration (e.g. total suspended solids (http://www.answers.com/topic/total-suspended-solids), and turbidity.

Chemical testing

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry (http://www.answers.com/topic/chemical-analysis). Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently-used methods include biochemical oxygen demand (http://www.answers.com/topic/biochemical-oxygen-demand) (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (http://www.answers.com/topic/chemical-oxygen-demand) (COD), nutrients (nitrate (http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrate) and phosphorus (http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphorus) compounds), metals (including copper (http://www.answers.com/topic/copper-3), zinc (http://www.answers.com/topic/zinc), cadmium (http://www.answers.com/topic/cadmium). lead (http://www.answers.com/topic/lead-10) and mercury (http://www.answers.com/topic/mercury)), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides (http://www.answers.com/topic/pesticide).

Biological testing Main article: Bioindicator (http://www.answers.com/topic/bioindicator)

Regulatory framework

United Kingdom (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Portal.svg)

Environment portal (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Environment)

In the UK (http://www.answers.com/topic/united-kingdom) there are common law (http://www.answers.com/topic/common-law) rights (civil rights) to protect the passage of water across land unfettered in either quality of quantity. Criminal laws dating back to the 16th century exercised some control over water pollution but it was not until the River (Prevention of pollution) Acts 1951 – 1961 were enacted that any systematic control over water pollution was established. These laws were strengthened and extended in the Control of Pollution Act 1984 which has since been updated and modified by a series of further acts. It is a criminal offense to either pollute a lake, river, groundwater or the sea or to discharge any liquid into such water bodies without proper authority. In England and Wales such permission can only be issued by the Environment Agency (http://www.answers.com/topic/environment-agency) and in Scotland by SEPA (http://www.answers.com/topic/scottish-environment-protection-agency).

United States Main article: Clean Water Act (http://www.answers.com/topic/clean-water-act)

In the USA (http://www.answers.com/topic/united-states), concern over water pollution resulted in the enactment of state anti-pollution laws in the latter half of the 19th century, and federal legislation enacted in 1899. The Refuse Act (http://www.answers.com/topic/refuse-act) of the federal Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (http://www.answers.com/topic/riversand-harbors-act-of-1899) prohibits the disposal of any refuse matter from into either the nation’s navigable rivers, lakes, streams, and other navigable bodies of water, or any tributary to such waters, unless one has first obtained a permit. The Water Pollution Control Act (http://www.answers.com/topic/clean-water-act), passed in 1948, gave authority to the Surgeon General (http://www.answers.com/topic/surgeon-general) to reduce water pollution. However, this law did not lead to major reductions in pollution.

Growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led Congress (http://www.answers.com/topic/congress-of-the-united-states) to carry out a major re-write of water pollution law in 1972. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, commonly known as the Clean Water Act (http://www.answers.com/topic/clean-water-act) (CWA), established the basic mechanisms for controlling point source pollution.[7] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-6) The law mandated the United States Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.answers.com/topic/environmental-protection-agency) (EPA) to publish and enforce wastewater standards for industry and municipal sewage treatment plants. The Act also continued requirements that EPA and states issue water quality standards (http://www.answers.com/topic/clean-water-act) for surface water bodies. Congress included authorization in the Act for major public financing to build municipal sewage treatment plants. The 1972 CWA, however, did not require similar regulatory standards for non-point sources.

In 1987, Congress expanded the coverage of the CWA with enactment of the Water Quality Act.[8] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-7) These amendments defined both municipal and industrial stormwater discharges as point sources and required these facilities to obtain discharge permits. The 1987 law also re-organized the public financing of municipal treatment projects and created a non-point source demonstration grant program. Further amplification of the CWA included the enactment of the Great Lakes Legacy Act of 2002. [9] (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_note-8)

References

1. ^ a (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-circ1139_0-0) b (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-circ1139_0-1) United States Geological Survey. Denver, CO. “Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource.” (http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/circ1139/) USGS Circular 1139. 1998. 2. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-1) Clean Water Act, section 502(14), 33 U.S.C. (http://www.answers.com/topic/title-33-of-the-united-states-code) § 1362 (http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/33/1362.html) (14). 3. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-2) However, the CWA defines urban surface runoff (http://www.answers.com/topic/surface-runoff) discharges–i.e. discharges from municipal storm sewers (http://www.answers.com/topic/storm-drain)–as point sources. 33 U.S.C. (http://www.answers.com/topic/title-33-of-the-united-statescode) § 1342(p) (http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/33/1342%28p%29.html) 4. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-death_3-0) Pink, Daniel H. (April 19, 2006). “Investing in Tomorrow’s Liquid Gold (http://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748)“, Yahoo. 5. ^ a (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-death2_4-0) b (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-death2_4-1) West, Larry (March 26, 2006). “World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water (http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm)“, About. 6. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-5) For example, see Clescerl, Leonore S.(Editor), Greenberg, Arnold E.(Editor), Eaton, Andrew D. (Editor). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (20th ed.) American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. ISBN 0-87553-235-7 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0875532357). This publication is also available on CD-ROM and online (http://www.standardmethods.org/) by subscription. 7. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-6) Pub.L. 92-500, October 18, 1972. 33 U.S.C. (http://www.answers.com/topic/title-33-of-the-united-states-code) § 1251 (http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/33/1251.html) et seq. 8. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-7) Pub.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987. 9. ^ (http://www.answers.com/topic/water-pollution#cite_ref-8) Pub.L. 107-303, November 27, 2002

See also Aquatic toxicology (http://www.answers.com/topic/aquatic-toxicology) Cultural eutrophication (http://www.answers.com/topic/cultural-eutrophication) Industrial wastewater treatment (http://www.answers.com/topic/industrial-wastewater-treatment) Oil spills (http://www.answers.com/topic/oil-spill-1) Marine debris (http://www.answers.com/topic/marine-debris) Marine pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/marine-pollution) Paper pollution (http://www.answers.com/topic/paper-pollution) Trophic state index (http://www.answers.com/topic/trophic-state-index)

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Report Pollution from Ships (http://reportpollution.com/) www.black-tides.com – An educational website for young people on oil spills (http://www.black-tides.com/) Coastal Pollution Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute (http://www.whoi.edu/institutes/coi/topicIndex.do?o=read&id=9), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (http://www.answers.com/topic/woods-hole-oceanographic-institution) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Clean Water Act (http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/cwa.html) EPA Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision Information System (CADDIS) – Stressor Identification (http://cfpub.epa.gov/caddis/) Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Water Pollution (http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?type=subject&q=water%20pollution&q2=liv) Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): overviews, news and reports on water pollution (http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/default.asp) Troubled Waters: Episode and web site from National Geographic/PBS’s “Strange Days on Planet Earth” (http://www.pbs.org/strangedays/episodes/troubledwaters/) Water Quality in South Australia (http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/water_quality.html) Original case-study of the sustained criminal pollution of Long Lake, a tributary of the Mississippi, by Chemetco (http://www.thetripflare.org/) Threatened Waters: Turning the Tide on Pesticide Contamination, by Beyond Pesticides (http://www.beyondpesticides.org/documents/water.pdf) American Water Resources Association (http://www.awra.org/) Filterra: Bioretention as a method to manage stormwater pollution and urban runoff (http://www.bioretention-systems.com/) Water shortage in the future and its consequences (Slide Show) (http://ralfengel.com/humanity/water-pollution-a-letter-written-in-the-year-2070) Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law (http://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82) Peace Palace Library DWEL (http://www.csmate.colostate.edu/dwel/) Digital Water Education Library, see its entry on the NSDL [1] (http://nsdl.org/search/? q=digital%20water%20education%20library&verb=Search&s=0&n=10&item_num=0&brand_identifier=oai:nsdl.org:crs:380599) Portal for soil and water management in Europe (http://www.eugris.info/) Independent information gateway originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water, including contaminated land, soil and water management. Diposkan pada 7 Desember 20089 Desember 2008 oleh Ir. Muhtadi Arsyad Temenggung, M.SiPosted in UncategorizedDengan kaitkata detergents, ecosystems. disinfected, environmental, pollution, toxins, water. 12 Komentar

Muhtadi A. Temenggung WebLog › Tools — WordPress i Rate This Muhtadi A. Temenggung WebLog › Tools — WordPress (https://muhtadi71.wordpress.com/wp-admin/tools.php). Diposkan pada 7 Desember 20087 Desember 2008 oleh Ir. Muhtadi Arsyad Temenggung, M.SiPosted in UncategorizedTinggalkan komentar Blog di WordPress.com.

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