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LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses

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1967

Distribution of Cantonese Phonemes. Jachin Yin-man Chan Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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CHAN, Jachin Yin-Man, 1932DISTRIBUTION OF CANTONESE PHONEMES. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ph.D., 1967 Language and Literature, linguistics

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

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-T C opyright Ja c h in Yin-Man Chan

196?

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DISTRIBUTION OF CANTONESE PHONEMES

A D is s e r ta tio n Submitted to th e G raduate F acu lty o f th e L ouisiana S ta te U n iv e rsity and A g r ic u ltu r a l and M echanical College in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t o f th e req u irem en ts f o r th e degree o f D octor o f Philosophy in L in g u is tic s

by Ja c h in Yin-Man Chan B .A ., Chung Chi C ollege, 1957 May, 1967

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT CHAPTER I .

iv INTRODUCTION

1

1.0

S tatem ent o f Purpose

1

1.1

S ta tu s o f th e Problem

1

1. 2

Im portance o f th e Problem

2

1 .3

D e fin itio n o f Some Im p o rtan t Terms

3

1 .4

Methodology and Procedure

6

1 .5

D e lim ita tio n

8

CHAPTER H .

THE SEGMENTAL

PHONEMESAND TONEMESOFCANTONESE

9

2.0

In tro d u c tio n

2.1

Phonetic E n t i t i e s : Consonants

12

2 .2

Phonetic E n t i t i e s :

Vowels

15

2 .3

Phonetic E n t i t i e s :

Diphthongs and Triphthong

19

2 .4

Segmental Phonemes:

Consonant Phonemes

21

2 .5

Segmental Phonemes:

Vowel Phonemes

27

2 .6

Segmental Phonemes: Semi-Vowel Phonemes

29

2 .7

Tonemic E n t i t i e s :

31

CHAPTER H I .

9

I s o la te d Tonemes

DISTRIBUTION

OFSEGMENTAL PHONEMESANDTONEMES

36

3.0

In tro d u c tio n

36

3.1

Consonant Type S e lla b le S tr u c tu r e

41

ii

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3 .2

Vowel ly p e S y lla b le S tru c tu re

42

3.3

Consonant-Vowel Type S y lla b le S tru c tu re

43

3 .4

Vowel-Consonant Type S y lla b le S tru c tu re

57

3.5

Consonant-Vowal-Consonant Type S y lla b le S tru c tu re

59

CHAPTER IV.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

4 .0

Summary o f Segm ental Phonemes

4.1

Summary o f th e D is tr ib u tio n a l P a tte rn s o f th e Five

87 87

Types o f S y lla b le S tru c tu re

88

4 .2

Summary o f th e D is tr ib u tio n o f Each Segm ental Phoneme

94

4 .3

Summary o f th e D is tr ib u tio n o f Tonemic P a tte rn s

106

4 .4

Summary o f S y lla b le s w ith Tonemic P a tte rn s

118

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

129

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

134

iii

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ABSTRACT The purpose o f th i s re s e a rc h i s (1 ) to e s ta b l is h th e segm ental phonemes and tonemes o f Cantonese and (2) to study th e d is tr i b u tio n o f th e s e phonemes and tonemes in a l l p o s s ib le ty p e s o f s y lla b le s tr u c t u r e . Minimal p a ir s have been used to e s ta b lis h th e segm ental phonemes and tonemes. T h ere a r e e i g h t v o w e l phonem es, t h i r t e e n t y p e s o f v o w el phoneme s e q u e n c e s , s e v e n t e e n c o n s o n a n t phonem es, two t y p e s o f con ­ s o n a n t phoneme s e q u e n c e s , and s i x l e x i c a l to n e m e s.

The e i g h t v o w e l

phonem es a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g ro u p s a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r a r t i c u l a t o r y p o s itio n s in th e o r a l c a v ity : /

tw o f r o n t v o w e l phonem es / i / 3 /.

ae / , t h r e e c e n t r a l v o w e l phonem es / u / ,

b a ck v o w e l phonem es / u / ,

jo

/,

and / a

o f v o w e l phoneme s e q u e n c e s a r e / i y / ,

/

/.

and / A / ,

th ree

The t h i r t e e n t y p e s

aey / ,

/ Ay / ,

/ b y / , / i u / , / 3u / , / uwu / , / iw / , / uw / , / /

/ and

/

pw / , /

ay / , aw

/,

aw/.

The sev en teen consonant phonemes a r e d iv id ed in to s ix groups accord in g to th e n a tu re o f t h e i r a r t i c u l a t i o n :

s ix scops / p, t , k ,

p ' , t * , k* / , th r e e f r i c a t i v e s / f , s , h / , th r e e n a s a ls / m, n, q / , one l a t e r a l / 1 / , two a f f r i c a t e s / t s , t ’ s / , and two semi-vowels / y, w / .

The two ty p e s o f consonant phoneme sequences a r e / kw, k ’w / . The s ix l e x i c a l tonemes a re h ig h le v e l toneme / ^

r is in g toneme / A

/ , h igh mid

toneme

low r is in g toneme / V / . and low midtoneme

/ , h igh

low le v e l toneme / X / , / / “ */ .

iv

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Five ty p e s o f s y lla b le s tr u c tu r e a r e found i n Cantonese: C (consonant ty p e ), V (vowel ty p e ), CV (consonant-vow el ty p e ), VC (vow el-consonant ty p e ) , and CVC (consonant-vow el-consonant ty p e ).

C

ty p e has two s y lla b ic p a tte r n s , V ty p e has fo u rte e n p a tte r n s , CV has one hundred and e ig h ty - e ig h t p a tte r n s , VC has tw en ty -fo u r p a tte r n s , and CVC has fo u r hundred and tw elve p a tte r n s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f each segm ental phoneme under a l l p o s s ib le ty p es o f s y lla b le s tr u c t u r e i s d e fin e d in th e concluding c h a p te r o f t h i s d is s e r t a t i o n .

The fo llo w in g i s an example.

i n th e C ty p e s y lla b le s tr u c t u r e . Ay,

< iy, uwu, iw ,

t u r e and /

Am, A n ,

uk,

o k , a i],

oq ,

ow ,

A t,

aw ,

an,

tsa

aw / in th e

a t , iq

a k , i y n , i y t , uwn,

i n t h e VC t y p e s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e ,

o n ly / ae ,

,

ik , uwt

seq,

aek,

Aq, u Q ,

/ i n t h e CVC ty p e s y l l a b l e

and / t A , kA , t'A

i]A , 1 a , tsA , y A , t a , t ’ a ,

k’a , s a

, t ’s a , y a , t i y , t ’iy , k ’ i y ,s l y , h iy ,

i n t h e CVC

o , a,

CV t y p e s y l l a b l e s t r u c ­

I n t h e f i n a l p o s i t i o n , / p / f o l l o w s o n ly / a ,

str u c tu r e .

ua

I t precedes

/ p / does n o t o ccu r

a , iy /

, k ’A , s a , hA ,

, ha , n a , q iy , l i y ,

q a ,l a

ts iy , t ’s iy /

ty p e s y lla b le s tr u c tu r e .

F o rty -e ig h t tonem ic p a tte r n s o f s y lla b le s tr u c t u r e a r e found in Cantonese.

P a tte rn s I to V have o n ly one toneme, P a tte rn s VI to

XVII have two tonemes. P a tte rn s XVIII to XXXII have th r e e tonemes. P a tte rn s XXXH I to XLI have fo u r tonemes, P a tte rn s XLII to XLVII have f iv e tonemes, and P a tte r n XLVIII has a l l s ix tonemes. A summary o f a l l s y lla b le s th a t f a l l under each tonemic p a tte r n i s given i n th e l a s t c h a p te r o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . in g i s an example.

The fo llo w ­

T h irty -tw o s y lla b le s f a l l under P a tte rn XLVIH

y1

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,

which has a l l s ix le x ic a l tonemes; / ma

1 , 1 qa / , / wo / , / s i

13 / ,

/ iy / , / iw / , / sae / , / ha / s 3u / , / n a y / , /

/,

QAy / ,

/ qaw / , / la y / , / l o w / , / 1 a w / , / yAw / , / wa y / , / iym / , / iun / , / f A n / , / sun / , / s A n / , / s3Q / , / h o n / , / b a h / , / maq

/, / l i q

/ , / l o g / , / yA m / , / y A n / , / yuq / , / w A n / .

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.0 1.00

S tatem ent o f Purpose

The purpose o f t h i s re se a rc h i s t o e s ta b l is h th e segm ental

phonemes and tonemes o f Cantonese and to stu d y th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e s e phonemes and tonemes i n a l l p o s s ib le ty p e s o f s y lla b le s tr u c ­ tu re . 1.1 1.10

S ta tu s o f th e Problem

There e x i s t s e v e r a l Cantonese tex tb o o k s in E n g lish , two

m a ste r’s th e s e s on C antonese, and some unpublished papers on Cantonese by C. M. Wise. 1.11

The f i r s t Cantonese tex tb o o k which I have d isco v ere d was

p u b lish e d in 1912, and D an iel Jones and Kwing Tong Woo were tte co­ a u th o rs .

The more re c e n t ones a r e Cantonese Prim er by I .R . Chao and

Sneak Cantonese by P ark er Huang and G erard P. Kok.

Chao’s Prim er was

p u b lish e d i n 19^7 and Speak Cantonese i n 1960. 1.12

Two s ig n i f i c a n t works on Cantonese l i n g u i s t i c s have been

done i n th e U nited S ta te s i n th e form o f m a s te r 's th e ses*

C harles

B la tc h fo rd d id one on "Cantonese Phonology and Some P honological Prob­ lems o f Cantonese Speakers Learning E n g lish " a t Georgetown U n iv e rsity i n 1962, and Anne Oi Kan Yue w rote "A T ran sfo rm a tio n al O u tlin e o f Cantonese Grammar" a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f Texas i n 1961.

B la tch fo rd i s

a n a tiv e sp eak er o f E n g lish and h as used a n a tiv e sp eak er o f Cantonese

1

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2

as h is in fo rm an t f o r th e s tu d y ; Tae i s a n a tiv e sp eak er o f „Cantonese and has used h e r s e lf as an in fo rm an t. 1.13

Ik e p re s e n t work i s d i f f e r e n t from J o n e s 's Cantonese

P honetic Reader. C hao's Cantonese Prim er, and Speak Cantonese i n th e phonemic tre a tm e n t o f Cantonese sounds.

These Cantonese tex tb o o k s o n ly

l i s t th e Cantonese sounds and t h e i r approxim ate E nglish e q u iv a le n ts ; th e p re s e n t re s e a rc h d e a ls w ith th e phonemic system o f th e language. B la tch fo rd has e s ta b lis h e d a phonemic system o f Cantonese, b u t h is em phasis i s on c o n tra s tin g h is Cantonese phonemic system w ith th e American E n g lish phonemic system .

Y ue's th e s i s i s on th e s y n ta c tic

le v e l o f language a n a ly s is and has assumed a Cantonese phonemic system . This d i s s e r t a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t from th e two M.A. th e se s in i t s stu d y o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f th e segm ental phonemes and tonemes o f Cantonese. 1.2 1.20

Im portance o f th e Problem

In th e l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p h o n o lo g ical system

o f a language, a stu d y o f th e fre q u e n c ie s and d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f th e phonemes i s o f g r e a t im portance.

S. S ap crta o b serv es:

In h is d e s c r ip tio n o f th e phonology o f a language, th e s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t has u s u a lly lim ite d h is a n a ly s is to a p r e s e n ta tio n o f th o se sequences o f phonemes which occur i n a language, w ith o u t n o tin g th e r e l a t i v e fre q u e n c ie s o f th e s e com binations. . . . I t i s tr u e t h a t s e v e ra l s tu d ie s have o ffe re d sy stem a tic statem en ts o f d i s t r i b u t i o n and c lu s te r in g . . . . f o r example t h a t in E nglish a phone o f th e / 13 / phoneme does n o t ap p ear i n w o r d - in itia l p o s itio n , o r t h a t / s t r - / i s an i n i t i a l c l u s t e r b u t / s®r- / i s n o t. But th e g re a te r-th a n -c h a n c e occu rren ce o f some sequences and th e le ss -th a n -c h a n c e occu rren ce o f o th e rs has u s u a lly gone unmentioned. The c o n trib u tio n o f a p s y c h o lin g u is tic a n a ly s is i s to su g g est t h a t th e s e d e v ia tio n s from chance ^ a r e n o t random, b u t a re governed by some "law ful" p r in c ip le .

S. S ap o rta, "Frequency o f Consonant C lu s te r s ," Language. XXXI (Jan-M ar 1955). 25.

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3

An ex h au stiv e stu d y o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e phonemes w i l l in d ic a te which phoneme o r sequence o f phonemes has th e h ig h e st frequency o f o ccu rren ce. James S t. C la ir-S o b e ll, a Canadian l i n g u i s t , a ls o reco g n izes th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h i s ty p e o f s tu d y : I t i s w e ll known t h a t to make a s a ti s f a c to r y d e s c r ip tio n o f th e sound system o f a language i t i s n e c e ssa ry to go beyond th e enum eration and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e v a rio u s phonemes used i n th e p h o n o lo g ical system o f th e language. This im p lie s, among o th e r th in g s , d e te rm in a tio n o f th e p o s itio n s in th e word i n which th e phonemes may o r may n o t occur and th e amount o f u se made, o r f u n c tio n a l y ie ld , o f th e phonemes. 1.21

The p re s e n t re s e a rc h i s an ex h au stiv e stu d y o f a l l p o s s i­

b le d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f th e segm ental phonemes o f th e id i o l e c t o f an in fo rm an t o f a p a r t i c u l a r language in a s p e c if ic p e rio d o f tim e . The a d je c tiv e "ex h au stiv e" i s used o n ly in th e r e l a t i v e sen se and n o t in th e a b s o lu te sen se. 1 .3 1.30 be d e fin e d :

D e f in itio n o f Some Im p o rtan t Terms

F iv e im p o rtan t term s i n th e sta te m e n t o f purpose need to phoneme, segm ental phoneme, toneme, d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n ,

and s y lla b le s tr u c t u r e . 1.31

A phoneme i s a s t r u c t u r a l l y s ig n i f i c a n t sound u n it o f a

n a tu r a l language and c o n tr a s ts w ith every o th e r s t r u c t u r a l l y s ig n if i c a n t sound u n i t o f th e same n a tu r a l language.-^

I t i s v ery d i f f i c u l t to g iv e

a com prehensive d e f i n i t i o n o f a phoneme to s u i t a l l l i n g u i s t i c th e o r ie s . 2 James S t. C la ir-S o b e ll, "Phoneme D is tr ib u tio n and F u n ctio n al Y ie ld ," The J o u rn a l o f th e Canad ia n Ling u is ti c A sso c ia tio n . I I (Mar. 1956), 12: 3 T his i s th e a u th o r ’s own o p e ra tio n a l d e f in i ti o n ; he i s in flu e n c e d by T ra g e r 's form al d e f in i ti o n . G.L. T rag er, "The Phoneme ’T ': A Study in Theory and M ethod," American Speech. XVII (O ct. 1942), 145.

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D aniel Jones reco g n izes t h i s d i f f i c u l t y and u ses th e term "ex p lan atio n " rather than "definition." I say an "explanation" rather than a "definition," because in spite of the simple appearance of the example in 52., a little consideration shows us that an "exact" definition is impossible. We cannot define what a phoneme is without making use of terms such as "language," "Speech-sounds" and "words," all of which are incapable of definition like the fundamental concepts in other science.^

The a u th o r has no in t e n ti o n o f g iv in g a rig o ro u s d e f in i ti o n o f a phoneme; he sim ply explains h is concept and use o f th e term i n t h i s re s e a rc h . 1.32

The au th o r i s aware o f th e f a c t t h a t a phoneme i s a ls o

an a b s tr a c t co n cep t.

H. A. G leason, J r . rem arks;

The phoneme i s in s te a d a f e a tu r e o f language s tr u c t u r e . That is, it is an abstraction from the psychological and acoustical patterns which enables a linguist to describe the observed repetitions of things that seem to function within the system as identical in spite of obvious differences. . . . In a certain sense they are the intellectual creation of the linguist who examines those specific parts of specific utterances. . . . The phonemes of a language are a set of abstractions ^italics not in the original^/ which will more adequately describe certain features of the utterances of that language, past present, and future, than any other set. 5 1.33

Even though a phoneme i s an a b s tr a c t concept, i t s d i s t r i ­

b u tio n i n a g iv en environm ent has a c o n c re te re p r e s e n ta tio n i n term s o f a r t i c u l a t o r y and a c o u s tic p h o n e tic s .

The r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a pho­

neme in a s p e c if ic u tte r a n c e i s co n sid ere d an allo p h o n e.

A p h onetic

e n t i t y a ls o re p re s e n ts a group o f sounds in a com bination o f t h i s pho­ n e tic e n t i t y w ith o th e r phonetic e n t i t i e s ; i n o th e r words a p h onetic e n t i t y i s a group o f phones in a s im ila r environm ent o f d i s t r i b u t i o n . 4

D an iel Jones, The Phoneme: I t s Mature and Use (Cambridge, London: W. H effer & S ons^L td., 19^2), p. 8 . ^H. A. G leason, J r . , An I n tr o d u c tio n to D e s c rip tiv e L in g u is tic s . re v is e d e d itio n (New York: H o lt, H in eh art and Winston, 19^1), pp. 269-270.

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5

1 .3 ^

A segm ental phoneme i s one t h a t can be se p a ra te d in to

in d iv id u a l u n its from th e a r t i c u l a t o r y and a c o u s tic a n a ly s is in an u tte r a n c e .

The segm ental phonemes a re consonant phonemes, vowel

phonemes, and semi-vowel phonemes. 1 .3 5

A toneme i s a s ig n if i c a n t

has l e x i c a l v a lu e . tonemes.

There i s a r e l a t i v e

and c o n tra s tiv e p it c h which v alu e among th e d i f f e r e n t

D an iel Jones rem arks: "The to n e s may be tra n sp o se d in to a

h ig h e r o r low er key to s u i t th e v o ic e o f th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t, b u t th e ir re la tiv e

/ ^ i t a l i c s in th e o r ig i n a l _7 v alues should remain

c o n s ta n t. 1.36

D is tr ib u tio n a l p a tte r n r e f e r s to th e environm ent in

which a segm ental phoneme o r toneme may o ccu r.

A c e r t a in phoneme can

precede o n ly c e r ta in phonemes and sequences o f phonemes; a c e r ta in phoneme can fo llo w only c e r ta in phonemes and sequences o f phonemes. For example, th e Cantonese a s p ir a te d b i b a l i a l v o ic e le s s s to p / p / precedes o n ly / a , o , a / and /Am, ai; At, a n , a t , i$ , i k , s e q . s k , aq, uq* uk, oij, ok, a q . a k, iy n , t y t , uwn, uw t/and fo llo w s o n ly / t a , kA, t ’A, k ’A, sa, hA, nA, qa, 1a, tsA, t’sA, yA, ta, t J a, k*a, sa, ha, na, qa, la, tsa, ya, tiy, t*iy, k*ky, siy, hiy, qiy, liy, tsiy, t ’siy I ?

Cantonese has s ix tonemes, b u t n o t a l l s y lla b le s have a l l s ix tonemes.

Some may have one, o r two, o r th r e e , o r fo u r, o r f i v e ; and

some have a l l s ix .

F or example, / p » / has o n ly two tonem es: high

le v e l toneme and h igh r is in g toneme. D aniel Jones and Kwing Ton Woo, A Cantonese P honetic Reader (London: U n iv e rsity o f London P re ss, 1912), p. xv. ■7 This l i s t i s ta k e n from th e fo u rth c h a p te r o f t h i s d is s e r t a ­ ti o n . See p . 9 5 .

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6

1.37 is formed.

Syllable structure refers to the way in which a syllable

Gleason describes syllables in the following

statement:

Speech is, therefore, marked by a series of short pulses produced by this motion of the intercostal muscles. These pulses are the phonetic syllables ^boldface in the original^, “typically a syllable centers around some vowel or other resonant and begins and ends in some sound with relatively closed articu­ lation. The resonant element is the essential part of the structure of the syllable.

In Cantonese the two nasal phonemes / m, q / have a syllabic

and as allophones and they can stand alone as the resonant f r element to constitute syllables. For example, / m / in the low level tone represents the word of which means "not." The author seeks to find out what other ways a syllable in Cantonese can be formed and then study the distributional patterns of each segmental phoneme and toneme. 1.4 Methodology and Procedure 1.40 research.

The author has used himself as informant for this

Cantonese is his native language; therefore, it is possible

for him to exhaust the distributional patterns of the segmental Can­ tonese phonemes and tonemes under the different possible types of syllable structure.

Because he is using himself as informant, he has

an unlimited corpus for his research.

He also bases his study on the

assumption that the native speaker's intuitive knowledge of his own language is the best criterion of the grammaticalness of the linguistic analysis of the language.^

g Gleason, op. cit.. p. 256. 9

Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1961), pp. 13-15, 49-51.

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1.41

B efore th e stu d y o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f th e Can­

to n e se phonemes and tonemes, th e a u th o r f i r s t search es th e p h o n etic e n t i­ t i e s o f co nsonants, vow els, diphthongs which occur i n h is n a tiv e la n ­ guage.

He th a n t e s t s th e phonemic s ta tu s o f th e s e p h o n etic e n t i t i e s by

c o n tra s tin g them w ith minimal p a i r s .

Those p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r e n t i t i e s

which do n o t c o n tr a s t w ith each o th e r b u t a r e in complementary d i s t r i b u ­ ti o n a r e grouped to g e th e r as alio p h o n es o f a phoneme.

Minimal p a ir s a re

a ls o used to e s ta b l is h th e phonemic s ta t u s o f th e tonemes. 1.42

I n th e s tu d y o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e segm ental pho­

nemes, th e fo llo w in g s te p s a re ta k e n

Each segm ental phoneme i s te s te d

to see w hether i t occu rs alo n e as a morpheme o r n o t.

Only c e r t a in

consonants, vow els, and com binations o f vowels can occur by them selves to c o n s ti tu te s y lla b le s . 1.43

The second s te p i s to t e s t each consonant phoneme w ith

every vowel phoneme and sequence o f vowel phonemes to s e e which vowel phoneme and which sequence o f vowel phonemes can fo llo w t h a t p a r ti c u la r consonant phoneme to form s y lla b le s .

The w r ite r a ls o te s t e d each

consonant phoneme w ith th e o th e r consonant phonemes to f in d o u t th e ty p es o f sequences o f consonant phonemes t h a t can occur in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n s to precede vowel phonemes and sequences o f vowel phonemes to form s y lla b le s . ^ 0 1.44

The t h i r d s te p i s to t e s t each consonant phoneme and

sequence o f consonant phonemes w ith every p o s s ib le ty p e o f vowel and consonant com bination to fin d o u t which ty p e o f vowel and consonant com bination can fo llo w t h a t p a r t i c u l a r consonant phoneme o r sequence o f consonant phonem es.^ A ll ty p e s o f vowel and consonant com binations d e ta ile d ex p la n a tio n o f th e s e pro ced u res w ith examples i s given i n C hapter Three. See pp. 43-44. 11 See pp. 59-60.

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8

t h a t can stan d alo n e to form s y lla b le s can fo llo w consonant phonemes o r sequences o f consonant phonemes.

But in a d d itio n to th e s e ty p e s

th e re a re o th e r vowel and consonant com binations t h a t can fo llo w con­ sonant phonemes o r sequences o f consonant phonemes o n ly and cannot s ta n d a lo n e to form s y lla b le s .

12

1.5

1.50

Delimitation

This i s a stu d y o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f seg ­

m ental phonemes and tonem es; th e r e f o r e , s t r e s s , ju n c tu re (open t r a n s i t i o n ) , c la u s e te rm in a l, and o th e r m a tte rs o f in to n a tio n a re n o t in c lu d e d . 1.51

This i s n o t a morphophonemic stu d y .

The s tr u c tu r e o f

morphemes and th e ty p es o f meanings a re n o t d e a l t w ith .

However,

th e a u th o r does e x e rc is e h is i n t u i t i v e knowledge to d ecid e whether th e s y lla b le w ith a c e r t a in toneme re p re s e n ts morphemes o r n o t.

^ S e e p. 60 .

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CHAPTER n THE SEGMENTAL PHONEMES AND TONEMES OF CANTONESE 2,0 2.00

In tro d u c tio n

The p re s e n t au th o r fo llo w s D aniel J o n e s 's th e o ry o f

phonend.cs i n e s ta b lis h in g th e p h o n etic e n t i t i e s i n th e a n a ly s is o f th e sound system o f a n a tu r a l language.

Jones rem arks:

I n view o f th e v a rio u s o p in io n s t h a t have been expressed by w orkers i n th e f i e l d o f phonemic r e s e a rc h , I th in k i t w e ll to p u t on reco rd h ere t h a t my co n clu sio n s concerning th e phoneme have been a r r iv e d a t e n t ir e ly through p h o n e tic s. Since p h o n etics can n e i th e r be stu d ie d n o r a p p lied w ith o u t th e u se o f p h o n etic tr a n s c r i p tio n s , and sin c e adequate system s o f tr a n s c r ip tio n re q u ire f o r t h e i r c o n s tru c tio n th e th e o ry o f phonemes, I see no reaso n f o r reg ard in g th e th e o ry o f phonemes as o th e r th a n an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f phonetic s c ie n c e . 1 In th e f i e l d o f a p p lie d l i n g u i s t i c s , i t i s im p ra c tic a l to ta lk about phonemes in term s o f a b s tr a c t co n cep ts.

A phoneme u s u a lly has a base

allopho n e acco rd in g to th e high frequency o f o ccurrence o f th a t a l l o phone o r i t s d i s t i n c t i v e p o s itio n in d i s t r i b u t i o n ; and o th e r allo p h o n es can be ex p lain ed i n term s o f th e b ase allo p h o n e and according to t h e i r environm ents.

T h erefo re, i n a group o f phoneme sequences, th e

allo p h o n es o f th e phonemes a re c l e a r ly in d ic a te d i n term s o f i t s en viron­ ment. 2.01

An allo p h o n e i s a p h o n etic e n t i t y which has some phonemic

s ig n ific a n c e i n th e n a tu r a l language.

This co ncept is s im ila r to th e

id e a o f broad p h o n etic tr a n s c r i p tio n mentioned by Henry Sweet i n h is ^D aniel Jo n es, The Phoneme: I t s N ature and Use (Cambridge, England: W. H e ffe r & Sons L td ., 1962), p. v i i . 9

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10

Handbook o f P h onetics in 1877.

2

In a n a tiv e s p e a k e r's mind, he may n o t

have th e modern concept o f phoneme i n term s o f allo p h o n es in complemen­ ta r y d is t r i b u t i o n s , b u t he should have th e in d iv id u a l allo p h o n es r e l a ­ t i v e l y fix e d i n h is mind. f r e e v a r ia tio n s .

An allophone—a p h o n etic e n t ity —has numerous

T e c h n ic a lly speaking, i t i s v e iy d i f f i c u l t f o r a n a tiv e

sp eak er to u t t e r th e same sound i n th e ex ac t manner and w ith th e e x ac t amount o f energy each tim e .

I t i s a ls o v ery im p o rtan t to observe t h a t

each p h o n etic e n t ity i s m odified by i t s environm ents—n o t i n term s o f complementary d is t r i b u t i o n . In s p ite o f th e numerous fre e v a r ia tio n s o f a p h o n etic e n t ity , th e n a tiv e speaker s t i l l can form a g e n e ra l concept o f t h i s phonetic e n t i t y in term s o f manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n .

From th e a c o u s tic p o in t

o f view, i t i s p o s s ib le to reco rd th e fre q u e n c ie s o f th e same p h o n etic e n t ity a number o f tim es and d e fin e th e range o f t h e i r v a r ia tio n s . This range o f f r e e v a r ia tio n s i s th e phonetic e n t i t y from th e p h y s ic a l p o in t o f view. 2 .0 2

With th e p h o n etic concept o f phoneme and allo p h o n e in

mind, th e segm ental elem ents o f th e speech sounds o f Cantonese a re under in v e s tig a tio n .

The p h o n etic e n t i t i e s o f co nsonants, vowels, and

diphthongs a r e d e sc rib e d w ith re fe re n c e to t h e i r manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . IPA symbols a r e used f o r p h o n etic tr a n s c r i p tio n s ; f o r phonemic symbols th e re may be some changes, and th e au th o r w i l l e x p la in h is symbols to avoid am biguity. 2.03

P itc h , o r to n e , has le x ic a l v alu e i n C antonese.

The

d i f f e r e n t p itc h e s o f a phoneme o r a group o f phonemes which may c o n s ti tu te meaning u n it s a c tu a lly re p re s e n t d i f f e r e n t morphemes o r % en ry Sweet, Handbook o f P honetics (O xford, England: The Clarendon P re ss, 1877), pp. 103-5.

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11

words.

The l e x i c a l to n e v alu e i s d i f f e r e n t from th e in to n a tio n to n e

v alu e in t h a t th e form er i s a tta c h e d to a m onosyllabic meaning u n it a s p a r t o f th e s tr u c t u r e o f t h a t morpheme and th e l a t t e r i s a p p lie d to m u lti- s y lla b ic meaning u n its and th e change o f th e in to n a tio n to n e r e s u l t s i n th e changing o f th e a t t i t u d e o r f e e lin g o f th e sp eak er to th e person spoken to .

I n th e to n e language, th e meaning u n it cannot

become a morpheme u n t i l a to n e v alu e i s assig n ed to i t , w hile in a n on -to n e language th e b a s ic meaning o f th e meaning u n it does not change when a change in p it c h o c c u rs.

T h erefo re, in a to n e language

where a to n e has l e x i c a l v alu e, th e to n es should be c l a s s i f i e d i n a c a te g o ry p a r a l l e l to th e segm ental phonemes. 2.0 4

In th e beginning o f t h i s c h a p te r, D an iel J o n e s 's concept

o f th e p h o n etic n a tu re o f phonemics i s d isc u sse d to form a b a s is to e s ta b lis h th e phonemic s ta t u s o f p h o n etic e n t i t i e s o f a n a tu r a l language. However, i n th e p ro cess o f e s ta b lis h in g a phonemic system G. L. T r a g e r 's d e fin itio n

i s follow ed.

A phoneme i s a s e le c tio n a l c la s s o f complementary d i s t r i b u ­ te d , p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r , and c o n g ru en tly p a tte rn e d soundty p e s ; i t c o n tr a s ts and i s m u tu ally e x c lu siv e w ith every s im ila r c la s s i n th e language, w ith one o r a l l o f which i t e n te r s in to ju x ta p o s itio n a l c la ss e s .? T rager m entions th r e e c r i t e r i a i n c la s s if y in g p h o n etic e n t i t i e s in to phonemes:

complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n , p h o n etic s i m i l a r i t y , and

p a tte r n c o n g ru ity .

Each Cantonese p h o n etic e n t i t y i s stu d ie d according

to th e above d e f in i ti o n i n o rd e r to d eterm ine w hether i t i s a phoneme o r an allo p h o n e o f a phoneme; minimal p a ir s a r e used i n a l l cases to e s ta b l is h th e segm ental and to n e phonemes o f Cantonese. -5 ^George L. T rag er, "The Phoneme 'T 1: A Study in Theory and M ethod," American Speech. XVII (O ctober 1942), 145.

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2.1 2.10

P h on etic E n t iti e s :

Consonants

Nine p h o n etic e n t i t i e s o f sto p s e x i s t i n Cantonese: i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l s to p and occu rs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

r*j

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r s to p and occurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

ZVJ

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r sto p and occurs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

Z V J

i s an u n re le a s e d v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l s to p and o ccu rs o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n .

f t u

i s an u n re le a s e d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r sto p and o ccu rs o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n .

£ ~ k i s an u n re le a se d v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r sto p and o ccu rs o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n .

Z V J

i s an u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l s to p and o ccu rs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

r t 'j

i s an u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r s to p and o ccu rs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

A ' J

i s an u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r s to p and o ccu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

2.11

Three p h o n etic e n t i t i e s o f f r i c a t i v e s e x i s t i n Cantonese:

C*J

i s a v o ic e le s s la b io d e n ta l f r i c a t i v e and o ccurs o nly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n , i s a v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r s i b i l a n t and o ccu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

j_ h J

i s a v o ic e le s s g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e and occurs in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

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13

2.12

Six p h o n etic e n t i t i e s o f n a s a ls e x i s t in Cantonese:

M

i s a voiced b i l a b i a l n a s a l and occu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . i s a voiced a p ic o -a lv e o la r n a s a l and occurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

r r j

i s a v o iced d o rs o -v e la r n a s a l and occurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . i s a d ev o icin g b i b a l i a l n a s a l, and i t s v o icin g d u ra tio n i s very s h o r t; i t o ccurs o nly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n .

/~ n _ 7

o

i s a d e v o ic in g a p i c o - a l v e o l a r n a s a l , and i t s

v o icin g d u ra tio n i s very s h o r t; i t occurs o n ly i n th e f i n a l p o s itio n , i s a d ev o icin g d o rs o -v e la r n a s a l, and i t s v o icin g d u ra tio n i s very s h o r t; i t occurs o n ly i n th e f i n a l p o s itio n . 2.1 3

One l a t e r a l e x is ts i n C antonese:

f l J

i s a v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r l a t e r a l and o ccurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

2.1^-

Two a f f r i c a t e s e x i s t i n Cantonese.

According to Nelson

F ra n c is , "an a f f r i c a t e i s a s to p w ith a r e le a s e s u f f i c i e n t l y slow to produce a momentary f r i c a t i v e e f f e c t b e fo re th e next sound b e g in s." He f u r th e r comments: For t h i s reaso n , some p h o n e tic ia n s t r e a t a f f r i c a t e s as m erely s to p + f r i c a t i v e i n c lo s e c o n ju n c tio n . There seems to be a d if f e r e n c e , however, p r in c i p a ll y i n le n g th . The c lo su re , o r p e rio d o f s ile n c e between c lo sin g and r e le a s e , i s much s h o r te r -

—

W. Nelson F ra n c is , The S tr u c tu r e o f American E n g lish (New York: The Bonald P ress Company, 1958), p . 79.

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i n an a f f r i c a t e th a n i n th e co rresp o n d in g s to p , and th e p erio d o f f r i c t i o n i s s h o r te r th a n th e corresponding f r i c a t i v e , though lo n g e r th a n th e u s u a l r e le a s e o f a s to p . Furtherm ore, th e s y lla b le break cannot f a l l between th e c lo su re and th e a f f r i c a t i o n . A ll th e s e te n d to produce an im pression th a t th e a f f r i c a t e i s a s in g le sound, r a th e r th an a com bination o f two. . . . A f f ric a te s a re p o s s ib le i n every a r ti c u la to r y p o s itio n where s to p s o ccu r. . . .5 The two Cantonese a f f r i c a t e s f i t th e above d e s c r ip tio n v ery w e ll.

r& j

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r a f f r i c a t e ^ and o ccu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

f t ’ s j t s 5111 u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r a ffric a te

7

and o ccu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l

p o s itio n . 2.15

Two co n so n an tal g lid e s e x i s t i n C antonese:

CiJ

i s a v o ic e le s s f r o n to - p a l a ta l g lid e and o ccu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . i s a v o ic e le s s la b io v e la r g lid e and occurs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

2 .16

Two consonant c l u s t e r s e x i s t i n Cantonese: i s a com bination o f th e a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r s to p

th e v o ic e le s s

la b io v e la r g lid e £ wJ , b u t th e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f th e two movements o ccu rs sim u ltan eo u sly .

^bid. ^ F ran cis a ls o rem arks: VChe com bination £ ~ t - J + £ ~ s j i s o f te n heard g s th e a f f r i c a t e j f t s J , e s p e c ia lly when f i n a l , as in r a t s / r a e t s _ / . ( I b i d . . p. 8 0 ). The Cantonese £ " t s j i s always heard as an a f f r i c a t e .

n

Cantonese does n o t have voiced s to p s and f r i c a t i v e s ; r t - s j i s o fte n heard a s JT& jJ by a non-Cantonese sp eak er.

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T his c l u s t e r occu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . /~ k ’w_ 7 i s a com bination o f th e u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r s to p £~k’3

and th e v o ic e le s s

la b io v e la r g lid e / w_J, b u t th e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f th e two movements o ccu rs sim u ltan eo u sly . This c l u s t e r occu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . 2 .2

2.20

P honetic 3 n t i t i e s :

Vowels

Cantonese vowels a r e d iv id e d in to th r e e m ajor groups

accord in g to t h e i r tongue p o s itio n in th e mouth c a v ity : f r o n t, c e n t r a l, and back. vow els.

Each group i s su b divided in t o h ig h and low

Roundness and unroundness a re used to f u r th e r d iv id e th e

subgroups. The vowels t r e a t e d in t h i s stu d y a re a l l s tr e s s e d vowels which a re used to form s y lla b ic n u c le i o f a l l ty p e s : some o f them a re cap ab le o f stan d in g alo n e as s y lla b ic n u c le i, and some o f them a re used o n ly as th e f i r s t o r l a s t elem ents to form complex s y lla b ic n u c le i.

Cantonese i s e s s e n t i a l l y a m onosyllabic language, and th e Q g r e a t m a jo rity o f th e morphemes a r e f r e e morphemes. Each morpheme c o n s is ts o f a s y lla b le o f one o f th e fo llo w in g ty p e s: consonant, vowel, consonant-vow el, vow el-consonant, consonant-vow el-consonant.

T h erefore,

each morpheme i s cap ab le o f sta n d in g alo n e i n th e language, and i t s nucleu s can re c e iv e f u l l v o c a lic q u a lity . 0

According t o th e knowledge o f th e a u th o r, th e r e i s o n ly one bound morpheme i n C antonese: i t i s th e pronom inal p lu r a l morpheme i t ’ ® y ) which i s added a s a s u f f i x to make th e p lu r a l forms o f th e f i r s t , second, and t h i r d p e rso n a l pronouns. This was a ls o a l a t e developm ent. In some Cantonese d i a l e c t s , a s e p a ra te m onosyllabic form i s used f o r th e p lu r a l f o r a o f each o f th e p e rs o n a l pronouns.

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16

The follow ing diagram shows th e approxim ate a r ti c u la to r y p o s itio n o f th e s e s tr e s s e d vow els.

Front

Central

Unrounded h igh HIGH mid low

LOW

Rounded

i

Unrounded

Rounded

„ 0

I e

high mid low

2.21

Unrounded

Back

u U o

0

ae

3

a

a

o " ~

Four f r o n t vowels e x i s t in Cantonese:

A J

i s a h ig h -h ig h unrounded f r o n t vowel and i s used as th e f i r s t elem ent t o form th e follow ing d ip h th o n g s:

A i . iU, iU _J.

I t does n o t stan d This vowel A J

alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

and th e f r o n t consonant g lid e / ”j j a r e o f th e same a r t i c u l a t o r y p o s itio n ; th e o n ly d if f e r e n c e i s t h a t th e form er i s voiced and th e l a t t e r v o ic e le s s .

rxj

i s a high-m id unrounded f r o n t vowel and i s used a s th e l a s t elem ent t o form th e fo llo w in g d ip h ­ th o n g s: £~iX,

s i,

A l, a I , & _ /.

I t does n o t

sta n d alo n e a s a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

A J

i s a high-low unrounded f r o n t vowel and i s capable o f stan d in g a lo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

It

o ccu rs o n ly i n th e m edial p o s itio n and precedes o n ly th e n a s a l consonant A

J

anc* th e u n re le a se d

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17

sto p £ kJJ.

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f £ e_ / in to a

member o f th e high vowel group i s a d e v ia tio n from th e IPA p r a c tic e .

There a re two reaso n s

fo r c la s s if y in g i t as a high vowel.

F irs t,

t h i s p h o n etic e n t ity in Cantonese i s v ery s im ila r to th e £ I _} sound in th e IPA vowel system. i s a l i t t l e lower th an IPA £ e J .

UJ

It

b u t h ig h e r than

Second, l a t e r i n th e phonemic a n a ly s is

o f Cantonese vowels t h i s phonetic e n t ity i s tr e a te d as an allophone o f th e high f r o n t un­ rounded vowel phoneme / i / .

L*J

i s a low-mid unrounded f r o n t vowel and i s capable o f stan d in g alone as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s. occur i n any p o s itio n s .

I t can

I t i s a ls o used as th e

f i r s t elem ent to form th e diphthong £ ael_ / . 2.22

Four c e n t r a l vowels e x is t i n Cantoneses fB j

i s a high-m id rounded c e n tr a l vowel and i s used as th e l a s t element to form th e fo llo w in g d ip h ­ thongs and trip h th o n g :

£ iU,

3 U_ /,

£ uUUJ

.

I t does n o t stan d alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

L*J

i s a high-low rounded c e n tr a l vowel and i s cap ab le o f sta n d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

I t o ccurs

o n ly in th e m edial p o s itio n and precedes o n ly th e n a s a l consonant £ n j and th e u n re le a se d sto p

£ t ’_ / .

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f £ t j

in to a member

o f th e h ig h vowel group i s a d e v ia tio n from th e IPA p r a c tic e .

There a re two reasons f o r c l a s s i ­

fy in g i t as a high vowel.

F i r s t , t h i s p h o n etic

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18

e n t ity in Cantonese i s very s im ila r to th e _ tl

_

£ ^_ J sound i n th e IPA vowel system .

However,

i t i s a l i t t l e lower th an £ V _/ b u t h ig h e r th an

O J-

Second, l a t e r in th e phonemic a n a ly s is o f

Cantonese vowels t h i s phonetic e n t i t y i s tr e a te d a s an allo p h o n e o f th e high c e n t r a l rounded n vowel phoneme £ u —

f U

_

i s a low-mid rounded c e n tr a l vowel and i s cap ab le o f stan d in g alo n e a s a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

I t oc­

cu rs b oth i n th e m edial and f i n a l p o s itio n s .

It

i s a ls o used as th e f i r s t elem ent to fonn th e diphthong [~ ? u j .

C*J

i s a low-mid unrounded c e n t r a l vowel and i s cap ab le o f stan d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s. I t occu rs b o th i n th e i n i t i a l and m edial p o s itio n s . I t i s a ls o used as th e f i r s t elem ent to form th e fo llo w in g d ip h th o n g s: £ a I ,

2. 23

aUJ .

F ive back vowels e x i s t in Cantonese:

£ u j

i s a h ig h -h ig h rounded back vowel and i s used as the first element to form the following diph­ thong and triphthong:

/""uU_7 and^uUU_7.

I t does

not stand alone as a syllabic nucleus.

A

J

i s a high-m id rounded back vowel and i s used a s th e second elem ent to form th e trip h th o n g

£ uU U j and as th e l a s t elem ent to form th e diphthongs £ iU, uU, OU, a U, aJJ_7.

I t does n o t

stan d alo n e a s a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

fo j

i s a high-low rounded back vowel and i s cap ab le o f stan d in g a lo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

It

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19

occu rs o n ly i n th e m edial p o s itio n and precedes o n ly th e n a s a l consonant £ j\J and th e u n rele ased s to p £~k _J.

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f C ° J in to

a member o f th e h igh vowel group i s a d e v ia tio n from th e IPA p r a c tic e .

There a re two reaso n s f o r

c la s s if y in g i t as a h ig h vowel.

F i r s t , t h i s pho­

n e t ic e n t i t y in Cantonese i s v e ry s im ila r to th e

f o j sound in th e IPA vowel system .

However, i t

i s a l i t t l e low er th a n £ U_ 7 b u t h ig h e r th an

f o j . Second, l a t e r i n th e phonemic a n a ly s is o f Cantonese vowels t h i s p h o n etic e n t i t y i s tr e a te d a s an allo p h o n e o f th e high back rounded vowel phoneme / u / .

I p J_

i s a low-mid rounded back vowel and i s capable o f stan d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u c le u s. can o ccu r in any p o s itio n .

It

I t i s a lso used as

th e f i r s t elem ent to form th e diphthong f dL_J.

B .J

i s a low-low unrounded back vowel and i s cap ab le o f stan d in g alo n e a s a s y lla b ic n u cleu s. can occu r i n any p o s itio n s .

It

I t i s a ls o used as

th e f i r s t elem ent to form th e fo llo w in g d iph­ th o n g s: 2 .3 2.30

£ a I,

P h o n etic E n t i t i e s :

alJ J . Diphthongs and Triphthong

There a r e tw elve diphthongs and one trip h th o n g i n Can­

to n e se ; th e y a r e grouped to g e th e r according to th e tongue p o s itio n o f t h e i r l a s t elem ents in to th r e e m ajor g ro u p s: back.

f r o n t, c e n tr a l, and

The fo llo w in g diagram shows th e d ir e c tio n s o f t h e i r movements.

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20

2.31

Five front diphthongs exist in Cantoneses

i s a f a l l i n g f r o n t diphthong and can occur in any p o s itio n s . i s a r is in g f r o n t diphthong and occurs o nly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n . T a iJ

i s a r i s i n g f r o n t diphthong and occurs only in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s .

J T a lJ i s a r i s i n g f r o n t diphthong and occurs o nly in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s , i s a r is in g f r o n t diphthong and occu rs only in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s . 2.32

Two central diphthongs and one central triphthong

exist in Cantonese:

i s a f a l l i n g c e n t r a l diphthong and can occur in any p o s itio n s .

fw J

i s a r is in g c e n t r a l diphthong and occurs only in th e f i n a l p o s itio n .

i_ uUU_ 7 i s a f a l l i n g c e n tr a l trip h th o n g and occurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s . 2.33

Five back diphthongs exist in Cantonese:

L iU j

i s a f a l l i n g back diphthong and occurs only i n th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s .

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21

i s a f a l l i n g back diphthong and can occur in any p o s itio n s .

fo U

i s a r i s i n g back diphthong and occurs only i n th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s .

r Au j

i s a r i s i n g back dijhtfaong and o ccu rs only in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s .

fa U

i s a r is in g back diphthong and occurs o nly in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s itio n s .

2.4 2.40

Segmental Phonemes:

Consonant Phonemes

In s e c tio n 2.1 th e consonant p h o n etic e n t i t i e s have

been d e sc rib e d according to t h e i r a r ti c u la to r y p o s itio n s , and t h e i r g e n e ra l d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s have been stu d ie d .

In th i s

s e c tio n th e s e p h o n etic e n t i t i e s a r e grouped to g e th e r as segm ental consonant phonemes acco rd in g to th e c r i t e r i a s e t f o r th i n s e c tio n 2 .0 4 .

These consonant phonemes a r e c l a s s i f i e d as s to p s , f r i c a t i v e s ,

n a s a ls , l a t e r a l , a f f r i c a t e s , consonant c l u s t e r s , and sem i-vow els. Many o f them have only one allo p h o n e. 2.41

S ix s to p consonant phonemes e x i s t in Cantonese: / p /

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l sto p phoneme and has /""p *_7 and th e u n released / p a s

allo p h o n es.

They a re p h o n e tic a lly

s im ila r as v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l s to p s ; th e y a re a ls o i n complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h a t th e form er o ccu rs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and th e l a t t e r o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n . / t I

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r sto p phoneme and has jf”t* _ J and th e u n released

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22

as a llo p h o n e s.

They a re p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r as

v o ic e le s s a p ic o - a lv e o la r s to p s ; th e y a re a ls o in complementary d is tr i b u tio n in t h a t th e form er o ccurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and th e l a t t e r o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n . / k /

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r s to p phoneme and has £ ~ k and th e u n rele ased /~k"J_7 as a llo p h o n e s.

They a re p h o n e tic a lly

s im ila r as v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r s to p s ; th e y a re a ls o in complementary d is tr i b u tio n in t h a t th e former o ccurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and th e l a t t e r o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n . / p’ /

i s an u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l s to p pho­ neme and has o nly one allo p h o n es

rrj.

L P’_7 i s p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r to / ”*p*_J by being a v o ic e le s s b i l a b i a l s to p ; b u t th e y a re in c o n tr a s t i n t h a t b o th occur o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

T h ere fo re , th e y a re d i f f e r e n t

phonemes and n o t allo p h o n es o f th e same phoneme. / t* /

i s an u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r sto p phoneme and has o nly allophones

J t ’J i s p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r to £~t*J by being a v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r s to p ; b u t th e y a re i n c o n tr a s t in t h a t b o th occur o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

T h erefo re, th e y a re d i f f e r e n t

phonemes and n o t allo p h o n es o f th e same phoneme.

/k» /

is an unaspirated voiceless dorso-velar stop., phoneme and has only one allophones A ’J.

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23

/~ k ’_ 7 i s p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r to

in

b ein g a v o ic e le s s d o rs o -v e la r s to p ; b u t th e y a r e i n c o n tr a s t in t h a t both occur only in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n .

T h erefo re, th e y a re d i f f e r e n t

phonemes and n o t allo p h o n es o f th e same phoneme. 2 .if2

Three f r i c a t i v e phonemes e x i s t in C antonese: / f /

i s a v o ic e le s s la b io d e n ta l f r i c a t i v e phoneme and has £"f_J a s i t s o n ly alio p h o n e.

/ f /

o ccurs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and i s in c o n tr a s t w ith every o th e r phoneme t h a t occurs in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . / s /

i s a v o ic e le s s a p ic o - a lv e o la r f r i c a t i v e phoneme and has J_ s j as i t s a l i o phone.

/ s j occurs

o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and i s in c o n tra s t w ith every o th e r phoneme t h a t occu rs in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . / h /

i s a v o ic e le s s g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e phoneme and has £~h_J as i t s allo p h o n e.

/ h / occu rs o nly

in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and i s i n c o n tr a s t w ith every phoneme t h a t occu rs i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . 2 .^3

Three n a s a l phonemes e x i s t in C antonese: / m/

i s a v o iced b i l a b i a l n a s a l phoneme and has

M

and th e u n re le a se d /~m_ 7 a s a llo p h o n es.

They a r e p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r as b i l a b i a l n a s a ls ; th e y a r e a ls o in complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h a t th e form er occu rs o nly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n

and th e l a t t e r o n ly in th e f i n a l p o si­

ti o n .

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24

/ n /

i s a voiced a p ic o -a lv e o la r n a s a l phoneme and has /~ n _ 7 and th e u n rele ased /~n _ 7 as allo p h o n es. They a re p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r as a p ic o -a lv e o la r n a s a ls ; th e y a re a ls o in complementary d i s t r i ­ b u tio n i n t h a t th e form er o ccurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and th e l a t t e r o nly i n th e f i n a l p o s itio n .

/ ij /

i s a voiced d o rs o -v e la r n a s a l phoneme and has

£i)_J and th e u n rele ased Z"i] _ 7 as a llo p h o n es. o They a r e p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r as d o rs o -v e la r

n a s a ls ; th e y a re a ls o in complementary d i s t r i ­ b u tio n in t h a t th e form er o ccurs o n ly in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and th e l a t t e r o n ly in th e f i n a l p o s itio n . 2 .4 4

One l a t e r a l phoneme e x is ts i n Cantoneses / 1 /

i s a v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r l a t e r a l phoneme and has f l j

as i t s allo p h o n e.

/ 1 / occurs

o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n and i s i n con­ t r a s t w ith every phoneme t h a t o ccu rs in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . 2.45

Two a f f r i c a t e phonemes^ e x is t in Cantoneses / ts /

i s an a s p ir a te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r

a f f r i c a t e phoneme and has j_ ^ s j f as i t s Q 7Nelson F ran cis m entions two phonemic th e o rie s in tr e a tin g th e E n g lish a f f r i c a t e s / c / and / J / s one c o n sid e rs them a s phoneme sequences, and th e o th e r t r e a t s them as s e p a ra te i d e n t i t i e s . He f u r th e r comments t h a t "a good case may b e p u t up f o r e i t h e r s id e ; we w i l l throw in ou r l o t w ith th e a d h e re n ts o f th e second th e o ry .s (i b i d . . p. 13"!) • This a u th o r fo llo w s F r a n c is 1 tre a tm e n t o f th e two E n g lish a f f r i c a t e phonemes i n c la s s if y in g th e two Cantonese a f f r i c a t e s as in d iv id u a l phonemes.

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25

a l i o phone.

/ f?s / occu rs o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l

p o s itio n and i s in c o n tr a s t w ith every phoneme t h a t o ccurs i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . ■ A , / t ' s / i s an u n a s p ira te d v o ic e le s s a p ic o -a lv e o la r y\ ^ a f f r i c a t e phoneme and has £ t ’ s _ / as i t s a llcp h o n e.

/ t^ s / o ccu rs only in th e i n i t i a l

p o s itio n and i s in c o n tr a s t w ith every phoneme t h a t o ccurs in th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n . 2.4 6

There a r e two sem i-vow el phonemes in Can to n e se.

They

a c t a s consonant phonemes which precede vowels to c o n s ti tu te s y lla b le s ; th e y a ls o a c t as vowel phonemes when th ey a re used to form vowel phoneme sequences to be s y lla b ic n u c le i.

Because o f t h e i r co n so n an tal

and v o c a lic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , th e y a re co n sid ered as a s e p a ra te c la s s and w i l l be d iscu ssed a f t e r th e vowel phonemes. The f r o n t g lid e / " j J f i s an allophone o f th e f r o n t semi-vowel phoneme / y / .

The back g lid e /~w _J i s an allo p h o n e o f th e back

semi-vowel phoneme / w / . 2.47

The two consonant c l u s t e r s j k w j and^c’w_J a re

co nsid ered consonant phoneme sequences o f /kw / and / k ’w / . occur o n ly i n th e i n i t i a l p o s itio n s .

They

T h eir d i s t r i b u t i o n a l fre q u e n c ie s

a re v ery low and w i l l be d iscu ssed i n th e n ex t c h a p te r. 2.4 8

The Cantonese consonant phonemes a r e summarized in th e

fo llo w in g l i s t : Six s to p s :

/ p, t , k, p \ t ’ , k ’ /

Three f r i c a t i v e s : Three n a s a ls : One l a t e r a l :

/ f, s, h /

/ m, n, q / / 1 /

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26

Two a f f r i c a t e s :

/ t&, t^ s /

Two sem i-vow els:

/ y, w /

2 .^9

Minimal p a irs have been c o lle c te d to show th e c o n tr a s t

o f th e above consonant phonemes.

Since to n es have le x i c a l v alu e in

C antonese, th e same to n e i s used in each minimal p a i r .

/ /

/ i s th e

h ig h -h ig h to n e i n Cantonese and i s used f o r th e fo llo w in g minimal p a i r s . to f a l l w ith face tow ard th e f lo o r

he

/

Pa / : / t a ' /

/

pa/ :

/

P a / * / P’a /

/

Pa /

:

/

f a '/

/

pa/

:

/

k* i /

tf

home

/

pa/

:

/

f a '/

n

flo w er

/

p i/

*

/

sa/

n

sand

/

p a/

:

/ h i/

n

shrim p

/

P i /

*

/ ma

n

mother

/

P a/

:

/

n

scar

/

p i/

:

/ 13a ' /

rt

b la c k b ird

/

p a / j / l a '/

/

pa/

:

/

/

P aV

:

/ t* s a '/

ft

# t o hold f a s t w ith f in g e r s

/

p i /

*

I y a!

tf

w yard

/

pa/

:

/

Wa /

n

;

/

pa/

:

/

kwdf / 10

tt

»

/

Pa/

:

/

k ’w a /

»t

:

/

If

k a '/

a car o f a tr a in

n

f a th e r

n

/

na/

ts a

:

dozen

ft

/

n

to re a c h w ith fin g e r s 1

fo rk

fro g

• to b o a st melon

/ kw / and k ’w / a r e consonant phoneme sequences; however, th e y do behave l i k e th e s in g le consonant phonemes i n forming s y lla b le s . Both consonant phoneme sequences and vowel phoneme sequences a re used to c o n tr a s t w ith th e s in g le consonant phonemes and s in g le vowel phonemes.

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27

2.5 2.50

Segmental Phonemes:

Vowel Phonemes

I n s e c tio n 2 .2 th e vowel p h o n etic e n t i t i e s have been

d e sc rib e d acco rd in g to t h e i r a r t i c u l a t o r y p o s itio n s , and t h e i r g e n e ra l d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been stu d ie d .

I n t h i s s e c tio n

th e s e p h o n etic e n t i t i e s a re group to g e th e r a s segm ental vowel phonemes accord in g to th e c r i t e r i a s e t f o r th i n s e c tio n 2 .0 ^ . phonemes a r e c l a s s i f i e d in to th r e e major groups: back.

These vowel

f r o n t, c e n t r a l, and

Many o f them have o nly one allo p h o n e. 2 .5 2

Two f r o n t vowel phonemes e x i s t in Cantonese: / i /

i s a h ig h f r o n t unrounded vowel phoneme and has A J

and £~e_ 7 as allo p h o n es.* 1

A J

i s only used as th e m ajor elem ent to form th e f r o n t diphthong / " i l J , and £*e_ J i s cap ab le o f stan d in g a lo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

They do

n o t c o n tr a s t and a re p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r as high f r o n t unrounded vow els; th e r e f o r e , th e y a r e co n sid ered as allo p h o n es o f one phoneme. / i / can o ccu r in a l l word p o s itio n s . / se /

i s a low f r o n t unrounded vowel phoneme and has / ”ae_ 7 as i t s allo p h o n e.

/ ae / i s cap ab le o f

stan d in g a lo n e as a s y lla b ic n ucleus and occurs in th e m edial and f i n a l p o s itio n . * arri L UJ a re vowel p h o n etic e n t i t i e s , b u t th e y a re o n ly used a s g lid e s to form th e f r o n t and back d ip h th o n g s. P h o n e tic a lly speak in g , th e y belong to th e la r g e r u n its w ith £ l , e j and oj; b u t from th e phonemic p o in t o f view, th e y a re allophones o f th e semi­ vowel phonemes / y / and / w / .

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28

2.52

Three c e n t r a l vowel phonemes e x i s t i n Cantonese: / U/

i s a high c e n tr a l rounded vowel phoneme and has f u j in d j_ $ 3 as a llo p h o n es.

is

o nly used as th e l a s t elem ent to form th e diphthong /"*iU_7 and th e trip h th o n g /uUU_7, and 3 3

i s capable o f stan d in g alo n e as a

s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

They do n o t c o n tra s t and

a r e p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r as h ig h c e n t r a l un­ rounded vow els; th e re f o r e , th e y a re co n sid ered .

a s allo p h o n es o f one phoneme.

«

.

/ « / can occur

in any word p o s itio n . / 3 /

i s a low c e n t r a l rounded vowel phoneme and has

£~3_7 as i t s allo p h o n e.

/ 3 / i s capable o f

o f stan d in g alo n e a s a s y lla b ic nucleus and occurs in th e m edial and f i n a l p o s itio n s . / a /

i s a low c e n t r a l unrounded vowel phoneme and Z aJ

i s i t s allo p h o n e.

/ A / i s cap ab le o f

stan d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic nucleus and occu rs i n th e i n i t i a l and m edial p o s itio n s . 2.53

Three back vowel phonemes exist in Cantonese:

/ u /

i s a h ig h back rounded vowel phoneme and has Z \ 7 and L o j as allo p h o n es. 12 A

J

is

o n ly used a s th e major elem ent to form th e back diphthong / uOJ , and f o j i s cap ab le o f stan d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s.

They

do n o t c o n tr a s t and a re p h o n e tic a lly s im ila r 12

See fo o tn o te 11.

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29

as high hack rounded vow els;

th e re f o r e , th e y

a r e co n sid ered as allophones o f one phoneme. / o /

i s a low back rounded vowel phoneme and has

£ o J as i t s allo p h o n e.

/ o / i s cap ab le o f

stan d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic n u cleu s and can occur in any p o s itio n . / a /

i s a low back unrounded vowel phoneme and has / a_ 7 as i t s allo p h o n e.

/ a / i s capable

o f stan d in g alo n e as a s y lla b ic nucleus and can occur i n any p o s itio n s . 2 .5 ^

The fo llo w in g diagram i s a summary o f th e Cantonese

vowel phonemes: F ro n t

Back

C e n tra l

Unrounded

Unrounded

Unrounded

Rounded

Rounded

11

High Low

u

u

i

ae 2 .6 2.60

Segmental Phonemes:

Semi-Vowel Phonemes

A sem i-vowel phoneme p o sse sses th e c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o f

a consonant phoneme and a vowel phoneme.

Since i t belongs to b o th

groups, i t cannot be assig n ed to e i t h e r one. as a s e p a ra te group o f segm ental phonemes.

13

T h erefo re, i t i s tr e a te d I t i s a f u l l consonant

phoneme because i t can behave as a consonant i n beginning a s y lla b le ; i t i s a vowel g lid e because i t i s used as th e l a s t elem ent to form a complex s y lla b ic n u cleu s. 13

A rchibald A. H ill, I n tr o d u c tio n to L in g u is tic S tr u c tu r e s : From Sound to S entence in E n g lish (New York: H arco u rt. Brace & 'World., I n c . , 1958), p . 6 9 .

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30

2.61

There a r e two semi-vowel phonemes in C antonese.

/ y /

i s a f r o n t semi-vowel phoneme and has a consonant allo p h o n e / j_J and a vowel allo p h o n e J_ 1_J.

The follow ing i s a l i s t o f complex n u c le i

w ith / y / as i t s l a s t elem ent: / i y / , / ae y / , / a y

/ , /a y / ,

and / o y / . / w / i s a back semi-vowel phoneme and has a consonant a l l o ­ phone J_ w j and a vowel allo p h o n e

The fo llo w in g i s th e l i s t o f

complex n u c le i w ith / w / as i t s l a s t elem ent: /

aw

/ iw / , / uw / , / ow / ,

/ , and / a w / . 2.6 2

The h ig h c e n t r a l vowel phoneme / u / has an allophone /

"

/

1

"

1

which i s used to form th r e e complex s y lla b ic n u c le i: / i u / , / 3 U /* and / uwu / . 2 .6 3

Complex s y lla b ic n u c le i a re more th a n j u s t com binations

o f two o r th r e e vow els. in d iv id u a l u n i t s .

They a re c lo s e ly r e la te d as i f th e y were

H. A. G leason

ex p resses h is o p in io n t h a t " th is

c lo s e ly k n i t sequence o f phonemes must sometimes be s tu d ie d as a s in g le u n it."

1^

The fo llo w in g l i s t o f minimal p a ir s o f vowel phonemes in c lu d e s

th e complex n u c le i. / i / : / ae /

The to n es in each p a i r a r e th e same.^ ^ / * 0 /

! /

/

sh in y

: b e a u tif u l

/ i / : / 3 /

/ A* /

* / 13 q /

s p i r i t : food

/ i / « / A /

/ A g/

: / w A q/

g lo ry

/ i / : /« /

/iio /

: / lifl/

s p i r i t : dragon

* / lo g /

s p i r i t : w olf

* / U V

to le a d : co ld

/ i / * / 0 / / i / • / a /

/ iig /

:

b ig

H.A. G leason, J r . , An In tro d u c tio n to D e s c rip tiv e L in g u is tic s (New York: H o lt, R in e h art and W inston, 1961), p. 28. ^'’The d i a c r i t i c marks f o r to n e s w i l l be ex p lain ed in th e n ex t s e c tio n .

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31

/ la n /

/ a / : / u / /a

/ £ / *

/ *• / iy / * / ae J I

/a /

: / lit 'n /

./ a /

: /£ y /

dumb:

second p r iz e : c a l l

/ : /a y /

/a

/

: fa y I

/a

/ i /» y /

/ 'a /

: foyf

f a I : /iu /

/* « /

fa f : / 3«/

/h a " /

: / iw /

f a f : / uw / fa faf :

i f ow / /

/ a w

fa ! • / aw / 2 .7 2.70

c h a ir

shrim p:

/a

fa

:

wheel

/ Wf / : / hgfy /

/ : / Ay

l a f : / uu w /

dumb

/ & /

/a

/

to s to p :

/a

/

: / si" /

: / iw / * f\v f

: lo v e

sand : book shrim p: empty flo w er : ashes

"

* / aw /

down:

"

: h a te

to w ait

second p r iz e : decay

/ pa" / : / p a w / Tonen&c E n t iti e s !

"

second p r iz e : w ant

/ ha" / : f h o w /

/*/

s h o rt

"

: / h3u / i /n , / f a " / : / fu u w / / 'a /

hope

to f a l l : to throw

I s o la te d Tonemes

The l e x i c a l v alu e and s ig n if ic a n c e o f Cantonese tones

have been p o in ted o u t in p aragraph 2 .0 3 .

I t i s concluded t h a t to n es

o f a to n e language should be c l a s s i f i e d i n a categ o ry p a r a l l e l to th e segm ental phonemes.

The d if f e r e n t s ig n if i c a n t and c o n tr a s tiv e l e x ic a l

to n e s can be is o la te d i n a s y lla b le to re p re s e n t d i f f e r e n t morphemes— words; th e s e l e x i c a l to n e s a re co n sid ere d is o la te d tonemes. 2.71

Kenneth Pike d e fin e s a to n e language as "a language

having l e x i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , c o n tr a s tiv e , b u t r e l a t i v e p itc h on each s y l l a b l e . ^

He f u r th e r e x p la in s th e id e a o f l e x i c a l s ig n ific a n c e

and c o n tr a s t w ith an example from a to n e language in th e follow ing s ta te m e n t: ^Kenneth Pike, Tone Languages (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 19^8), p. 3 .

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32

S ig n if ic a n t p itc h d is tin g u is h e s th e meanings of u tte r a n c e . When p itc h i s le x i c a l , i t d is tin g u is h e s th e ipeanings o f words. Thus Mixteco zuku means "m ountain," b u t zuku means " b ru s h ," and th e o n ly d if f e r e n c e between them i s t h a t th e f i r s t word ends in a medium-pitched syllable and th e second word ends in a lo w -p itch ed o n e j ? Pike a ls o d isc u s s e s th e d if f e r e n c e between th e p itc h in E n g lish and th e p itc h i n a to n e language. P itc h i s a ls o s ig n if i c a n t in E nglish, b u t in E n g lish th e sem antic d i f f e r e n t i a l a p p lie s to th e p h rase as a whole, c o n s titu tin g a shade o f meaning r a th e r th an a d ic tio n a r y o r l e x ic a l meaning. For t h i s reason E nglish i s n o t c a lle d a to n e language even though i t u t i l i z e s s ig n if ic a n t p itc h , s in c e a to n e language must have p itc h t h a t i s both s i g n i f i ­ c a n t and l e x ic a l . 2.72

The a b s o lu te p itc h o f a c e r ta in to n e in a to n e language

i s not s ig n if i c a n t in tonemic a n a ly s is .

Pike o b serv es:

I t i s th e r e l a t i v e h e ig h t o f t h e i r tonemes, not t h e i r a c tu a l p itc h , which i s p e r tin e n t to t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c a n a ly s is . I t i s im m aterial to know th e number o f v ib r a tio n s p e r second o f a c e r ta in s y lla b le . The im p o rtan t f e a tu r e i s th e r e l a ­ t i v e h eig h t o f a s y lla b le in r e l a t i o n to preceding and fo llo w in g s y lla b le s . 19 I n an o th er p la ce he rem arks: The g e n e ra l p itc h o f th e v o ice o f a sp eak er may change from u tte r a n c e to u tte ra n c e o r even i n th e m idst o f an u tte r a n c e ; i n t h i s way a l l p itc h e s may, f o r example, be lowered so t h a t th e lo w est p itc h e s o f th e f i r s t u tte r a n c e a re h ig h e r th a n th e h ig h e s t p itc h e s o f th e l a t e r u tte r a n c e . N ev erth e less, th e tonemes, th e s ig n if i c a n t p itc h c o n tr a s tiv e u n its , rem ain un­ changed; th e r e l a t i v e p itc h e s a re th e same in each u t t e r a n c e . The r e l a t i v e s ig n i f i c a n t and c o n tr a s tiv e p itc h e s o f a to n e language a r e c l a s s i f i e d as tonemes. i s th e u se o f minimal p a ir s . by th e n a tiv e sp eak er.

The method employed to d isc o v e r tonemes These tonemes a re i d e n tif i a b le c le a r ly

They can be is o la te d i n any given s y lla b le to

18 I b id . 19 I b i d . . p. 5 . 20 I b l d . . p . v i.

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33

re p re s e n t d i f f e r e n t l e x i c a l morphemes—w ords; th e re f o r e , th e y a re ; tr e a te d as is o la te d e n t i t i e s .

They a re a s im p o rtan t a s th e segm ental

phonemes i n th e morphophonemic s tr u c t u r e o f words i n a to n e language because w ith o u t them th e l e x i c a l meanings o f th e words a re u n d eter­ mined.

They a re b a sic c o n s titu e n ts o f w ords.

Y. R. Chao rem arks:

A Chinese word i s what i t i s , n o t o n ly i n having i t s c o n s ti­ tu e n t consonants and vow els, b u t a ls o in having i t s c o n s ti­ tu e n t to n e . The word sa e "to wasij," w ith a h ig h - r is in g to n e , and th e word say " s m a ll," w ith i d e n t i c a l consonant and vowel, -but w ith a medium le v e l to n e , a r e as d i f f e r e n t f o r C hinese sp eak ers as bad and bed f o r E n g lish s p e a k e rs . ^ 2 .7 3

According to Pike tonemes in g e n e ra l a re o f two k in d s :

le v e l and g lid in g . A l e v e l toneme i s one i n which, w ith in th e lim its o f percep­ ti o n , th e p itc h o f a s y lla b le does n o t r i s e o r f a l l d u rin g i t s p ro d u ctio n . A g lid in g toneme i s one in which d u rin g th e p ro n u n c ia tio n o f th e s y lla b le on which i t o ccu rs th e r e i s a p e r c e p tib le r i s e o r f a l l , o r some com bination o f r i s e and f a l l , such a s r i s i n g - f a l l o r f a l l - r i s i n g . ^2 The a u th o r o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n has d isco v ere d t h a t Cantonese has only le v e l and r is in g tonemes.

23

There may be a l i t t l e fad in g

elem ent in some l e v e l to n e s , b u t i t i s n o t d i s t i n c t enough to be co n sid ered a s f a l l i n g to n e s.

The le v e l and r i s i n g Cantonese p itc h e s

are d is tr i b u te d i n s ix d i s t i n c t i v e and c o n tr a s tiv e to n e s, and th e y can be grouped to g e th e r in to two l e v e ls :

h ig h and low.

Each le v e l

has two l e v e l to n e s and one r i s i n g to n e .

These s ix to n es a r e named

Yuen-Ren Chao, Cantonese Prim er (Cambridge, M ass.: Harvard U n iv e rsity P re ss, 1947), p. 23. The a u th o r o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n uses / s a I / f o r sa e and say . These two words i n Chinese c h a r a c te r s a re ■%j sae "to wash" and sav " sm a ll." 22 P ike, op. c i t . . p. 5 . 23 Both Kok and Chao reco g n ize a f a l l i n g p itc h i n Cantonese, b u t in t h i s a u th o r 's id e o le c t, he cannot p e rc e iv e a f a l l i n g p itc h . Huang and Kok, op. c i t . . p. v i i i ; Chao, op . c i t . . p . 24.

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by t h i s a u th o r a s h ig h l e v e l to n e , h ig h r is in g to n e , low -high le v e l to n e , low le v e l to n e , low r i s i n g to n e , and high-low le v e l to n e .

The

low -high le v e l p itc h i s about a t h i r d s te p low er th a n th e high le v e l p itc h on a m u sical s c a le ; th e high-low le v e l p itc h i s about a second s te p h ig h e r th a n th e low le v e l p itc h .

The h igh r i s i n g p itc h i s in

between th e h igh le v e l p itc h and th e low -high le v e l p itc h ; r i s i n g p itc h i s a l i t t l e above th e high-low le v e l p itc h .

th e low The d is ta n c e

between th e low le v e l p itc h and th e h ig h le v e l p itc h i s about f iv e whole s te p s on a m usical s c a le .

The d i a c r i t i c a l marks f o r th e s e

p itc h e s a re a s fo llo w s. high le v e l p itc h ;

/

h ig h r is in g p it c h ; a low -high le v e l p i t c h ; y'~ low le v e l p it c h ; N low r i s i n g p it c h ; v high-low le v e l p it c h ; r~ 2 .7 4

The s ix p itc h e s d isc u sse d in p aragraph 2.73 a re phonemic

because th e y c o n tr a s t w ith each o th e r .

There a r e th ir ty - tw o s y lla b le s

t h a t p o ssess a l l s ix p itc h e s . The fo llo w in g l i s t i s an example and i s a ls o used as minimal p a irs to e s ta b lis h th e tonem ic s ta t u s o f th e s ix l e x i c a l to n e s.

■[ i y y

in h ig h l e v e l to n e means " c lo th e s %

, " o r "au n t

, 11 o r "h ealin g

."

in h ig h r is in g p itc h means "to depend 4 ^ "C hair

," o r

."

in low -high le v e l p itc h means "meaning •jff. i n low l e v e l p itc h means "son move

."

," o r "to

."

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35

( iy )

in low r is in g p itc h means " p a s t

( ^iy )

in high-low le v e l p itc h means "easy "two

-=-

o r "ear or

."

I n Chapter Four th e com plete l i s t o f th e th ir ty - tw o s y lla b le s which have a l l s ix to n es i s g iv en .

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."

CHAPTER I I I

DISTRIBUTION OF SEGMENTAL PHONEMES AND TONEMES

3.0 3.00

In tro d u c tio n

The im portance o f th e stu d y o f d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s

o f phonemes has been p o in te d o u t by t h i s a u th o r i n th e f i r s t c h a p te r. Remarks from S. S aporta and James S t. C la ir-S o b e ll a re c i te d to sup­ p o rt h is v ie w .* A.A. H i l l a ls o reco g n izes th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h i s to p ic and has a c h a p te r on " p h o n o ta c tic s " i n h is work to d e s c rib e 2 th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E n g lish phonemes. H ill e x p lain s th e term " p h o n o ta c tic s" as fo llo w s : The a re a o f phonernd.es which covers th e s t r u c t u r a l charac­ t e r i s t i c s o f sequences i s c a lle d p h o n o ta c tic s. I t i s e s s e n ti a lly a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f phonemes, once th e y have been i d e n t i f i e d . 3 He f u r th e r comments: "S ince phonemics p ro p er makes u se o f d is tr i b u ­ t i o n a l c r i t e r i a i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , p h o n o ta c tic s i s an ex te n sio n o f 4 phonem ics." A ll th e s e men a r e concerned w ith th e c lu s te r in g o f con­ sonants which i s an im p o rta n t f e a tu r e o f E h g lish and o th e r Indo-European languag es.

However, c l u s t e r in g o f consonants i s n o t a problem in

Cantonese.

The o n ly consonant c l u s t e r s i n Cantonese a re / kw / and

/ k ’w / , and t h e i r frequency o f occu rren ce i s v ery low.

*pp. 2 -3 o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . A rchibald A. H i l l , In tro d u c tio n to L in g u is tic S tr u c tu r e s : From Sound to Sentence i n E n g lish (New York: H arco u rt. Brace & World. I n c ., 1958), pp. 68 - 8 8 . ^ I b l d .. p. 6 8 .

k

Ib id . 36

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37

3.01

The d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f segm ental phonemes a re

formed acco rd in g to th e ty p e s o f s y lla b ic s tr u c tu r e o f th e piionologic a l system o f th e language.

An o p e r a tio n a l d e f in i ti o n o f a s y lla b le

needs to be made b e fo re th e stu d y o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f segm ental phonemes.

H. A. G leason d isc u s s e s s y lla b le s in th e fo llo w in g

manner'* Speech i s , th e r e f o r e , marked by a s e r ie s o f s h o r t p u lses produced by t h i s motion o f th e i n t e r c o s t a l m uscles. These p u lse s a re th e p h o n etic s y l l a b l e s . T y p ic a lly a s y lla b le c e n te rs around some vowel o r o th e r re s o n a n t and b eg in s and ends i n some sound w ith r e l a t i v e l y c lo se d a r t i c u l a t i o n . ft. Jakobson and M. H alle c o n s id e r t h a t "th e elem en tary p a tte r n under­ ly in g any grouping o f phonemes i s th e s y lla b le ." ^

In G le a so n 's s t a t e ­

ment, he em phasizes two b a s ic a s p e c ts o f a s y l l a b l e :

th e s h o r t p u lse s

in th e stream o f an u tte r a n c e and th e re so n a n t elem ent.

The remarks

by Jakobson and H alle b rin g o u t th e id e a t h a t th e s y lla b le i s th e l a r g e r u n i t i n th e phonemic system o f a language.

A ll o f th e f e a tu r e s

from b o th sta te m e n ts a re needed f o r an o p e ra tio n a l d e f in i ti o n o f a s y lla b le f o r t h i s r e s e a rc h .

A s y lla b le i s , th e r e f o r e , th e la r g e r

u n i t ii. th e p h o n o lo g ical system o f a language which c o n s is ts o f one o r more phonemes w ith a t l e a s t one re so n a n t phoneme and marks a s h o r t im pulse i n th e stream o f speech. 3.02

There i s one e s s e n t i a l requirem ent to c o n s ti tu te a s y l l a ­

b le acco rd in g to th e a u t h o r 's d e f i n i t i o n i n th e preceding paragraph: i t must c o n ta in a t l e a s t one re so n a n t phoneme.

This re so n a n t phoneme

may be a vowel phoneme, and i t a ls o may be a consonant phoneme. 5

H, A. G leason, J r . , An I n tr o d u c tio n to D e s c rip tiv e L in g u is tic s (New York: H olt, R in e h art and W inston, I n c . , 1961), p. 2 5 6 . ^R. Jakobson and M. H a lle , Manual o f P h o n e tic s, ed. L. K a ise r Company, 1957), p . 226 .

"Phonology in R e la tio n to P h o n e tic s ," (Amsterdam: N o rth-E olland P u b lish in g

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38

The s tr u c t u r e o f d i f f e r e n t ty p es o f s y lla b le s in Cantonese i s analyzed in t h i s c h a p te r.

The term s y lla b ic nucleus i s used to re p re ­

s e n t th e re so n a n t elem ent o f th e s y lla b le ; however, t h i s term needs to be d e fin e d .

According to G leason, a s y lla b ic nucleus i s a vowel,

o r a vowel and a follow ing sem i-vow el.^

This d e f in itio n needs to be

expanded to f i t th e d e s c r ip tio n o f Cantonese because c e r t a in Cantonese consonants can stan d alo n e as s y lla b le s .

T h erefo re, a Cantonese s y l­

la b ic n u cleu s i s a vowel, o r a vowel and a fo llo w in g sem i-vow el, o r a re so n an t consonant. 3.03

F iv e ty p e s o f s y lla b ic s tr u c tu r e s e x i s t in Cantonese.

The f i r s t ty p e c o n s is ts o f o n ly a s in g le re so n a n t consonant and has o nly one phoneme.

The second ty p e c o n s is ts o f a vowel, o r a vowel

w ith a fo llo w in g semi-vowel, and i t may have one o r two phonemes. The t h i r d ty p e c o n s is ts o f a consonant o r a consonant c l u s t e r and a s in g le vowel o r a vowel w ith a fo llo w in g sem i-vow el; t h i s ty p e may have two, th r e e , o r fo u r phonemes.

The f o u r th ty p e c o n s is ts o f a

vowel w ith a fo llo w in g semi-vowel and a fo llo w in g co n sonant; t h i s ty p e may have two o r th r e e phonemes.

The f i f t h ty p e c o n s is ts o f a

consonant o r a consonant c l u s t e r and a vowel o r a vowel and a follow in g sem i-vow el; t h i s ty p e may have th r e e to f iv e phonemes. The fo llo w in g symbols a r e employed to re p re s e n t th e d i f f e r e n t ty p es o f s y lla b ic s tr u c t u r e ; C s ta n d s f o r any consonant o r consonant c l u s t e r , and V stan d s f o r any vowel o r any com bination o f vowels and sem i-vowel.

There a r e o n ly f iv e p o s s ib le ty p es o f s y lla b le s tr u c tu r e s :

C, V, CV, VC, and CVC.

Now l e t C stan d f o r b o th C (consonant) and Cc

(consonant c l u s t e r ) and V stan d f o r b oth V (vow el) and Vv (com bination ^G leason, op. c i t . . p. 28.

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39

o f a row el and a fo llo w in g sem i-vow el); th en i t i s p o s s ib le to f in d o u t th e su b -ty p es. 3.04-

Under th e f i r s t ty p e C, th e r e a re no su b -ty p e s.

There

a r e o n ly two consonant c l u s t e r s , and th e y n ev er stan d alo n e as s y lla ­ b le s .

They o n ly o ccu r i n i t i a l l y in th e fo llow ing types o f s y lla b le

s tru c tu re s :

CV, CVC.

3.05

Under th e second ty p e V, th e r e a re two su b -ty p e s.

Cer­

t a i n vowels can stan d alo n e as s y l l a b l e s , and th e y form th e su b -ty p e V.

C e rta in com binations o f vowels w ith fo llo w in g semi-vowels can

stand alo n e as s y l l a b l e s , and th e y f o m th e su b -ty p e Vv. 3.06

Under th e t h i r d ty p e CV, th e r e a re fo u r s u b -ty p e s : CV

CVv. CcV. and CcVv. 3.07

Under th e fo u rth ty p e VC, th e r e a re two su b -ty p e s .

The

two consonant c l u s t e r phonemes do n o t occur i n th e f i n a l p o s itio n s and e lim in a te two p o s s ib le sub-types i n t h i s group.

The two su b -ty p es

a r e VC and VvC. 3.08

Under th e f i f t h ty p e CVC. th e r e a re th r e e su b -ty p e s.

They a r e CVC. CVvC. and CcVC.

The fo llo w in g i s a sucmary o f th e main

ty p es and su b -ty p es o f s y lla b le s tr u c tu r e s i n Cantonese. Type I

C

no su b -ty p es

Type I I

V

V Vv

Type I I I CV

CV CVv CcV CcVv

Type IV

VC VC VvC

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3.09

Cantonese to n e s have l e x i c a l v a lu e s ; th e re f o r e , i t i s

n e c e ssa ry to stu d y t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s .

There a re s ix

l e x i c a l to n e s, and t h e i r d i a c r i t i c a l marks a re as fo llo w s.

The high

le v e l to n e i s marked w ith ( * ), th e high r i s i n g w ith ( A ), th e high mid w ith ( '“ ), th e low le v e l w ith ( ** ), th e low r is in g w ith (v ), and th e low mid w ith ( /“* ). Not every to n e o f every s y lla b le has words.

Some s y lla b le s

may have words w ith th r e e o f th e s i x p o s s ib le to n e s, some may have f iv e , some may have o n ly one, and some may have words w ith a l l s ix to n e s .

F or example, th e s y lla b le / h iyn / h as words o n ly in fo u r

to n e s.

The h igh le v e l to n e o f / hiyn / has two morphemes, and th e

g rap h ic re p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e s e two morphemes a re and 4*? "a r a i l . "

^

" to p u ll"

The high r i s i n g to n e o f / h iyn / has th r e e morphemes,

and on ly one o f them has a g rap h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n which i s | f " t o show f o r t h . "

The o th e r two morphemes which do n e t have g rap h ic re p re ­

s e n ta tio n s a re a noun and a v e rb .

The noun means "clam ;" th e verb means

" to ta k e o f f th e to p p a r t o f a cooking u t e n s i l . "

The h igh mid to n e o f

/ hiyn / a ls o has th r e e morphemes, and two o f them have g rap h ic re p re ­ s e n ta tio n s which a r e

" c o n s titu tio n " and /j| £ " o f f e r in g ."

The o th e r

morpheme which does n o t have a g ra p h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n means "gravy." low le v e l to n e o f / h iy n / has o n ly one morpheme, and t h i s morpheme does n o t have a g rap h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n ; i t s meaning i s " f i l i a l lo v e ." The low r i s i n g tone and th e low mid to n e o f / h iy n / a re nonsense s y lla b le s .

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The

I n th e stu d y o f th e tonem ic d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f each ty p e o f s y lla b le s tr u c tu r e in th e subsequent s e c tio n s o f t h i s c h a p te r, th e a u th o r has used th e p o s itio n d ev ice to in d ic a te th e d i f f e r e n t to n e s . lin e

The s y lla b le appears i n th e b eg in n in g p o s itio n o f th e f ir s ta s th e h ig h le v e l toneme, i n th e m iddle p o s itio n

r i s i n g toneme, in th e f i n a l p o s itio n

as th e h ig h

as th e high mid toneme.

The

s y lla b le i n th e beginning p o s itio n o f th e second l i n e has th e low l e v e l toneme, i n th e middle p o s itio n has th e low r is in g toneme, and in th e f i n a l p o s itio n h as th e low mid toneme.

The fo llo w in g ta b le

i s an example. hiyn (x)

h iy n (x )

h iyn (x)

hiyn (x)

h iyn

hiyn

The tonem ic p o s itio n s o f th e s y lla b le / h iy n / which have words a r e marked w ith x i n p a re n th e s e s .

The unmarked p o s itio n s in d ic a te non­

sen se s y lla b le s . 3.1 3.10

Consonant Type S y lla b le S tr u c tu r e

The a u th o r has t e s t e d a l l Can to n e se consonants and

consonant c l u s t e r s and found t h a t o n ly / m / and / q / can stan d alo n e as s y lla b le s . 3.11 The to n e s as fo llo w s.

o f th e two consonant ty p e s y lla b le s a re

marked

A ll s y lla b le s o f th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f s y lla b le s tr u c tu r e s

a r e numbered c o n s e c u tiv e ly th ro u g h o u t t h i s c h a p te r. 1

/ n / (x) / a / (x)

/ * / / ? /

/ ? / / « /

2

/ d / (*) / Q / U)

/ sl / a /