Idea Transcript
PHYSICS PRINCIPLES WITH APPLICATIONS Fifth Edition
Douglas C. Giancoli
PRENTICE HALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS; VECTORS 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 PREFACE
Xll
NOTES TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS ON THE FORMAT 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8
Science and creativity Physics and its relation to other fields Models, theories, and laws Measurement and uncertainty Units, standards, and the SI system Converting units Order of magnitude: rapid estimating Mathematics in physics SUMMARY PROBLEMS
2
2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 *2-8
15 16
QUESTIONS 16 GENERAL PROBLEMS
DESCRIBING MOTION: KINEMATICS IN ONE DIMENSION
2 4 5 6 8 11 12 15
QUESTIONS 4 1 GENERAL PROBLEMS
20 21 23 24 26 29 29 32 38 46
QUESTIONS 7 0 GENERAL PROBLEMS
MOTION AND FORCE: DYNAMICS
17
19
Vectors and scalars Addition of vectors—graphical methods Subtraction of vectors, and multiplication of a vector by a scalar Adding vectors by components **• Problem solving: adding vectors Projectile motion Solving problems involving projectile motion *+ Problem solving: projectile motion Projectile motion is parabolic Relative velocity SUMMARY 6 9 PROBLEMS 7 0
XXII
Reference frames and displacement Average velocity Instantaneous velocity Acceleration Motion at constant acceleration Solving problems *» Problem solving Falling objects Graphical analysis of linear motion SUMMARY 4 1 PROBLEMS 4 2
*3*3-
4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7
4-8 4-9
48 48 49 51 52 56 57 60 60 66 66
75
77
Force 77 Newton's first law of motion 78 Mass 80 Newton's second law of motion 80 Newton's third law of motion 83 Weight—the force of gravity; and the normal force 87 Solving problems with Newton's laws: vector forces and free-body diagrams 89 *+• Problem solving: Newton's laws; Free-body diagrams 91 Applications involving friction, inclines 96 Problem solving—A general approach 102 *• Problem solving: in general 102 SUMMARY 1 0 3 PROBLEMS 1 0 4
QUESTIONS 103 GENERAL PROBLEMS
110
iii
LINEAR MOMENTUM 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5
7-6 *7-7 CIRCULAR MOTION; GRAVITATION 5-1 5-2 5-3 *5-4 *5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 *5-9 5-10
112
Kinematics of uniform circular motion Dynamics of uniform circular motion A car rounding a curve Nonuniform circular motion Centrifugation Newton's law of universal gravitation Gravity near the Earth's surface; geophysical applications Satellites and "weightlessness" Kepler's laws and Newton's synthesis Types of forces in nature *• Problem solving: uniform circular motion and gravity SUMMARY 1 3 8 PROBLEMS 1 3 9
QUESTIONS 1 3 8 GENERAL PROBLEMS
112 115 119 122 123 124
7-8 *7-9 *7-10
8 8-1 8-2
137
8-3 8-4 8-5
143
8-6 6 6-1 *6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7
6-8
6-9
6-10
W O R K A N D ENERGY Work done by a constant force **• Problem solving: work Work done by a varying force Kinetic energy, and the work-energy principle Potential energy Conservative and nonconservative forces Mechanical energy and its conservation Problem solving using conservation of mechanical energy Other forms of energy; energy transformations and the law of conservation of energy Energy conservation with dissipative forces: solving problems ** Problem solving: conservation of energy Power SUMMARY 1 7 2 PROBLEMS 1 7 4
iv
CONTENTS
QUESTIONS 172 GENERAL PROBLEMS
145 146 149 150 150 153 157 158 159
166 167 169 169 178
Momentum and its relation to force 180 Conservation of momentum 182 Collisions and impulse 185 Conservation of energy and momentum in collisions 187 Elastic collisions in one dimension— solving problems using energy and momentum conservation 188 Inelastic collisions 190 Collisions in two or three dimensions 192 *+• Problem solving: momentum conservation and collisions 194 Center of mass (см) 194 CM for the human body 197 Center of mass and translational motion 199 SUMMARY 2 0 1 PROBLEMS 2 0 2
127 129 133 137
8-7 8-8 *8-9
180
QUESTIONS 2 0 1 GENERAL PROBLEMS
ROTATIONAL MOTION Angular quantities Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated rotational motion Rolling motion Torque Rotational dynamics; torque and rotational inertia Solving problems in rotational dynamics *• Problem solving: rotational motion Rotational kinetic energy Angular momentum and its conservation Vector nature of angular quantities SUMMARY 2 3 2 PROBLEMS 2 3 4
QUESTIONS 2 3 3 GENERAL PROBLEMS
207 209 209 214 215 217 220 222 223 225 228 230 239
BODIES IN EQUILIBRIUM; ELASTICITY A N D FRACTURE 2 4 1 9-1 9-2 9-3 *9-4 •9-5 9-6 9-7 *9-8
Statics-the study of forces in equilibrium The conditions for equilibrium Solving statics problems *+• Problem solving: statics Applications to muscles and joints Stability and balance Elasticity; stress and strain Fracture Spanning a space: arches and domes SUMMARY 2 6 4 PROBLEMS 2 6 6
QUESTIONS 2 6 5 GENERAL PROBLEMS
241 243 245 245 250 252 253 258 261 272
11 11-1 11-2
-чЬ^
11-3 11-4 11-5 11-6 11-7 11-8 11-9 •11-10
10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9
П0-10 •10-11 •10-12 •10-13
FLUIDS
275
Density and specific gravity Pressure in fluids Atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure Pascal's principle Measurement of pressure; gauges and the barometer Buoyancy and Archimedes' principle Fluids in motion; flow rate and the equation of continuity Bernoulli's equation Applications of Bernoulli's principle: from Torricelli to sailboats, airfoils, and TIA Viscosity Flow in tubes: Poiseuille's equation, blood flow Surface tension and capillarity Pumps; the heart and blood pressure SUMMARY 3 0 2 PROBLEMS 3 0 4
QUESTIONS 3 0 2 GENERAL PROBLEMS
275 276
11-11 11-12 •11-13
287 289
291 294 295 296 300 307
Simple harmonic motion Energy in the simple harmonic oscillator The period and sinusoidal nature of SHM The simple pendulum Damped harmonic motion Forced vibrations; resonance Wave motion Types of waves: transverse and longitudinal Energy transported by waves Intensity related to amplitude and frequency Reflection and interference of waves Standing waves; resonance Refraction and diffraction SUMMARY 3 4 0 PROBLEMS 3 4 2
278 279 280 282
VIBRATIONS A N D WAVES
12
QUESTIONS 3 4 1 GENERAL PROBLEMS
309 312 314 319 320 321 322 326 329 330 331 334 337 345
347
SOUND
Characteristics of sound Intensity of sound: decibels Amplitude related to intensity The ear and its response; loudness Sources of sound: vibrating strings and air columns •12-6 Quality of sound, and noise 12-7 Interference of sound waves; beats 12-8 Doppler effect •12-9 Shock waves and the sonic boom •12-10 Applications; ultrasound and medical imaging 12-1 12-2 •12-3 •12-4 12-5
SUMMARY 374 PROBLEMS 3 7 6
309
QUESTIONS 375 GENERAL PROBLEMS
CONTENTS
347 350 352 353 355 361 362 365 369 370 379
V
13 13-1 13-2 *13-3 13-4 13-5 13-6 13-7 13-8 13-9 13-10 13-11 *13-12 *13-13 *13-14 *13-15
TEMPERATURE AND KINETIC THEORY
14-1 14-2 14-3 14-4 14-5 14-6 14-7 14-8 14-9
381
Atomic theory of matter 381 Temperature and thermometers 384 Thermal equilibrium and the zeroth 387 law of thermodynamics Thermal expansion 388 Anomalous behavior of water 390 below 4°C Thermal stresses 391 The gas laws and absolute 392 temperature 394 The ideal gas law Problem solving with the ideal gas law 396 396 Ideal gas law in terms of molecules: 397 Avogadro's number Kinetic theory and the molecular 399 interpretation of temperature 402 Distribution of molecular speeds 403 Real gases and changes of phase 405 Vapor pressure and humidity Diffusion 408 SUMMARY 4 1 1 QUESTIONS 4 1 1 PROBLEMS 4 1 2 GENERAL PROBLEMS
14
15
HEAT Heat as energy transfer Distinction between temperature, heat, and internal energy Internal energy of an ideal gas Specific heat Calorimetry—solving problems Latent heat *+• Problem solving: calorimetry Heat transfer: conduction Heat transfer: convection Heat transfer: radiation SUMMARY 4 3 7 QUESTIONS 4 3 8 PROBLEMS 4 3 9 GENERAL PROBLEMS
THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics First law of thermodynamics applied to some simple systems •15-3 Human metabolism and the first law 15-4 The second law of thermodynamics— introduction 15-5 Heat engines *15-6 Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps 15-7 Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics 15-8 Order to disorder 15-9 Unavailability of energy; heat death *15-10 Evolution and growth; "Time's arrow" П5-11 Statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law *15-12 Energy resources: thermal pollution **• Problem solving: thermodynamics 15-1 15-2
SUMMARY 4 7 0 QUESTIONS 4 7 1 PROBLEMS 4 7 1 GENERAL PROBLEMS
CONTENTS
444 445 449 450 451 456 458 460 461 462 463 464 470
474
416
417 417 419 420 420 422 424 427 428 431 433 441
16
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD
Static electricity; electric charge and its conservation 16-2 Electric charge in the atom 16-3 Insulators and conductors 16-4 Induced charge; the electroscope 16-5 Coulomb's law 16-6 Solving problems involving Coulomb's law and vectors 16-7 The electric field **• Problem solving: electrostatics 16-8 Field lines 16-9 Electric fields and conductors *16-10 Electric forces in molecular biology: DNA structure and replication
476
16-1
SUMMARY 4 9 6 QUESTIONS 4 9 6 PROBLEMS 4 9 7 GENERAL PROBLEMS
vi
443
477 478 479 479 481 483 486 490 490 492 493 499
17 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC ENERGY; CAPACITANCE
19 502
17-1
Electric potential and potential difference 17-2 Relation between electric potential and electric field 17-3 Equipotential lines 17-4 The electron volt, a unit of energy 17-5 Electric potential due to point charges *17-6 Electric dipoles 17-7 Capacitance 17-8 Dielectrics 17-9 Storage of electric energy *17-10 Cathode ray tube: TV and computer monitors, oscilloscope •17-11 The electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) SUMMARY 5 2 1 QUESTIONS 5 2 2 PROBLEMS 5 2 2 GENERAL PROBLEMS
502 506 507 508 509 511 513 514 516 518 520
Resistors in series and in parallel EMF and terminal voltage Kirchhoff's rules Solving problems with Kirchhoff's rules *» Problem solving: Kirchhoff's rules 19-5 EMFs in series and in parallel; charging a battery 19-6 Circuits containing capacitors in series and in parallel 19-7 Circuits containing a resistor and a capacitor *19-8 Heart pacemakers 19-9 Electric hazards; leakage currents »19-10 DC ammeters and voltmeters *19-11 Effects of meter resistance SUMMARY 579 QUESTIONS 579 PROBLEMS 581 GENERAL PROBLEMS
525
20-1 20-2 20-3 20-4 20-5 20-6 *20-7 18-1 18-2 18-3 18-4 *18-5 18-6 18-7 18-8 •18-9 •18-10
The electric battery Electric current Ohm's law: resistance and resistors Resistivity Superconductivity Electric power Power in household circuits Alternating current Microscopic view of electric current The nervous system and nerve conduction SUMMARY 5 4 9 QUESTIONS 5 5 0 PROBLEMS 5 5 1 GENERAL PROBLEMS
527 528 530 532 534 537 538 540 541 544 546 553
555
19-1 19-2 19-3 19-4
20
18 ELECTRIC CURRENTS
DC CIRCUITS
*20-8 •20-9 •20-10 •20-11 •20-12 •20-13 •20-14 •20-15
556 562 564 566 567 568 568 570 572 573 575 578 585
MAGNETISM
588
Magnets and magnetic fields Electric currents produce magnetism Force on an electric current in a magnetic field; definition of В Force on an electric charge moving in a magnetic field Magnetic field due to a straight wire Force between two parallel wires Definition of the ampere and the coulomb Ampere's law Torque on a current loop; magnetic moment Applications: galvanometers, motors, loudspeakers The hall effect Mass spectrometer Ferromagnetism; domains Electromagnets and solenoids Magnetic fields in magnetic materials; hysteresis *» Problem solving: magnetic fields SUMMARY 6 1 4 PROBLEMS 6 1 5
QUESTIONS 6 1 4 GENERAL PROBLEMS
CONTENTS
588 591 592 594 597 597 599 599 603 604 606 607 608 610 611 613
620
vii
21
21-1 21-2 21-3 21-4 21-5 *21-6 21-7 *21-8
*21-9 *21-10 •21-11 •21-12 *21-13 *21-14 •21-15
ELECTROMAGNETIC I N D U C T I O N A N D FARADAY'S LAW; AC CIRCUITS 622 Induced EMF Faraday's law of induction; Lenz's law EMF induced in a moving conductor Changing magnetic flux produces an electric field Electric generators Counter EMF and torque; eddy currents Transformers; transmission of power Applications of induction: magnetic microphone, tape recording, computer memory, and the seismograph Inductance Energy stored in a magnetic field LR circuit AC circuits and impedance LRC series AC circuit; problem solving Resonance in AC circuits; oscillators Impedance matching SUMMARY 6 5 2 PROBLEMS 6 5 4
22 22-1 *22-2 22-3 *22-4 22-5 22-6 *22-7 *22-8
QUESTIONS 6 5 2 GENERAL PROBLEMS
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Changing electric fields produce magnetic fields; Maxwell's equations Maxwell's fourth equation; displacement current Production of electromagnetic waves Calculation of the speed of electromagnetic waves Light as an electromagnetic wave and the electromagnetic spectrum Measuring the speed of light Energy in EM waves Radio and television SUMMARY 6 7 9 PROBLEMS 6 8 0
QUESTIONS 6 8 0 GENERAL PROBLEMS
622 624 627 628 629 631 633
637 638 640 641 642 646 649 650
658
660 661
23
The ray model of light Reflection; image formation by a plane mirror 23-3 Formation of images by spherical mirrors **• Problem solving: spherical mirrors 23-4 Index of refraction 23-5 Refraction: Snell's law 23-6 Total internal reflection; fiber optics 23-7 Thin lenses; ray tracing 23-8 The lens equation 23-9 Problem solving for lenses **• Problem solving: thin lenses *23-10 Problem solving for combinations of lenses "23-11 The lensmaker's equation 23-1 23-2
SUMMARY 7 1 5 PROBLEMS 7 1 7
662 664 666 669 672 673 676 682
LIGHT: GEOMETRIC OPTICS
24
THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Waves versus particles; Huygens' principle and diffraction 24-2 Huygens' principle and the law of refraction 24-3 Interference—Young's double-slit experiment 24-4 The visible spectrum and dispersion 24-5 Diffraction by a single slit or disk 24-6 Diffraction grating 24-7 The spectrometer and spectroscopy 24-8 Interference by thin films *24-9 Michelson interferometer 24-10 Polarization *24-ll Scattering of light by the atmosphere *+ Problem solving: interference
CONTENTS
683 684 688 695 696 696 699 702 706 707 707 709 711 721
723
24-1
SUMMARY 7 5 1 PROBLEMS 7 5 2 VII
QUESTIONS 7 1 6 GENERAL PROBLEMS
683
QUESTIONS 7 5 2 GENERAL PROBLEMS
724 725 727 731 732 735 738 739 743 744 749 750 755
27
EARLY QUANTUM THEORY AND MODELS OF inn
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27-1 27-2 27-3
25
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
25-1 25-2 25-3 25-4 25-5 25-6 25-7
The camera The human eye; corrective lenses The magnifying glass Telescopes Compound microscope Aberrations of lenses and mirrors Limits of resolution; the Rayleigh criterion 25-8 Resolution of telescopes and microscopes 25-9 Resolution of the human eye and useful magnification *25-10 Specialty microscopes and contrast 25-11 X-rays and X-ray diffraction *25-12 X-ray imaging and computerized axial tomography (CAT scan) SUMMARY 7 8 7 PROBLEMS 7 8 8
26
QUESTIONS 7 8 8 GENERAL PROBLEMS
SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATTVITY
26-1 Galilean-Newtonian relativity *26-2 The Michelson-Morley experiment 26-3 Postulates of the special theory of relativity 26-4 Simultaneity 26-5 Time dilation and the twin paradox 26-6 Length contraction 26-7 Four-dimensional space-time 26-8 Momentum and mass 26-9 The ultimate speed 26-10 E=mc1; mass and energy 26-11 Relativistic addition of velocities 26-12 The impact of special relativity SUMMARY 8 1 8 PROBLEMS 8 1 9
QUESTIONS 8 1 8 GENERAL PROBLEMS
757 757 761 765 767 770 772
Discovery and properties of the electron Planck's quantum hypothesis Photon theory of light and the photoelectric effect 27-4 Photon interactions; Compton effect and pair production 27-5 Wave-particle duality; the principle of complementarity 27-6 Wave nature of matter *27-7 Electron microscopes 27-8 Early models of the atom 27-9 Atomic spectra: key to the structure of the atom 27-10 The Bohr model 27-11 de Broglie's hypothesis applied to atoms SUMMARY 8 5 2 PROBLEMS 8 5 4
QUESTIONS 8 5 3 GENERAL PROBLEMS
823 826 829 833 835 836 838 840 841 844 851
857
774 777 779 779 782 784
28
791
QUANTUM MECHANICS OF ATOMS
28-1 28-2
792 793 796 799 801 803 808 810 811 812 813 816 817 821
Quantum mechanics—a new theory The wave function and its interpretation; the double-slit experiment 28-3 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle 28-4 Philosophic implications; probability versus determinism 28-5 Quantum-mechanical view of atoms 28-6 Quantum mechanics of the hydrogen atom; quantum numbers 28-7 Complex atoms; the exclusion principle 28-8 The periodic table of elements 28-9 X-ray spectra and atomic number *28-10 Fluorescence and phosphorescence *28-ll Lasers *28-12 Holography SUMMARY 8 8 3 PROBLEMS 8 8 4
QUESTIONS 8 8 4 GENERAL PROBLEMS
CONTENTS
859 860 861 863 867 868 869 872 874 875 878 878 882 886
ix
29 *29-l *29-2 *29-3 *29-4 *29-5 *29-6 *29-7 *29-8 *29-9
MOLECULES A N D SOLIDS Bonding in molecules Potential-energy diagrams for molecules Weak (van der Waals) bonds Molecular spectra Bonding in solids Band theory of solids Semiconductors and doping Semiconductor diodes Transistors and integrated circuits SUMMARY 9 1 1 QUESTIONS 9 1 2 PROBLEMS 9 1 2 GENERAL PROBLEMS
887 887 890 892 895 901 902 905 907 909 914
31 31-1 31313131-5 *31-6 *31-7 *31-8 *31-9
30 30-1 30-2 30-3 30-4 30-5 30-6 30-7 30-8 30-9 30-10 30-11 *30-12 *30-13
NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIOACTIVITY Structure and properties of the nucleus Binding energy and nuclear forces Radioactivity Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma decay Conservation of nucleon number and other conservation laws Half-life and rate of decay Calculations involving decay rates and half-life Decay series Radioactive dating Stability and tunneling Detection of radiation SUMMARY 939 QUESTIONS 939 PROBLEMS 940 GENERAL PROBLEMS
x
CONTENTS
32
928 928 930 932 934 936 937 ! 42
Nuclear reactions and the transmutaton of elements Nuclear fission; nuclear reactors Fusion Passage of radiation through matter; radiation damage Measurement of radiation— dosimetry Radiation therapy Tracers and imaging in research and medicine Emission topography Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) SUMMARY 9 6 8 QUESTIONS 9 6 9 PROBLEMS 9 7 0 GENERAL PROBLEMS
916 916 919 922 923 925 927
NUCLEAR ENERGY; EFFECTS AND USES OF RADIATION 943
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
32-1 32-2 32-3
High-energy particles Particle accelerators Beginnings of elementary particle physics—the Yukawa particle 32-4 Particles and antiparticles 32-5 Particle interactions and conservation laws 32-6 Particle classification 32-7 Particle stability and resonances 32-8 Strange particles 32-9 Quarks 32-10 The "standard model": quantum chromodynamics (QCD) and the electroweak theory 32-11 Grand unified theories SUMMARY 9 9 5 PROBLEMS 9 9 6
QUESTIONS 9 9 6 GENERAL PROBLEMS
943 947 953 958 959 963 963 965 972
972
973 974 975 979 983 983 984 986 987 988
991 993 998
APPENDIX A
MATHEMATICAL REVIEW 1036 A-l Relationships, proportionality, and equations 1036 A-2 Exponents 1037 A-3 Powers of 10, or exponential notation 1038 A-4 Algebra 1039 A-5 The binomial expansion 1043 A-6 Plane geometry 1043 A-7 Areas and volumes 1044 A-8 Trigonometric functions and identities 1045 A-9 Logarithms 1046 APPENDIX В
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1048
APPENDIX С
ROTATING FRAMES OF REFERENCE; ENERTIAL FORCES; CORIOLIS EFFECT 1051 33
ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY
33-1 Stars and galaxies 33-2 Stellar evolution: the birth and death of stars 33-3 General relativity: gravity and the curvature of space 33-4 The expanding universe 33-5 The big bang and the cosmic microwave background 33-6 The standard cosmological model: the early history of the universe 33-7 The future of the universe? SUMMARY 1031 QUESTIONS 1032 PROBLEMS 1033 GENERAL PROBLEMS
APPENDIX D
999
GAUSS'S LAW
1055
1000
APPENDIX E
1005
GALILEAN AND LORENT2 TRANSFORMATIONS
1012 1017
APPENDIX F
SELECTED ISOTOPES
1064
1021
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS
1068
1023 1027
INDEX
1081
1034
PHOTO CREDITS
1095
CONTENTS
1060
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