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EFFECTIVE PRACTICES FOR ACADEMIC LEADERS

Conflict Management by Nancy E. Algert and Christine A. Stanley Volume 2/issn 1554-0464 Issue 9/isbn 978-1-57922-171-3 Executive Summary

C ONTENTS Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Conflict and Conflict Management . . . . . 2 Conflict Management and Social Justice . 5 Factors Affecting Our Conflict Modes . . 9 Deciding When and How to Engage in Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Conflict Management Styles of Academic Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Improving Conflict Management skills . . 10 Developing Conflict Management Awareness in the Department Culture . 11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Annotated Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

A BOUT

THE

September 2007

A UTHORS

Nancy E. Algert received her Ph.D. in educational psychology from Texas A&M University. She is president of the Center for Change and Conflict Resolution, a licensed professional counselor, and a TMCA Distinguished Mediator in Bryan, Texas. She serves as a visiting assistant professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at Texas A&M. Christine A. Stanley received her Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction from Texas A&M University and is executive associate dean for faculty affairs and professor of higher education administration in the university’s College of Education and Human Development.

E DITORS Timothy J. Delmont Director, Center for Human Resource Development/Office of Human Resources University of Minnesota [email protected] Robert Secor Vice Provost Emeritus for Academic Affairs Pennsylvania State University [email protected]

A successful academic leader such as a department chair or dean must be able to discern and manage conflicts effectively. Conflict is a natural state of existence in our everyday lives, and the academic setting is no exception. In an era of greater accountability, pressures to increase student enrollment, declining resources, and the expectation to recruit and retain a more diverse faculty and student body, the probability of an academic leader engaging in or having to resolve conflict is on the rise. The nature or types of conflicts in an academic setting vary, from the individuals involved to the issues that lead to them. Conflict can arise over issues related to faculty hires, the allocation of department and college resources, performance evaluations, achieving and working with diversity, and relationships among departmental personnel. We cannot avoid conflict in an academic setting any more than we can elsewhere in our daily experiences, but the consequences of engaging in it are not always negative. In fact, conflict, if managed well, can lead to growth and development. However, many of us are not equipped with the skills to manage conflict, and we do not know whom to refer to when conflicts arise on a college or university campus. We assume that academic leaders know how to manage conflict well, but conflict management is an overlooked area of faculty and administrator development This briefing conveys an overview of conflict management, some common causes of conflict, how people respond to conflict, how social justice influences conflict, the modes people use to address conflict, how to identify our conflict management style, conflicts involving bullying and bias, and how administrators can enhance their skills in conflict management. INTRODUCTION

This briefing includes our observations from working and consulting with faculty and administrators in college and university settings across the country and noting what constitutes best practices in conflict management. Our primary audience is administrators, but faculty members who are interested in understanding conflict and how to identify and manage it in an academic setting should also benefit from our findings. Administrators such as department chairs and deans face many challenges in academia, including coping with stress. In his briefing, Stress Management Strategies for Academic Leaders, Gmelch (2006) identified five factors that impact stress for administrators. These stress factors include dealing with conflict, including “handling student concerns and conflicts”

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and “handling faculty conflicts and desires and dealing with faculty bullies” (p. 4). However, administrators are not the only ones faced with challenges. Faculty members also encounter conflict and stress related to working toward tenure and promotion, securing funding for research, feeling a sense of belonging, and complying with expectations from many external sources (Gmelch, 2006). If administrators are not always equipped with the skills necessary to handle conflict, then the ordinary faculty member is even less equipped to manage stress and conflict. Therefore, effective academic leaders must seek ways to avoid and resolve conflicts among faculty and staff. Our basic premise is that when we learn to effectively manage and resolve conflicts with others, more opportunities for successful teamwork and increased faculty productivity and enhanced work life are available to us. If we can learn to manage conflict (as educators, we average five conflicts per day; Opotow, 1989), then we will be less apt to practice destructive behaviors that will negatively impact faculty relationships and collegiality. Moreover, research shows that unresolved conflict can lead to serious aggressive behavior. Most people first learn conflict skills and conflict behavior from what they observe growing up. Some of us observed good conflict management, others observed faulty conflict management, but most of us have reasons to improve our conflict-management skills (Stanley & Algert, 2007). Developing good conflict-management skills can help faculty and administrators in a number of ways, including enhancing their skills in communication, leadership, management, collaboration, cross-cultural understanding, problem solving, and facilitation of difficult dialogues. It is our hope that this briefing will prove useful for administrators and faculty who wish to better manage conflict in the academic setting. CONFLICT AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

We can often measure our progress by watching the nature of our conflicts. . . . If a man should tell you that his chief daily conflict within himself is “shall I steal or not steal?” you would know what to think of his development. . . . In the same way, one test of your [organization] is not how many conflicts do you have, for conflicts are the essences of life, but what are your conflicts, and how do you deal with them? (Follett, 1940, p. 35)

Before we address some of the common causes of conflict, we will define conflict and provide a concise overview of conflict management. Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest between or among individuals with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals. In an academic setting, particularly in a department, faculty members, faculty members and students, students, faculty members and staff, faculty members and department chairs, or department chairs and deans may encounter conflict. Conflict exists even if only one person perceives it (Algert & Watson, 2005). Conflict in the academic setting is inevitable; however, the results of conflict are not predetermined. Conflict might escalate and lead to nonproductive behavior, or conflict can be beneficially resolved and lead to positive results. In our study of conflict styles of department heads (Stanley & Algert, 2007), one department chair stated,

EFFECTIVE PRACTICES FOR ACADEMIC LEADERS

ADVISORY BOARD Trudy W. Banta Vice Chancellor for Planning and Institutional Improvement, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis Carole J. Bland Professor and Director of Research, Department of Family Medicine, University of Minnesota Betsy E. Brown Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs and Executive Director of the UNC Leadership Institute at the University of North Carolina Theodore H. Curry Professor and Director, School of Labor and Industrial Relations, Michigan State University Gerardo E. de los Santos President and CEO, League for Innovation in the Community College Walter H. Gmelch Dean, School of Education, University of San Francisco C. Kristina Gunsalus Adjunct Professor, College of Law, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign William B. Harvey Vice President and Chief Officer for Diversity and Equity, University of Virginia Val Miskin Director of Graduate Programs, College of Business and Economics, Washington State University Daniel W. Wheeler Professor and Head, Ag Leadership, Education, and Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION ISSN: [Print] 1554-0464 / [Online] 1554-0472 Editorial & Marketing: 703-661-1504 [email protected] Customer Service: 1-800-232-0223 / 703-661-1581 [email protected] Subscription Rates: Annual hard copy subscription: (12 issues): $90.00 Individual issue price: $13.95 plus shipping Online annual subscription (includes hard copy, site license and right of unlimited single copy reproduction)*: $250.00 Online subscriptions hosted by MetaPress Copyright © 2007 Stylus Publishing, LLC Reproduction by photocopying or any other means, and all forms of digital storage, are strictly forbidden without license *Excludes copies made for courses for which students pay enrollment fees.

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You can’t [only] be a good manager, and you can’t just be a good leader; you have to be both. There is a skill set there, and we ought to be developing that skill set . . . [especially when] working with conflict. In a certain way I don’t even like the phrase conflict management; it’s like you are managing the conflict. I’m more interested in what the conflict means; what it is about and how you understand it; how do you work on it so that you can create a positive, supportive, caring environment that is getting great work done? (p. 61)

Therefore, learning to manage conflict is integral to achieving a highperformance department, college, or university. Although very few faculty members or administrators seek conflict, more often than not, conflict results because of miscommunication between faculty members regarding their needs, ideas, beliefs, goals, or values. The principle that undergirds conflict management is that not all conflicts can be resolved, but learning how to manage conflicts can decrease the odds of nonproductive escalation. Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to resolving conflict, achieving self-awareness about conflict modes, developing conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of conflict in your environment. Before attempting to resolve any conflict in which you are involved, there are two initial steps you need to take: (1) recognize your physiological responses when perceiving conflict, and (2) notice and identify your thoughts and feelings (Algert & Watson, 2005).

Responses to Confl fliict Feelings that individuals often have when in conflict are fear, guilt, anger, and resentment. Their thoughts often take the form of “they’re doing it again,” “they’re trying to win,” “they’re messing with my area,” “I won’t toler-

ate this,” “I don’t like this,” or “they’re wrong” (Algert & Watson, 2005, p. 2). Physiologically we respond to conflict in one of two ways: we want to “get away from the conflict” or we are ready to “take on anyone who comes our way.” Research by Taylor et al. (2000) indicates that women may have a different response to conflict than most men. Women have a larger behavior repertoire than solely “fight or flight,” and their impulse may be to “tend and befriend.” Think for a moment about how you feel when you are in conflict. Do you want to leave or do you want to sit and work through the conflict issues? Neither physiological response is good or bad—it is a matter of personal response. What is important to learn, regardless of our initial physiological response to conflict, is that we should intentionally choose our response to conflict. Whether we feel that we want to fight or flee when a conflict arises, we can deliberately choose the conflict mode most appropriate to solving the problem at hand.

Productive Confl fliict Management Productive conflict management requires facilitating an open dialogue between or among individuals in which differing opinions, values, and beliefs are shared, heard, and respected, in order to reach a reasonable level of understanding or resolution. The college and university environment are microcosms of our society and the world. Therefore, the primary constituent groups of a campus community—students, faculty, and staff— are at times as diverse in their needs and assumptions as are the various constituency groups in society. Moreover, there is diversity within and across each group, all contributing to opportunities for conflict. Consequently, the more we work to hone our skill set to engage in productive con-

flict management, the greater our chances of creating more comfortable and high-performing work environments for all in our college and university communities. The goal should be to turn conflict itself into productive and positive outcomes. For example, we know of a case in which two members of a department were in conflict with each other but were able to work through their conflict using the process of mediation. Like any other intervention approach (e.g., facilitating, modeling, negotiating, arbitrating, judging) mediation is dependent on the nature of the conflict and the long-term relations and interactions of the disputants with each other and the intervening party. In this case, an untenured assistant professor perceived that his colleague, a senior full professor, had been spreading rumors about his research to colleagues and graduates. These two faculty members expressed their concerns to the associate provost at the university, who offered mediation. During the mediation process, they were both able to share their perspective, goals, needs, and feelings, and before long it became clear that they wanted to work through the conflict for the sake of their collegial relationship and the climate of the department as a whole. As a result, they developed a memorandum of understanding on how they would work together in the future. Several weeks after the mediation, the untenured assistant professor volunteered to us that while he came to the process with apprehension, he realized how much of the conflict was due to miscommunication, and he learned information about his senior colleague that he had not known prior to the mediation that made him appreciate his point of view. This case study is not atypical. Our work in conflict management continues to affirm to us that the primary motivation for adults

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to engage in productive conflict management is catharsis and relief, and that the end result is not only better relationships but a happier and more productive unit.

The Five Confl fliict Modes Typically we respond to conflict by using one of the following five modes (Thomas & Kilmann, 1974): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Competing Avoiding Accommodating Compromising Collaborating

when vital issues must be handled, or when one is protecting self-interests. For example, a department chair might be faced with a conflict that involves the allocation of merit raises in the department. The allocation of merit might take into account input from a variety of people; however, the final decision rests with the department chair. Competing skills include the following: • • • • •

Each of these modes can be characterized along two scales: assertiveness and cooperation. None of these modes is wrong to use, but there are right and wrong times to use each.

Identifying Your Confl fliict Management Style The key to managing conflict effectively is to choose the conflict management style appropriate for the conflict. Most of us are prone to using a particular style; however, it is important that we learn about the range of styles and their characteristics and limitations. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is a widely used assessment tool for determining conflict modes. The assessment takes less than 15 minutes to complete and yields conflict scores for the five conflict modes. Following are detailed descriptions of these modes and a discussion of their strengths and weaknesses. Competing The competing conflict mode is high assertiveness and low cooperation. This mode is most appropriate to use when quick action needs to be taken, when unpopular decisions need to be made,

Arguing or debating Standing one’s ground Using rank or influence Stating one’s position Asserting one’s opinions or feelings

Avoiding The avoiding mode is low assertiveness and low cooperation. Many times individuals will avoid conflicts because they are afraid of engaging in them or because they do not have confidence in their conflict-management skills. However, the avoiding mode is most appropriate to use when you have issues of low importance; when you are in a position of lower power; or when you want to reduce tensions or buy some time, perhaps to gather more data or learn more about what is causing the conflict. Avoiding skills include the following: • Being able to withdraw • Being able to leave things unresolved • Being able to sidestep issues • Having a sense of timing Accommodating The accommodating mode is low assertiveness and high cooperation. This mode is more appropriate to use when you wish to show reasonableness, develop performance, create goodwill, or keep peace. Some people use the accom-

modating mode when the issue or outcome is of low importance to them. This mode can be problematic when used to “keep a tally” or to be a martyr. By accommodating you may hope for some reciprocal accommodation in a future conflict, but you should not expect this if you keep a tally of the number of times you have accommodated someone in order to call in future debts. Accommodating skills include the following: • • • •

Forgetting your desires Being able to yield Possessing selflessness Obeying orders

Compromising The compromising mode is moderate assertiveness and moderate cooperation. Some people define compromise as “giving up more than you want,” whereas others see compromise as both parties winning. The compromising mode is more appropriate to use when you are dealing with issues of moderate importance, when you have equal power status, or when you have a strong commitment for resolution. The compromising mode can also be used as a temporary solution when there are time constraints. For example, if you perceive that there is merit to issues presented by both parties in conflict, you might choose to ascertain if there is room for compromise through negotiation. Compromising skills include the following: • • • •

Negotiating Assessing value Finding a middle ground Making concessions

Collaborating The collaborating mode is high assertiveness and high cooperation. Collaboration has been described as

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“putting an idea on top of an idea on top of an idea . . . in order to achieve the best solution to a conflict” (S. Leura, personal communication, 1998). It can construct a creative solution to the conflict that would not have been generated by a single individual. With the potential for such a positive outcome, the collaboration mode might be seen as the best conflict mode to use in all conflict situations. However, collaborating takes a great deal of time and energy and, thus, should be used only when the conflict warrants the time and energy. For example, if your department is establishing ideas for a code of conduct on how its members can work together effectively, then using the collaborating mode could be quite useful. On the other hand, if several faculty members are in conflict about where to take a faculty candidate to lunch, the time and energy necessary to collaboratively resolve the conflict is probably not warranted. The collaborative mode is more appropriate to use when the conflict is important to the people who are constructing an integrative solution, when the issues are too important to compromise, when merging perspectives, when gaining commitment, when improving relationships, or when learning. Collaborating skills include the following: • Engaging in active listening • Identifying concerns • Using nonthreatening confrontation • Analyzing input

Confl fliict Case Study Consider the case study in figure 1. Try to read it from the perspective of each of the participants involved and respond to the guiding questions that follow.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

In addition to differences in values, beliefs, and attitudes, conflict can be triggered by ethnic, racial, religious, or economic differences. We have learned from conflict theory and mediation practice that social justice issues are important to consider when managing conflict. A basic tenet of social justice is inclusiveness. We cannot effectively manage conflict without ensuring that all parties involved have a voice at the table and are provided with an opportunity to tell their story from their seat of identity or multiple identities (i.e., gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, culture, nationality, physical and/or learning ability, class, and religion). Parties whose voices may not be heard or heeded in conventional forums must be given the opportunity to be heard in the conflict resolution process. More important, the views, needs, and interests of the participants in a dispute must be given full consideration, and the “power” differences among the participants must be equalized in reaching a fair resolution of the conflict. For example, we have worked with an administrative office at a major research university that provides mediation services. Faculty members are trained to be mediators and are called on to mediate faculty conflicts when they arise. The mediators receive 40 hours of extensive training (a requirement of the State Bar where the university is located), and a large part of that training is learning about the relationship between conflict and social justice. Issues such as racial identity development, the cycle of socialization, the dynamics of oppression, and responding to triggers that can lead to conflict are important topics of discussion during the training. The mediation service is voluntary and available to all faculty members.

One of the attributes of this service is that the associate provost works to assign co-mediators to cases to ensure that the power relations are reasonably equal, especially when it is perceived that the nature of the conflict might involve a social justice issue such as racism. For example, if there is a perceived racial conflict, the office works to find a biracial team of co-mediators. Mediators are never from the parties’ department and college, and when more than one mediator is involved representing each of the parties, every effort is made to ensure that co-mediators are equally matched regarding academic rank.

Confl fliicts Involving Diversity Most of our colleges and universities are striving to model the diversity that is representative of our society and/or state as a whole. Regarding the goals and achievements of a diverse campus, Lee Bollinger (2007), president of Columbia University, states, The experience of arriving on a campus to live and study with classmates from a diverse range of backgrounds is essential to students’ training for this new world, nurturing in them an instinct to reach out instead of clinging to the comforts of what seems natural or familiar. We know that connecting with people very— or even slightly—different from ourselves stimulates the imagination; and when we learn to see the world through a multiplicity of eyes, we only make ourselves more nimble in mastering—and integrating— the diverse fields of knowledge awaiting us. (p. B20)

However, the learning experience that Bollinger rightly applauds when people with diverse backgrounds interact can also lead to misunderstanding and conflict. As a result, universities

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Conflict Case Study

You are in your first year as chair of a department with 14 full-time faculty members. You have already heard some grumbling about three faculty members who spend much time consulting and rarely seem to be on campus. You talk with one of them, Dr. Bucks, to find out about his consulting activities. He is somewhat evasive about the extent of his consulting activities but emphatically stresses the importance to the department of professional activities outside the university. Dr. Brightlight has a national reputation. Students in her courses complain that guest speakers and videos are often used to conduct the class while she is off consulting. On the other hand, the department needs her, probably more than she needs it. Her luminary reputation is helpful to the department’s status and research activities. Dr. Dolittle is a full professor who has been with the university for 23 years. He recently invested in a business and is spending increasing amounts of time analyzing and supervising its operations. He is frequently unavailable to students. You drop by during his office hours fruitlessly three times. When you finally get an opportunity to talk with him about his off-campus activities, he responds that the new business is really a form of consulting, that it is improving his teaching, and that he is doing nothing different from what other faculty members are doing. Your executive committee has suggested that absent faculty members are derailing the department’s programmatic progress. Classes are not being taught or are not of the quality that they should be. These faculty members’ research efforts seem to support their consultation work rather than departmental priorities. Their service to the department is nonexistent. Their attitude has had a negative impact on both faculty morale and recruitment efforts, given current students’ comments to prospective students. You understand the executive committee’s concerns, but you are also aware of what the impact will be on the department’s reputation if all three of these faculty members explore leaving the department because of any action that you take. Here are some guiding questions to ask as you work through how to resolve this conflict: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What is the conflict? Who are the disputants? What are the issues? Which of the conflict modes would you use and why? What are the implications of using other conflict modes? What is the typical response to this type of conflict? What are the short-term consequences of not addressing the conflict? What are the long-term consequences of not addressing the conflict?

and academic leaders find themselves having to deal with racial incidents or hate crimes on their campuses. Individuals on campus are also often uncertain as to how to deal with these incidents. Still too often, we will serve on a committee or attend a meeting only to hear someone make a disparaging comment that is perceived as sexist,

racist, homophobic, anti-Semitic, or Islam-phobic, and it is met by silence. We often observe and critique the conflict management skills of individuals who work to resolve these difficult conflicts. Learning how to discern and manage racial conflicts on a college or university campus is an intellectually,

emotionally, and politically challenging exercise (Bell, Love, & Roberts, 2007). For those of us who have engaged in discussions regarding racial conflict, we relive comments such as, “Is this really happening?” “Why is this a race issue?” “You people are so sensitive,” and “They just don’t get it!” Comments like these are more

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likely when we do not provide our faculty, staff, administrators, and students opportunities to dialogue about potentially divisive racial issues in safe and supportive spaces. In their work on racism and white privilege curriculum design, Bell et al. (2007) make some comments that apply equally well to campus dialogues involving issues of race: Participants bring to a course on racism a wide range of feelings and experiences, and often misinformation, confusion, and bias. White participants may sincerely want to learn about racism and figure out how to play a role in making their communities, schools, and workplaces welcoming places for all, but fail to see the role white skin privilege and accumulated white advantage play in perpetuating racial inequality. Participants of color may want to figure out how to break through the silence about racism as a historic and contemporary force that differentially shapes their lives, but fear having their concerns dismissed, being viewed as too sensitive or as troublemakers, or being misunderstood by white peers and teachers. Participants from all racial groups may be reluctant to explore racism, especially in mixed groups, given the complex and often painful web of emotions that discussions about racism inevitably raise. (p. 123)

Racial conflicts do not go away on their own; they usually escalate if they are not managed well. All faculty members and college administrators can become better models of diversity by learning how to facilitate difficult dialogues when racial conflicts occur. Following are some general guidelines to follow when facilitating such dialogues. Guideline 1: Be Aware of Your Biases We all have prejudices. Prejudices may involve taking a particular point of

view or perspective or reinforcing stereotypes about a group of people before facts are gathered and weighed. We observe these behaviors before and during conflicts. However, biases become problematic when we facilitate discussion about racial conflicts from a subjective rather than an objective point of view. Be open to perspective taking and learning and unlearning information. Guideline 2: Be Aware of Your Mental Model Mental models are explanations in our mind of how something works in the real world. They drive our choices, actions, and behaviors. Be cognizant of the fact that not everyone shares the same mental model. We all have different life experiences, values, and beliefs that shape who we are as human beings. Individuals who historically have been marginalized or have been made to feel marginalized in our society might bring a different mental model to a given situation. Racial conflicts are opportunities to uncover mental models so that there is growth and learning. Guideline 3: Be Aware of Your Spheres of Infl flu uence We can influence meaningful conflict dialogues by examining and understanding the mindset and assumptions of the various spheres that might collide to create areas of conflict. The first such sphere is that of self (including our own attitudes, beliefs, values, knowledge, and behavior in terms of socialization experiences, and our interactions with others). The second sphere is that of the campus itself. Does it have high expectations for behavior for all students and faculty? Does it provide a welcoming environment and support students and faculty when obstacles occur? Other spheres whose assumptions

and procedures should be examined and understood, as they may influence behavior and attitudes resulting in conflicts, include those of the department, college, or school (including faculty governance and climate); community (including interactions between the campus or individual faculty members with schools, religious organizations, business and industry, and health-care agencies); and professional organizations and the assumptions and attitudes that might inform faculty scholarship and work at the local, national, and international levels. Guideline 4: Work to Listen Respectfully and Not to Judge One of the key ingredients to facilitating discussion about racial conflict or any difficult dialogue is learning how to listen hard. Many of us are skilled speakers and far less proficient listeners. Additionally, the ability to suspend judgment is equally difficult for some of us. To achieve clear communication and to clarify misinformation, it is always helpful to restate and summarize what you think you heard during a conversation. Guideline 5: Acknowledge Emotions Difficult dialogues are difficult because human beings come to the discussion table laden with a variety of emotions—fear, disappointment, frustration, anger, confidence, courage, hate, pain, pride, vulnerability, worry, etc. These emotions often come from direct experiences with overt and covert discrimination. Emotions that ensue as a result of these experiences are natural and sustained. Avoiding dialogues under the guise of waiting until individuals appear to be “calmer” is never the best solution.

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Guideline 6: Establish Ground Rules for Discussion Ground rules are helpful in setting clear boundaries for difficult dialogues so that everyone feels reasonably safe to participate and contribute in a respectful manner. We have found that when participants in a dialogue work together to establish ground rules, there is more ownership in working to ensure that the conversation remains productive. Examples of useful ground rules are as follows: • Commit to active listening. • Agree to using “I” statements to avoid generalizations. • Do not judge others or question their motives. • Do not interrupt when someone is telling his or her story. • Agree to confidentiality.

Guideline 7: Establish Clear Plans for Action and Accountability One of the questions often posed to academic leaders before and during the facilitation of discussion regarding racial conflicts is, “What is going to be done as a result of this conversation?” Effective facilitation of such discussion includes the development of clear plans of action that are realistic, specific, and goal oriented. In addition, academic leaders who are often in the best position to ensure that plans of action are developed, implemented, and assessed should be held accountable for monitoring the outcomes.

Confl fliicts Involving Bullying There is a growing body of literature (Gravois, 2006; Jefferson, 2007; Levine, 2006; Namie & Namie, 2000; Powers, 2007; Twale & De Luca, in press) on bullying in academia. A majority of the authors of this literature agree that bul-

lying behaviors seem to take hold when there is an imbalance of power. In fact, as Houghton (2003) states, “Bullying thrives in situations where the perpetrators are both powerful and frightening, and those around them [are] too scared to challenge” (p. s126). In addition, these behaviors are directed at members of targeted groups in academia such as women; faculty of color; gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender faculty; Muslim faculty; and Jewish faculty. Bullying can impact an individual in three ways: physiologically (illness), psychologically (anxiety, depression, fear), and behaviorally (obsession, aggression, withdrawal) (Amicus, 2005). Academic bullies are often “older, tenured professors who are unwilling to take direction and create what many describe as a ‘toxic environment’ in the department” (Powers, 2007, p. 1). While there are special opportunities for bullying in the academic setting, where more powerful professors can take advantage of less powerful ones and graduate students may become victims, some kinds of bullying can take place in any workplace. The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (2005) offers the following examples of workforce bullying:

• Spreading malicious rumors, gossip, or innuendo that is not true • Excluding or isolating someone socially • Intimidating a person • Undermining or deliberately impeding a person’s work • Physically abusing or threatening abuse • Removing areas of responsibilities without cause • Constantly changing work guidelines

• Establishing impossible deadlines that will set the individual up to fail • Withholding necessary information or purposefully giving the wrong information • Making jokes that are “obviously offensive” by spoken word or e-mail • Intruding on a person’s privacy by pestering, spying, or stalking • Assigning unreasonable duties or workload which are unfavorable to one person (in a way that creates unnecessary pressure) • Underwork—creating a feeling of uselessness • Yelling or using profanity • Criticizing a person persistently or constantly • Belittling a person’s opinions • Unwarranted (or undeserved) punishment • Blocking applications for training, leave or promotion • Tampering with a person’s personal belongings or work equipment Academic leaders must challenge and support victims of bullying behavior. These behaviors are on the rise and occurring at increasing levels of sophistication in the academy. Recognizing and responding appropriately to bullying behaviors is inherent to effective conflict management. Academic bullying is a clear example of behaviors that create conflicts, which have escalated and are not effectively addressed. Denice Denton, late chancellor of the University of California, Santa Cruz, had this to say about confronting bullying behavior, conflict, and bias in her closing address at the National Academy’s Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering:

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I’m going to offer you a set of recommendations that will cost you nothing but courage. They can also be used more broadly well beyond the hallowed halls, and thus impact the “cross-institutional interlock,” or as I would say as an electrical engineer, “the system.” First of all, we should have zero tolerance for bullying behavior. It should not be acceptable in the workplace or anywhere else. If you are an academic leader, you should confront faculty and others who are abusive to students, staff and other faculty, particularly senior faculty. Tenure is not a license to kill. There are limits to acceptable behavior in the academy. How many of you have seen on an academic campus, senior people with tenure over and over abuse people who are lower than them in the power structure, and nobody ever does anything? Why does that happen? Why do we let that happen? It’s unacceptable. If you have issues with dealing with conflict and you are an academic leader, take a class. Get help. Seek support. People don’t want to confront each other. But we have to. It’s our job. It’s in the position description. We can learn from conflict. We do learn from conflict. Confront people’s biases. When biases come out if you’re an academic leader or anything else, confront people’s bias. And here is another one, and this is not a popular one, but I’m just throwing it in there. Support your local senior feminist colleagues, male and female. It’s lonely at the top.(Rosser, 2006, p. 23)

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FACTORS AFFECTING OUR CONFLICT MODES

A variety of factors, such as those described here, can affect how we respond to conflict: • Gender: Some of us were socialized to use particular conflict modes because of our gender. For example, some males were taught to “always stand up to someone, and, if you have to fight, then fight.” A person socialized this way would

•

•

be more likely to use assertive conflict modes versus cooperative modes. Self-concept: How we think and feel about ourselves affects how we approach conflict. Do we think our thoughts, feelings, and opinions are worth being heard by the person with whom we are in conflict? Expectations: Do we believe the other person wants to resolve the conflict? Situation: Where is the conflict occurring? Do we know the person with whom we are in conflict? Is the conflict personal or professional? Position (Power): What is our power status (i.e., equal to, more than, or less than) in relation to the person with whom we are in conflict? Practice: Practice involves being able to use all five conflict modes effectively, being able to determine what conflict mode would be most effective to resolve the conflict, and having the ability to change modes as necessary while engaged in conflict. Knowledge: Through knowledge about conflict and through practice we develop a “conflict management understanding” and can, with ease and limited energy, determine what conflict mode to use with the particular person with whom we are in conflict. Communication skills: The essence of conflict resolution and conflict management is the ability to communicate effectively. People who use effective communication will resolve their conflicts with greater ease and success. Life experiences: As mentioned earlier, we often practice the conflict modes we observed growing up, unless we have made a conscious

choice as adults to change or adapt our conflict styles. Some of us had great role models who taught us to manage our conflicts, and others had poor role models. Our life experiences, both personal and professional, have taught us to frame conflict as either something positive that can be worked through or something negative to be avoided and ignored at all costs. Discerning how we manage conflict and why we manage it the way we do and thinking about the value of engaging in conflict with others are important. With better understanding we can make informed choices about how and when we engage in conflict. The next section provides points to consider when determining whether to enter into a conflict situation. DECIDING WHEN AND HOW TO ENGAGE IN CONFLICT

Sometimes the question is not one of how to resolve a conflict but one of whether to engage in a conflict. The following six questions are helpful when deciding whether or not to engage in conflict and can be used by academic leaders in counseling others about engaging in conflict situations: 1. How invested in the relationship are you? The importance of the working/ personal relationship often dictates whether you will engage in a conflict. If you value the person and/or the relationship, going through the process of conflict resolution is important. 2. How important is the issue to you? Even if the relationship is not of great value to you, you often must engage in conflict if the issue is important to you. For example, if the issue is a belief, value, or regula-

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tion that you believe in or are hired to enforce, then engaging in the conflict is necessary. If the relationship and the issue are both important to you, there is an even more compelling reason to engage in the conflict. 3. Do you have the energy for the conflict? Many of us say, “There is not enough time to do all that I want to do in a day.” Often the issue is not how much time is available but how much energy we have for what we need to do. Even in a track meet, runners are given recovery time before they have to run another race. Energy, not time, is being managed in these situations. 4. Are you aware of the potential consequences? Many times people will engage in conflict and then be shocked by the outcome or consequences of doing so. Thoughtful reflection about the potential consequences, both positive and negative, is wise when determining whether or not to engage in a conflict. For example, there may be a risk to your safety, a risk of job loss, or an opportunity for a better working relationship. 5. Are you ready for the consequences? After analyzing potential consequences of engaging in conflict, you need to determine whether you are prepared for those consequences. For example, a staff member anticipated a job loss if she continued to engage in the conflict she was having with her boss. After careful consideration, the staff member concluded that she believed strongly enough about the issue that she should continue to engage in the conflict. Her annual contract was not renewed for the upcoming year. However, because she had thought through the con-

sequences of engaging in the conflict, she was prepared to be without a job for a while and was able to plan financially and emotionally for this outcome. 6. What are the consequences if you do not engage in the conflict? To avoid losing a sense of self, there are times when you must engage in conflict. If you are going to sacrifice one of your core beliefs or values by avoiding a conflict, you need to ask whether the loss of self-respect is worth the price of avoidance.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES OF ACADEMIC LEADERS

Few studies focus on the conflict management styles of academic leaders such as deans and department chairs (Gmelch, 1991; Hickson & McCroskey, 1991) and virtually none focus on faculty. This is clearly an area that requires more research. In 2004, we conducted a qualitative research study of 20 department heads who represented 10 academic colleges at a major public research university. Eleven of the department heads self-reported that they used the compromising mode most to manage conflict in their departments (Stanley & Algert, 2007). The common conflicts that department heads described were “data conflicts (e.g., limited resources), inadequate personnel, [and] space issues” (Stanley & Algert, 2007, p. 58). It should also be pointed out that 10 of the 20 department heads indicated a need for more professional development opportunities for department heads and deans in the area of conflict management and specifically addressing how the university culture impacts the management of conflict. Here are two representative comments from the department heads:

Provide professional development on a regular basis. Conflict management is a daily activity. When you go from a faculty member to a department head, even though you may have done things with the organization [department], it is not the same because now the scale of conflict is different and escalates. (Stanley & Algert, 2007, p. 61) I never had any training in conflict management. I have been at this university for a long time . . . , but every day is a new event; and so you wrestle with it to make sure that you do all the things that I am talking about. That you are fair, that you are listening, that you make sure that to the extent you can, that parties walk away with a win-win situation. I would think that there would be a lot of value in giving somebody an opportunity to have to go through some training where conflict management issues would be sorted out, you know, maybe in terms of some scenario development, situations that you would find yourself in so that it’s a little less sort of learning on the job while you are doing it. (Stanley & Algert, 2007, p. 58)

When academic leaders, such as department chairs and deans, work to learn more about their conflict management styles, there is a high probability of decreased resource expenditure, improved communication, and increased faculty and staff productivity. Furthermore, departmental and college communities will have a clear understanding of the university conflict culture. IMPROVING CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Understanding the five different modes of conflict management, the factors affecting these modes, and the processes for selecting one or more approaches to conflict involves both self-awareness and an awareness of the others involved in the conflict. In terms of selfawareness, it is important to ask the

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following questions when deciding how to approach a conflict situation: 1. Am I in conflict? 2. With whom am I in conflict? 3. Why am I motivated to engage in the conflict? 4. What conflict mode am I going to use to manage this conflict? Because conflict involves at least two people, awareness of the other party or parties involved should inform the choice of approach to a conflict situation. It is with that awareness that the following questions should also be asked: 1. What is the nature of the conflict; that is, what is the conflict about? 2. What might motivate the other person(s) involved to resolve the conflict? 3. What conflict modes is the other person using? 4. How might I intervene to resolve/ manage the conflict? Learning more about conflict allows greater intentionality in selecting a conflict response. Most people have set reactions to conflicts. By learning more about the principles of conflict and about conflict modes and reflecting on the previous questions, we can be more intentional in deciding on a conflict response.

Guidelines for Effective Confl fliict Management Academic leaders can either contribute to the conflict or create an environment that fosters a positive conflict culture. Therefore, they have the capacity to be effective (or ineffective) conduits of conflict management. Following are five general guidelines that academic leaders should follow in order to practice effective conflict management and build a positive conflict culture:

Guideline 1: Be Aware of Your Confl fliict Management Style We all have a particular style of managing conflict. Be cognizant of your style and know its strengths and limitations. Let the nature of the conflict determine the appropriate action to take, including which conflict mode to use. Determine the importance of the issues involved, the nature of the relationship between and among the parties, and the power differentials involved in the conflict. Guideline 2: Be Aware of How You fliict Engage in and Address Confl There are many strategies to use in resolving and managing conflict. How you manage conflict will set the tone for the department’s or organization’s conflict culture. Ignoring a conflict once it has come to your attention is not always the best strategy. Don’t get consumed by conflict. Be open to different perspectives. Listen actively. Value the diversity of all voices that you are hearing, including those from historically marginalized and underrepresented groups. Guideline 3: Know Your Department’s Confl fliict Culture Every organization and/or department has a conflict culture. The culture of an organization is a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group has learned as it has solved problems over time. These shared assumptions are passed on to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to problems and conflicts that arise. The culture is expressed in terms of the organization’s artifacts (visible structures and processes), espoused values (strategies, goals, philosophies), and basic underlying assumptions (unconscious beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings). Anyone joining an academic unit on a college or university

campus should work at learning and understanding its underlying conflict culture. Guideline 4: Discuss Your Department’s Confl fliict Culture Academic departments very rarely engage in dialogue about the artifacts, espoused values, and basic underlying assumptions that undergird the mission and vision of the department. It is assumed that new members know what is expected of them. This is often a source of frustration for faculty, especially new members to the departmental community, and can lead to aggression and affect faculty recruitment and retention. Guideline 5: Establish Codes of Conduct for Managing Confl fliict Many departments and working groups and teams have found it useful to develop codes of conduct for managing conflict. Codes of conduct are rules that help to outline appropriate practices and responsibilities within an organization. They are most useful and meaningful when they are created with input from everyone who works in a unit and shared so that there is ownership and accountability. See figure 2 for an example of a code of conduct. DEVELOPING CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AWARENESS IN THE DEPARTMENT CULTURE

Not only do academic leaders need to develop conflict management skills, but they need to find ways of developing conflict management awareness and skills within the unit so that everybody appreciates the need and the process for resolving conflicts. Figure 3 provides an exercise for reflection and figure 4 a team activity that can be used to build such awareness and skills.

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Example Code of Conduct

Code of Cooperation for the Management Team 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Remember that every member is responsible for the team’s progress and success. Listen to and show respect for the contributions of other members. Criticize ideas, not persons. Do not allow hidden agendas. Do not allow collusion. Strive for consensus. Resolve conflicts constructively. Pay attention; avoid disruptive behavior. Avoid disruptive side conversations. Allow only one person to speak at a time. Ensure that everyone participates and that no one dominates. Be succinct; avoid long anecdotes and examples. Understand that pulling rank is not allowed. Attend to your personal comfort needs at any time but minimize team disruption. Make your best effort to attend each team meeting. Be comfortable (attire). Respond in a timely fashion (e-mail). • Do not send frivolous e-mail. • Copy to all team members on e-mail related to project business. Have the team leader ensure that required materials are present at meetings. Voice your discomfort. Have on-campus teams operate in a team-based, continuous improvement mode. Defend those who are absent. Have fun!

CONCLUSION

The goal of this briefing is to provide administrators and faculty members with conflict management information that can be beneficial both personally and professionally. Some people think that conflict is a topic that should not be discussed and that we should not engage in conflict. Productively engaging in conflict is always valuable. Most individuals are willing and interested in resolving their conflicts; they just need the appropriate skill set and opportunities to practice it. Without a conflict skill set, individuals wish to avoid conflict, hoping it will go away, or not wanting to make a “big deal out of nothing.” There are times when

avoiding conflict is the appropriate strategy, but avoidance is usually not the best strategy, and the implications of not acting to resolve the conflict should always be considered. Research and personal experiences show us that there are always consequences that accompany the decision to engage or not engage in conflict. Through conflict self-awareness we can more effectively manage our conflicts and, therefore, our professional and personal relationships. Furthermore, by discussing issues related to conflict management, academic units can establish an expected protocol to be followed by all when in conflict. All colleges, universities, and academic

units have a conflict culture (the way that everyone responds or does not respond to conflict). However, most members of the campus community never discuss what the conflict culture is, leading some to make assumptions that can be counterproductive to the unit. Practicing one’s conflict management skills leads to more successful engagement in conflict with outcomes of greater understanding, better communication, and increased productivity for both the individual and the unit. When we manage our conflicts more effectively, we spend more of our energy on the issues and relationships that matter most to us.

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Individual Reflection Exercise on Conflict Management

Smith (2000) suggests that the following exercise might provide individuals with valuable information about their perspectives on conflict. This exercise could be used in a retreat setting or as a professional development activity for any academic leader.

Exercise: Write the word conflict in the center of a blank piece of paper and draw a circle around it. Quickly jot down all the words and phrases you associate with the word conflict around the circle. Review your list of associations and categorize them as positive, negative, or neutral. Count the total number of positive, negative, and neutral associations, and calculate the percentages that are positive, negative, and neutral. Were more than 90 percent of your associations positive? Were more than 90 percent negative? What do your associations with the word conflict indicate about your views on conflict and your approach to conflict?

Learning About Your Conflict Modes Review the brief descriptions of the five conflict modes (avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromising, and collaborating) and choose your primary conflict mode. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) (1974), based on the Blake and Mouton (1964) conflict model, is an instrument that provides information about your conflict modes. Taking the TKI assessment (www.kilmann.com) will provide information about your primary conflict modes. Using this information and engaging in additional individual reflection will help you to determine your level of comfort with your conflict resolution styles and whether you wish to consider making changes in them.

Creating an Individual Conflict Management Plan A conflict management plan is a thought and behavior process that you can follow when in conflict. The literature shows that if we can identify that we are in conflict and can then implement a conflict management plan, the opportunity for resolving the conflict increases significantly. We need to recognize our physiological responses when in conflict and to identify the thoughts and feelings that trigger us to realize that we are experiencing a conflict. There are three steps to making a conflict plan. First, write down what physiological responses you have when you know you are in conflict (e.g., “My palms sweat,” “My heart races”). Second, write down what thoughts you typically have when in a conflict (e.g., “I want to hurt him,” “I want to just get away from her”). Third, list four to eight steps that you can follow to help you manage your thoughts and emotions in a productive way to manage/solve your conflict (e.g., “I will take a deep breath,” “I will think about how I want to respond”). To learn more about creating a conflict management plan, see Algert and Watson (2005).

Listening Improving listening skills is one approach to improving conflict management skills. Raudsepp (2002) states, “Studies show, however, that only about 10% of us listen properly.” Read Raudsepp’s article “Hone Listening Skills to Boost Your Career,” take the listening quiz, and develop an action plan for improving your listening skills.

Suggestions for Further Activities Lambert and Myers’s (1999) book 50 Activities for Conflict Resolution contains 25 activities for self-development on conflict. These activities include “The Role of Values in Conflict Resolution,” “Resolving Conflict Through Planning,” “Evaluating Your Conflict Resolution Skills,” and “Uncovering the Hidden Agenda.” This reflection exercise is adapted and used with permission from Jeff Froyd, Foundation Engineering Coalition, Texas A&M University. For more information, visit http://foundationcoalition.org/publications/brochures/conflict.pdf.

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Team-Building Exercise for an Academic Unit

The department chair can integrate the five different modes of conflict management, factors affecting modes of conflict management, and processes for selecting one or more approaches to conflict into the department culture by increasing the awareness of faculty and staff about the way they view and approach conflict. There are two basic types of team-building activities that could be used for this purpose: 1. Individual team members learn more about their perspectives and approaches to conflict through either individual reflection or appropriate instruments. They then share what they have learned with their team members. 2. The team engages in an activity that simulates a low level of conflict. Then the team reflects about its actions, learns from its experiences, and develops ways to address conflict more constructively in the future. Following are suggestions for possible team activities.

Collaborating with Different Individual Conflict Modes Ask everyone in the department to complete the exercise in figure 3 in order to identify his or her primary mode of conflict management. Then ask each individual team member to share his or her own primary mode of conflict management and to provide examples that illustrate that mode. Next, ask the team to identify potential strengths for the combination of different styles and potential problems that might arise with the combination of conflict management modes. Finally, ask the team to develop strategies to minimize potential problems and build on the possible strengths that would be involved in attempting to combine conflict management modes.

Developing a Positive Team Perspective About Conflict Start with the individual reflection exercise in figure 3 in which each member writes the word conflict and associates different words or phrases with it. Then, ask each member to share the insights that he or she learned through the individual reflection. Next, ask the team to combine all of the positive associations with conflict and construct positive ways in which the team might view conflict. Finally, ask the team to combine all of the negative associations with conflict and devise ways in which these associations might be eliminated or minimized.

Developing a Consensus Decision In his book Project Management and Teamwork, Smith (2000) asks teams to rank 15 causes of death in the United States in terms of their frequency of occurrence. Similar exercises on ranking items are available at http://www .eas.asu.edu/~asufc/teaminginfo/teams.html or in Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills by Johnson and Johnson (2000) (Exercise 8.3, Stranded in the Desert; Exercise 8.4, Who Should Get the Penicillin? Exercise 8.5, Fallout Shelter). These types of exercises can lead to low-level conflict as team members disagree about the rankings and stimulate team development in several ways. After completing the exercise, the team members should debrief their performance and address several questions: What were the positive aspects in the way that we handled conflict? How did our various modes of conflict management help our performance? How did our various modes of conflict management hinder our performance? How might we improve the ways in which we managed conflict within our team?

Intrateam Communication Improving intrateam communication can reduce the likelihood of conflict and increase the chances for faster, more effective management of conflict when it occurs.

Suggestions for Further Activities Lambert and Myers’s (1999) book 50 Activities for Conflict Resolution contains 25 activities for team development on conflict. Several of the activities are role-play, conflict scenarios that provide opportunities for teams to determine the “best” intervention style for the conflict at hand. This reflection exercise is adapted and used with permission from Jeff Froyd, Foundation Engineering Coalition, Texas A&M University. For more information, visit http://foundationcoalition.org/publications/brochures/conflict.pdf.

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REFERENCES

Algert, N. E., & Watson, K. (2005). Conflict management: Introductions for individuals and organizations. Bryan, TX: Center for Change and Conflict Resolution. Amicus. (2005). Amicus guide to tackling bullying at work. London: Amicus. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from www.amicusthe union.org. Bell, L., Love, B. J., & Roberts, R. A. (2007). Racism and white privilege curriculum design. In M. Adams, L. Bell, & P. Griffin (Eds.), Teaching for diversity and social justice (pp. 123–144). New York: Routledge. Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid. Houston: Gulf Publishing. Bollinger, L. (2007). Why diversity matters. Chronicle of Higher Education, 53(39), B20. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. (2005). OSH Answers. Bullying in the workplace. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://www.ccohs.ca/ oshanswers/psychosocial/bullying.html #_1_3 Follett, M. P. (1940). Constructive conflict. In H. C. Metcalf (Ed.), Dynamic administration: The collected papers of Mary Parker Follett. New York: Harper & Row. Gmelch, W. H. (1991). Paying the price of academic leadership: Department chair tradeoffs. Educational Record, 72(3), 45–48. Gmelch, W. H. (2006). Stress management strategies for academic leaders. Effective Practices for Academic Leaders, 1(1). Gravois, J. (2006). Mob rule: In departmental disputes, professors can act just like animals. Chronicle of Higher Education, 52 (32), 32. Hickson, M., & McCroskey, J. C. (1991, October). Diagnosing communication problems of academic chairs: Applied communication in context. ACA Bulletin, 78, 8–13. Houghton, A. (2003, April 12). Bullying in medicine. BMJ Careers. 326 (7393), s125–s131. Jefferson, A. L. (2007). The bullying boss. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal, 4 (4).

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2000). Joining together: group theory and group skills (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Lambert, J., & Myers, S. (1999). 50 Activities for conflict resolution. Amherst, MA: HR Development Press. Levine, I. S. (2006, September 22). Bosses who bully. Science Careers Forum. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org /career_development/previous_issues/ articles/2006_09_22/bosses_who_bully/ (parent)/68 Namie, G., & Namie, R. (2000). The bully at work: What can you do to stop the hurt and reclaim your dignity on the job? Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks. Opotow, S. (1989). The risk of violence: Peer conflicts in the lives of adolescents. Paper presented at the 97th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans. Powers, E. (2007, July). Handling the “bad apples.” News, Views and Careers for All of Higher Education. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved August 10, 2007, http:// www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/ 07/13/advance Raudsepp, E. (2002). Hone listening skills to boost your career. Retrieved June 22, 2007, http:www.careerjournal.com/ myc/climbingladder/20021224-raudsepp .html Rosser, S. (2006). A memorial tribute. National Women’s Studies Association, 18(1), 23. Smith, K. A. (2000). Project management and teamwork. New York: McGraw-Hill BEST Series. Stanley, C. A., & Algert, N. E. (2007). An exploratory study of the conflict management styles of department heads in a research university setting. Innovative Higher Education, 32(1), 49–66. Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., Undegraff, J. A. (2000). Female responses to stress: Tend and befriend, not fight or flight. Psychological Review, 107(3), 41–429. Thomas, K. W., & Kilmann, R. H. (1974). The Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychology. Twale, D. J., & De Luca, B. M. (in press). Faculty incivility: The rise of the academic

bully culture and what to do about it. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Algert, N. E., & Watson, K. (2005). Conflict management: introductions for individuals and organizations. Bryan, TX: Center for Change and Conflict Resolution. This manual is an excellent and practical guide for individuals and organizations who wish to learn more about how to develop a conflict management plan, identify one’s conflict styles, understand the nature of conflict, and establish goals for appropriate intervention. Gmelch, W. H. (2006). Stress management strategies for academic leaders. Effective Practices for Academic Leaders, 1(1). This briefing offers several useful strategies for department chairs and other academic administrators on how to manage stress effectively. Lambert, J., & Myers, S. (1999). 50 Activities for conflict resolution. Amherst, MA: HR Development Press. This book offers a wide collection of activities for resolving conflict. Part I focuses on 25 group workshop activities, while Part II focuses on 25 individualized exercises and assessments. These activities, exercises, and assessments are easily applicable to the academic setting. Stanley, C. A., & Algert, N. E. (2007). An exploratory study of the conflict management styles of department heads in a research university setting. Innovative Higher Education, 32(1), 49–66. This article describes the conflict management styles of 20 department heads from a public research university. It also discusses the professional development needs of department heads and offers recommendations for further research. Thomas, K. W., & Kilmann, R. H. (1974). The Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychology. This conflict assessment instrument provides a detailed self-assessment inventory of one’s preferred conflict style and offers a comprehensive overview of each of the conflict modes, including their strengths and limitations.

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S TATEMENT

OF

P URPOSE

2007 I SSUES

Effective Practices for Academic Leaders is a monthly publication that assists leaders to better manage their work agendas and make key decisions by offering critical advice and information in a concise format for ready application in administrative life. Each monthly 16-page briefing sets out the context and fundamental issues on a key topic; summarizes key scholarly research findings to ground administrative practice; offers insights and tips on effective practices drawn from real world experiences; and presents an annotated bibliography. Each issue is written by an acknowledged authority. These briefings cover a wide array of leadership, management, and governance practices associated with the roles and responsibilities of academic administration, with special emphasis on topics germane to academic departments. They also address the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors needed for exemplary administrative performance. An online subscription provides unlimited access to all users of an institutional network.

V OLUME 2

Timothy J. Delmont: Supervising Staff for Success Jean Waltman and Beth Sullivan: Creating a Supportive Work-Life Environment for Faculty and Staff Damon A. Williams and Charmaine Clowney: Planning for Diversity in Higher Education—A Strategic Primer for Leaders Diane Enerson: Promoting a Climate for Teaching and Learning Robert Secor: Strategies for the Academic Search Natalie Krawitz: Department Budgeting John H. Schuh: Enriching the Student Environment Jenny Mandelbaum: Managing the Transition Between Chairs Nancy E. Algert and Christine Stanley: Conflict Management Walter H. Gmelch and Val Miskin: Leading Through Teams Gary E. Miller: Outreach: New Opportunities for Academic Departments Daniel W. Wheeler: Servant Leadership

CALL FOR PAPERS AND FEEDBACK Academic leaders and scholars interested in preparing an issue for Effective Practices should contact the editors with their proposals. We also welcome your feedback, suggestions for future topics, and names of authors you might recommend. Please e-mail Robert Secor ([email protected]) or Timothy J. Delmont ([email protected]).

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