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Effectiveness of Nonverbal Communication Modification on the Leadership Performance of Introverts Mariano, Anthony Miguel C. Ocampo, Rodelando ABSTRACT This study examined if changes in an introvert individual’s nonverbal communication could affect their performance as a leader in a group. Using a list of tips by Carol Kinsey Goman called “12 Body Language Tips For Career Success,” college introverts participated (n=30) to become leaders in a group of three (n=90) which included them. a pre-test and post-test design with paired samples was utilized and compared the mean scores of a group activity called “All Tied Up” where the leader and their two members had their wrists tied and folded as much paper planes as they can in 15 minutes. A two tailed T-Test was used with a 95% degree of freedom. As a result, there is a significant change between the pre-test and the post-test scores (p=0.00000003) at 0.01 level of significance due to making changes in how the leader communicates with group having changes in their body language. Keywords: leadership, nonverbal communication, introversion, communication, leadership intervention, training Leaders are vital in society since leaders pave the way for the people who follow them to achieve the goal that they aim for. Leaders in history are perceived as individuals with strong personalities that assume their seat in government by their mere strength in overpowering the opposition whether it was warfare or politics. Meta-analyses of researches shows that extroverts and their traits like assertiveness (Ames, 2007, 2009) were more perceived and showed better performance in leadership. Bakker, Tims, and Derks (2012) also stated that being more proactive towards people you work with will increase engagement at work which will result to better performance. This results in 65% of executives in major companies thinking that introverts themselves are a hindrance to leadership (Time, 2006) Ineffective leadership has many effects that reverberate throughout the ranks of the people working with a leader. According to a study made by Right Management (2008), poor leadership results to employees leaving their jobs. From the 1308 respondents they’ve given the survey, 30% looked for new jobs that could provide opportunities and 25% resigned because of their leader’s ineffectiveness. More so, 22% of the respondents said that they had didn’t develop rapport with their managers and 21% felt that the efforts they made were not appropriately taken note. Ineffective leaders will have employees with low morale which means that they will not be as motivated to do work which will result in poor productivity and overall an ineffective organization or company. Poor leadership also creates a negative organizational culture. An example would be the Enron scandal of 2001 with their Ponzi scheme when they notoriously falsified their accounting records in order for them to appear to be making huge amounts of profit but actually were in huge debt. This was due to leaders and executives who instigated such acts created a company full of liars and swindlers who bullied those who tried to inform the world of the truth and even bribed them to keep their mouth shut about how their operations. Despite the extrovert advantage in today’s world, introverts need to learn how to match this with something that is easy and inexpensive without the need to spend money for pricey trainings like “The Leadership Challenge”. There is a way of doing so that is just simple that does not even cost anything at all: adjusting one’s body language or also known as nonverbal communication. Smiling (Beukeboom, 2009), eye contact (Frischen, Bayliss, Tipper, 2007) vocal pitch and tone 115
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(Locke, C., & Anderson, C., 2015), hand gestures (Talley and Temple, 2015), and posture (Carney et al, 2010) are effective in modifying how people perceive us and even change our own abilities for the better (Koch, Holland, Hengstler, & van Knippenberg, 2009). The purpose of this research is to measure the effectiveness of using nonverbal communication as an inexpensive and easy to do method of increasing one’s leadership ability with something as quick and easy as changing how you stand and communicate with people using your body. Doing so would change many introverts who have difficulty in developing their leadership skills in a positive way and would remove biases on leadership that is based on personality predisposition. Body Language Posture and nonverbal communication is also one of the quickest ways of being a leader. The saying “Fake it ‘til you make it” is actually quite true. Carney, Cuddy and Yap (2010) stated in the results of their study that doing “power poses” for 2 minutes can increase an individual’s testosterone and endocrine levels which result in better confidence. Koch et al, (2009) and their study about cognitive processes and body locomotion found out that stepping backwards when faced with a problem can help increase cognitive abilities which can help in dealing with tasks and being able to solve them effectively. More information on the effects of nonverbal communication according to Locke et al, (2015), is that the voice of a leader affects the members’ performance. Possessing a powerful voice as well helps in being a leader and helps to be identified by the group with the only downside being able to stifle the other voices of the group members. Sanchez-Cortes, D., Aran, O., Mast, M., & Gatica-Perez, D. (2012) said in their study of leaders who emerged in newly small groups were perceived by their groupmates as an active and competent person which was aided by the leader’s nonverbal communication in relation with the proper tone and intonation of the voice. In addition, Tsukiura and Cabeza (2008) discovered how important smiling to people based on their research. Their results showed that smiling faces were more memorable and seemed as more approachable and easier to work with compared to people with neutral facial expressions which is important because as a leader one would want their members to have trust in them. Rauchbauer, Majdandzic, Hummer, Windischberger, and Lamm (2015) noted that the Chameleon Effect can be used in order to amplify the positive effects of smiling by increasing feelings of affiliation and likeability towards members thus providing a more positive chemistry. Beukeboom C. (2009) suggested that listening to someone who’s talking showing positive body language (e.g. smiling), the person talking would be more abstract and be more visual with their explanation as compared to listening to someone with negative body language (e.g. frowning) which would result to the speaker being more literal with the words they say. Similarly with the connection of facial expressions, Kelly, Kravitz, and Hopkins (2004) made a study if there’s a neural connection between speech and body language in a person’s comprehension. They found out that there is and that saying one thing with contradicting body language limits communication with another person thus creating confusion therefore the proper combination would yield the desired message such as use of hand gestures. The findings of Meeren, van Heijnsbergen, & de Gelder, (2005) suggested that by combining the appropriate body language with the correct facial expression augments the emotion that is expressed. Not doing so can send mixed signals which can confuse followers. Even more so concerning posture, Furley, Dicks, Memmert (2012) and their study concerning football and posture supported the notion that by bearing more dominant body language are perceived more positive and would perform better by goalkeepers. Talley and Temple (2015) and their study about hand gestures said that speakers who use more are attractive and easier to listen to compared to those who are not using hand gestures. Frischen, Bayliss, & 116
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Tipper (2007) stated in their study how important the use of eye gaze or eye contact is in communication and how it helps in making the one you’re talking to feel that you’re paying attention to what is being said. Leadership Performance of Introverts Bakker, Tims, and Derks (2012) also stated that being more proactive towards people you work with will increase engagement at work which will result to better performance. In addition, Hong-Da, , Vivian,., Chin-Tien,., & Wu-Chen,. (2014) with their study of entrepreneurial leaders having introverted qualities can be detrimental to their followers. Being passive and detached can lower the morale and inhibit the capabilities of their employees to innovate. In regards to that Klaang (2012) pointed out that in the field of sales and sales management, introversion was looked down upon and was given lower ratings of importance as opposed to having extrovert qualities such as assertiveness and proactivity. Grant (2013) also supported this idea that extroverts earned more money than introverts do because of the introvert’s lack of communication skills. Moreover Moss, Ritossa and Ngu (2006) made a study about the preference of leaders in a hospital setting using the Big-Five model and their results showed that introverted leaders had less preference among the subjects than extroverted leaders who were considered as more motivating. Sieff and Carstens (2006) researched about focus in the workplace and introverts scored lower than their extrovert counterparts. Introverts were seen as less comfortable with the challenges of leadership. Added to the prior researches, Brandt and Laiho (2013) examined leadership performance and transformational leader aspect of leaders by making a survey given to leaders (n=459) and their employees (n=378) and found out that male extroverted leaders found themselves more challenging which was also supported by the employees’ answers. To illustrate the prior facts, the study of de Vries (2008) about leadership and personality in the workplace suggests that introverts are at a disadvantage as leaders. Introverts are seen as passive and non-confrontational which is a downside especially when most, if not all careers, require leaders to spark communication among the people in the office. Riggio and Rechard (2008) suggested that people skills are a huge help in being an effective leader. Madlock. (2008) conducted with supervisors and their employees concerning their communication skills and job satisfaction. The results showed that there is a strong relationship with having strong communication skills and job satisfaction by the employees and in turn produced better job performance. Including to the previous fact that one such problem for Introverts in being leaders is that they have difficulty in maintaining Leader-Member Exchanges (LMX). Introverts are then considered as more likely to be removed or let go in their positions of work whether they are leaders or followers because of poor performance due to a lack of communication with their workmates and mentors which also turned into minimal development performance (Bauer, Lauden, Edrogan, 2006). Schyns, Maslyn, and van Veldhoven, (2012) made another study concerning Leader-Member Exchanges and also supported the disadvantage Introverts have by saying that Introverted leaders have a much more difficult time managing their inter-personal relationships with their employees. As you go upward the corporate ladder and you manage more people and that will lead to more difficulty to the introvert as a leader with their passive nature. Lastly, meta-analyses of researches shows that extroverts and their traits like assertiveness (Ames, 2007, 2009) were more perceived and showed better performance in leadership. Synthesis The studies about nonverbal communication have opened eyes of its effects. Adjusting posture can increase confidence (Carney et al, 2010) and even stepping backwards can help think better (Koch et al, 2009). Voice can change the perception of members towards their leader 117
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(Sanchez-Cortes et al, 2012) and then affect their performance as well (Locke et al, 2015). Facial expressions are an important part in nonverbal communication and have strong effects as well. Smiling can help a person be more memorable and be perceived as approachable, easy to work with and more trustworthy (Tskukiura and Cabeza, 2008). Giving the right amount (and proper duration) of smiles during conversations can increase feelings of likeability and affirmation towards group members (Rauchbauer et al 2015) and can also increase prosocial behavior in groups (Baarren et al, 2009). Listening to someone talking and smiling at them will result in the speaker feeling more encouraged and motivated to speak better. By combining the body language with the correct hand gestures (Kelly et al, 2004) and even facial expressions (Mereen et al, 2005) the emotion that is shown will be more felt and be augmented as compared to contradicting ones will result to confusion. Using hand gestures make a person more appealing as well (Talley and Temple, 2015). Correct eye contact helps in being a better listener and paired with proper responses results to positive interactions (Frischen et al, 2007). All in all, dominant body language and posture makes people perceive that they are more positive and performs well. There are a number of reasons as to why introverts are not as regarded as their extrovert counterparts. Introverts are less proactive (Bakker et al, 2012) and have submissive personalities which have an effect on their performance as leaders and even just becoming one. Having introverted traits can also be detrimental to their followers and hinder their development and performance (Hong-Da et al 2014). Introversion is also a problem in job fields such as sales (Klaang, 2012) where they earn the least as compared to extroverts and even ambiverts (Grant, 2013). Introverted leaders were seen as less motivating (Moss et al, 2006) and less focused and were perceived as incapable of handling the pressure (Sieff and Carstens, 2006). Extroverted leaders were perceived by themselves and by their employees as more challenging ( Brandt and Laiho, 2013). The passivity and non-confrontational trait of introverts is a problem (de Vries, 2008) because having people skills is an important trait to be an effective leader (Riggio and Rechard, 2008) which is sadly what introverts are lacking in. Lastly, introverts can sometimes give employees a less satisfying time at work. Communication skills are a vital aspect of a leader and underperforming in it can result to bad relationships with employees and them being less effective. This study aims to answer the following questions: (1) What is the level of leadership performance in the pretest and posttest results? (2) What is the effect of the “12 Body Language Tips for Career Success” intervention? Method Research Design The researcher employed a quasi-experimental design for this study because the goal was to find out the effectiveness of the intervention. In order to find out if the intervention applied was successful, the researcher would have to do an experiment where in the researcher would measure the changes by applying an independent variable to the people involved in the experiment and will observe for changes in the researcher’s chosen dependent variable. A Within-Subjects Design was used by the researcher because it is the simplest design for this study and is the best method to use in order to measure if there is a genuine effect in the person before and after the intervention (Shuttleworth, 2009). A pre-test was done to establish a baseline for the participants and after the intervention was given which was then followed by the post-test and checked if there was a significant difference after the independent variable was applied. Participants The chosen participants for this study were introvert college students (n=30) using purposive sampling since the required individuals to take part are strictly introverts. These 30 introverts were then assigned as leaders of groups of 3 including them and the other 2 members 118
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who are not included in the sample size of 30. In order for them to be qualified in the study, they needed to have a score of less than or equal to 5 or below on the introversion factors of the online 16 PF test. Instruments 16 Personality Factor Questionnaires. The 16PF is a self-report (Q-data) personality questionnaire developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell, Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. Even though the 16PF provides a measure of normal personality trait constructs, it can also used be used as a clinical instrument (since clinical patients may obtain extreme scores - "standard ten" or "sten" scores of 1-2 and/or 9-10 on a number of the trait dimensions), as well as being widely used within other areas of psychology, such as occupational selection both within civilian and military contexts. Beginning in the 1940s, Cattell used the new statistical technique of common factor analysis which takes as its starting point the matrix of intercorrelations between all the variables (see correlation coefficient) in an attempt to elucidate the underlying source traits of human personality. The traits that were chosen to be the basis for introversion were the following: A. Reserved/Warm, F. Serious/Lively, G. Shy/Bold, N. Private/Forthright, and Q2. Self-Reliant/ Group-Oriented. 12 Body Language Tips For Career Success by Carol Kinsey Goman, Ph. D. The body language tips that was used in the study was made by Carol Kinsey Goman who is an expert in body language, leadership and success in careers. In order to be a more successful leader, a person should stand tall and take up space, have wider stance, have an optimal vocal pitch when talking, try power priming, practice power posing, maintain positive eye contact, use your hands when delivering a presentation, use open gestures, practice doing the steeple hand gesture, learn to reduce nervous gestures, smile appropriately, and also perfect your handshake. Procedure The main criteria for the participants was that they were required to be introverts since the purpose of this study was to identify significant change in their leadership performance. In order to verify the introverted qualities of the participants, they were given the 16 Personality Factor questionnaires which were developed by Raymond Cattell. Those who scored a mean score towards the left or between 0-2 on the scale is allowed to proceed to the second phase of the study. The introverts were then required to bring 2 people with them (introverts or extroverts regardless) for the following activity which is a common team-building activity called “All Tied Up”. The introverts were then named the designated leaders for the activity to come. The participants and their group were given a task to be succeeded in a given amount of time but with a twist, they are to do the task with their wrists tied to each others’. Their objective was to make as much paper planes as they can in 10 minutes for two rounds which shall be the pre-test and the post-test. After each round the members asked on any observations on how their grouped performed and their leader. After the first pre-test, the leaders/introverts were then separated from the group and brought into a different room to wait for their intervention. As the leaders waited, the members were asked for observations on how their group performed and how their leader performed as well. The leaders, who were now in a separate room, were given intervention which was the guide made by Carol Kinsey Goman on how to become better leaders. The guide is mainly about body-language modification which includes tips like positive eye-contact, proper use of hands, posture, smiling, and gestures towards other people. After the administration of the intervention, the designated leaders were then returned to their respective groups and were to apply what they learned in order to motivate their group to increase productivity output. The final round was then done and that was considered the post-test. The number of planes produced during the post-test were then compared to the number of planes produced in the pre-test. The groups were then asked again how their team fared in the post-test design. They were also asked whether there was 119
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a change in the leader of each group and was there a difference in how he/she performed. The participants afterwards were given tokens/rewards for their participation in the experiment. Statistical Treatment of Data In order to analyze the results of the pretest and posttest numbers, using T-test for paired samples was utilized to check for significant difference. The purpose of the T-test was to properly identify if there was a significant statistical difference between the quantities of the planes made in the pre-test and the post-test which will determine the effectiveness of the intervention. Results and Discussions Research Question 1. What is the level of leadership performance in the pretest and posttest results? Table 1
The results of the pretest resulted with level of performance that is normal (M=18.4667) meaning that the average productivity of the groups led by the introverted leaders were around 18. This value was the baseline on which the posttest was compared to. The Pre-test of the groups provided the score as to which the leaders would be judged in the post-test. The average of the scores were 18 planes (SD = 9.10753). The post-test’s outcome displayed improvements from the activity prior. The mean scores of the post-test(M = 26.7333) were higher by 8.26667 than the pre-test. The Pre-test of the groups provided the score as to which the leaders would be judged in the post-test. The average of the scores were 18 planes (SD = 9.10753). The post-test’s outcome displayed improvements from the activity prior. The mean scores of the post-test(M = 26.7333) were higher by 8.26667 than the pre-test. The amount made in 15 minutes during pretest was that amount which was due to the leaders not yet capable of acting as leaders. Most of them were unsure of what to say or do and only relied on their members and stayed silent. Some leaders chose to not move at all and let the other two to move instead thinking that they are not as capable as folding paper planes. The introversion was very evident among the leaders during the pretest. in when the introvert leaders didn’t really talk much to their members. Most of them were just doing the task they were given and were quite serious about it not talking much and when they were it was very minimal. Some members of the leaders on the other hand were more talkative than the leaders. They talked more casually and sometimes talked about the task at hand. Some were giving suggestions but some leaders were just simple and agreed silently. Some groups also had members who were silent as their leaders as well. Also doing the task as it is and having little to no communication at all. They didn’t ask about how they were doing or if they were making progress with their designs, they just went on with it. When other group members were feeling discomfort with their position. Groups didn’t talk about changing their positioning at all and just moved autonomously without asking their fellow members permission for shifting their arms. There were also other leaders who didn’t bother moving at all and just let their members make planes and considered it as a strategy. The members unfortunately didn’t enjoy that because it just showed some laziness or detachment from the leader in working with them in the task. The 120
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leaders during the posttest were more vocal and more involved. Most of them asked their groups on how to improve productivity and which design would have a balance of quality and quantity. During the planning stage prior to the posttest itself, the body language of the leaders significantly improved including their stances which were now open as compared to having folded arms when talking. The leaders adjusted their voices and the rest of their nonverbal communication as well which aided in the group focusing on them as leaders and worked together harmoniously (Sanches-Cortez et al, 2010) The results showed that there was an increase in the performance of the leaders from the pre-test to the post-test. The mean number of planes in the pre-test increased by 8.2666. One of Katz’s(2007) approach in his Leadership Skills Approach is “Technical Skill” in which how the leader performs the task and how proficient the leader is. The Technical Skill of the leaders increased and learned on how to make planes better throughout the activity. “Human Skill” also was in action during this activity on how the leaders briefed their members on how they should tackle the post test. During the activity they also encouraged and got along better with their groupmates by encouraging them and motivating them as well. “Conceptual Skill” also was present in terms of how the leaders innovated on their designs and how they managed their members. They weren’t deterred when they had a plan and one of their members gave suggestions showing that the leaders showed openness to their members and put the goals of the group in front of his/her own. Research Question 2. What is the effect of “12 Body Language Tips For Career Success” in the level of leadership performance of the participants?
The t-test results showed that t=7.547 and p=0.00000003 which means that the body language modification intervention had a highly significant effect on the leadership performance of the introvert leaders since p < 0.05. The increase in the amount of planes during the post-test meant that leadership performance can be increased by simply modifying the body language of an individual. The effects of changing the body language of the participants to improve their leadership performance were statistically evident. During the post-test, the leaders were more participative in the activity. They were talking to the members more by motivating them to be better (Servátka, Tucker and Vadovič’s, 2011) and asking them if they’re having problems or feeling uncomfortable with the position they were standing/sitting in or with the design of the plane they were making, or the method of how they were making them. One of the factors that contributed to better leadership performance was how the leaders modified their leadership style depending on their members (Grant A., Gino F., and Hoffman D., 2011). Some leaders had introverted members and some leaders had more extroverted ones. The leaders with introverted leaders became more assertive because they realized that the members needed someone to direct the members in order for them to know their roles and the importance of the task. The leaders with extroverted members were more permissive and accepting of their members’ suggestions. Letting members give their suggestions and ideas and those being incorporated to the group’s overall plan was rewarding for them and motivated them to produce better results. Conclusion and Recommendation 121
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The effects of the intervention affected the results of the post-test positively increasing their leadership performance by showing an increased output of paper planes. Evidently, there was a difference in leadership styles and communication among the leader and the members which resulted in more synergy and a more fluid performance that still maintained optimal performance and developed a good rapport among the teams. Being an effective leader is a good quality to have. The behavior, skills, and traits of a successful leader does not only affect the performance of the group or organization that they are in, but it transcends to the relationships with people all around that individual. Being a good leader does not only mean being good on paper, but also having good chemistry with their members and knowing their strengths. Making changes to a person’s body language can help in these by being displaying positive and open gestures to members. Communicating with members can build positive ties with the ones you work with and bode well in the present and future. Providing a positive and challenging workplace atmosphere makes members feel more encouraged and motivated to work with a leader that is more collaborative and accepting of their ideas and suggestions. To further this study, making use of actual employees would be very effective and would yield a more “real-life” result since most of the related literature that were made by postgraduate students asked for help from companies and used executives and managers instead of students. The use of a between-subjects design is also a viable suggestion in recreating the study. References Ames, D. (2009). Pushing up to a point: Assertiveness and effectiveness in leadership and interpersonal dynamics. Research In Organizational Behavior, 29, 111-133. doi:10.1016/j.riob.2009.06.010 Ames, D., & Flynn, F. (2007). What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 92(2), 307324. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307 Bakker, A., Tims, M., & Derks, D. (2012). Proactive personality and job performance: The role of job crafting and work engagement. Human Relations, 65(10), 1359-1378. doi:10.1177/0018726712453471 Bauer, T., Erdogan, B., Liden, R., & Wayne, S. (2006). A longitudinal study of the moderating role of extraversion: Leader-member exchange, performance, and turnover during new executive development. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 298-310. doi:10.1037/00219010.91.2.298 Beukeboom, C. (2009). When words feel right: How affective expressions of listeners change a speaker's language use. European Journal Of Social Psychology, 39(5), 747-756. doi:10.1002/ejsp.572 Brandt, T., & Laiho, M. (2013). Gender and personality in transformational leadership context. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 34(1), 44-66. doi:10.1108/01437731311289965 Carney, D., Cuddy, A., & Yap, A. (2010). Power Posing: Brief Nonverbal Displays Affect Neuroendocrine Levels and Risk Tolerance. Psychological Science, 21(10), 1363-1368. doi:10.1177/0956797610383437 de Vries, R. (2008). What Are We Measuring? Convergence of Leadership with Interpersonal and Non-interpersonal Personality. Leadership, 4(4), 403-417. doi:10.1177/1742715008095188 Frischen, A., Bayliss, A., & Tipper, S. (2007). Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 694-724. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.694 Furley, P., Dicks, M., & Memmert, D. (2012). Nonverbal behavior in soccer: the influence of 122
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