Eindhoven University of Technology MASTER The ... - Pure [PDF]

Eindhoven University of Technology

MASTER The sustainability of ferrocement stairs (production) in a social housing project in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, aimed at lower-income groups

Becque, R.M.J. Award date: 1999

Link to publication

Disclaimer This document contains a student thesis (bachelor's or master's), as authored by a student at Eindhoven University of Technology. Student theses are made available in the TU/e repository upon obtaining the required degree. The grade received is not published on the document as presented in the repository. The required complexity or quality of research of student theses may vary by program, and the required minimum study period may vary in duration.

General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain

The sustainability of ferrocement stairs (production) in a social housing project in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, aimed at lower-income groups

Main report Renilde Becqué, id.nr. 406869 International Technological Development Studies Technology and Society

r-------------------------------------1 The sustainability offerrocement stairs (production) in a social housing project in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, aimed at lower• zncome groups.

Renilde Becqué International Technological Development Studies Study Technology and Society Faculty Technology Management Eindhoven University ofTechnology The Netherlands (id.no. 406869, ITOKIB, TeMa, TUE) July 1999

Under co-ordination of : Mw. Ir E.L.C. van Egmond- de Wilde de Ligny (T&BIITOK,TeMa) Prof. mag. arch. ing. P. Schmid (BTIB) Dr.Ir. P.E. Lapperre (T&BIITOK,TeMa)

Main report

Contents of Main report

CONTENTSOF MAIN REPORT

Summary

I

Foreword

IX

Introduetion

1

Part 1 :Research design

Problem setting

5

Chapter 1 Theoretical part

8

Chapter 2 Empirical part

15

Part 2 : Local context

Chapter 3 The social housing project by FEMI-Brasil

22

Chapter 4 Characteristics of the target group population

31

Chapter 5 Characteristics of the building environment

56

Part 3 : F errocement stairs (production unit)

Chapter 6 Ferrocement stairs and the production unit

63

Part 4 : Ultimate performance

Chapter 7 Appropriability of ferrocement stairs and production

78

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practical and social-economic context results

95

Part 5 : Recommendations

Chapter 9 Recommendations

105

Literature

113

Glossary

11

Extensive contents

Extensive contents Summary a) Introducing Brazil, its urban problems and the research subject b) Research design c) Broad characteristics of the social housing project and the concerning population and environment d) Ferrocement (stairs) and its production e) The ferrocement stairs production unit t) Social and financial matters of concern g) Practical performance of the ferrocement stairs (production unit) h) Performance of the ferrocement stairs (production unit) in a wider social-economic context i) Final conclusions

I I 11

11 III IV V

VI VII VIII

Foreword

IX

Introduetion

1

a) Introducing the problem b) The research problem c) Report composition d) Final note of the introduetion

1 2 2

4

Part 1 : Research deslgn

Problem setting a) Brazil b) Urbanisation and its related problems c) Contribution to solving the most urgent urban problems

Chapter 1 Theoretica} part l.a) Research problem l.b) Subdivision of research problem to partial questions l.c) Aims of the research (theoreticallpractical) l.d) Relevanee of the research problem l.e) Conceptual definitions l.t) Theoretica( model l.g) Operational definitions l.h) Research model l.i) Research instruments

5 5

5 6

8 8 8 8 8 9 10

12 13 14

Extensive contents

Chapter 2 Empirical part 2.a) Research population and research unit 2.b) Sampling procedure 2.c) Sourees for research and methods of data-coHeetion 2.d) Techniques of analysis

15 15 19

20 21

Part 2 : Local context

Chapter 3 The social housing project by FEMI-Brasil 3.a) Vision of FEMI 3.b) Translation to social housing project : basic conditions 3.c) Explanation on the project 3.d) Intended results : physicallnon-physical 3.e) Execution: design, co-operation with organizations 3.t) Role of ferrocement stairs and production unit in the project 3.g) Reasoos for applying ferrocement stairs

Chapter 4 Characteristics of the target group population 4.a) Introduetion 4.b) Household composition 4.c) Employment and iocome 4.d) Education and qualification 4.e) Classification of inhabitants 4.t) Length of residence 4.g) Occupancy 4.h) Actual housing characteristics 4.i) Habitational preferences 4.j) Organizational and social (infra-)structure : participation of families 4.k) Availability of infrastructure and services 4.1) Characterisation of the average family and resident

Chapter 5 Characteristics of the building environment 5.a) General characterisation of the Brazilian construction industry 5.b) Traditional and ferrocement construction in Nova Friburgo 5.c) The locallegislative environment in Nova Friburgo 5.d) Climatical conditions in Nova Friburgo 5.e) The project terrain and its natoral environment in Nova Friburgo 5.t) Occurrence of biological agents in Nova Friburgo

22 22

22 23 24 25 27

28

31 31 31 33 36 38 38

40 41 48 50 53 54

56 56 59 59 59 61 62

Extensive contents

Part 3 : Ferrocement stairs (productz"on unit) Chapter 6 Ferrocement stairs and the production unit 6.a) Introduetion 6.b) Ferrocement in general 6.c) Material availability 6.d) Experimental ferrocement stair 6.e) Labour potential 6.f) The production unit capacity 6.g) The ferrocement stairs on the consumer market 6.h) Planning, implementation and start-up of the production unit 6.i) Adaptation of the production process

63 63 63 65 66 67 68

73 75 76

Part 4 : milmate performance Chapter 7 Appropriability of ferrocement stairs and production 7.a) Introduetion 7.b) Performance of ferrocement construction technologies in the optimisation of the original research proposal 7.c) Optimisation on ferrocement stairs and their production

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practical and social-economic context results 8.a) Introduetion 8.b) Local practical results 8.c) Social-economic context 8.d) Social-economic context results 8.e) Final conciosion

78 78 78 80

95 95 95 97 102 104

Part 5 : Recommendations Chapter 9 Recommendations 9.a) Introduetion 9.b) Teehoical performance 9.c) Performance on Iabour 9.d) Performance on production and sales 9.e) Performance on harmonisation with social housing project 9.f) Performance in society 9.g) Performance within (inter)national comparative industrial organizations perspective

105 105 105 106 106 107 107 108

Literature

113

Glossary

119

Summary

Summary a) Introducing Brazil, its urban problems and the research subject Brazil is a land of contrasts, which displays to the outside world a modem competitive economy, belonging to the largest economies and major exporters ofthe world, and also to the higher middle-income economies, with an average Gross National Product per capita of3,614 US Dollar in 1995. At the same time, major parts of its economy show the characteristics of a backlog, the informal sector is flourishing in the urban areas, and the income distribution is one ofthe most unequal in the world. Not only income is unevenly distributed, also the political and economie power are almost completely in the hands of a small group ofrich, powerful individuals, conserving a rigid hierarchy. Brazil has an enormous supply of land and valuable raw materials, with a favourable elimate in major parts of the land, and a large Iabour supply and consumer market They give the Brazilian economy a high potential to develop itself into one of the most important economies in the world. Agriculture plays an important role in the export of Brazil and takes place on a large-scale. However the expulsion of agricultural smali-scale farmers and labourers by the modemisation ofthis agricultural sector caused in the last decenniums a large migration from the rural to the urban areas. The overcrowded urban areas suffer from serious problems, ranging from a lack of sufficient shelter and food for their population to the lack of employment for predominantly low-skilled people. The urban problems are mainly concentrated around the large layers oftheir population, belonging to the lower-income groups in society, and is reflected in the way they have to live and dweil, in the overall preserree of slums, called favelas, and street sellers, beggars and thieves in public life. As there is a very high need among these population groups for decent housing and facilities, and for more employment possibilities under better labour-conditions, not only in the urban metropolises, but also in regional urban centres, a young NGO FEMI-Brasil executes a social housing project, which is aimed at people from the lower-income groups, in the regional mountain city Nova Friburgo, in the state Rio de Janeiro. By the provision of 500 dwellings with physical infrastructure and several communal buildings, combined with social programs like schooling, various courses, participation activities and other, is intended to contribute to the futfilment of the population's most urgent demands. Since the central govemment is hardly involved (anymore) in solving the main urban problems ofhousing and employment, the initiative has to come from state and municipal govemments and from NGO's or other institutions. Among the need for infrastructural facilities are the requirements for stairs in buildings with more than 1 floor and in terrain that is considerably sloping. As this situation is applicable not only to the mountainous city Nova Friburgo as a whole, but also especially to the severely sloping terrain, dedicated for the social housing project, a more sustainable stair alternative is sought than the traditional concrete and wooden stairs. Because ofpositive experimental experience with ferrocement stairs, FEMI-Brasil opts for the application and production offerracement stair elements. Various production units for the provision of several construction elements are to be established on the project terrain, among which probably a ferrocement stairs production unit. Locallower-income groups future residents ofthe project will be recruited as employees, creating structural employment for them, as the potentiallocal sales market in Nova Friburgo and near surroundings will be scouted for opportunities of a continuation of ferrocement stairs production, after the fmishing of production in order of the social housing project. Through diffusion outside the project a larger share of families from the lower-income groups will be enabled tobenefit from the likely sustainable ferrocement stairs altemative. The ferrocement stairs will be investigated on their sustainability of application and production in the social housing project in specific and in Nova Friburgo, Brazil in general, both aimed at lower-income groups.

Summary

b) Research design The main research problem is whether (a) ferrocement stairs (production unit) can be considered sustainable for (a social housing project in) Nova Friburgo, Brazil, airned at lower-income groups. The sustainability of the ferrocement stairs (production) is looked at as the stairs' appropriability for application as an alternative construction element in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in specific and in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, in the wider context; and the production's appropriability to the lowerincome groups, betonging to the future residents of the project, especially to provide structural employment for them. With lower-income groups are meant those population groups that earn a monthly family income between 0.5 and almost 5 (in general) or up to 4.5 (FEMI-selection-criterion) minimum salaries. Considerable potentialities are expected to be present in ferrocement stairs and their production, as ferrocement as a construction material is generally sustainable in its characteristics, making to a large extent use of available materials, allowing a labour-intensive/capital-extensive production, and requiring only a low to moderate skilis level of the participating population or its employees. The ferrocement stairs and production unit are embedded in the applied technologies of the total transformation process of the social housing project. The project provides an answer on the gap between needs and airns ofthe locallower-income groups at the one side and the available resources and possibilities at the other side. lt has to interact with the local social-geographical circumstances of Nova Friburgo, and the external circumstances ofthe Brazilian society. A clear distinction can bemadebetween the stairs as a product, and their respective production, and the ferrocement stairs (elements) are considered as a product-technology, while the production unit is considered as a process-technology. The broad research popu/ation under concern is that population, betonging to the lower-income groups in Nova Friburgo, Brasil, while the specific research population can be limited to the families that have been selected for the social housing project, which are in frrst instanee a 840 families, of which 163 families have been selected for the first dwelling irnplementation stage. Part of this broad and more narrow selected population will be 'in reserve', as only 500 dwellings in total, respectively 100 dwellings in the first dwelling stage ofthe project will be provided. The research population represents the majority offuture users of the ferrocement stairs at the social housing project, as well do they provide the employees for the ferrocement stairs production unit.

c) Broad characteristics ofthe social housing project and the concerning population and environment The project by FEMI-Brasil is intended for families with an income between 0.5 and 4.5 minimum salaries, taking into consideration their characteristics and those of the environment. A contribution to the empowerment of the capacity of the locallabour, and mainly a contribution to the exercising of citizenship ("cidadania'') through the population is aimed. In the project is co-operated with several (local) partners. The NEPHU, with a 15 year experience in social housing projects and attached to the public Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), in the initia} design; the private university PUC-Rio in Rio de Janeiro in sociallgeographic research; the Brazilian development bank BNDES fora part ofthe fmancing; as wellas probably the municipal council ofNova Friburgo, as FEMI-Brasil intends to involve also the conceming public institutions. The participation ofthe selected families in different stages and activities of the project is anticipated, although they will not be involved in voluntary construction of the dwellings and other structures. The project will be irnplemented in 7 stages of each 6 months. The concerned research popu/ation is selected from a matrix of a 1,521 families, investigated by the PUCuniversity, which comply to the main general characteristics, that the majority ofthe families has up to 5

11

Summary

persons, with an on average young population. About half of the adult memhers have in some way remunerated work, but eaming less than 5 minimum (family) salaries. They have received an incomplete primary education, and have not foliowed professional courses. Most families are likely to have AfroBrazilian or mixed decendance. They spring from Nova Friburgo, or from this region or the state Rio, and pretend to stayin the municipal Nova Friburgo. They live in one-family dwellings and half ofthe families desires to have the possibility of enlargement of the dwelling to above or to the sides. Their current participation in any association or activity is very low. The concemed environment is distinguished in the natura!, the politieal-legal and construction sector environment. The Brazilian construction sector is since long a sector with pretty traditional construction methods and a high absorption of low- and semi-skilied Iabour. A large pulverisation divides the sector in many small- and medium-scale organisations. Among an increasing part of the organisations in the building construction sector, a tendency to an orientation in the rationalisation of construction can be noticed. The politieal-legal environment in Nova Friburgo allows the implementation of a fermcement stairs production unit. The natural environment consist of rnainly mountainous sloping terrain, and a elimate of almost daily tropical downpours in the summer periods and draughts in the winter, and a temperature ranging between pretty warm during summer daytime to moderate and cold in the winter, especially at night. Sunshine is very intense and relative hurnidity of the air amount always between 80 to 85% the whole year round. Wind veloeities are in general only moderate. The local flora and fauna does hardly cause serious harm to concrete/cement-based structures.

d) Ferrocement (stairs) and its production Ferrocement is a type ofthin wall reinforeed concrete construction where usually a hydraulic cement is reinforeed with layers of continuous and relatively small diameter mesh. Mesh may be made of metallic material or other suitable materials. The closely spaeed multiple layers of mesh and small diameter bars are completely encapsulated in mortar, employing steel and cement in a highly efficient and cost-effective manner. lt is not only cheap, but also strong and long lasting, and the basic techniques are easily acquired. The uniform distribution and dispersion of the reinforcement in the resulting composite, its different material performance, its tensile strength behaviour and potential applications create a distinction between ferrocement and conventional reinforeed concrete, enabling it to be classified as a separate material. The reaction of Portland cement and water results in the formation of a hardened cement paste. The commonly applied mixture proportions are a sand-cement ratio by weight of 2 : 1, and a water-cement ratio of 0.35 to 0.5, with a portion of compressed Portland cement in the hardened ferrocement structure representing about 700 kg/m3 , while reinforeed concrete generally applies the half of this number. The four major steps in ferrocement structures construction are the : - preparation and placement of wire mesh and reinforcement rods in proper position, - cement mortar mixing, - cement mortar application by filling the moulds and compacting - curing The frrst 3 steps do not necessarily have to occur in this sequence. The frrst mentioned step of preparation and placement of the reinforcement mesh and rods can have to take place before the mortar mixing and application, or in between the application of layers of mortar, depending on the structure, that is going to be produced. In 1997 an experimental ferrocement stair was developed at TIBÁ, a srnall institute for "Technologia Intuitiva e Bio-Arquitetura", located in Bom Jardim, a small city not far away from Nova Friburgo. The prototype stair was destined for intemal use and made out of 3 pieces, one straight part in the middle and a curved piece connected at the bottorn and the upper side. The pieces are connected to each other and the

lil

Summary

floors by overlapping treads, fastened by a cement mortar. The thickness of the stair is 1 centirnetre, with a board of about 7 centimetres at the upper- and at the under-side. Stair width is 90 centimetres. The applied ratio sand : cement was 2 : 1, with a 10 - 20 % water added. The mesh consisted of plastic nets used for the transport of fruits. The stair mould was made of wood. All input materials are locally available in Nova Friburgo. For production offerracement stairs in the production unit, wooden moulds, impregnated and with a covering of aluminium and/or plastic, are applied. A dry layer of cement mortar is applied in the mould, then a double layer of mesh, and another layer of a bit more hurnid mortar mixture. The mortar has to be thoroughly compacted. Finally reinforcement rods are applied, which makes the stair piece have a total thickness of 1 to 1.5 cm. After a curing of 24 hours in the mould, and curing it a week more to let the pieces harden, they receive a fmishing coating to proteet them from environmental attacks. The production process on the workflour is presented in a simplified scheme with the main production activities and its relations :

e) The ferrocement stairs production unit The implemen/ation ofthe social housing project is divided in 7 stages, ofwhich in 5 stagesstairs are required, for which 2 types of straight pieces (SPE(0.9) and SPE(1.2)) and 1 type of curved pieces (CPI), all for internat use and standardised in their dimensions, are developed and 1 type of a flexible straight piece for extemal use (SPE). Counting with a likely underestimation of calculated requirements and with some losses due to production faults and breakage, a rate of 150 % over the calculated quantities is applied, which makes the gross production in order ofthe social housing project amount: Product

Total number of production months

Production/month in first •. months

Production/month in other •. months

SPE SPI(0.9) CPI SPI(1.2)

24 months 26 months 26 months 21 months

12': 101 pieces 15': 11 - 15 pieces 15': 21 - 30 pieces 18' : 5 pieces

12' : 48 pieces 11': 8-9 pieces 11' : 14 - 17 pieces 3' : 6 pieces

The frrst 12 months average production will comprise a 144 pieces per month, at a workweek of 4 days, each day 9 hours, with a total production of 8 pieces a day. Labour requirements are 8 labourers for stair

IV

Summary

elements production, working in groups of 2 persons; 4 production assistants, 1 for each group; a supervisor and an administrator, thus a total of 14 employees can initially be employed at the production unit, ofwhich 2 skilied and 12 not or semi-skilied people. The developed stair types are improved in composition in relation to the experimental stair, which implied a cement with higher initia! strength, favourable for pre-fab; an extra mesh layer; and somewhat more and thicker steel rods to resist higher life loads. The absolute material requirements of a fermcement stair piece are several times less than for a reinforeed concrete stair piece of same length and width. Labour is rewarded with a higher total average monthly wage (total of net wages plus benefits, divided by 12 months), than is common in construction /adrninistration wage-work. Except for the production assistants, who have the lowest wage, but who are provided a practical training on-the-job for free, the employees eam at least a monthly total wage of 5 minimum salaries, where 3 minimum salaries is the minimum of existence fora farnily, and 5 minimum salaries is required to escape real poverty. The total casts of astair piece SPI(0.9) will amount an 11 Dollar for materials input, 69 Dollar for Iabour input and an unknown amount for remaining costs. The fermcement stairs production unit will employ people belonging to the lower-income groups of Nova Friburgo in the suited economically active age (16 to 59 years) and belonging to the future inhabitants of the project. The possible future inhabitants wili come from the matrix of 840 selected families. Part of this Iabour force is working in civil construction and a few as a building master or technician. In general the educationallevel ofthe econornically active population is low, most labourers are young to medium aged, they are not or hardly qualified, and there is a low participation in associations or in culture and recreation. The sub-matrix of 163 families, selected for the frrst dwelling implementation stage are a more proruising group, as their farnily heads show a higher than average potential for participation, co-operation and the self-generation of income, and with a higher incidence of qualified Iabour force. The implementation of the production unit is divided in 6 basic phases, namely planning, pre-design, design, planning of the execution, execution, and use and maintenance. The introduetion ofthe pre-fab fermcement elementsin the production-unit wili be accompanied with the rationalisation of the production and organisation of the work. Rationalisation is adequate to a large availability of hand-labour; flexible within the margins of demand; no high capita! investrnents are required; viable, while not dependent on a large scale; adequate to use in small to rniddle-size workplaces; and adequate to local resources. Nevertheless, the production of fermcement construction elements is not only an aim on itself, but fundamentally a way of developing autonomie ways of organisation of the population, that rnight result in the perspective of resolving certain problerns that effect the community by the population's solidary action. To contribute to this, and thus also to the exercising of citizenship, the production unit wili try to break through rigid vertical hierarchy structures, and to establish a more equal, demoeratic 'meeting and negotiating-culture'.

t) Social and financial matters of concern The expected possible demand on the local market for the ferrocement stairs, especially among the lowerincome groups has been calculated for an intemal ferrocement dwelling stair, providing some indication of sales possibilities. Only families with a farnily income of 2 minimum salaries or more are considered to have suftkient purchasing power to afford thernselves a ferrocement stair. The indicated demand ofthose families from the group of 2 to 5 minimum salaries in Nova Friburgo, being the most possible future clients for purchasing an intemal ferrocement stair, is calculated on about 1900 families.

V

Summary

The financing of the stairs dedicated to the project will also take place within the project by means of the BNDES bank for the external stairs, as part ofthe physical infrastructure. The internal stairs in dwellings will he bought by the future residents, included in the purchase of a complete dwelling by their possibility of acquiring a soft long-term loan within a special BNDES/FEMI smali-credits program. F or local future purchasers on the local market, the possibility can he created to gradually pay the acquired ferrocement stair pieces in monthly instalments, allowing families from the low- to lower-income groups to purchase a stair, without having to make a (too) large expense in once. With a range ofmeasures to ease the acceptation ofthe ferrocement stairs, like using exposed testprototypes, providing an educational written/drawn information paper, and giving clear information and demonstration of the stairs, the target population within and outside the project should become convineed of the suitability of the fermcement stairs, accepting it as a reliable stair alternative, and willing to purchase and/or use it. Above does fermcement have the advantages that in a way looks and performs more or less like the traditional fully accepted reinforeed concrete, and that it does not suffer from prejudices yet.

g) Practical performance of the ferrocement stairs (production unit) An increasing six-steps optimisation is applied todetermine the suitability ofthe ferrocement stairs (production unit) for (the social housing project by FEMI-Brazil in) Nova Friburgo, Brazil. In theory all available technologies are appropriate, which also counts for fermcement stairs construction elements. Fermcement stairs are a new application ofthe pretty well-known fermcement technology, with the material fermcement being used in all kinds of structures. The fermcement stairs has recently been developed and applied at TIBÁ, but additional in-depth research is required. Their application will frrst he limited to Nova Friburgo, with highest concentration on the social housing project terrain. In this context ferrocement stairs can he indicated as an experimental, alternative stair technology. The ferrocement stairs are considered technically appropriate as they are sufficiently resistant and adequate to the clirnatical and environmental (flora, fauna, terrain, soil) conditions in Nova Friburgo. The clear economie need for stairs, the accounted choice of materials, and good possibilities of utilization of ferrocement stairs, combined with their reasonable costs, long expected technicallifespan, and low and easy maintenance requirement, make the ferrocement stairs also an economically appropriate construction technology for production and application in Nova Friburgo. The likely reasonable stair purchase costs for a target group of families with mainly an iocome of 2 or more minimum salaries, which are provided possibilities fora soft long-term loan for the purchase of a dwelling, with possibly an internal stair included (project), or possibilities for gradual payment (local market) make the purchase of a ferrocement stair by private persons/families for the majority affordable. As ferrocement does not suffer of already existing prejudices, which could make it on befarehand unacceptable for the residents, and as it has sirnilarities with the traditionally applied reinforeed concrete, it shows reasonably positive changes for becoming accepted by the target population. Although especially for its thinness combined with a 'hard to believe' high strength, the ferrocement stairs are not likely to he automatically accepted. With the help of certain instruments and clear inforrnation and demonstration, this should he able to he overcome. From these aspects is concluded that ferrocement stairs are likely to he sufficiently market-technically appropriate for Nova Friburgo. Ferrocement stairs production can he executed with mainly low- or semi-skilled labourers, and a moderate level of control and supervision. Therefore local people from the lower-income groups, involved in the social housing project will he suited to he employed as production employees. Common working practices are applicable to their production, but in the production unit will he attempted to break through rigid vertical common structures, and to establish a more horizontal demoeratic work atrnosphere. For its

VI

Summary

adaptability to the locallabour potential and practices, and above the possibilities for creating a more open equallabour atmosphere, ferrocement stairs production is likely to he collaborationally appropriate for Nova Friburgo. And for as ferrocement stairs appear an appropriate construction technology for pre-fab production, having low absolute/relative (possible) impact on man (as well employee as user) and environment, and withits production complying to the applicable known legislation and to the relevant premises and objectives of the project, especially to the creation of structural employment for future residents from the lower-income groups, therefore the production of ferrocement stairs is considered also process-technically appropriate. In the 6-step optirnisation on the ferrocement stairs (production unit), ferrocement stairs were 6 times considered sufficiently appropriate as wel! theoretica/, technica/, economical, market-technical, collaborative as process-technical. From this optimisation is concluded that ferrocement stairs are very likely to he in practice a sustainable construction technology for application and production in the social housing project by FEMI and on the local market in Nova Friburgo.

b) Performance of tbe ferrocement stairs (production unit) in a wider socioeconomie context Nova Friburgo has a considerable part of its population belonging to the lower-income groups and living in overcrowded urban (sloping) areas. The local government has low attention for the problems of these population groups. This population has a high need for affordable quality construction materials for housing and infrastructure. The futfilment of their needs is not optimal. The ferrocement stairs production fulfils part of the extemal infrastructural and intemal construction elements need with the provision of ferrocement stairs, as wellas the need for more employment possibilities. They both (stairs and production) provide a sustainable, structural solution and are appropriate to their micro context. Brazil experiences a large housing lack under lower-income groups in its urban areas, as wellas a need for more (and better) employment possibilities to keep total employment up with the growing population in the economically active a ge. Official policies have only moderate attendance for housing and infrastructure, although it is a very urgent problem. Private investors see no profit in social housing. In general innovations are diffused by the large commercial fmns while the small fmns tend to continue producing the more traditional products, and the attention for new technologies destined at the lower-income groups by the commercial firms is very low, while their traditional and established hierarchicallabour structures are hardly subject to changes. The ferrocement stairs production unit will only he a very small player on this formal construction market, but a relatively important one, as it is directed to improve the physical conditions ofthe lower-income groups, and comes with a new application ofthe alternative ferrocement technology, which is more favourable than the traditional solution. It actively works with low-skilled people from the lower-income groups, providing them with more labour-friendly conditions, creating a more horizontal work atmosphere and strengthening their self-consciousness, empowering their capacities. This implies a new, positive sound in the production/construction branch in with the focus on the physical and social integration ofthe urban lower-income groups. In the developing world there is an urgent need for low-cost, easy to construct and low-skill and -capital required construction techno logies. They should preferably make low use of materials, while the materials should preferably he locally purchased. The local concemed population should he able to produce/construct them with simple instruction and common equipment and tools. Labour-intensive is preferred above capital-intensive, human- or animal-powered above costly high energy-using machinerypowered equipment, and mostly small-scale above large-scale. The construction technologies should he appropriate to their environment and producers/users population and he sustainable with long life span and

VIl

Summary

low maintenance. Ferrocement as a construction materialand ferrocement stairs as a construction element appear to satisfy to this context. The ferrocement stairs production unit can in its Brazilian and wider context be an example how a small enterprise ran by people from the lower-income groups can influence its environment by introducing an alternative construction technology directed to their own population group, working in a formal way and involving a new internallabour structure between higher and lower ranked employees.

i) Final conclusions The input ofthe prototype ferrocement stair as made in Bom Jardim has been remodelied to various standardised internat stair piece types and flexible external stair pieces with several changes/increases in mortar and reinforcement material use. All applied materials are locally purchased. The production is designed labour-intensive with a low skilis requirement and capital-extensive. The stairs and their production respect the premises imposed by the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil ofbeing directed to the lower-income groups upto 4.5 minimum salaries; being relevant to the characteristics ofthe concerned Ie gal and natura! environment and of the population; and contributing to the full exercising of citizenship by the population. Above is it an important objective to create structural employment for people from the lower-income groups betonging to the future residents ofthe project. The production unit is anticipated to create 14 employment places of which 2 for skilied people, 8 for un- or semi-skilied people and 4 for unskilled young people, which will have a possibility for working and continuing training on-the-job at the same time. The employment places are anticipated to be structural as the production unit will not only produce for the project but will continue producing in order of the local market Stairs as well internat as external represent a basic infrastructural need, for which the ferrocement stairs seem to result in lower costs than for traditional reinforeed concrete stairs mainly due to the strong economising on materials input. It seems possible to produce them at reasonable costs for the lowerincome groups, for which they on the local market are considered to be affordable for families with a family income of at least 2 minimum salaries, which can be offered a possibility of gradual payment. On the same time it seems possible to let the employees of the production unit receive a higher wage than the average in this kind of wage working. The ferrocement stairs and their production are thus expected to have reasonable costs for making them favourable on the local construction market, while assuring the economie viability of the production unit. The latter not only by its likely reasonable purebase costs, but also by the likely sufficient size of its potenfiat sa les market. But the ferrocement stairs frrst have to be accepted by the target group to be able to let a successful introduetion take place. Ferrocement has certain similarities with reinforeed concrete, which forms part of the Brazilian construction culture, and does not suffer yet from prejudices, which both can favour the introduction. With the indicated ways to familiarise the population with the ferrocement stairs, they are anticipated to be able to make a successful and accepted introduction. Therefore ferrocement stairs are considered a sustainable alternative construction technology for application in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil, as wellas an internal construction element in dwellings and other buildings, as an external construction element in the provision of infrastructure in sloping sites. They are anticipated to be appropriate for a wider use on the local construction market of lower-income groups in the municipal Nova Friburgo. The ferrocement stairs production unit is anticipated to have sufficient potentiality to be made viabie on the local construction market, and to be able to act as a small employment creator for people from the lowerincome groups, betonging to the future residents of the project.

VIII

Foreword

Foreword This report is the fmal result of the efforts of the past year, in which at frrst in the second half of June '98 and the beginning of July perrnission had to be received from the ITOK-staff, being part ofthe study Technology and Society at the University ofTechnology in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, to graduate on field research in Brazil. A range of faxes between the Netherlands and Brazil and vice versa provided the required insight and information to compose a frrst research subject proposal, which was fmally approved by the daily ITOK examination-board. The summer holiday of July and August '98 was almost completely spent on writing an extensive research proposal and preparing a six-months stay in Brazil. For my research proposal report, the research problem required exact defmition and elaboration, and above did I already add a few relevant prelirninary theoretica! studies to the report. In the light of my preparations on a stay in Brazil were a visa, vaccinations, a ticket to Brazil and many other things to purebase or to fmd out required, as well as leaming Brazilian Portuguese, each making a demand on the available summer preparation time period. On the second day of September I gave an explanation at the university on my proposed field research in Brazil, while on the fourth day I flew by airplane to Brazil, where I did arrive almost in the beginning of the Brazilian spring. After a six-months stay of 3 months close to Rio de Janeiro and a 3 months in the mountain city Nova Friburgo, a 130 km away from Rio, in which also a 3-weeks tour in the heartland region ofBrazil and the celebration of camival in Rio de Janeiro was included, I retumed to the Netherlands at the end ofthe Brazilian summer, where I arrived in the new Dutch spring. March '99 back in the Netherlands was used tostart-up bere again, and when I really started working seriously on writing my research report on the computer, I already soon began to work a 7 days a week, to be able to finishwithit before the summer holiday of 1999, in which I finally also succeeded. Nevertheless could I never have succeeded in this without the help of a range of people. Of course I want to thank the organization for which I executed my research in Brazil, namely FEMI-Brasil in Nova Friburgo and its counterpart FEMI-Nederland in the Netherlands, which provided me the possibility to graduate on an interesting subject directly related to their social housing project in Nova Friburgo, Brazil. Further I want to thank the ITOK-staff, mainly Ernilia van Egmond and Paul Lapperre fortheir advice and support before, during and!or after the field research period in Brazil, especially on the contents ofmy research and the writing of my research report. Also a thanks to Ine Vervest as secretary of ITOK, who has during my study always been very helpful with all kinds of practical study problerns. And from the side of the faculty of Architecture, I want to thank prof. Peter Schrnid, who is quite an authority in the field of altemative, environmental friendly construction materials and irnmediately agreed to be available for technica! support when required during my research. Finally I want to thank my parents, who supported me in the preparations for and during my stayin Brazil, also with regard to the research itself, and who when I retumed to the Netherlands provided their laptop computer full-time to me, to write my research report, and released me from part of my domestical affairs, to be able to work on at full speed. Renilde Becqué, June '99

IX

Introduetion

Introduetion With an introduetion on the problem context, the research problem itself and a description on the composition ofthe report, with fmally a note added on the value ofthe Brazilian currency, an introduetion on the executed research is provided.

a) Introducing the problem When Brazil started several decadesago tomodemise hersmall-and medium scale labour-intensive agricultural sector into a modem large-scale capitai-intensive sector, it also created the start of a large-scale migration from the rural to the urban areas. In a rapid pace Brazit became urbanised and in the vast country the main urban spots were transformed in huge conurbations. The rural people who migrated to the urban areas were generally low-educated and poor, and migrated to fmd a job in the city and build up a better live. Ho wever their mass irnrnigration into the urban areas resulted in enormous urban problems due to the overconcentrati on of people. The central, state and municipal govemment were not up to their arisen task and not sufficiently equipped either to provide all these people with decent shelter and infrastructural facilities, food and format wage-work, and the urban problems increased with each day. The execution of irnprovements nowadays is mainly in the hands ofthe state and municipal govemments and ofNGO's or other organisations, since the central govemment does not execute an active urban housing policy (anymore). Because of the high demand for shelter and facilities, employment, education, health care and much more ofthe less fortunate urban population, many (foreign) organisations have started up local organisations and projects to contribute to the futfilment of needs, mainly in those urban areas where that need is most visible, like in the metropolis Rio de Janeiro. Notwithstanding that the largesturban areas get the largest share in urban problems, the smaller regional cities do not escape from the problems. In the state Rio de Janeiro, the regionat city Nova Friburgo, situated in the mountains, experienced a very high relative growth of its population in the last decenniums, although the absolute population size of its municipal does not exceed an average 230,000 people. Nova Friburgo is also confronted with problems of shelter and infrastructural facilities, worsened by its mountainous location in a small valley, which forces most people to live in sloping areas, sametimes being serious areasof risk for habitation. For employment possibilities the population is mainly dependent on Nova Friburgo itself, as it is located relatively isolated in the forested mountains, with only some much smaller eentres in its surroundings and too far away from the city Rio de Janeiro to commute up and down each day between home and a job in the large city. The unequal income distribution in Brazit between the very rich and the very poor is also visible in Nova Friburgo, as the city on the one hands serves as a cornfortable quiet country-seat in the mountains for rich people to escape the heat and the traffic from Rio de Janeiro in a well-located country-house, while on the other hand the slums rise high up to the hilly sides, especially when one drives on the road along the main small stream (public sewer) to the north, passing alongside the poor overcrowded neighbourhoods ofthe district Conselheiro Paulino. The municipal council ofNova Friburgo seems to be 'not aware' ofthe urgent problems in the city and NGO's, airned at the impravement ofhabitational and other conditions ofthe poor population are hardly present, as especially the foreign ones mainly concentrate in those areas where the problems are most visible, which is in the state Rio de Janeiro defmitely the mega-city Rio de Janeiro. A young NGO FEMIBrasil, a counterpart ofthe NGO FEMI-Nederland, resides since quite recently in Nova Friburgo and intends to make a contribution to the solving of various of the probieros that affect a regionat urban area in Brazil. FEMI-Brasil is designing and planning a social housing project, to be executed on an own terrain and to provide in the housing needs of 500 families with the conceming physical infrastructure, and with a social infrastructure for the (self-)development of individuals and the community, the latter by providing communal buildings along with social programs, participation activities and employment possibilities, appropriate to the conceming population of families from the lower-income groups. The project should

1

Introduetion

result ultimately in the full exercising of citizenship by the population, which is currently defmitely not the case, in view of the miserabie conditions onder which these people have to live and in view of the strong established hierarchy between the influential rich and the oppressed poor in society. By the establishment ofvarious on-site production units on the social housing project terrain by FEMIBrasil can be provided in part of the construction elements demand, and at the same time can employment be created. For as this terrain is partly more or less sloping, and foraspart ofthe dwellings and other buildings will be constructed with more than one floor, there is a need for stairs. By the positive experience with an experimental ferrocement stair in a neighbourhood nearby, FEMI-Brasil opts for the application and own production offerrocement stairs in the project and probably also in the wider context of Nova Friburgo. In view of this option, FEMI-Brasil has asked me to investigate the options for producing and applying ferrocment stairs, aimed at lower-income groups, (in a social housing project) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil. The results ofthe investigation can have a direct impact on the decision by FEMI-Brasil to choose for ferrocement stairs or not. Ferrocement is applied in Brazil since various decades, however is still not really widely spread among the urban lower-income groups, for which it provides a quite beneficia! appropriate construction material, with which all kinds of sustainable structures can be constructed in an easy and cheap manner. Though there is a severe need among these population groups for cheap quality construction materials and elements to provide them with the means to (let) construct low-cost decent housing and infrastructure. In the light of this need and the favourable characteristics of applying ferrocement, this research on the application and production of sustainable ferrocment stairs does not only have a local practical purpose, but is also relevant in the wider context of providing sustainable construction elements for the broad masses of poor urban population, and with which it is above possible to create formal, structural and appropriate employment for the low-skilled laboor force.

b) The research problem The research problem has been defmed as "are (a) ferrocement stairs (production unit) sustainable (in a social housing project) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, aimed at lower-income groups?" The partial questions of concern are distinguished in : 1. Are ferrocement stairs, to apply as an alternative construction technology (in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, appropriate? 2. Which (gross) adaptations are for this purpose required to the experimental ferrocement stairs? 3. Is a ferrocement stairs production unit, to be established on the project terrain, expected to be viable? 4. In which way should the ferrocement stairs production unit be implemented and organised? 5. What is the structural employment contribution ofthe ferrocement stairs production unit to the future residents, belonging to the lower-income groups? 6. Which instruments are required to make the locallower-income groups population (in the project) in Nova Friburgo farniliar with the ferrocement stairs, in order to make them accept, purebase and!or use the ferrocement stairs?

c) Report composition The composition ofthe report will be briefly treated in sequencing part-, chapter- and appendix-order. The first part of the main report, titled Research design comprises the problem setting, with the first chapter Theoretica! part and chapter 2 Empirica! part. Briefly the Brazilian and urban research environment is sketched, after which in chapter 1 the research problem with its airns, relevancy and definitions indicated, translated in a theoretica! and ultimately a research model, with a short overview of research instruments. In the second chapter, first the research population is deterrnined, with thereafter a recital ofthe various proposed and applied research instruments and sources. Especially the first chapter provides the reader with the required insight in the research subject and sub-items, which will be extensively dealt with in

2

Introduetion

sequencing parts and appendixes of the report. In the belonging appendixes of chapter 1 and 2 a sketch of Brazil in detailed data, and the course of the research process are provided. The second part Local context is concemed with the loc al research context, of the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil, withits premises, objectives, co-operation and tangible intended results (chapter 3); ofthe research target population from the lower-income groups in Nova Friburgo and their relevant characteristics (chapter 4 ); and of the loc al environment with the buildings construction sector and the politieal-legal and natura! environment of the ferrocement stairs (production unit) in chapter 5. The application- and production-design ofthe ferrocement stairs will ultimately have toberelevant to the premises, objectives and characteristics of project, population and environment as mentioned in these three chapters. Part 3 ofthe main report is concentrated on the Perracement stairs (production unit), providing in its only chapter, chapter 6, a stating summary of findings, completely based on and referring to the appendixes of part 3, ofwhich the latter is distinguished in a part 3.a., dealing with ferrocement (stairs) and part 3.b., treating the ferrocement stairs production unit. Appendix part 3.a., being the basis for the part on ferrocement stairs in chapter 6 of the main report, is divided in an appendix on ferrocement in genera!, treating the composition, features, application, industrial production and other of ferrocement structures (appendix part 3.a.l.), while in the sequencing appendix part 3.a.2. the material availability ofthe input materials for ferrocement in Nova Friburgo with their purebase prices are indicated. Finally appendix part 3.a.3. deals with the experimental ferrocement stair. The positive experience with an experimental ferrocement stair makes FEMI-Brasil opt for using ferrocement stairs. The composition, production and performance ofthis experimental stairis described. Successively a supplement with the applied measuring units explained is provided in appendix part 3.a.4. The next appendix part, part 3.b., on which the production part of chapter 6 in the main report is based, is concemed with the ferrocement stairs production unit. It first determines the Iabour potential of the target population in appendix part 3.b.l. with the help ofavailable data on investigated (sub-)population groups, whereafter appendix part 3.b.2. calculates intemal and extemal stairs requirements and productionrates in the course of time, divided over various implementation stages of the social housing project. Further daily production and Iabour requirements, the material requirements and costs of an intemal stair piece are determined, and above does it suggest Iabour wages, providing finally an overview of the financial structure of the production unit. The sequencing appendix part 3.b.3. tackles a few social-financial aspects, namely expected localsales market, (instruments for) acceptation ofthe ferrocement stairs and financing of the stair pieces (by the target population). Ofthe final2 main appendixes of part 3.b., appendix part 3.b.4. on the establishment ofthe production unit is concemed with the rationalisation of the production unit and activities to be executed for the planning, implementation and start-up ofthe production unit, divided to several phases, where appendix part 3.b.5. describes the proposed production process for manufacturing ferrocement stair pieces in the conceming production unit, based on the input of an industrial production process and the production process of the experimental ferrocement stair. A supplemental appendix with maps of the project terrain is added. The Ultimate performance, ofthe ferrocement stairs (production unit) is determined in part 4 ofthe main report, in which in chapter 7 an optimisation is executed todetermine the practical appropriability for (the social housing project in) Nova Friburgo. In conneetion with this chapter 7 is the next chapter 8, providing final results and conclusions. In the first place is the practical sustainability of ferrocement stairs application and production for (the social housing project in) Nova Friburgo, Brazil, aimed at lower-income groups indicated, while in the second place a stating summary and results of the performance of the production unit in a wider socioeconomie national and international context is given. The latter part is based on the first appendix of

3

Introduetion

chapter 8, appendix chapter 8.a., placing the production unit and its characteristics in the wider socialeconomic context of Brazil, the smali-scale Brazilian manufacturing industry and rnicro-organisations in La tin America. The second appendix of chapter 8, appendix chapter 8.b., gives a set of various socialeconornic context articles by various authors on the history of the favela, on housing and communal policy and the informal sector in Brazil. The ultimate part 5 Recommendations of the main report, with fmal chapter 9 provides recommendations on further empirica! research and evaluations, after which fmally a literature list and a glossary are provided.

d) Fin al note of the introduetion For as far as costs/prices are indicated in the Brazilian currency Real, the values apply for the time that I've been in Brazil. During my stay from September 1 98 till the end ofFebruary 1 99, the average prices in construction oflabour and material stayed on the same level, as well did the minimum salary of 130 Reais notchange (yet). Till the beginning of 1999 the Real had a value of about 0.8 US Dollar. During the strong deva1uation ofthe Real, with regard to the conversion rate between the RealandtheUS Dollar in January 1 99, the Reallost almost half of its value. However till the end ofFebruary 1 99 only minor increases in prices were shown, and hardly in the construction sector, i.a. because Brazil is self-sustaining in the majority of its construction materials, while import products immediately increased in price. Nevertheless, prices are now increasing due to the increased inflation, and it is expected that the costs and prices oflabour and materials, and the minimum salary will (partly) adapt to the decreasing value ofthe Real, which will make their costs/prices/value more or less increase. To provide a better idea of real values, the major outcomes are converted to US Dollar, a quite stabie currency, taking a conversion rate of 1 Real for 0.8 Dollar, as was the conversion value before devaluation. In this way, the cost indications will keep their reliability.

4

j j j j j

Part 1 Research design

j j j j j j j

I Rio

j

·,"

I~

I

'f"o'" --

j j

I.

:

-

.: -.-,····

illhado

-Mo~6rand I~

. Cobo do ~nto

i

j

G

0 €.

j j

I/ho

Broc

j

I. do Boqur:lrdo

j j

I. doR/jo

j j j j j j mu

j

Sarrio

j

·.'tLA

l•l!TAR

j

Porto

Pto. da Amonaçdo

j j j

Pta.

j

d~ }urujuba

j j j j j

Cotunduba i.-UQoa

de .

Jacafepagua

j

norim

j j j j j j j j

Problem setting

Problem setting (Lit. A.I.!., A.l.2., A.J.3., A. l.S., A.2.5., A.4.3., A.4.2., A.4.4.)

Brazil, its urbanisation and main problerns, and FEMI's contribution to the solving of these problems, described in brief, provide the problem setting of the research problem.

a) Brazil BraziJ is the land of contrasts, on the one hand belonging to the ten Iargest economies in the world and with an average Gross National Product per capita of 3,614 US Dollar in 1995, belonging to the higher middleincome economies. While on the other hand, it does have one of the most unequal income distributions in the world. In 1990 the poorest 50% ofthe Brazilian population earned together a low 11.6% ofthe total income. A 28.7% ofthe population, mainly women and children had to survive on less than 1 purchasingpower Dollar a day. In a country, which is one of the main producers and exporters of agricultural products, and which possesses one of the strongest developed industrial regions of the world, extreme poverty still occurs on a large scale. Nevertheless, objective factors which in many countries hinder the process of economie development (like the Jack of suftic ient land, an unfavourable elimate and soil conditions, etc.) are in Brazil only of a relatively minor importance. Brazil is an enormous country with a very large supply of minerals, wood and other valuable raw materials, with a favourable elimate in major parts ofthe land, a large Iabour supply and several other favourable features, which give the Brazilian economy a high potential to develop itself into one of the most important economies in the world. But while Brazil's economy displays to the outside world a modem, competitive economy, at the same time major parts of it economy show the characteristics of a backlog. A substantial part of the agricultural sector produces still in a quite traditional way and with an only low to moderate productivity. The modem hightech industrial sector is mainly in foreign hands, while the large native construction sector still trusts in labour-intensive and low-productive (for industrialised countries) very out-of-date construction methods. The urban areas have a considerably large informal sector, which for many Brazilian families represents an essenrial means of existence, as well as a provider of work, as a provider of cheap Iabour and products. Since a weak economie structure, which is partly applicable to Brazil, is considered an essenrial characteristic in distinguishing between developed and development countries, and as above various other major (under)development characteristics like a low standard ofliving among large layers ofthe population do certainly still apply to Brazil, it should be elassified as a development country.

b) Urbanisation and its related problems The lack of an agricultural policy aimed at the small producers and the process of a spontaneous and a by the govemment stimulated agricultural modemisation in the south and south-eastem part of BraziJ during the last decenniums bas caused a large migration from the rural to the urban areas. The agricultural modemisation brought among other things an enlargement ofthe farms and the termination oftenancy. These resulted in an expulsion of small farmers and agriculturallabourers. The major part of them migrated tourban areas like Rio de Janeiro and its surroundings. The degree ofurbanisation raised between 1950 and 1980 in consequence ofthis migration from 36.2% to 67.6 %. Brazil became in a few decades an urban nation. Nowadays a 87% ofthe total population livesin urban areas, with an urbanisation rate of even 92 % for the state Rio de Janeiro, in which the regional city Nova Friburgo is located. In the urban areas most problems are due to overconcentration. The main heartland region ofBrazil, the south-east (in which Nova Friburgo is situated) bas a share of 42% ofthe total Brazilian population as well as 62% ofthe GDP and over 70% ofBrazil's industry. Because ofthe high overall growth rate ofthe population in the recent past and the resulting relatively young population combined with an insufficient

5

Problem setting

growth of employment and low wage payments and social benefits, an unfavourable balance exists between the economically active population of which the majority has only low eamings and the economically not active, dependent population, which the first group has to sustain as the latter group has only lirnited rights for social benefits to sustain on. There is a high need for the fulfilment of basic needs like housing, food, health care and more among the population, but the govemment is confronted with a lack of fmancial funds, physical means and also commitment to fulfil even the most basic needs of the population, like sufficient food and shelter. More than two-third of all families has a monthly family income between a half up to 5 "salarios minimos"', which is not or just enough to survive. The low income of these families leaves no funds available fora private (and severely expensive) secondary education fortheir children. Public education is for free, but suffers from insufficient capacity and quality. Many children do noteven complete free primary education, as they have to make their contribution to the farnily income by means of working or they start rooming the streets, begging or stealing. The low education contributes to the difficulties of these population groups to successfully enter the labour market When they do find a formal or informal job, the job generally requires only a low skilis level , but usually also knows a very low wage. The majority of the labour force does not have sufficiently qualification to be employed for the (scarce) better-remuneratedjobs, which do require skilis and education. Brazil has for example a considerable need for qualified construction workers in the buildings construction sector. Although there is a more than sufficient labour supply working in the construction sector, a satisfying amount ofwell-qualified construction workers is hard to fmd, since the available construction workers have notbeen able to afford themselves the required schooling and training courses. In the urban areas the majority ofpoor families live in slums (,whether these are illegal or not), called "favelas", ortenement houses ("cortiços"). These (new) urban people are often frrst- or second-generation migrants from the rural areas, who have come to the urban eentres in hope of a job and a better live, but formal employment possibilities are far from sufficient to fulfil the demand and their housing conditions in general miserable. There is an estimated lack of 14 million decent housing units and a severe lack of sufficient infrastructure and facilities like sanitary sewers, piped (potable) water and waste collection and treatment. The private construction sector is hardly interested in low-cost (thus low-profit) social housing and services, while the central govemment does hardly practise an active policy in this field.

c) Contribution to solving the most urgent urban problems Cause the central govemment is hardly involved in solving the main urban problems of housing and employment, the initiative has to come from state and municipal govemments and from NGO's or other institutions. The NGO FEMI-Nederland has quite recent established a Brazilian counterpart FEMI-Brasil. FEMI-Brasil, a young NGO residing in the regional mountain city Nova Friburgo, in the state Rio de Janeiro, intends to make a contribution to the fulfilment ofthe demand for housing and facilities and ofthe demand for employment among the lower-income groups in Nova Friburgo, by setting up an integrated social housing project. In this project physical structures, like dwellings, infrastructure and several communal buildings will be provided to a group of selected families from the lower-income groups, next to the establishment of social structures by means of schooling, courses, participation activities and other. A small sub-part of this project will be the establishment of several production units on the project terrain, which will provide in a part ofthe projeet's demand for (altemative) construction elements and for employment ofthe lower-income groups. As buildings with more than 1 floor and those parts of the project terrain that are considerably sloping, have a demand for stairs, and a more sustainable alternative is sought than the traditional concrete and

6

Problem setting

wooden stairs, fermcement stairs are opted, based on the experience with an experirnental ferrocement stair produced nearby. A ferrocement stairs production unit is likely to be one ofthe production units, in order to provide the project with internal and external stairs and besides to create some structural employment for the lower-income groups future residents ofthe project. Because the production for the project will have only a temporary character as long as there is a demand for stairs during the social housing project irnplementation period, while structural employment creation is intended instead oftemporary, the potentiallocal salesmarket in Nova Friburgo and near surroundings will be scouted for its opportunities of a continuation of ferrocement stairs production. Through diffusion outside the project a larger share of families from the lower-income groups will be enabled tobenefit from the likely sustainable ferrocement stairs alternative.

7

Chapter 1 Theoretica/ part

Chapter 1 Theoretical part (Lit. A.l.2., A. 1.3., A. l.S., A.l.7., A.4.3., E.4.1., F.l.l., F.l.2., F.4.1., F.4.2.)

In this flrst chapter the subject of research will be determined, withits airns and relevanee indicated. Conceptional defmitions of the main research terms fmally result in a theoretica} model. The sequencing operational deflnitions result in a research model, which is a derivative of the theoretica} model. The research model is the input for the determination of research instruments.

l.a) Research problem Can (a) fermcement stairs (production unit) be considered sustainable for (a social housing project in) Nova Friburgo, Brazil, airned at lower-income groups?

l.b) Subdivision of research problem to partial questions 1. Are fermcement stairs, to apply as an alternative construction technology (in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, appropriate? 2. Which (gross) adaptations are for this purpose required to the experimental fermcement stairs? 3. Is a fermcement stairs production unit, to be established on the project terrain, expected to be viable? 4. In which way should the ferrocement stairs production unit be implemented and organised? 5. What is the structural employment contribution ofthe ferrocement stairs production unit to the future residents, belonging to the lower-income groups? 6. Which instruments are required to make the locallower-income groups population (in the project) in Nova Friburgo farniliar with the ferrocement stairs, in order to make them accept, purebase andlor use the ferrocement stairs?

l.c) Aims of the research l.c.l) Theoretical aim To contribute to the knowledge on technica} and social aspects in the field of sustainable ferrocement technologies application and production, especially stair elements, aimed at lower-income groups in urban development areas.

l.c.2) Practical aim To contribute to the provision of relevant information to FEMI-Brazil, on the application and production of ferrocement stairs (in a social housing project) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil.

l.d) Relevanee ofthe research problem Many urban areas, especially in development countries, lack sufflcient flnancial funds and means to make the necessary demograpbic investrnents, which are required to keep up with the demands of the fast growing urban population. These comprise i.a. the investrnents required to keep the supply ofhousing and infrastructural facilities up to the demand (extension and replacement) and to the minimum standards, and to keep the growth of employment up with the growing Iabour force, especially for the lower-income groups in (urban) society. Nowadays a 92% ofthe population in the state Rio de Janeirolivesin urban areas, ofwhich most people reside in the city Rio de Janeiro, but also Nova Friburgo, situated in the mountains experienced a population boom in the last decades, mainly caused by inter-regional and inter-state rnigration. A lack of

8

Chapter 1 Theoretica/ part

fmancial funds and means and a lack of cornmitment at the municipal gaverrunent make the above described situation also apply to the regional city Nova Friburgo. Sustainable solutions are required to cope with the urban problems due to overcrowding. The NGO FEMIBrasil in Nova Friburgo makes a serious attempt to contribute to sustainable solutions with the design and implementation of a social housing project for families from the lower-income groups, in which a 500 dwellings will be provided with required and intended physical and social infrastructural facilities. In the demand for housing and for infrastructure in the slopingareasof Nova Friburgo, there is a need fora sustainable salution in the field of stairs. Traditionally stairs are constructed with reinforeed concrete and wood, but experiments with a stair made of fermcement showed favourable conditions above the traditional stairs. Nevertheless, supplemental in-depth research was required to deterrnine in a reliable way the sustainability of the intended fermcement stairs and their production. The sustainability of the fermcement stairs (production) is looked at as the stairs' appropriability for application as an alternative construction element in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in specific and in Nova Friburgo, Brazil in the wider context, and the production's appropriability to the lower-income groups, belonging to the future residents of the project, especially to provide structural employment for them. Considerable potentialities are expected to be present in fermcement stairs and their production, as fermcement as a construction material is generally sustainable in its characteristics, making to a large ex tent use of available materials, allowing a labour-intensive/capital-extensive production, and requiring only a low to moderate skilis level of the participating population or its employees. The research has resulted in the generation of a proposal that should contribute in practice by providing an adequate possibility for solving the stated research problem. Above should the research contribute to the knowledge on fermcement structures in genera!, allowing a generalisation in a more or less extent to other urban development areas.

l.e) Conceptual definitions Various major topics enclosed in the research problem and its partial questions require clear definition for an optimum understanding of research. The defmitions of the concerning terms, defmed in the light of the research problem, are provided in the glossary. A short introduetion will be given here. Fermcement is a type ofthin wall reinforeed concrete construction where usually a hydraulic cement is reinforeed with layers of continuous and relatively small diameter mesh. Perracement stairs are to be applied as an alternative construction technology, as fermcement technology, as a mode of constructing, does not belong yet to the customary existing modes of construction in Nova Friburgo, Brazil. Nevertheless the alternative stairs are expected to be overall more sustainable than their traditional counterparts, by their contribution to technica!, economie, social and environmental objectives, in such a way that they make themselves appropriate to production and application (in the social housing project) in Nova Friburgo. The production of the stairs in a production unit, which will be small industrial organisation, where the stairs will be manufactured, should generate remunerated work, in such way contributing to employment creation for thefuture inhabitants, who will come to live in the dwellings at the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil. The social housing project provides in low-cost housing, including social and physical infrastructural facilities, aimed at the lower-income groups in Nova Friburgo, which earn a farnily income between a halfto almost 5 Brazilian minimum salaries. These population groups have not sufficient possibility to provide intheir housing needs without the assistance of a social entity, aimed at helping them in the fulfilment of their urgent needs.

9

Chapter 1 Theoretica/ part

l.t) Theoretical model

l.f.l) Theoretical model structure The structure ofthe theoretica! model ofthe social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in Nova Friburgo and its relations with the environment can be sketched in the following way :

+ Zi9L~'>';'

X'f~n?1t> -"'~'c

::_,7

> 38

>26

6.f.5) Cost of a stair piece The sales price of a stair piece will consist of the direct and indirect costs required for its production, additional costs like the possible costs for transport and stocking, and a certain profit rate, in case production and sales will take place in a commercial way. When profit is not an objective ofthe production unit, than a sales price sufficient to cover real direct and indirect costs is sufficient. The total costs of a stair piece SPI(0.9) will amount an 11 Dollar for materials input, 69 Dollar for Iabour input and an unknown amount for remairring costs, as sufficient and reliable data are for remairring costs not available. These costs form part of the total direct and indirect production costs of the production unit, distinguished in investment and operating costs, fmanced with the yielded incomes from production, with gifts by FEMI for implementation costs and probably partly with loans, the latter resulting in certain financial obligations of repayment in instalments and rent. Minimum costs of the stair piece will amount an 80 US Dollar.

6.g) The ferrocement stairs on the consumer market The introduetion and performance of the ferrocement stairs on the (local) consumer market is described on basis of indicated demand, acceptability and social fmancing of astair purchase. In appendix part 3.b.3 an in-depth assessment can be read on these subjects.

6.g.l) Demand for ferrocement stairs The expected possible demand on the loc al market for ferrocement stairs, especially among the lowerincome groups bas been calculated for an intemal ferrocement dwelling stair (consisting of 2 curved pieces CPI and 1 straight piece SPE(0.9)), providing a gross indication of sales possibilities. Only families with a family iocome of 2 minimum salaries or more are considered to have sufficient purchasing power to afford themselves a ferrocement stair. The indicated gross demand of families from the family income groups of 2 to 5 minimum salaries in Nova Friburgo, to satisfy (near) future demand ofnew construction and rep1acement of intemal stairs is calculated on about 1900 families, as these families are the most possible future clients for purchasing an intemal ferrocement stair.These 1900 families comprise a likely 3.6% of the families in Nova Friburgo with a family income between 2 and 5 minimum salaries, ofwhich a 42%

73

Chapter 6 Ferrocement stairs and the production unit

might buy a fermcement stair, when they want to replace their farmer stair, and 48 % will probably buy a fermcement stair at the future enlargement of their dwelling. When the fermcement stairs are sufficiently satisfying in their performance, appearance and also fmancially, they could be diffused to the nearer and braader surroundings ofNova Friburgo. Above might the production unit probably sell extemal stair pieces to the public infrastructural works department ofthe Prefeitura ofNova Friburgo intheir construction and up-grading ofinfrastructure in sloping urban areasof Nova Friburgo. Finally also the more fortunate population (middle- and possibly higher-income classes) in Nova Friburgo and surroundings could become part ofthe consumer market for ferrocement stairs, when they eau be convineed of good quality and features of the products, combined with a satisfying appearance, for using them in their residences and extemal surroundings.

6.g.2) Social finance of a stair purebase The extemal ferrocement stairs on the project form part of the physical infrastructure, to be financed by the BNDES bank. The intemal stairs in communal buildings, the latter which forrns part ofthe social infrastructure, will be paid for by FEMI. The intemal stairs in dwellings within the social housing project will on befarehand be financed by FEMI and the BNDES as part aftheir fmancial co-operation in the project, but will finally be repaid by tbe future residents. Tbe future residents will purebase a complete dwelling (with or withoutastair included depending on the number offloors) through the forthem created possibility of acquiring a soft long-term loan (20 years), as part of a special program by the BNDES in cooperati on witb FEMI to make people able of financing their own dwelling. For future purebasers on tbe local market, the possibility can be created to gradually pay the acquired ferrocement stair pieces in monthly instalments, allowing families from the low- to lower-income groups to purebase a stair, without baving to make a (too) large expense in once.

6.g.3) Acceptation of the ferrocement stairs Other experiences have indicated tbat people oftbe lower-income groups tend to accept the majority of innovations, as long as they are adequate and are discussed and explained on beforeband. This will irnplicate tbat one bas to : - incorporate the participating population in tbe discussion on ferrocement stairs and in the course of production, - assure democracy in taking decisions on tbe directions of the ferrocement production sub-project, - and probably develop a series of communal activities parallel to the ferrocement production and construction activities. The use of instruments eau facilitate the understanding of the population about the cbaracteristics of the new product, like making ferrocement stair prototypes, and showing the use of different altematives, to give more cleamess on tbe cboice of ferrocement and to facilitate the acceptation of unfamiliar solutions. With tbe writing/drawing of an educational-informative paper, one could be better able to introduce novities under tbe population. Tbe local future clients sbould also get the possibility of information and demonstration of the stairs With a range of measures to ease tbe acceptation of the ferrocement stairs, the target population within and outside the project should become convineed ofthe suitability ofthe ferrocement stairs, accepting it as a reliable stair altemative, and willing to purebase andlor use it. Above does ferrocement have tbe advantages that in a way looks and performs more or less like the traditionally applied and fully accepted reinforeed concrete, and tbat it does not suffer from prejudices yet.

74

Chapter 6 Ferrocement stairs and the production unit

6.h) Planning, implementation and start-up of the production unit The planning, impleinentation and start-up of the production unit in a rationalised way and distinguished to 6 basic elaboration phases are intensively described in appendix part 3.b.4, and (very) briefly glanced at in this paragraph.

6.h.l) Rationalisation of the production unit The introduetion ofthe pre-fab fermcement elementsin the production-unit will be accompanied with the rationalisation of the production and organisation of the work. As starting points are taken that there is a : * production of fermcement stairs, which are : - an altemative, unknown construction technology under the target group, and - made pre-fab * use ofmainly non-qualified Iabour, however there is: - not much possibility for the use of sophisticated techno logies, - nor for complete mechanisation of phases * therefore a requirement for rationalisation : - not only on the work floor but also in the organization of the work, - based in !ow-sophisticated technologies, which can be intemally (further) developed and can easily be diffused, and - based on local materials and new applications/innovations. Rationalisation is adequate to a large availability of hand-labour; flexible within the margins of demand; no high capita! investrnents are required; viable, while not dependent on a large scale; adequate to use in small to middle-size workplaces; and adequate to local resources.

6.h.2) Basic elaboration phases The planning, implementation and start up of the production unit is on their turn elaborated in 6 basic elaboration phases, namely planning, pre-design; design, planning ofthe execution; execution, and use and maintenance. Before the production unit can make a real start up, the requirements of organization, information, equipment & tools and Iabour will have to be determined first. At the moment that the unit will be established the technica! aspects of the ferrocement stairs have been considered, a training for the labourers has been developed, the reeruitment ofthe employees is arranged, and institutional, economic-fmancial and legal aspects have been taken care of. The main steps to be taken are classed in the various elaboration phases. In the planning phase, three basic questions frrst have to be solved before the project can be undertaken anyway, namely the availability of financial resources, availability of land, and the identification of the demand, that will be attended by the project. In the next pre-design phase, a supervisor and an administrator are to be selected, as well as the labourers, and legal aspects of the employment of Iabour and registration ofthe production unit have to be arranged. In the design phase the production level is deterrnined, an elaboration of chronograms on production and a defmition ofphysical-financial chronogramsis to be executed. In the planning ofthe execution phase the reglement ofwork is defined, and the employees are administrated. The operaring system and supervising and administrative tasks are determined. The production unit is arranged and the economie verification of the production unit is laid down. Finally a prototype is constructed and a training program elaborated.

75

Chapter 6 Ferrocement stairs and the production unit

Finally the last 2 phases, namely the execution phase and the use and rnainterrance phase are elaborated, in which technically the course of production and the performance of the stair products and socially the atmosphere and co-operation among the labourers, to be established i.a. by weekly meetings, are of importance. Fora detailed content ofthe 6 phases is referred to the appendix. Nevertheless, the production of ferrocement construction elements is not only an aim on itself, but fundamentally a way of developing autonomie ways of organisation of the population, that rnight result in the perspective ofresolving certain problems that effect the community by the populatien's solidary action. To contribute to this, and thus also to the exercising of citizenship, the production unit will try to break through rigid vertical hierarchy structures, and to establish a more equal, demoeratic werking atmosphere with regular discussions or meetings on relevant subjects.

6.i) Adaptation of the production process An adapted production process for the ferrocement stairs production unit is described in appendix part 3.b.5, while in this paragraph the various production steps are only appointed.

6.i.l) Introduetion on the production process adaptation In the appendixespart 3.a.l. and part 3.a.3., a general production process for the production offerracement stairs on a professional (large) in dustrial scale is provided, as well the production process of the experimental intemal ferrocement stairon a 'amateurish' (very small-) scale at the TIBÁ-house in Bom Jardim. As well the first as the latter is not completely adequate to be applied in an equal way for the ferrocement stairs production unit, as the production unit will have a moderate smali-scale and !owsophisticated industrial production, and the both described production processes work on a different production scale and level. With both production processes and additional information as input, the ultimate production process in its various phases, as expected to be adequate to the production unit, has been deterrnined.

6.i.2) The production process appointed For production of ferrocement stairs in the production unit, wooden moulds, impregnated and with a covering of aluminium and!or plastic, are applied. A dry layer of cement mortar is applied in the mould, then a double layer of mesh, and another layer of a bit more humid mortar mixture. The mortar has to be thoroughly compacted. Finally reinforcement rods are applied, which makes the stair piece have a total thickness of 1 to 1.5 cm. After a curing of 24 hours in the mould, and curing it a week more to let the pieces harden, they receive a finishing coating toproteet them from environmental attacks. This production process is distinguished in the following 15 steps, here only indicated on their main activity, again referring to the appendix for the exact contents : - activities concerning the moulds I. Selection of mould 2. Cleaning ofthe mould 3. Preparatien ofthe mould before filling

- activities concerning the filling of the mmtld 4. Making the cement mortar mix for the first layer 5. Filling ofthe mould with the first layer 6. Reinforcement of plastic fruit-nets mesh 7. Making the cement mortar mix for the secoud layer 8. Filling of the mould with the secoud layer 9. Compacting ofthe piece 10. Placing ofthe steel rods reinforcement

76

Chopter 6 Ferrocement stairs and the production unit

- activities concerning curing 11. First curing 12. Demoulding ofthe pieces 13. Second curing - jinal activities 14. Finishing touch 15. Stocking and transport The production process on the workflour can be presented in a simplified scheme, as a flux of phases in the production process, with the main production activities and its relations indicated :

The production scheme is useful as an input for the ultimate rational arrangement of the production workshop, and for the better overview and planning by the supervisor and administrator of the daily production.

77

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

Chapter 7 Appropriability of ferrocement stairs and production (Lit. A.I. I., A.1.2., A.l.4., A. l.S., A.J.7., A.2.1., A.4.3., 8.1.6., 8. 1.10., 8.1.11., 8.4.2., 8.4.4., C.2.4., 0.1.2., E.3.2., E.3.5., E.3.7., E.4.l.,E.4.2.)

The likely appropriability of ferrocement stairs and their production, determined in an optimisation, is the subject ofthis chapter 7.

7.a) Introduetion To decide on the appropriability offermeement stairs and the to be established fermcement stairs production unit within the social housing project ofFEMI-Brasil (and) in Nova Friburgo, a range of conceming factors, which determine appropriability in various ways, are taken into consideration. The various applying factors are dealt with in a 6-steps optimisation on the theoretica!, technica!, econornical, market-technical, collaborational, and process-technical appropriability of applying and producing the ferrocement stairs in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, within the framework ofthe social housing project by FEMIBrasil.

7.b) Performance of ferrocement construction technologies in the optimisation of the original research proposal In the original research propos al (dealing with the investigation of appropriate construction technologies for housing with which employment could be created for the lower-income groups cq. future residents of the social housing project by FEMI) an optirnisation was executed by means of fust an overview and second a judging classification of "Which construction technologies are available?", at the level of social housing construction in all (developing) parts of the world. The overview of construction technologies was made with the help of the well-known SKAT -guide on "Appropriate building materials" (and on building elements and systems), subdivided to: I. Construction systems 2. Construction elements 3. Construction materials These construction technologies were gradually assessed on their expected optimumness with re gard to the following items, and their appropriability (or in the research proposal indicated as 'suitability', because of the higher uncertainty on real actual conditions) was indicated with the help of symbols, indicating each technology's score on : 1) Theoretica! suitability : All construction technologies are in theory suitable, and they were classified as : Al = Altemative, experimental construction technology Co = Conventional construction technology Is = Construction technology in an intermediate stage 2) Technica! suitability : T = Technically possibly suited for Nova Friburgo, with : (T) = Might he less preferabie due to the conditions of extraction or to the behaviour of materials 3) Economie suitability: E = Economically possibly suited for Nova Friburgo, with : E"c = With medium upto high construction costs (E) = With regular/careful maintenance andlor renewal ofmaterials required

78

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

4) Market-technical suitability : M = Market-technically possibly suited for Nova Friburgo, with : (M)"a = Acceptation by local population might be a pmblem (M)"c = High costs of construction might cause pmblerns 5) Collaborationat suitability : C = Possibly suited for the participants in Nova Friburgo, with : C"l = Low skilis required C"m = Moderate skilis required C"s = Specific construction skilis required (C) =High skills andlor high quality control required 6) Process-technical suitability : P = Pmcess-technically possibly suited for Nova Friburgo, with : P"l = Possibility to create much Iabour employment P"e = Only simple equipment & tools required In the overview of construction technologies and their classification on expected performance with regard to the gradually optimising factors, also certainferrocement technologies were included, and they were positively classified :

In : 1. Construction systems, possibilities g. Fermcement housing system: Al, T, (E), (M)"a, C"m, P"e In : 2. Construction elements, possibilities d. Rooft d.6. Fermcement roofs: Al, T, E, (M)"a, C"m, P"e In : 3. Construction materials, possibilities j. Fermcement: Is, T, E, (M)"a, C"m, P"e In the final preliminary selection per construction category of those construction techno logies, which were expected to be the most optimum for applying in the social housing project in Nova Friburgo, the included ferrocement construction possibilities were all also selected.

* Construction technologies which qualify for further examination of their possibilities in Nova Friburgo : /. Construction systems, i.a. : g. Ferrocement housing system 2. Construction elements : 2.d. Rooft, i.a. : d.6. Ferrocement roofs 3. Construction materials, i.a. : j. F errocement In the mentioned assessment of construction techno logies, all kinds of construction technologies were included like stone, fired clay, lime, reinforeed and fibre concrete, bamboo, timber, brick, rammed earth, metals and more. The good performance offerrocement, not only as a construction technology on itself, but also in comparison withother construction technologies, as was showed by the selection of ferrocement among the most optimum construction technologies, indicates that fermcement construction is not only an appropriate construction technology and likely more favourable than the traditional reinforeed

79

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerracement stairs and production

concrete, but also that it can cope with the wide range of construction technologies which are available in all parts of the world. Ferrocement shows to have the potentiality to be an important player on the market of sustainable, cheap and easy to produce and construct construction technologies, for (social) housingin the various (developing) parts of the world. In certain reg ions (like As ia) and applications (like boats ), ferrocement is already a completely accepted and widely used construction technology, which owes its great success to its many optimum features. The good performance of ferrocement technology in this classification and selection of construction technologies could indicate in alllikelihood also good performance results in the 6-steps optimisation for ferrocement stairs and their production in specific.

7.c) Optimisation on ferrocement stairs and their production 7.c.J) Theoretica/ optimum In theory all available construction systems, -elements and -materials are appropriate, since they all do belong to the range of possibly appropriate solutions for construction in the world, which is also applicable to the fermcement stairs. Many of the possible construction technologies are widely used and/or traditional in eertaio parts of the world (conventional technologies). Others have just recently been developed and applied, or are new applications/significant improvements ofwell-known technologies. These technologies are often still in an experimental stage. Further research on them is required and their application is quite scarcely spread over the world or is concentrated to eertaio (experirnental) areas (experimental, alternative technologies). Ferrocement stairs are a new application ofthe well-known ferrocement technology, which have recently been developed and applied in the TIBÁ-house. Continuing research is required and their application will in first instanee be limited to Nova Friburgo and surroundings. The application will initially be concentrated to the social housing project terrain by FEMI-Brasil. For having these characteristics, ferrocement stairs can be indicated as an experimental, alternative stair technology.

7.c.2) Technica/ optimum

7.c.2.1) Teehoical situation and performance To decide on the appropriability of ferrocement stairs from a technica! point of view, their performance with regard to the local climate, soil, biologica! agents (fungi, insects, larger animals) and such are determined.

* Nova Friburgo is located in a mountainous area, at a height of about 850 metres above sea level. The major subsoil is granite rock, with a brown-red upper soil, called "cambissolo". - The sub- and upper soil have (more than) sufficient resistance to carry the light-weight external ferrocement stairs. Those external stairs which will have to withstand aggressive attack from the environment, like the contact with a more or less hurnid soil, are expected to be able to withstand this attack because of the general characteristic performance of the material ferrocement and by above applying a coating of several protective layers of a cement-water mixture plus a protective painting.

* The subtropical seaclimate along the coastal area in and around the city Rio de Janeiro is characterised by hot summers, with a very high humidity and intense tropical rains. The winters are dry and with more comfortable temperatures. The temperatures and humidity are somewhat more moderate in Nova Friburgo, 80

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

due to its mountainous location. Especially at night and in the winter, it can sametimes become reasonably cold. In the summer, it rains more than in the coastal zone. Because of Brazil's location near the equator, Nova Friburgo receives high-angle sunshine, and because of its high location, sunshine is very intense, especially in the summer. The average rainfall in the region amounts about an annual1500 mm, with heavy rains in the main summer months December and January. - The specific fermcement surface-structure, combined with the applied coatings will make the extemal stairs impermeable to water. But they will have to be well fastened to their underground to avoid them flooding away during intense tropical downpours. During production, curing stair pieces should be protected from intense heat and retraction of water, caused by the summer warmth. By covering the curing pieces with jute bags, straw or sisal, soaked in water and cured on a shaded space, they should be sufficiently protected from the harm that too high temperatures can cause. With these protective measures, the Nova Friburguense elimate wil/ nat cause real problems for production or use of the fermcement stairs. Above are moderate warmth and a relative high humidity, as aften present in Nova Friburgo favourable for the curing of fermcement structures.

* The surroundings of Nova Friburgo have a rich vegetalion and (smal!) animal wildlife. - However, no harmful flora or fauna to the ferrocement stairs are known. Algae and fungi produce certain acids that might result in the pulverisation ofthe cement mortar, but are in general no real threat. Termites do not like concrete and cement structures.

* The terrain, in which will be constructed, makes certain demands on construction. For as a substantial part ofthe project terrain as wellas the neighbourhoods in Nova Friburgo have more or less severely sloping sides, construction will have to be adapted to this major condition. On-site production and construction of traditional reinforeed concrete stairs can be severely hindered by these sloping areas. Onsite working on a sloping site can in the first place be unpractical and cause difficulties, but in the second place will all input materials and equipment & tools have to be transporled to the construction location (aften manually). On a sloping terrain and with lacking infrastructural provisions, this transport to the site can be very probiernatie and require high Iabour efforts. - Ferrocement stairs are made pre-fab in a production unit workshop, and can be transported as finished pre-fab elements to the construction site. No problems thus with production on a sloping site or with transport of input materials, equipment & tools to such a production site. The required stair elements can be directly transporled to a sloping construction site and fastened. The pre-fab production of ferrocement stairs is favourable above the on-site production of traditional concrete stairs. *Data on elimate of Nova Friburgo,from NEPHU-report "Produto 03" Temperature Absolute Maximums Absolute Minimums Average of Maximums Average of Minimums

26.9 - 34.6 ° Celsius 0.2 - 1.0 ° Celsius 27.5 o Celsius (February) 8.8° Celsius (July)

Ra in Annual average Months with maximum of rain Months with minimum of rain

1.497 mm in 140 days I year 972.3 mm I 70 days (December- March) 117.3 mm I 25 days (June- August)

81

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

7.c.2.2) Condusion on teehoical appropriability The fermcement stairs are considered technically appropriate, as they are sufficiently resistant and adequate to the climatical and environmental (flora, fauna, terrain, soil) conditions of Nova Friburgo.

7.c.3) Economie optimum

7.c.3.1) Economie situation

* Brazit BraziJ possesses an enormous quantity of land, a large supply ofminera Is, has especially in the southem and south-eastem part of the country a high level of industrialisation, and a large interior market. The tertiary sector and industry are most important for the Gross Interior Product. Agriculture contributes with a relative small share to the GIP. However with re gard to export, Brazit belongs to the wor/d's largest exporters of agricultural products. The most important trade partners are the other South-American countries, the United States and the Netherlands. Also the Middle-east and Japan become more and more important for Brazil's exporting market In the eighties and the jirst part of the nineties the economie situation of Brazit could he characterised by stagnation, enormous foreign debts and high injlation rates. The govemment collected far too few taxes and subsidised too much necessitous state enterprises and politica! projects. The announced privatisation was lying far bebind the intended scheme. The "Plano Rea/" in 1994, combined with the introduetion of the new currency Real, was a new step towards a more market-oriented economy by means of intended public sector reform, fiscal reform, privatisation, deregulation, and elirnination of trade harriers. The Real was coupled to the strong US Dollar, which increased the Brazilian prices, but also put an end to the high inflation rates. In the last months of 1998 Brazit was almost caught by the world economie crisis, however it was barely prevented by large aid ofthe international community with mainly a generous financial aid ofthe IMF, according to which Brazit had to execute a series ofreorganization measures. In the beginning of 1999 the coupling between Realand Dollar was abandoned, the conversion rate ofthe Re al strongly decreased to half of its former value, and BraziJ finally did get into a crisis. Currently, inflation is back again, employment opportunities are scarce and as always, the poor mass will have to suffer the most. The informal economy is estimated to count fora third to half of the size of the official economy. The purchasing power of the major part of the population is very low. The population in the upper 10 % of the income scale eamed in 1990 48.1% ofthe GNP, while those belonging to the lowest 10% ofthe income scale eamed together 0.8% ofthe GNP. The total income is very unequally dividedbetween rich and poor. Therefore the income gap between rich and poor in Brazit is one of the largest in the world. The continuing increase in prices makes Brazil an expensive country to live in. For many people in Brazil, it's a real exercise to survive in the current economy of high unemployment, low wage levels, high prices and corruption. Criminality rates has raised a lot in the past decenniums, especially in the major urban areas. Not only begging, but also robbery and stealing have become for more and more people 'necessary' ways of survival.

* State ofRio de Janeiro and municipal Nova Friburgo A substantial part ofthe population in the state Rio de Janeirolivesin urban slums, the so-called favelas. Not only the poorest people, whoworkin "o setor informal" live in these abundantly present favelas. Also a lot of people with regular work at for example a common furn, at the govemment or in the hotel and catering industry live in favelas, cause they can't afford themselves more expensive housing.

82

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

Among the poor urban population in the favelas ofthe city Nova Friburgo, there is a considerable (bidden) unemployment, combined with (marginal) jobs in the informal and formal sector, as self-employed or lowpaid wage worker. There is a severe shortage of adequate social housing. People have low access to the (legal) housing market, because aftheir low income and thus low purchasing power, and the many obstacles they have to conquer to obtain decent, legal and affordable housing. Many people have a low level of education. Those, who have a remunerated accupation earn often hardly enough to make a decent living. Income provision by various working family memhers (adults and children), support by relatives or begging and stealing are ways to collect enough funds to make a family survive. Social welfare services are far from adequate. Criminality seerns less than in the urban metropolis Rio de Janeiro. Although Nova Friburgo's (economie) problerns are less extensive, as they are in the main city Rio de Janeiro, the regionat town does certainly get her share in the urban overcrowding problerns.

7.c.3.2) Economie performance

* The casts, that have to be made for production ofthe fermcement stairs will have to be weighted against the economie benejits, that the product yields. The casts ofproduction are assessed in re lation to the economie appropriability of the product. A low or high cost indication is not enough reason to approve or to reject the product for economie appropriability. Also at least the economie need, the product's economie inputs, its possible utilization and lifespan are taken into consideration. The lifespan of a construction product can be subdivided in an economie, functional and technicallifespan. In western societies, products are often replaced or abandoned when another or an improved product enters the market (short economie lifespan), or when it has lost its function fortheuser (junctionallifespan), but in general befare it has reached itsfull technicallifespan. The low purchasing power parity in development countries of the broad mass of poor population does not allow them to purebase a new product, as soon as a better one enters the market, or at the moment that they feellike sarnething else. There is a larger necessary tendency to use products and repair them again and again to the fulllength of their technicallifespan. The same counts to a certain extent for public equipment provided by (local/state) governments, which experience a structurallack of sufficient financial funds to keep infrastructure and other upto the actually required modern quality level. Therefore expecting that also the ferrocement stairs will be in use as long as their technica/ functioning allows, it's important that the stair construction elements combine a long possible lifespan with low inputs (costs, energy, materials and equipment)for maintenance and repair. With poor people as the accupants of the social houses at the FEMI-project, who experience a lack of funds and have their highest priorities on surviving, and with a local government, which lacks funds and interest, stairs which require regular and careful maintenance activities run the risk ofbecoming seriously deteriorated. The choice of input materials and required material quantities influence the available supplies of economie 'scarce' materials and the need for import of materials, likely with relatively high costs. Concluding should the fermcement stairs to be economically appropriate, represent an economie need, have an accounted material choice, good possible utilization, and combine reasanabie casts with long lifespan and minimal maintenance and repair efforts. - Since Nova Friburgo is located in a smalllong valley in the mountains and has only few neighbourhoods without sloping areas, with sloping sides also abundantly available on the project terrain, there is an economie needfor external stairs (and ramps) in the construction offootpaths. And for as dwellings and buildings tend to increase rather in height (number offloors) than in ground area, since the quantity of

83

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

available square metres for construction in an area decreases as population increases, and since the sky seems to be the limit (although in Nova Friburgo apartment buildings are generally nothigher than 3 floors), therefore isfor every extrafloor at least one extra internal stair required. As well for intemal as extemal stairs a clear economie need is present. The possible economie utilization of ferrocement stairs can be described as intemal utilization in houses, apartment buildings and utility buildings with more than one floor, and extemal utilization in severely sloping public or private terrain. At least for intemal stairs in dwellings, a reasonable group ofpossible future clients among the lower-income groups in Nova Friburgo is expected to exist. As well ferrocement as reinforeed concrete stairs will have a Iabour intensive production, but ferrocement strongly economises on material input. Mainly this aspect reduces the total cost price of ferrocement stairs and is expected to give pretty reasanabie total casts for the production of the ferrocement stair pieces. The absolute material requirements are low, also with regard to the important economie 'scarce' materials cement and metal. Fortheuse of plastic fruit-nets mesh insteadof metallic chicken mesh, the ferrocement stairs economise even more on metal materials than ferrocement in generaL All input materials are in sufficient quantities available and produced in Brazil and can be easily locally purchased in Nova Friburgo. The average technicallifespan ofthe ferrocement stairs is not exactly to predict, but with the knowledge, that ferrocement structures with some simple maintenance efforts can last half a century, the stairs are expected to lastfor at least some decenniums. The requirement for maintenance is normally very low and small repairs, mainly cracks, can be easily executed with simple tools and a filling mortar.

* Data,from PUC-investigation under lower-income groups, July/August '98, Nova Friburgo Unemployment among adult family members Does not work, declared Is looking for work

53.03% 6.04%

7.c.3.3) Condusion on economie appropriability The clear economie need, accounted choice of materials, and good possible utilization of ferrocement stairs, combined with reasonable costs, long expected technicallifespan, and low and easy maintenance requirements, make the ferrocement stairs an economically appropriate construction technology for production and application in Nova Friburgo. 7.c.4) Market-technical optimum 7.c.4.1) Market-technical situation The income of a substantial amount of the families occupying the favelas amounts between a half to 4 or 5 times one minimum salary. The more fortunate people in the favela eam between 5 and 10 times the minimum salary. Ho wever, one "salario minirno" is in contrary to what one possibly should expect by far not sufficient to make an average family survive. All the fmancial funds will have to be spent on first living necessities. For other things hardly any funds are left. The favelas are overcrowded, because more and more (rural) families in Brazil have been forced to an urban life in poverty in the last decenniums. The urban favela population has increased at a high rate and

84

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

new favelas are often built on non-favourable risky (waste) lands. In the urban area of Rio the population has inthelast decade increased rapidly, concentrating itselfmainly in the expanding favelas. In Nova Friburgo absolute urban growth rate is less, but even then the city has increased severely in the last decenniums. Now a 92% ofthe population in the state Rio de Janeirolivesin urban areas. An average third to half of the Iabour force in the favelas does not have regular work. They mainly work in the informal sector. Their purchasing power parity is in general very low, especially not allowing relatively large expenses in once, like for example for the purebase of construction elements or materials. Another item is the low acceptability among the population ofcertain construction technologies. This is partly due to 'conservatism', fear for and unfamiliarity with those alternative construction technologies, as well partly due to bad experiences and examples in the past by self-help construction or (governmental) building projects, in which a too low skilis level ofthe labourers andlor insufficient supervision and quality control caused a not careful execution of the works and resulted in inferior products. With regard to public infrastructure, like i.a. stairways in sloping neighbourhoods, one should consider the often chronicallack offunds to fulfil all required infrastructure and facilities, and the low tendency for maintenance. When public works will purebase products, a low purchase-price, and low costs and requirements of maintenance are likely to be preferable.

7.c.4.2) Market-technical performance To decide on the market-technical appropriability of construction options, several aspects are to be examined. Is the target population (oflower-income groups) able to pay the minimum price for the fermcement stairs, and is the offered product in correspondence with the needs of the population and with their acceptability of construction materials, which makes the product saleable.

* Because ofthe low real family income ofthe lower-income groups, mostfamilies wil/ hardly have jinancial funds left for housing, after the first living necessities have been fulfilled. For the poorest families in fact only housing for free would be affordable. Their financial possibilities to purebase a stair can thus be doubted. - The interna I ferrocement stairs for the project will only be provided in dwellings with more than one floor, which are the dwellings on the medium- andlor large-size lots. In these dwellings, families will come to reside with a moderate to large family size, but which also have a relatively 'moderate' to 'high' income in the range of0.5 to 4.5 minimum salaries. External stairs are providedas part ofthe infrastructure and to be financed by the BNDES bank. For local market sa/es ofstairs, only families with an income of 2 minimum safaries or more per month are considered as possible future clients. The both just indicated categoties of families (on the project and on the local market, with an income of at least a 2 minimum salaries) have a somewhat higher total income among the group offamilies with lowerincomes, and are expected for this reason to be better able to repay a soft loan for a dwelling with internal stair in the social housing project or to purebase a ferrocement stair on the local market, paying for the stair in monthly instalments. Although a higher family income combined with a larger family will reduce total room for extra financial expenses, families with a small income, irrespective of their size, do often not even have sufficient income to make any extra expense. Since it is likely that the dwellings ofthose families with lower-income will also have a smaller size, these dwellings often won't even have a second floor, therefore not having an internal stair requirement. For pub/ie (governmental) institutions, the purebase offerracement stairs in the provision ofinfrastructure can be profitable, for as ferrocement strongly economises on material input, invalving lower costs, and is made pre-fab. In comparison with traditional reinforeed concrete stairs, which will be probably be produced and constructed by public works themselves, the latter concrete stairs will require a higher

85

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

material input, electric equipment like a cement mixer, likely difficult and unpractical on-site production and construction on sloping extemal sites, and the more expensive and unpractical transport of all materials and equipment & tools to the sloping production and construction location. Total costs for traditional concrete stairs are thus likely to be higher, while its on-site production and construction will involve unpractical and time devouring activities. Since govemments in general have a lack of suffïcient fmancial funds, a saving on costs is expected to be pretty desirable. Above does the likely cheaper purchase of fermcement stairs save considerably on the required own efforts by public works for labour-intensive, unpractical and time devouring production and construction, as is the case with traditional concrete stairs.

* Construction techno logies, which make use of materials with low acceptance among the local population, have to be introduced and applied with special care. Bad experiences and wrong applications in the past, low expected resistance and durability, 'poor' appearance, 'conservatism' or other reasoos can make the local people be averse to the use of certain useful materials and elements. - Fermcement technology is pretty well-known among part ofthe Brazilian population, nevertheless the majority of the lower-income groups population is expected to be hardly familiar with fermcement Probably they have once heard about it, but its appearance, composition, performance and application will to most people be unknown. Ferrocement's advantage is its close relation in surface outlook, composition, characteristics and behaviour with cement and concrete structures. Concrete knows a very large application in the urban areas of Brazil, and is part of its construction culture. Ferrocement has eertaio similarities with traditional concrete, making it easier for people to get some affinity with ferrocement Ferrocement's disadvantage however are some ofits (favourable) differences. A feature offerrocement is its 'incredible' thinness, which economises on materials input, but combined with high strength. However, people will initially not tend to believe in this strength, unless they have experienced proof of its well strength and performance. The ferrocement stair will thus frrst clearly have toproof itself, not only in an internat but also in an extemal environment. This might be done by means of extemal exposed test-stairs, by information and demonstration, by wide application in the social project before market introduction, and also by offering purebasers on the local market eertaio guarantees, by which they run less risk. Ferrocement fortunately doesnotsuffer yet of a/ready existing prejudices, which could make it on beforehand unacceptable for the residents. The subjective opinion of a local informant, occupied in the construction sector was that ferrocement stairs can succeed intheir acceptation in Nova Friburgo among the target population and then can easily achieve a considerable application.

* Data,from PUC-investigation, July!August '98, Nova Friburgo Adult population probably working in informal sector With remunerated occupation, as declared

44.64 %

Self-employed or free lance or no specific type ofwork

15.65%

As% ofthose with remunerated occupation 35.06%

Monthly family iocome Less than 1 - up to 5 minimum salaries Between 5 - up to 10 minimum salaries Two minimum salaries or more

74.0% 17.4% 73.0%

86

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

7.c.4.3) Conclusion on market-technical appropriability The likely reasanabie casts of fermcement stairs fora target gmup oflower-income families with an iocome of 2 or more minimum salaries, and the possibility for a long-term soft laan or for gradual payment in monthly instalments at the purchase of a fermcement stair ( enclosed in a dwelling), for the future local clients on the project respectively in Nova Friburgo, are expected to make the purchase of a fermcement stair by private persons, for the majority of families which have an intemal stair requirement possible. Within the objective of cast reducing and an easier construction of external stairs, the purchase of fermcement stairs in the provision ofpub/ie infrastructure can be pretty favourable. With regard to the acceptability ofthe fermcement stairs, will fermcement be a pretty unknown construction technology, which especially for its thinness is not likely to be automatically accepted. Ho wever, it does not suffer of already existing prejudices, which could make it on befarehand unacceptable for the residents, but do have certain similarities with the traditional concrete. The expectation is that with a careful introduetion fermcement stairs can certainly become accepted. On basis of these results is concluded, that ferrocement stairs are likely to be sufficiently markettechnically appropriate for Nova Friburgo.

7.c.5) Collaborative optimum

7.c.5.1) Collaborative situation For the collaboration with people fmm the lower-income groups, their characteristics have to be wellknown as a gap in understanding or way of thinking and acting can severely hinder effective collaboration between employees from the ferrocement stairs production unit and thus production. The majority ofthe lower-income groups popu/ation in the state Rio de Janeiro and also in the municipal Nova Friburgo has nat completed primary school or is even illiterate. Only the top layer ofthe population can afford their children a decent education. Although public school is for free many children do not even complete primary education. Above is the quality level and capacity of this free public education often not satisfying. Private schools offer better education possibilities, but are expensive. The serious lack of sufficient, skilied construction workers in Brazil, not withstanding the fact that construction is a very large Iabour employer, already indicates that most construction workers wil! be non-qualified with a low skilis level. The investigation by the PUC-university in Nova Friburgo confirms this image. The Brazilian social and organizational structure is a pretty hierarchical one. The master-servant ( or read (ex-)'slave') structure stilllives on in many forma! relationships. The former military regime of Brazil did a lso contribute to this hierarchy. Participation of the poor mass of citizens is still no common practice. Organization of the poor on a locallevel is experienced as a threat to the poweiful position of the policy makers. For this reason development initiatives, such as this social housing project in Nova Friburgo, are frequently obstructed as soon as they do not only provide certain services, but also have an element of making people more conscious. As the transformation process from ex-slave to citizen is a drastic, but slow process, quick changes should not be expected to occur. Most NGOs in Brazil don't try to work problemsolving, but try to work with the poor to let them find ways in which they become capable to help their own and other family. In the construction sector a high supply of Iabour is absorbed and most construction pmcesses make intensively use of (non-qualified) Iabour. A group of low-or semi-skilied labourers is normally instructed and supervised by a construction head. Construction professionals, like masons, carpenters, and others, make often use of one or more assistants to help them in the preparation and execution of simple tasks.

87

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

Although in the summer heat can become intense, long aftemoon breaks, with a continuing of the work in the early cooler evening, seem not to be common. Construction starts early in the moming, about 7 o'clock a.m., sufficient time is taken for the warm lunch, and the labourers workon till the end ofthe aftemoon (46p.m.).

7.c.5.2) Collaborative performance With regard to local future residents to be employed in the production unit, will the items on available local Iabour potential, educational and (construction) skilis level of the labourers, leaming capacities and willingness, but also working practices, and the common division between more and less experienced labourers or assistants in training be taken in consideration *Most ofthe recruited labourers are likely to have a low to moderate skilis level, no (official) qualification and uncompleted primary education. Training will mainly take place on-the-job in the production unit. The locally available capacity, to provide intensive training and to let the labourers gain extensive experience in the applied techniques before real production starts, might be limited. The capacity to exercise constant and thorough supervision and quality control during actual production is absolutely not comparable with those in high-tech (large-scale) industrialized production processes. - The locallabour potential among the future residents of the project in quantity will be more than sufficient, as real and hidden employment is high and the labour-friendly conditions at the production-unit a lso could attract (construction) workers, who have a job but prefer the Iabour conditions and activities at the fermcement stairs production unit. In quality, the Iabour potential is much more limited. The majority of potentiallabourers has a very low education and is not (officially) qualified. Just a very small part of them has sufficient education and qualification to be considered for the job of supervisor or administrator ofthe production unit. The advantage of fermcement production is that the requirements for skilied Iabour are low. To execute quality control and supervision on the production (supervisor), and to calculate andregister wages, material requirements, production quantities and more administrative tasks (administrator) 2 skilied employees are required. For actual production however un- or semi-skilied production labourers and assistants can be employed, Which with a short practical training and some period to master the details of ferrocement stairs production can start as sufficiently 'qualified' ferrocement stair producers in the production unit. For its ease in production and other good characteristics ofthe fermcement production, it can do with average supervision and human-powered 'manual' quality control (in contrary to mechanised I automised industrial quality control). Production labourers will make the stair pieces in groups of 2 production labourers, in order that they can help each other in the execution ofthe production, keep an eye on the quality of each others works and leam to work in small teams, with production assistants to assist production in general and each production group. Production can start early in the moming at 7 a.m. and go on for about 9 working hours with time for lunch and small breaks for 4 days a week. To create a less hierarchical structure with full participation and cooperation of the labourers, a more 'horizontal' communication between 'higher' and lower' employees is intended, and weekly meetings in which every one is involved can contribute to this. The atmosphere should be one of democracy, with equal rights to dec ide on the course of production, but also with equal duties to show good productivity and quality in work and to adhere to the reglement of work.

88

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

* Datafrom PUC-investigation, July/August '98, Nova Friburgo Education of adult population Nothing- lst grade incomplete

85.64%

Adult population who has attended a professional course Total Qualifying and teehuical

9.99% 6.35%

Illiteracy among adult population Can notreador write, as declared

15.57%

Occupation in civil construction among adult population Works in ei vil construction

7.9%

*Data, from PUC-investigation, on selected group of 840 family heads, '98, Nova Friburgo

Occupation in civil construction among adult family heads Works in ei vil construction, non-qualified

15.2%

Qualified profession among adult family heads Works in a qualificationrequiring profession

32.45%

7.c.5.3) Condusion on collaborative appropriability Ferrocement stairs production can be executed with mainly low- or semi-skilied labourers, and with a moderate level of control and supervision. Therefore locallabourers from the lower-income groups, involved in the social housing project can be employed. Common working practices are applicable to its construction, nevertheless the production unit will attempt to break through rigid vertical hierarchical structures and to establish a more equal, demoeratic atrnosphere in which regular meetings with all employees together will take place. For its adaptability to the locallabour potential and practices, and the possibilities for creating a more open equallabour-culture in the production unit, fermcement stairs production is likely to he collaborationally appropriate for Nova Friburgo.

7. c. 6) Process-technical optimum 7.c.6.1) Process-technical framework The basic production processcan be sketched, according to the well-known SADT-method. SADT, or Structured Analysis and Design Technique can be an instrument to describe processes and to determine process-varieties. lt is a technique directed to the making of grapbic models of situations with static (things) and dynamic (activities) aspects. With SADT, it is possible to present complex processes in a structured manner, in such a way that these processes become better manageable. Processes are described

89

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

separately and in co hesion by means of a few lines. The separate processes are placed in a framework or box. Around this framework do the most important aspects at processes have a fixed place. The arrows indicate the direction of the data flux. The ferrocement stairs production processis viewed as a structuringframework for the most important process-aspects, namely input, management, energy, and output:

The input consists of those things, which are to be transformed in the production process, mainly the stair pieces design in accordance with the local situation, preparatory works and input materials. The energy consists of the means and Iabour, with which the production works will be executed. These are mainly the production unit employees and the equipment & tools. The management of the process consists of necessary information to control the process. This can be information about the material requirements, production costs and budget, conceming regulations and on the execution of the process steps. Input, energy and management are all necessary to be able to execute the process of production and will finally result in an output of ferrocement stair pieces. The basic production process of ferrocement stairs itself has been presented in chapter 6 as scheme with a flux of phases in the production process.

7.c.6.2) Process-technical situation The specific ferrocement stairs production process, with the indicated process aspectsof input, energy and management requirements and their availability in Nova Friburgo, and the final aspect of output of stair pieces and their appropriability to the local environment and population, will together determine the appropriability of the ferrocement stairs production unit as intended. The overcrowded poor neighbourhoods, where mainly the lower-income groups concentrate, have a large Iabour force supply, but with a generally low to moderate skills level. Local production and construction activities are often executed in a labour-intensive way, and because of the low level of investment possibilities by local small- and medium-scale production- and constructionenterprises, the intensive use of capita!, sophisticated techno logies, and 'modem' equipment & tools is limited. As not each possibly desired sophisticated technology will be available in Brazil itself, these more hightech technologies will have to be imported, likely at severe costs and causing an outflow of scarce foreign currency. And even when there is a possibility to make a local copy of a in western countries developed technology, the likely underutilization ofthe modemand (too) high-eapacity machinery in alocal small- to medium-scale firm make these technologies not only not within reach of, but also not appropriate to the majority of local investors. The locally applied technology in small- and medium-scale firms is in general much less-sophisticated, cheaper and making use of a labour-intensive I capital-extensive production process. The urban lower-income groups in Brazil have limited experience with organization and management, as a result ofthe past. Organizations initiated by higher-level income groups frequently suffer from rigid hierarchical structures and inefficiency, due to certain continuing attitudes and corruption in Brazil. lt can

90

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

require considerable time to get sarnething done, because of all prescriptions that have to be met and the obstacles that have to be taken. Under the given conditions of a low education, illiteracy and a margillal existence among the poor mass of population, also the level of development of information networks is different and less sophisticated, than is the case in the modem information-technology societies. Written and especially electronic communication and documentation plays a more marginal role among the lower-income groups. Therefore will the skilis of people from the lower-income groups to understand and visualise (complicated) paper designs likely be underdeveloped compared to those of more educated people from the 'western world'. Extra training on this aspect, and simple clear explanation of the production process steps and inputs can overcome part ofthe problem. A less intensive use of information-technology is not only viewed among the low educated classes. Taking for example the library ofthefaculty ofArchitecture at as well the University ofTechnology in Eindhoven as at the Universidade Federal Fluminense in Niterói, a pretty large public university with a good reputation, then we can observe in Eindhoven a modem library system, which works with a computerised search system, also available on the Internet, and with an electronic and computerised lending system for which the lender can use his/her university pass. Observing Niterói, then the visitor ofthe library ofthe faculty of Architecture has to search a hook with the help of a card-index with obsolent paper cards and when he/she has found the right hook and wants to lend it, a small paper card with hislher name and address written on it is taken out of a card-tray and the loan is written down on the paper card. The latter system would be completely out-of-date for a university library in the Netherlands, but in Brazil it is still reality. This example indicates that also in the higher well-educated classes, the level of automisation is frequently much lower than people are used to in industrialized countries. The absence of more modem systems has also a lot to do with the chronicallack of financial funds, especially for pub/ie institutions like public libraries and public universities.

7.c.6.3) Process-technical performance

* Those construction technologies are preferable, which make to a high extent use of Iabour and use simple cheap manual tools and equipment. Those technologies, which also do not involve complicated and lor time devouring production processes. And those technologies, which make simple and clear transmission of information possible and don 't leave much room for serious misinterpretation. Above those technologies are favourable which have low negative environmental effects. - Fermcement stairs pre-fab production as intended makes use of a labour-intensive and capital-extensive process, and it makes mainly use of common simple construction equipment and tools. The production process steps are easy to understand and require just reasonable 'time for the production of a stair piece. Actual production of a piece consists rnainly offilling the right mould in the right way. The transmission of information on the production process can easily take place by oral and practical instruction, and with the help of simple written/drawn manuals. The production groups of each 2 production labourers can help each other in the adequate production and be an example for the Iabour assistants, who assist these groups. The supervisor can also instruct them where required. The high possible standardisation ofstair piece types and dimensions reduces the risk of faulty produced products. Above will a FEMI-responsible monitor and manage the overall production unit on a distance or in a more intensive manner, where and when required in the initia! period of production for the social housing project.

* Production can have negative effects on the local or wider environment. The implications on the environment comprise its environmental performance during the whole life cycle of extraction of raw materials to processing by means of an energy input up to the re-use of equipment and materiaL - The extraction of the several input materials for fermcement can be executed in such ways, that they or have hardly an impact or seem to have an 'accepted' impact on the environment. The latter is especially the

91

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerracement stairs and production

case for the extraction of cement and metals, which are energy-intensive processes and have (polluting) negative effects on the environment. Nevertheless these processes do take place on a large scale in Brazil. Their large occurrence does not imply that it should be allowed that construction technologies make extensive use of these in energy consumption and environmental effects less favourable materials. And this material use is an important advantage of applying ferrocement above reinforeed concrete. The very low absolute quantity that ferrocement applies of the 'scarce' economie matenals cement and steel for producing the stair piece products, and also the low application of wood for the required moulds per produced stair piece, strongly reduces the negative impact of fermcement on the environment, as well in absolute quantity as relatively in comparison to reinforeed concrete. Above can all materials be locally purchased. The production process of ferrocement stairs on itself is not polluting, except for the cement mortar residues, which should not be thrown in the neighbourhood of local small valuable vegetation, like crops or pastures, as the absorption of cement residues in the ground and in the water can harm healthy growth of the vegetation. All wastes ofthe production unit should be collected properly anyway. The energy input for producing the stair pieces exists mainly of an input of human-powered energy. The capita/ input by means of equipment & tools for production is very low. Nor do these require an energy input in the form of electricity or another energy resource (not including human energy), except for the possible use of an electrical-powered vibrating plate for the compacting of the pieces in the mould. The wooden moulds can be re-utilized many times in production in case they receive an extra protection. Equipment & tools have long life-span, while the final stair piece products can, after reasonably long utilization expected to amount a several decenniurns, befurther processed and cut and cracked to debris, which is applicable again in for example infrastructural provisions.

* The national, regional and local relevant legal ru/es, regulations and building codes determine what is allowed, tolerated or forbidden with regard to construction materials and production. The safety during production and (use) ofthe produels is also of interest. Besides will the demands, which are imposed by participating (financial) or mother organizations have to be considered. - From the limited to me available information on legalisation and building codes could be deducted that ferrocement ("argamassa armada") is an allowed construction technology, from which is known that several general national Brazilian norms on concrete do also apply to ferrocement. These are mainly norms on the allowed range of input materials, and although the exact contents of these norms could not be determined, it is known that the range of suggested input materials for the ferrocement stairs are all allowed. Brazilian norms with re gard to tensile strength and mechanica! resistance of ferrocement under live load are not known to me, however the fermcement stairs show to be able to resist normallive loads imposed on them. The ferrocement stairs production unit as being an "'in dustrial organization, not causing serious pol/ution" on the project terrain in Parque das Flores, district Conselheiro Paulino in Nova Friburgo is allowed according to municipallaw. - The safety of human beings during the production process of ferrocement is secured for as ferrocement production is hardly a risky activity. Of its input materials, only the dustof dry Portland cement can in large quantities inspired be unhealthy, but when the cement is moistened, the risk is over. The production process involves no special or high risks and the labourers safety can easily be secured. The ferrocement produels thernselves are in normal use not harmful to man or environment. Above are the ferrocement stairs fire resistant. - No special demands on the production or the products of ferrocement stairs to be satisfied, and imposed by the main fmancial participating organization in the project, namely the Brazilian development bank for social and economie development BNDES, are known. F EMI has drawn up various premis es, to which the social housing project should comply. The production unit forms part ofthe social housing project. Ferrocement stairs production unit will have to comply with

92

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

the general approach and premises of the project, like the promotion of active participation of the involved population, being relative to families from the lower-income groups and contributing to the full exercising of citizenship ("cidadania") by the target group population. Further it should produce an appropriate stair alternative for application in the project and in other areasof Nova Friburgo and possible surroundings. And it should contribute to the creation of structural employment for the future residents of the project, belonging to the lower-income groups. The production unit is likely to he able to fuljil these premises and objectives. In relation to the creation of employmentfor the lower-income groups can the production unit start with 14 employees (1 supervisor, 1 administrator, 8 production labourers, and 4 production assistants), all recruited from the supply oflowerincome families and being future project-residents. The first production year, taking place in a protected environment and with guaranteed sales to the social housing project, can he applied to gain more and more experience, to improve the production process and to prepare the production unit for 'commercial' production for the local consumer market Afterabout a year of only or mainly producing for the project, the production unit should start producingfor the loca/market too, as production in order ofthe project will slowly decrease to in ultimately instanee zero. When the production does succeed in local market sales, then the created employment for people from the lower-income groups subsist The anticipated sales of the production unit on the local construction market and thus the continuation of production implies the creation of some structural employment.

* Data on production unit from own investigation/calculation, based mainly on data input from ' 98, Nova Friburgo Production of stair pieces for project per month Average production in frrst 12 full-production months

144 pieces

Labour requirements for production in order of project Requirements for initia! full-production period

14 employees

- Supervisors - Administrators - Production labourers - Production assistants

1 person 1 person 8 person 4 person

Indication of possible loc al elient families in Nova Friburgo for purebase of internal stair In income group of 2 to 5 minimum salaries

1900 families

7.c.6.4) Conciosion on process-technical appropriability For as ferrocement stairs appear an appropriate construction technology for pre-fab production, having low absolute/relative (possible) impact on man (as well employee as user) and environment, and complying to the applicable known legislation and totherelevant premises and objectives ofthe project, especially to the creation of structural employment for future residents from the lower-income groups, therefore ferrocement stairs production is considered process-technically appropriate.

93

Chapter 7 Appropriability offerrocement stairs and production

7.c. 7) Results of the increasing optimisation on ferrocement stairs In the 6-step optimisation onferrocement stairs and their production unit, fermcement stairs were considered 6 times sufficiently appropriate as we/I theoretica/, technica/, economical, market-technica/, collaborative as process-technical. From this optirnisation could be concluded that fermcement stairs are likely to be an appropriate construction product technology for application in the social housing project by FEMI and on the local market in Nova Friburgo, as well as their production, which is considered to apply an appropriate production process technology for imptementing a fermcement stairs production unit within the social housing project in Nova Friburgo.

94

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practical and social-economic context results This fmal chapter of the nuclear report chapters concemed with the main research results, as real final chapter 9 provides only recommendations for further research and evaluations to be executed, deals with the local practical and wider social-econornic context results of the fermcement stairs and their production, resulting in a final condusion on their sustainability, providing the answer on the stated research problem.

S.a) Introduetion In the previous chapter was dealt with the practical appropriability of fermcement stairs and their production unit intheir local environment of (the FEMI-project in) Nova Friburgo in a 6-steps optirnisation. The main relevant practical results are first briefly discussed, summarized in conclusions. Thereafter is in a bird's eye-view the place ofthe fermcement stairs (production unit) in the wider socialeconomic context of its micro, meso and macro environment and that of industrial organizations on a genera!, national and Latin American level indicated, based on appendix chapter 8.a. A discussion of the most relevant results of the ferrocement stairs (production unit) in its social-economic context will together with the practical results give a final overview of the anticipated performance of fermcement stairs and their production as assessed in this research, and provided in a nuclear report and a range of appendixes. The jinal condusion provides the answer on the conceming research problem, and in providing this information, it can have a concrete impact on the decision of FEMI-Brazil to apply ferrocement stairs in the project or not, and on how to set the right way in production and introduetion of the fermcement stairs, which is also the practical airn of research. Besides, as the theoretica! airn did indicate, it can make a contribution to the knowledge on technica! and social aspects of applying fermcement technology, especially stair elements.

S.b) Loc al practical results The practical appropriability ofthe fermcement stairs (production unit), as assessed in various previous chapters and in detail elaborated in the several conceming appendixes, has been subdivided in this concluding paragraph on local practical results to the sequencing items :

* Ferrocement stair pieces as designed The input of the prototype fermcement stair as made in Bom Jardirn has been remodelied to various standardised intemal stair piece types and flexible extemal stair pieces with several changes/increases in mortar and reinforcement material use, of which the main are application of a better for pre-fab suited type of Portland cement, 2 layers of plastic fruit-nets mesh, increased rod reinforcement and an increase in thickness of the stair pieces to resist higher live loads, and an extra protective coating on the surface of the stair pieces for extemal uses. All applied materials can be locally purchased. The designed fermcement stair pieces are anticipated to satisfy as stairs for intemal or extemal uses (on the project) in Nova Friburgo.

* Production offerrocement stairs as designed The inputs ofthe production process ofthe prototype fermcement stair in Bom Jardirn and ofthe industrial production of fermcement structures were converted to a production process adapted to the production of the fermcement stairs in a production unit on the project terrain. Especially the wooden moulds are designed such that they are better protected against deterioration by applying impregnated durable wood with an aluminium and /or plastic covering. The way of reinforcing the stair pieces with steel rods will possibly be changed, and the stair pieces are to be better compacted in the mould. The production is designed labour-intensive, with mainly a low skills requirement for the labourers, and in a capital-extensive

95

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

way. The designed way ofproducing and its organization in a production unit are anticipated to satisfy fermcement stair pieces production on the project in Nova Friburgo.

*Project premises The social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in Nova Friburgo will respect a range of premises, like being directed to the lower-income groups up to 4.5 minimum salaries, being relevant to the characteristics of this population and to the concerned legal and natural environment, and contributing to the full exercising of citizenship by the population. The fermcement stairs and their production are likely to satisfy the relevant premises and are thus anticipated to fit within the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil.

* Alternative construction technology In the communal physical and social (infra)structures ofthe social housing project, various alternative construction technologies are intended to be applied. Fermcement stairs are considered an alternative stair construction technology, as fermcement is still a pretty new construction material in (this part of) Brazil, and as its application is mainly concentrated to certain specific areas, applications and institutions. But above are fermcement stairs an almost completely new application of ferrocement, which are still in an experimental stage, requiring on-going research and with a limited initial diffusion, frrst to be concentrated to (the project in) Nova Friburgo and near surroundings. Ferrocement stairs are thus indeed an experimental, alternative construction technology, applicable in the provision ofphysical external infrastructure and as internal construction element in buildings.

* Creation of employment An important objective ofthe social housing project by FEMI-Brasil is to create structural employment for people from the lower-income groups belonging to the future residents ofthe project. The production unit is anticipated to create a 14 employment places ofwhich 2 for skilied people, 8 for un- or semi-skilied labourers and 4 for unskilled young people, which will have a possibility for working and continuing training on-the-job at the same time. These employment places are anticipated to be structural as the production unit will not only produce for the project but will continue producing in order of the local market The ferrocement stairs production unit is anticipated to satisfy the objective of creating structural employment. * Cost ofstairs Ferrocement stairs will result in lower costs than for traditional reinforeed concrete stairs, mainly due to the strong economising on materials input. lt seems possible to produce them at reasonable costs for the lowerincome groups in Nova Friburgo, for which they on the local market are considered to be affordable to families with a monthly family income of at least 2 minimum salaries, which families can be offered a possibility of gradual payment of their stair purchase. At the same time it seems possible to let the employees of the production unit receive a higher wage than the average in wage working. As the investrnent costs ofthe production unit will (partly) be paid for by FEMI, the incomes from sales will (mainly) only have to yield sufficient funds to finance the operating costs of the production unit. The ferrocement stairs and their production are thus expected to have reasonable costs for making them favourable on the local construction market, while assuring the economie viability of the production unit.

* Sales potenfiat Internal ferrocement stair pieces can be sold on the local market to private and public purebasers for use in dwellings and other buildings, as well among the lower-income groups as possibly also among the middleand higher-income groups in Nova Friburgo and surroundings. External stair pieces can find their application at terrains of private users, but mainly in the public provision of infrastructure. F or internal ferrocement dwelling stairs, normally consisting of 3 stair pieces, an expected possible demand of a 1900 families was calculated in the city Nova Friburgo. As stairs, as well internal as external, represent a basic building/infrastructural need, there will always be a certain demand for them. Since ferrocement does above combine lower costs with favourable features, and a considerable local market is expected to exist, the ferrocement stairs are anticipated to have sufficient sales potential.

96

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

* Acceptation The fermcement stairs will first have to be accepted by the target group oflower-income groups, to be able to let a successful introduetion take place. Ferrocement have similarities intheir surface outlook, composition and behaviour with reinforeed concrete, which forms part ofthe Brazilian construction culture. Above does ferrocement not suffer yet from prejudices, which can hinder their introduction. Likely successful instruments, applicable to involve the concemed population, and inform and demonstrate them about the ferrocement stairs have been described, and the fermcement stairs are therefore anticipated to he able to make a successful accepted introduetion (in the project) in Nova Friburgo. S.c) Social-economic context 8.c.l) Introduetion In appendix chapter 8.a., the ferrocement stairs production unit is assessed in a wider social-economic context, ofwhich this paragraph will provide a bird's eye-view. The paragraph takes a (brief) look at the characteristics of industrial organizations, which are in the conceming appendix answered for as well the ferrocement stairs production unit on itself as in comparison to informal organizations in Latin-America. Especially the relevancy of the various institutions in the Brazilian society for the functioning of the production unit will be indicated. Further will a brief look be taken at the production unit with re gard to smali-scale manufacturing industries in Brazil. The production unit is thus assessed at various levels in its wider context, in detail described in the conceming appendix, as well in re lation to its micro, meso and macro environment, as in relation to industrial organizations at a genera!, Brazilian manufacturing, as at a Latin-American informal sector level.

8.c.2) Variables of industrial organizations and the ferrocement stairs production unit The 3 main groups of variables which classify industrial organizations generally, as provided hy literature souree D.4.2., consist of: - extemal organization characteristics - intemal organization characteristics - effectiveness characteristics of the organization Their detailed content for the ferrocement production unit on itself as well in comparison to informal micro ioclustrial organizations in Latin-America is indicated in the appendix chapter 8.a.

8.c.2.1) External organization characteristics The extemal organization characteristics assess the direct relations that an ioclustrial organization will have with its relevant environments, on the local, national and international level. Especially the various institutions that exist in Brazilian society play deterrnining roles in the possihle scope and functioning of the production unit. First of all the politieal-legal institution, which relevanee for the ferrocement stairs production unit is enclosed in the facts, that the politieal-legal system defines the possihle scope ofthe production unit, which will severely differ in a centralised military regime, what Brazil used to he, to that in a liheral democratie politica! regime, what Brazil nowadays attempts to he. Ahove can it have a strong influence on aspects like forma! entry harriers, way of occurrence of competitors on the market, legal position of the ioclustrial organization in conflicts, etcetera. Bes ides does the system define part of the attitude of its population, which for Brazil comes down at that the poor mass of the population is used to a strong hierarchy in society, a low influence and has a eertaio fear tostand fortheir rights, as in the military past (and also in the time of slavery) astrong vertical hierarchy was estahlished and opposition hy individuals was strongly repressed. Ahove are the people and also the industry used to the corruptive, inefficient legal system, which

97

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

makes them rather opt for hearing a financialloss than to go to court, where they have a high chance on ha ving to wait many years, on being threatened and even on the murdering of deponents, so that they finally have to dismiss the case, because of an occurred lack of suftleient evidence. As the ferrocement stairs production unit will be mainly a ( although very small) player in the economie field, the economie institution isofutmost importance for production. Also in Brazilian economy the severe distinction between the rich and the poor exists. The production unit will employ people from the latter group in a formal way. Properly the minimum of existence of 3 minimum salaries should define the minimum wage, but in reality many employers pay their wage-labour a wage far below this. The production unit will try to break through this chronical underpayment ofwage-labour by remunerating its employees with at least 3 to 5 minimum salaries, including formal benefits. However at the same time it will have to cope with the current crisis and inflation, resulting in a lower purchasing power parity of its target consumer groups, and a probably higher price of inputs. The production unit can not withdraw itself from on-going economie movements, which makes its economie survival also severely dependent on the current favourable or unfavourable movements in economy. The social-cultural institution partly defines what is possible to do and what might become accepted by Brazilian people or not, them being the employees ofthe production unitor being purebasers and!or users ofthe ferrocement stairs. For asthereis a wide range ofmutual cultural influences between Brazil and other (specific) parts ofthe world, its population is reasonably used toa multi-cultural society, with African, European, Indian, American and Japanese influences, all introducing their specific cultural aspects. This makes the Brazilian people likely less rooted in a rigid complex of cultural habits, norms and values and likely less conservative, than they would probably behave in a culturally more isolated society. The fact that they will be more accessible to new solutions, alternatives or suggestions, makes the introduetion of new products and new work procedures easier acceptable. Although caution has to be taken that these procedures and products do not contradiet with social-cultural customs and values in such a serious way, that they finally do make themselves for a certain, possibly 'banal' reason absolutely unacceptable for the local people, since social-cultural openness does not mean complete tolerance. The product and production choice should thus fit within the social-cultural margins of acceptance, defined by the common habits, norms and values in society. The educational institution is mainly relevant in relation to the Iabour force to be recruited for the production unit. The far from optimum education system and attendance generates a mainly low-educated Iabour force, as the majority ofthe children from the lower-income groups attend public school with a moderate education quality, large classes, short school days, not contributing to an optimum education of these children. Above do also the only one-capacity-level secondary education, the entry harriers of universities and the high drop-out rates result in a sufficiently educated rich class (since they can pay fora well-qualified private education) and a poor educated population mass. The ferrocement stairs production unit will havetostart up production mainly with poor (educated) people, partly being the result ofthe Brazilian educational system. This will imply the use of a production process in which Iabour skilis requirements are low, and tasks can be executed in a simple way. With regard to the health institution can an only moderate health ofthe population have a negative influence on the productivity of the Iabour force and on illness absenteeism of employees. The common situation of many people having no decent health insurance and with a moderate public health care can retard the return of a temporary sick or disabled labourer to the work floor. A good general health and health care is thus also of interest of economie organizations, like the ferrocement stairs production unit, and probably the production unit will have to take special health (insurance) measures to assure the productivity and continuing availability of its labourers. The international environment plays a limited role for the local production unit by its possible influence of foreign competitors in the sector of ferrocement production. F or as far as known are there in Brazit no foreign industrial commercial organizations involved yet in the production of ferrocement structures. The presence of a foreign ferrocement structures producer might probably make people opt for the products of

98

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

the foreign producer, instead of a local one, since the quality of foreign products is considered good, while the quality of a national producer next to a foreign one rnight possibly be doubted by the local population, as a result of the past. Although fermcement production is thus still an intemal affair, the fermcement stairs production unit will really have to convince the population ofthe good (intended) quality ofits products, while at the sametime it will notmake use of high sophisticated technologies, and apply mainly low- or semi-skilied employees.

8.c.2.2) Internal organization characteristics Intemal organization characteristics deal in the frrst place with the relevant basic characteristics of industrial organizations comprising a cluster of variables on the organization's history, location, size, ownership, age, technology, and degree of dependenee from a parent entity. Some ofthern, especially size and applied technology, are considered prime movers, while others are more considered to deal with the production unit's inner context. Their vital importance, attached to most of the factors, is indicated by their frequent occurrence in literature studies and applications. In the second place is dealt with management characteristics, consisting ofthe personal management characteristics ofthe manager ofthe organization and with management process characteristics, the latter dealing with how the production unit will be managed according to the main characteristics of organization, directing, controlling, planning, and staffing of the industrial organization. In third place are structural characteristics dealt with, comprisingformal and informal structural organization aspects, with the forma/ variables concentrating on which forma! organization structures are required for the production unit to function as effectively as possible. Those relations between people within the production unit are assessed which are required to realise the aims of the production unit in an economically and rationally possible way. The attention is mainly directed to the physical capacities ofthe human cap ital. This is assessed by means of the in the production unit to be applied specialisation, centralisation, formalisation, standardisation, and configuration.

Informal structural organization aspects concentrate on which group-structures optirnise the behaviour of the group and the individual behaviour of the memhers of the production unit, such that satisfaction and co-operation are on their highest level and that in such way productivity and profits reach their highest point. The relations between people within the production unit, which arise from the needs of human beings as social-psychological creatures, are assessed. Not only individual needs and wishes do count, but also the informal social relations within workgroups, which each tend to develop their own norros and values, and the intergroup relations between different production groups within the same production unit.

8.c.2.3) Effectiveness characteristics of the organization Effectiveness is looked at as the result of the interactions as well within the separate main production groups as between these groups. In the functioning of the production unit different persons, groups of persons and institutions are involved. Since these aften will tend to have diverging interests, the interests of each will have to be distinguished to be able to determine in how far they can and should be satisfied. The first group of effectiveness variables is those of the macro social-economic effectiveness characteristics, conceming the macro interests of Brazil. The questions is in how far the functioning of the production unit can contribute to the objectives ofBrazil. Consiclering official objectives, the ferrocement stairs production unit does contribute (a very, very little bit) to the national development objectives conceming the increase of employment (for lower-income groups), by means ofincome (re)distribution effects, by educationalleaming effects, by not increasing the economie dependency ofBrazil on foreign countries, and by decreasing interregional mobility effects. With regard to the meso level, there was no sufficient inforrnation available for answering the contribution of the production unit to local development objectives. The production unit does above contribute to the objectives ofthe various participantsin the

99

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

production unit, constituting the micro social-economic effectiveness characteristics, with these objectives being as well ideologie, as social or economie.

8.c.2.4) Results on the comparison between the formal ferrocement stairs production unit and informal micro industrial organizations in Latin-America. As mentioned (in the appendix chapter 8.a.) is the fermcement stairs production unit assessed on the treated characteristics for classifying industrial organizations, as well as a production unit on itself (on the project) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, as in comparison to micro informal industrial organizations in LatinAmerica. In this comparison between the formal ferrocement stairs production unit in Nova Friburgo, Brazil as designed, and micro informal industrial organizations in Latin-America, they show several similarities in composition, production, organization characteristics and intheir effects on economy and society. However their differences were mainly in favour of the forma/ production unit, with better opportunities for survival, better wage conditions, and better basic infrastructural facilities, (partly) due to its operating in a legal context. As the study deals only with the informal sector in Latin-America as a whole and not with Brazil in specific, country-specific differences might occur, although the broad outlines are expected to be valid for the Brazilian informal sector either. As a pretty likely outcome, the formal sector shows favourable conditions above the informal sector, i.a. because ofthe frrst sector's legal status. However the differences between an organization in the formal sector (with the fermcement stairs production unit as case) and in the informal sector do not indicate a real 'world of difference' between them, as might have been expected, according to the general view being in vogue, of the informal and formal sector as two completely different economie sectors in their production and organization characteristics.

8.c.3) The ferrocement stairs production unit in relation to employment and accumulation in the small-scale Brazilian manufacturing industry 8.c.3.1) Introduetion The fermcement stairs production unit has been dealt with (in the appendix) as well in relation to specific organization and effectiveness characteristics, as being a formal industrial organization in comparison to informal micro industrial organizations in Latin-America. They both give a reasonably positive image of the future production unit as designed, but also indicate serious institutional problems with which Brazil has to deal, and above show eertaio possible similarities between (very) small-scale industrial organizations in as well the formal as informal sector. Finally was the ferrocement stairs production unit's likely performance and its designed features assessed in relation to the small-scale manufacturing industry in Brazil, in relation to employment and accumulation. The fermcement stairs production unit manufactures fermcement stair construction elements on a moderate smali-scale destined at external infrastructural and internal buildings construction at the social housing project and on the local market in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, and in such a way can thus be compared to smallscale manufacturing industry in Brazil in generaL Literature souree D.l.3. (1982) assesses accumulation and employment in small-scale Brazilian manufacturing industries. Three case studies were executed among 3 different small-scale industrial subsectors in 3 different urban areas (among which was Petrópolis in the state Rio de Janeiro, a city pretty close situated to Nova Friburgo, in the mountains), from which generalisations were made for small-scale manufacturing industries in Brazil in generaL

100

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

By analysing these general indications, the ferrocement stairs production unit could be linked to the broader framework of smali-scale manufacturing industries in Brazil, possibly providing some better insight in the most appropriate directions for the functioning and organization of the production unit. Relevant similarities, that appeared between the ferrocement stairs production unit as designed (on the project) in Nova Friburgo and the smali-scale Brazilian manufacturing industry, comprised especially for the main factor employment and in a lesser way also for accumulation a range of items, each more or less applicable to the production unit.

8.c.3.2) Relevant characterisation of employment and accumulation in the smali-scale Brazilian manufacturing industry Relevant to the production unit with regard to employment comprised were that mainly skilied workers leave their job to set up an own enterprise. It gives them a higher sense of freedom i.a. to organize work around other tasks, which is in rigid wage-work at large fmns quite difficult. Though are they often still dependent on larger firms to which they are subcontracted. They see the sub-contraction as a stage to go through in order ofbecorning able to buy their own raw materials and market own products. For the labour employees of such small firms an important reason to work there was the fact that they can earn within an own smali-scale enterprise more than as a wage worker for a large enterprise. Above are there often more orbetter benefits available for wage workers in small enterprises. Apprentices made up an important part of the labour force of these enterprises, and although they earn a reallow wage apprenticeship is seen as an important traditional preparation for self-employment or as springboard to employment in modern formal (large firm) sector. In the small enterprises there is a necessity for the entrepreneurs to be able to master the whole production process, requiring a wide variety of skilis and above do they require financial capital for purchasing of equipment & tools, first input materials and for workshop location, which both form serious entry harriers for the establishment of an own enterprise by former wage workers. As they required all their time and energy for survival, there appeared not much joint action and solidarity among workers, combined with a low organisation grade and low politica! power to articulate problems. With regard to accumulation and more or less relevant to the ferrocement stairs production unit appeared in many larger firms the application of copies of large-scale, capitai-intensive technologies from advanced ioclustrial countries, which are however inappropriate to smali-scale industries. Above did the larger firms have more and better problems to articulate their sector problems, while the power to articulate problems and translating them into politica! pressure of small enterprises is very lirnited. Large fmns showed also to have low linkages with and low positive influence on region, where smalilocal fmns certainly have. However the gaveromental support as based on eertaio investment conditions to satisfy by the fmns favours clearly the larger firms, with small firms make less change to apply for incentives by the government. For the exact relation of these itemswithand their relevancy for the production unit, as wellas the extensive general characterisation ofBrazil's small-scale manufacturing industry, is referred to the concerning appendix chapter 8.a., with this paragraph providing only a stating overview ofmain relevant characteristics of small-scale manufacturing industries in Brazil for the (moderate) small-scale ferrocement stairs 'construction elements manufacturing industry' in Nova Friburgo, Brazil.

101

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

8.d) Social-economic context results The social-economic context results deal as well with the various environments in which the fermcement stairs and their production find themselves and their contribution to these environments, as with the various treated industrial organizations' levels in relation to the fermcement stairs production unit. The brief concluding results are based on information and assessments as provided in the appendix chapter 8.a. on the production unit's wider context. The environments under concern are the production unit's micro, meso and macro and super-macro environment :

* Specific micro environment ofparticipants The micro environment was concerned with to what extent the functioning of the production unit does contribute to the interests of the different participants within the production unit. Ideologically does the production unit subscribe to the objectives ofFEMI-Brasil to contribute to the creation of structural employment for the lower-income groups through the employment of future project residents, as to the introduetion and diffusion of appropriate alternative construction techno logies, as to the formation and (practical) training of people, making them qualified construction workers. In a social context does the production unit subscribe to the maintenance of good Iabour relations, Iabour satisfaction and a reasanabie production level and product quantity, i.a. by weekly meetings and the right demoeratic working atrnosphere. Economically should the effectiveness of the production unit be assessed after some periods of functioning for the FEMI-project and later on the local consumer market The expectation is on a reasanabie economie viability of the production unit, with sufficient sales, while contributing to the availability of an affordable stair alternative for lower-income groups on the local construction market Therefore the fermcement stairs production unit is anticipated to be appropriate to its micro environment. * Local meso environment of Nova Friburgo Nova Friburgo knows a considerable population part belonging to the lower-income groups, living in overcrowded urban areas, having more or less severe sloping sites. The local govemrnent has low attention for the problems of these population groups. This population has a high need for quality construction materials for housing which should also be affordable to them, and their living areas have considerable requirement for infrastructural facilities ranging from paved roads, stairs and ramps to sanitary sewers, piped water and waste collection. The fulfilment of these needs is not optima!. The fermcement stairs production fulfils with its external and internal stair pieces some part of the external infrastructural and internal construction elements need, while its production unit fulfils part of the need for more and better employment possibilities among these income groups. The fermcement stairs and their production both provide a sustainable, structural salution and are appropriate to their meso context. * National macro environment ofBrazil Brazil knows a large housing lack under lower-income groups in the urban areas as well as a need for more employment possibilities to keep up with the growing population in the economically active age. Official policies have only moderate attendance for housing and infrastructure, although it is a very urgent problem. Creation of more employment in the formal sector does still not lead to a reduction of the need for an informal sector, nor do the low wages rise. Fermcement stairs and their production fit into an amelioration of this context as they offer a favourable construction alternative for stairs in the overcrowded urban areas and above create formal employment with better wage conditions for its employees than is common. For as a large central govemrnental effort on housing, since the abandoning of the Brazilian Habitation Bank (BNH), does not really exist anymore, various urban govemrnents, (foreign) NGO's and other organizations try to relieve the need with small- to medium-size projects mostly in specific neighbourhoods. Many projects make use ofthe voluntary assistance ofthe concerned population, which places an extra burden on them and the execution could suffer from a moderate quality. The social housing project by FEMI-Brasil to which the production unit belongs does not use the population as voluntary producers and constructors, but applies recruited employees, not increasing the concerned population's

102

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

burden but providing wage employment for them. As the ferrocement stairs contribute to the amelioration of the national problems on the level of housing and infrastructure, and their production to forma! structural employment for urban lower-income groups, they are anticipated to be appropriate totheir macro environment. *International supra-macro environment of (developing) world In the developing world there is an urgent need for low-cost, easy to construct and low-skili and -capita! requiring construction techno logies. They should preferably make low use of materials, which above can be locally purchased. The local concerned population should be able to produce/construct the required construction elements with simple instruction and by using common equipment and tools. Labour-intensive is preferred above capita!-intensive, human- or anirnal-powered above costly, high energy-using machinery-powered equipment, and smali-scale rather than large-scale mass production. The construction technologies should be appropriate to their environment and producers/users population, combined with reasonable costs, a long life span and low maintenance. Ferrocement as a construction material and ferrocement stairs as a construction element appear to satisfy to this supra-macro development context. In re lation to industrial organizations is dealt with the following levels :

* International comparative aspects of industrial organizations The external and internal organization and effectiveness characteristics of the ferrocement stairs production unit in its Brazilian determine its place in the international industrial order. The production unit wili only be a very small player on the forma! construction market, but a relatively important one as it is directed to improve the physical conditions ofthe lower-income groups, and comes with a new application ofthe alternative ferrocement technology, which is more favourable than the traditional solution. Above does it actively work with low-skilled people from the lower-income groups, providing them with more labourfriendly conditions, creating a more horizontal work atrnosphere and strengthening their selfconsciousness, empowering their capacities. This implies a new, positive sound in the production/construction branch in with the focus on the physical and social integration ofthe urban lowerincome groups.

* Informal micro industrial organizations in Latin America The structural relations and similarities between smali-scale industrial organizations in the informal and forma! sector seemed to be higher than a general comparison between the informal and forma! sector might suggest. Nevertheless the forma! organizations seem to have several more favourable conditions, likely because of their re gistered status. The forma! ferrocement stairs production unit as intended shows an overall profile of its various general characteristics more or less favourite above or equal to those indicated for informal industrial organization in La tin America. lt showed decent basic conditions, somewhat better conditions for survival and for its Iabour, a likely higher skilis level of its supervising head and a good contribution to society. The forma! ferrocement stairs production unit indicates a positive profile in the Latin American context. * Smali-scale manufacturing industries in Brazil The establishment of a small enterprise appeared to be not that easy, as sufficient financial capita! is required and a range of production and organization skilis, while these enterprises above do hardly have any politica! power. But instead of the large frrms which do have this power, the latter do have a limited positive impact on their local environment, where the small enterprises have clear direct and indirect positive influences on their (near) surroundings. The small enterprises are mainly established and headed by skilied persons, which give them possibilities to earn a higher wage than in the large factory wage work. They are providing eertaio (extra) social benefits totheir employees. They give the entrepreneur a eertaio degree of independence, although many entrepreneurs become distant wage workers, and the own small enterprises provide better possibilities to combine work with other tasks. The mentioned aspects do more or less count for the ferrocement stairs production unit either with the positive differences that it has an NGO providing the initia! (loan) capita! and that it through this NGO, involved in a social housing project, can execute more politica! power. The NGO under concern is of course FEMI-Brasil. 103

Chapter 8 Conclusions on practicaland social-economic context results

In generallarge commercial frrms diffuse innovations while the small frrms tend to continue in the production of the more traditional products. The attention for new technologies destined at the lowerincome groups by the commercial firms is very low. And the traditional and established hierarchicallabour structures are hardly subject to changes. The fermcement stairs production unit can be in its Brazilian context an example how a small enterprise ran by people from the lower-income groups can influence its environment by introducing an alternative construction technology directed to their own population group, working in a forma! way and involving a new internallabour structure between employees in lower and higher functions.

S.e) Final conciosion The ferrocement stairs are considered an appropriate alternative construction technology for application in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil, as wellas an internal construction element in dwellings and other buildings, as an external construction element in the provision of infrastructure in sloping sites. They are anticipated to be appropriate too fora wider use on the local construction market of lower-income groups in the municipal Nova Friburgo. The ferrocement stairs production unit is anticipated to have sufficient potentiality to be made viabie on the local construction market, and to be able to act as a small employment creator for people from the lowerincome groups, belonging to the future residents ofthe project. On basis of this research and its results ferrocement stairs and their production can be considered sustainable for application (in a social housing project) in Nova Friburgo, Brazil, destined at the lowerincome groups. The executed research is not exhaustive on all mentioned subjects with their respective sub-items, as not all these items were currently yet complete matters of concern in this pre-phase of research, or as complete information was not available to treat the item exhaustively. Because several subjects with certain of their respective sub-items do require further investigation to a more or less extent andlor evaluation, the last chapter will deal with recommendations for further research and evaluation. At the moment that this complementary research, as will be indicated in the next chapter, will have been executed, for as far as required for mainly the practical items, then a completely funded ultimate decision can be taken on the exact application of ferrocement stairs and their production in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in Nova Friburgo, Brazil.

104

Part 5 Recommendations

'!'""''

B

R

Chapter 9 Recommendations

Chapter 9 Recommendations (Lit. 0.4.1., 0.4.2.)

Since the executed research can not he exhaustive on all ofthe mentioned subjects and sub-items, as they are or not (fully) relevant yet within the scope ofthis specific explorative research, or as required data are not sufficiently available (yet) to (already) treat the item extensively, for that reason are in this last chapter recommendations provided on items which should or could require further research or evaluation, classified per main subject and distinguishable to being relevant in the local practical or wider context.

9.a) Introduetion In previous chapters and in the appendixes is dealt with the country Brazil, the state Rio de Janeiro, the municipal Nova Friburgo and the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in many oftheir aspects, from its population to its natura! and legal environment and from the construction sector to the policies on habitation. Fermcement in general was discussed, as well as an experimental fermcement stair, and design suggestions for intemal and extemal fermcement stair pieces in the project and on the local market The required production capacity, establishment and production process of a local fermcement stairs production unit on the project terrain in Nova Friburgo were dealt with. As well social, financial as Iabour aspects were taken into consideration. Finally on basis of the available analysed and discussed information, results were indicated and conclusions drawn on the various aspects conceming the sustainability of ferrocement stairs and their production for (a social housing project in) Nova Friburgo, airned at people from the lower income groups. Several main and sub- items should certainly or could probably he further investigated or evaluated, here below classified per main subject, being mainly relevant in the local practical respectively wider context of the ferrocement stairs (production unit).

9.b) Technical performance with: (!) = investigation (E) = evaluation Further investigations/evaluations on : -constituent (mortar) materials: optimum material types, dimensions and (mortar) quantities (I} - reinforcement : method and quantity of reinforcing with rods and mesh (I} - optimum stair pieces' dimensions and construction {I} - optimum mould dimensions, quantities and construction (I) - optimisation of production process (1/E) - need for compacting of stair pieces, with re gard to strength and breakage (I) - durability in use of stairs (life span, with/without maintenance) (E} - performance of stairs in (extemal aggressive) environment (E) Input materials and their quantities were indicated, but various mortar try-outs and reinforcement quantities and methods should he tried to come to the best match for producing ferrocement stairs. Especially the best way of reinforcing which combines sufficient strength with a low reinforcement rate and with ease in placing it in the mould has to he determined. The same counts for the verification of optimum stair pieces' dimensions and their construction on the construction site to fix them in a thorough way to walls or to an underground, and with regard to optimum mould dimensions, mould quantities perstair piece type and their exact construction, with fixed or flexible boards and with extra protective covering. The need for compacting of the products and the human- or electricity-powered way in which it will he done, which results in good strength but does not irnply high capita! investrnents should he further

105

Chapter 9 Recommendations

assessed. According to the resulting best matches, the production process should be adapted, and by means of evaluations in the course of production in the first production year, the designed production processcan be optimised in practice. After production the stair pieces are to be applied and evaluations of the products, constructed and in use in the intemal/extemal field, with regard to their performance to the environment and durability during use, should be regularly executed.

9.c) Performance on Iabour Further investigations/evaluations on : - reeruitment of employees for production unit (I) - sufficiency of low skilis + short training for production employees (E) - production process : satisfaction with metbod of producing (E) - contribution to structural employment of project residents, betonging to lower-income groups (E) - contribution to formation (on-the-job) of employees (E) Among the lower-income groups' population selected for the project, the employees for the production unit will have to be recruited by comparing the individuallabouT profiles of possibly suitable, available adult people with the function requirements. A method for producing fermcement stairs has been described for which labourers with low skilis and a short training should be able to execute fermcement stairs production. During production, evaluations should take place on whether the designed production metbod matebed with the recruited production labourers, with their lirnited available skilis and with their knowledge of their training on the job, is sufficient in production as well does satisfy the labourers in their work. Above is an evaluation required on the contribution ofthe production unit to the project objectives of creating structural employment and of formation of the employees., airned at people from the lowermcome groups.

9.d) Performance on production and sales Further investigations/evaluations on : - required production for social housing project (I) - expected sales on local construction market (I) - purebase of materials and stairs within project {I) - fmancing of investment costs of production unit {I) - wage remuneration of employees (I) - profit intention of production unit (I) - sales price of stair pieces (I) - financing of stairs purebase by lower-income groups (I) - local sales point( s) (I) - structural continuation of production unit (VE) - meeting of production quantity and quality requirements (E) - balance between costs and yields of production (E) An indication was providedof the likely required production of internat and extemal stair pieces per project implementation stage and over time for the social housing project, however due to some lacks and discrepancies in the available information, these indications should be verified to determine the actually required quantities, probably adapting Iabour requirements. During the implementation period of the project should be evaluated whether the production quantity and quality requirements are met by the production unit, as wellas evaluating the balance between the costs which are made for production (and possible repayment of loans with rent) and the yields which are generated by sales. The final stair pieces' sales price requires more precise calculation, by which should be decided on whether the production unit should repay (part of) the investment costs, on beforehand financed by FEMI within the project, as a soft loan or not, as well as deciding on the exact gross and net wages of the employees, and on whether the objective is to run the production unit in a commercial way, striving for profits or not.

106

Chapter 9 Recommendations

Further will have to be considered whether the production unit will purebase its own input materials or that the input materials will be purchased in once for the project, whereafter they are divided among the demanders to requirement, and whether the stairs which are to be produced for the project will be purchased at their sales price or that the operating costs for production, mainly wages and materials are paid for by the project/FEMI, while purchasing the stair pieces for free. An improved assessment on the expected sales ofthe internaland external stair pieces on the local construction market in Nova Friburgo will have to be made, and with these data an prelirninary re-estirnation should be made of the opportunities for a structural continuation of the production unit, which can be later evaluated when the production unit has started producing for the local market Finally should be decided in which way the fermcement stair pieces will be affered forsale at (a) localsales point(s) and how purebasers from the lower-income groups will be enabled to pay for their stairs purchase, for example in gradual payments.

9.e) Performance on harmonisation with social housing project Evaluations on : - harmonisation of stair products and production unit in concept of project (E) - contribution of production unit to exercising of full "cidadania" (citizenship) (E) - suitability of products to future residents of target group population and to local environment (E)

The fermcement stairs and their production are anticipated to fit within the social housing project, contributing to "cidadania" and being suitable to the population and environment. Nevertheless evaluations are to be executed on whether these anticipations do agree with reality after implementation and introduction. To what extent do the product unitand its products really harmonise with the project and its premises and objectives as a whole. Not only in its contribution to employment and in producing an alternative construction technology as were mentioned, but also in other aspects. Does the production unit in any (small, though significant) way contribute to the important objective ofreaching full citizenship by the project inhabitants, and do the products take into account the characteristics of the local environment and its inhabitants from the lower income groups, making it suitable products for them? Or does the production unit or its products in any way severely obstruct or act against the futfilment of a project premise or objective.

9.t) Performance in society To get an insight on the effects ofthe fermcement stairs and production in the wider socio-economie context ofthe local, regional or even national society, the fermcement stairs can be evaluated on their performance some time after they have been introduced on the local market, such that they will have had sufficient time to become absorbed in society. The assessment can be executed with the help ofthe following performance effect indicators, which are taken and modified from literature souree C.1.4., dealing with ferrocement, from Part 1 General Topics, artiele 4 "Performance Indicators for International Networking". Evaluations on : - acceptance of the ferrocement stair technology by the target group (E) - attitudinal changes within the target group (E) -job generation as a result of these activities (E) - transfer of the ferrocement stair technology (E) - increase of activities on ferrocement in the region/country (E) - increase of publications and research on, and development of the ferrocement stair technology (E) - increase of collaboration in region/country between organisations involved in ferrocement technology (E)

Not only is assessed whether the ferrocement stairs have been accepted by their target group ofpeople from the lower-income groups, but also whether they have resulted in any attitudinal changes within the

107

Chapter 9 Recommendations

target group towards alternative construction technologies in general and ferrocement structures and stairs in specific. The job generation as aresult ofthe production activities does not only comprise the direct employment created by the production unit, but also its back- and forward linkages, resulting in indirect employment creation. Further is assessed to what extent the technology has been transferred. Is its application still mainly lirnited to the project terrain in Nova Friburgo or has it affected broader environments on a municipal, regional, state or even nationallevel. Above does it contribute to an increase in the activities on ferrocement structures at the mentioned area levels. Finally can be assessed whether the stairs have contributed to an increase in publications and research on, and development of the ferrocement stair technology, and above to an increase between organisations involved in ferrocement technologyin the region or on a nationallevel. As the evaluated aspects range from lirnited local to possibly even national impacts, the total of socio-economie effects of the ferrocement stairs and production can he 'calculated' by the sum of the weighted accumulated effects.

9.g) Performance within (inter)national comparative industrial organizations perspective In this last mentioned aspect on recommended further investigations/evaluations on the performance ofthe ferrocement stairs and production unit, a suggestion is made for a continuation of the executed empirica! research on a(n) (inter)national industrialisation level funded in a theoretica! base, which is explained below.

9.g.l) Relations between groups and subgroups of variables on industrial organizations In chapter 8 in brief and in appendix chapter 8.a. in detail is dealt with the comparative characteristics of industrial organisations, distinguished to a 3 groups on external and internal organization and effectiveness characteristics, each with specific sub-groups of variables. These several groups and subgroups of characteristic variables are now looked at in a wider (inter)national comparative perspective on the level of industrialisation. The importance of the variables for the ferrocement production unitand the way and extent to which they can be turned in favour ofthe production unit are dealt with here in an introducing manner, indicating the direction where the production unit will situate itself in (inter)national industrial comparative perspective. The mentioned groups and subgroups of variables on industrial organizations, as dealt with have complex mutual relations and injluences on each other. With the help of a ranking can be indicated to which degree they can be influenced or altered from within the concerned individual industrial organization, namely the ferrocement stairs production unit, and to which extent they have a deterrnining influence on the production unit. In general it will be more difficult to change external groups of variables than internal ones, and certain external groups will be more difficult to change by an individual organization than others. The same is applicable to the internal groups ofvariables, and in such a way the groups and subgroups of variables can be ranked in layers with the higher the layer, the more difficult for the production unit to influence those variables. Of course within the variables of the subgroups on their turn, differences do exist in the extent of influencing possible. Formal internal organization characteristics ofthe production unit for example will be easier to control by its management than informal characteristics. In that way it appears pretty important to create the most optimum conditions for the informal internal characteristics, as the latter have a certain independent development, which can not easy be controlled or changed. So, as they are difficult to influence by the management, but are very important for the working sphere and thus also on fmal production in the production unit, the management should create the most optimum, to the informal sphere related conditions, providing the means fora positive development ofthe informal characteristics, since once established, they can not be easily replaced by others as is the case with the formal characteristics. Where the formal internal characteristics still have a possibility of 'curing' in case of wrong developments

108

Chapter 9 Recommendations

by adaptations and replacements, wrong informal developments however can mainly only be prevented. When a negative informa! work sphere already has arisen with rivalry among the labourers or opposition against the management, it is much more difficult to correct this than to change for example the forma! allocation of Iabour. Coming back to the ranking of the groups and subgroups of variables with its distinguishable layers, having all a general to a very specific injluence on the ferrocement stairs production unit, and being very difficult up to pretty easy to injluence by the production unit, these sequencing layers give the following impression of the possible patterns of injluence between the groups and subgroups of variables.:

Possible patterns of influence : ':,; ': . ,:,~> ,' /:>fJ;?: 5000 Dollar per capita, Brazil can be ranked in the third group of countries which have a GNP p.c. between 2500 and 5000 Dollar. As the same matrix classifies the development model in 3 groups of central government investments in re lation to total investments with applying liberal (< 40 %), mixed (40 -80 %) and centrally planned (>80%), Brazil is likely to find itselfranked on the border of mixed to liberal, as in the near past the central govemment's share in economy and other institutions was still pretty large, however the introduced privatisation policy strongly reduces the govemment's participation in economy, conceming transport, telecommunications, oil, gas, electricity, mining etcetera, and president FHC intends to probably privatise even health care, education and more traditional govemment matters. The philosophy of the Brazilian central government with regard to economie activities is liberal. Each time again is declared that private initiative is the best way to create economie growth and the by means of this resulting employment. The govemment considers her task to indicate directions and to create good conditions for business, but not in a direct interference in economy. Notwithstanding this liberal principle the government always had a large share in economy via various governmentaljirms. Their activities were estimated to contribute about a 40% ofthe Gross National Product, while the total govemmental share in the economie investrnents amounted an estimated 20 %. Besides economie investrnents, the govemment of course also invests in education, health care etcetera, which created a govemmental share in total investrnents of more than 40 %. But since the govemment took the principle decision to decrease her share in economy as much as possible by selling govemmental firms to private business, many govemmental firms are now in private (foreign) hands, although privatisation took place at a much slower rate than intended. And for president FHC, as mentioned, the govemment should privatise even more institutions than only the economie institution, making 'basic need institutions' like education and health care more and more a private business. The current situation ultimately ranks Brazil as a country with a GNP per capita in the group just under the developed countries and a development model showing more and more signs of that of the developed industrialised countries, situating it according to these characteristics in the top layer of developing countries.

110

Chapter 9 Recommendations

To this picture are finally added the intervening variables ofhistory, size and natura! resources. Brazil has been discovered a 500 years ago and became a Portuguese colony, although the Dutch have had strong influences in the northern part. African slaves were imported to work for the Portuguese rulers, while the Native Indian population was severely reduced. Only in 1888 slavery was officially abandoned and on the 15th ofNovember 1889 Brazil became an independent federative republic. Via a mainly centrally planned govemrnent regime and a capitalistic however dietatarial period, Brazil is now officially a demoeratic capitalistic country with an open economy, directed at exporting. The country has an enormous size, making up almost half of the South-American continent and being the fifth largest country in the world, and is very rich of natura! resources. The latter camprise a wide range and abundance of minerals, wood, water, arabie land and other natura! resources, making it a country with an enormous potential. The Brazilian people are strongly aware ofBrazil's great potential, which should make it possible to Brazil to become one of the most important countries of the world. However, the people's realism tells them also that 'Brazil has an enormous potential to become the most important country in the world and that will always remain so', or in other words although it has a huge potential, it is not likely to come to a full development of its potential, as it is afflicted by a wide number of large and ongoing problems, which do not seem to be solved in the near future. In this context the fermcement stairs production unit in Nova Friburgo will have to develop itself and become a viabie self-sustaining industrial organization.

9.g.4) Suggestion for future research Future research can take the (executed empirica! research on the) fermcement stairs production unit on the project terrain in Nova Friburgo, Brazil as case for various possible research directions. A relevant suggestion concerns the impravement of the performance of small-scale industrial organizations in Brazil. The results obtained by the study of individual organizations, like the ferrocement stairs production unit, can be confronted with the development aims and targets as put forward by the govemrnent. Comparison and evaluation of data resulting from the study on the ferrocement production unit and other individual industrial organizations to the development plans as formulated by the govemrnent, on a national, state or municipallevel, can provide the indispensable empirica! basis on which measures can be taken to correct or to eliminate deviations and undesired patterns in full accordance with the priorities postulated beforehand. Ho wever the practical data from the work flour are not only of importance for the policy makers on the level of Brazil, state Rio de Janeiro or municipal Nova Friburgo, but also at the level of the industrial organization itself, as the management of the production unit, with daily management in the hands of the supervisor and overall management in the hands ofFEMI, for example by a project-responsible, operates as the principal change-agent and with the help of the same obtained data also better guide the functioning of their organization, as well intern as extern, in the desired direction by the identification of problem areas and their interrelations. Comparative research on industrial organizations can above give indications with respect to factors that play a role at the internationallevel and suggest possible changes that should be effectuated by international or supranational governing bodies, making possible desired national change patterns. A change strategy will have to take into account the various layers of the problem at hand. The specific necessary changes can or will not be effectuated by the mangers or owners of individual organizations, because they lack the power or simply because they don't understand the irnportance, but will have to be stimulated and pusbed by the national or regional authorities. However, the latter too will not always be able to realise desired changes even if they are of goodwill, because they too lack the power.

111

Chapter 9 Recommendations

Supranational goveming bodies, although not completely taliying with actual reality, should possess this power. Concentrating on the level of the Brazilian gaverument at its various levels, then in the field of industrialisation a strong policy attendance for the larger (exporting) fmns exists, while for the considerably large layer of local based and local seliing smali-scale ioclustrial organization in as weli the forma! as informal sector hardly any serious politica! attendance seems to exist, however data on this ioclustrial sector part are also only in very limited and inaccurate extent available. This makes it even more difficult to determine the right policy on smali-scale local ioclustrial organizations, even when there is a serious interest on the policy-making level, as their exact situation with regard to occurring problems is not sufficiently known to be able to implement effective policy measures. The more studies wili be executed on smali-scale ioclustrial organizations in Brazil, the more that their characteristics and problems will become evident, and the less possibility will also be left for the policymakers to shrink from their responsibility to implement and execute effective policy measures aimed at this economical group. A suggestion for future research can thus be to involve the executed empirica! research on the fermcement stairs production unit tagether with supplementary verifying research on occurring characteristics and probierus in a comparison with other studies on individual smali-scale ioclustrial organizations in Nova Friburgo, and confront the results with the development aims and targets put forward by the Nova Friburguense goverument, to be able to articulate the sector problems with increased pressure in order that the gaverument is 'forced' to take up her responsibility not only on paper but also in practice.

112

Literature

Literature Literature Classification * Subjects: A.= Brazil B. = Construction and construction technology C. = Fermcement technology D. = Social projects and industrialisation E. = Social housing project by FEMI-Brasil F. = Research methods

* Categories : .1. = Books .2. = Articles .3. =Reports .4. = Other

Literature Overview A. Brazil A.I. Books - A.l.l. Bayer, Marcel (1996), "Brazilië", Dominicus Reeks, J.H.Gotrner Uitgeverij, Haarlem. - A.l.2. Bayer, Marcel (1997), "Brazilië, mensen, politiek, economie, cultuur", Landenreeks, Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen (KIT) - Amsterdam I NOVIB - 's-Gravenhage. - A.1.3. CARAS (1996), "Brasil, 0 livro dos 500 anos", Editora Abril/CARAS SA, Cases i Associats SA. - A.1.4. Crevels, drs. P.M. (1983), "Inzicht in Brazilië". - A.l.5. Kleinpenning, prof. dr. J.M.G. (1987), "Brazilië", Landendocumentatie nr. 4, Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen (KIT), Amsterdam. - A.l.6. Schneider, Ronald M. (1996), "Brazil, Culture and Politics in a New Industrial Powerhouse", Nations ofthe Modern World Latin-America, Westview Press, Oxford. - A.l.7. Stichting Toerisme & Derde Wereld (1992), "Te gast in Brazilië", 1e edition. - A.l.8. Stichting Toerisme & Derde Wereld (1995), "Te gast in Brazilië", 2e edition. A.2. Articles - A.2.1. - A.2.2. - A.2.2. - A.2.3. - A.2.4. - A.2.5. - A.2 6. - A.2.7. - A.2.8. - A.2.9.

Holtwijk, Ineke (March 20 1992), "Rio's rode route", HP/de Tijd. NRC Handelsblad (January 14 1999), "De val van de Real''. NRC Handelsblad (January 16 1999), "Bank van Brazilië laat Real zweven". NRC Handelsblad (January 22 1999), "Braziliaanse Realen beursfors omlaag". Onze Wereld (January 1992), "Profiel Brazilië". Poelhekke, Fabio (December 1990), "Armoedebestrijding in Brazilië: meer dan armenzorg", Internationale Spectator. Royen, Marjon van (June 29 1998), '"Grote mannen' Zuid-Amerika weten niet van wijken", NRC Handelsblad. Royen, Marjon van (September 18 1998), "Brazilië: dweilen helpt niet meer", NRC Handelsblad. Royen, Marjon van (October 5 1998), "Brazilië feest niet na winst Cardoso", NRC Handelsblad. Royen, Marjon van (November 27 1998), "De Braziliaanse economie: Waar Robin Hood aan de verkeerde kant staat", NRC Handelsblad.

113

Literature

- A.2.1 0. Royen, Marjon van (December 3 1998), "Deadline in Rio de Janeiro", NRC Handelsblad. - A.2.ll. Royen, Marjon van (January 18 1999), "Brazilië is te groot om ooit ten onder te gaan", NRC Handelsblad. - A.2.12. Royen, Marjon van (January 21 1999), "Brazilië zal uiteindelijk gered worden door paniek", NRC Handelsblad. - A.2.l3. Sachs, Jeffrey (January 19 1999), "IMF gaf ook Brazilië de gifbeker", NRC Handelsblad. - A.2.14. Schinkel, Maarten (October 10 1998), "Marktchaos maakt banken schuw", NRC Handelsblad. A.3. Reports A.4. Other - A.4.1. - A.4.2. - A.4.3. - A.4.4.

Brazil Info Net (1998), "Brazil in brief', Internet-file, USA. CIA (1998), "Brazil", Internet-file, USA. Schaijk, Ewoud van (1998), Faxes by FEMI-Brasil, FEMI-Brasil, Nova Friburgo. World Atlas (1998), "Brazil General Information", Internet-file.

B. Construction and construction technology B.l. Books - B.1.1. - B.l.2. - B.l.3. - B.l.4.

Baptista Pianca, J. ( 1955), "Manual do Construtor", 3e volume. Baud, G. a.o., "Manual de Construçäo", Hemus Livraria Editora Ltda, Sào Paulo. Cardào, Celso (1979), "Technica da Construçào, volume 1 ",4th edition, Belo Horizonte. Fry, Maxwell and Drew, Jane (1964), "Tropical Architecture in the dry and humid zones", B.T. Batsford Ltd., London. - B.l.5. Lengen, Johan van (1996), "Manual do Arquiteto Descalço, projetos 1 ", Instituto de Technologia Intuitiva e Bio-Arquitetura (TIBÁ), Bom Jardim. - B.1.6. Lengen, Johan van ( 1996), "Manual do Arquiteto Descalço, obras 2 ", Instituto de Technologia Intuitiva e Bio-Arquitetura (TIBÁ), Bom Jardim. - B.l. 7. Overseas Di vision of the Building Research Establishment ( 1980), "Building in hot climates, A selection ofOverseas Building Notes", United Kingdom. - B.1.8. Shankland Cox Partnership for Overseas Division ( 1977), "Third world urban housing, Aspirations, Resources, Programmes, Projects ", Building Research Establishment, United Kingdom. - B.l.9. Spence, R.J.S. and Cook, DJ. (1983), "Building materialsin Developing countries", John Wiley & Sons. - B.l.l 0. Stulz, Roland and Mukerji, Kiran ( 1988), "Appropriate Building Materials, A Catalogue of Potenfiat Solutions", Revised, Enlarged Edition, SKAT-Publications, Switserland. - B.l.ll. Templer, John ( 1992), "The staircase, Studies of Hazards, Falls and Safer Design", Massachusets Institute ofTechnology. Massachusets, USA.

B.2. Articles - B.2.1. Santos Farah, Maria Ferreira ( 1988), "Diagnóstico technológico da industria da construçào civil: caracterizaçäo gerat do setor", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sào Paulo (IPT), Sào Paulo. - B.2.2. Santos Farah, Maria Ferreira and Zenha Kaupatez, Ros Mari (1988), "Pesquisa sobre a oferta de materia is e componentes de construçäo no estado de Sào Paulo ", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sào Paulo (IPT), Sào Paulo. - B.2.3. Stabile, Miguele (1996), "Custos na construçào", Boletim de Custos, Rio de Janeiro.

114

Literature

B.3. Reports - B.3.1. Banco Nacional da Habitaçao (1979), "BNH: Projetos Sociais", Rio de Janeiro.

B.4. Other - B.4.1. Boletim de Custos (August 1998), "Boletim de Custos", Rio de Janeiro. - B.4.2. Jansen, dr.ir. J.J.A. (1994), "Bouwtechniek voor ontwikkelingslanden", lecture notes, Faculteit Bouwkunde, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (TUE). - B.4.3. Maas, prof. ir. G.J. (Novembre 1994), "Uitvoeringstechniek 1 ", lecture notes, Faculteit Bouwkunde, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (TUE). - B.4.4. Willkommen, Wolfgang (11118/25 August 1998), "Technologia apropriada", notes on seminar/workshop, Nucleo de Estudos e Projetos Habitacionais e Urbanos (NEPHU), Universidade Federal Fluminese (UFF), Niterói.

C. Ferrocement technology C.l. Books - C.l.l. Escola Politecnica da Universidade de Sào Paulo (USP) ( 1986), "Argamassa armada, I Simposio Nacional de Tecnologia da Construçào ", Sào Paulo. - C.l.2. Huq, Shamsul (April1978), "Design parameters offerrocement", Asian Institute ofTechnology, Bangkok. - C.l.3. National Academy ofSciences (February 1973), "Ferrocement Applications inDeveloping Countries",Washington D.C .. - C.1.4. Nedwell, P.J. and Swamy, R.N. (editors) (September 1994), "Ferrocement, Proceedings ofthe Fifth International Symposium", E & FN Spon, London. - C.l.5. Sharma, P.C. and Gopalaratnam, V.S. (May 1980), "Ferrocement Water Tank, Dolt Yourself Series Booklet Number 2", International Fermcement Information Center (IFIC).

C.2. Articles - C.2.1. Auroville Building Centre (1998), "Ferrocement technologyin Auroville", Internet-file, India. - C.2.2. Caioffa Hehl, Walter (1988), "Reservatorio e biodigestor de argamassa armada", in "Technologia de edificaçöes", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas doEstadode Sào Paulo (IPT), Sào Paulo. - C.2.3. Department ofCivil Engineering(1998), "Ferrocement and Cement Composites", Internet-file, NUS. - C.2.4. Shrestha, Leader Man (1992), "Ferrocement primer", Internet-file, C.W.Institute oftechnology, Pune University, Maharashtra, India.

C.3. Reports - C.3.1. Martins, Càssia Maria (February 1991), "Aplicaçào da Argamassa Armada na Habitaçào Popular", pos-graduation dissertation, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói. - C.3.2. Rowe, Jack (August 13 1996), "Replacement materialsjor concrete inferrocement", response on e-mail question, Internet-file.

115

Literature

C.4. Other - C.4.1. Davison, Ken (June 10 1997), "Ferrocement on the Homestead", Internet-file, Florida, USA. - C.4.2. International Ferrocement Information Center (IFIC) (1996), Internet-file, 1996, University Putra Malaysia, Bangkok, Thailand. - C.4.3. Mansur, prof. M.A. (1998), "Structural response offerracement membrane elements", Internetfile, NUS.

D. Social projects and industrialisation D.l. Books - D.l.l. Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas doEstadode Sao Paulo (IPT) (1988), "Manual de orientaçào para construçào por ajuda-mutua ", Sao Paulo. - D.l.2. Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas doEstadode Sao Paulo (IPT) (1988), "Manual de tipologias de projeto ede racionalizaçào das intervençàes por ajuda-mutua", Sao Paulo. - D.1.3. Schnitz, Hubert (1982), "Manufacturing in the Backyard, Case studies on Accumulation and Employment in Small-scale Brazilian Industry", Frances Pinters Publishers, London.

D.2. Articles - D.2.1. Convênio deIBAM I DEPEA- BNH (1983), "Padràes arquitetónicos e urbanisticos para autoconstruçào ". - D.2.2. Programa de Habitaçao da Prefeitura deSaoPaulo (1993), "Trabalho & Habitaçào", Sao Paulo. - D.2.3. Salata, Robinson and Zenha Kaupatez, Ros Mari (1987), "A importáncia de racionalizaçào em intervençàes por ajuda-mutua: a contribuiçào técnica do IPT", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo. - D.2.4. Salata, Robinson and Zenha Kaupatez, Ros Mari and Whitaker de Souza e Silva, Wanda (1988), "Tipologias de projeto e racionalizacào das intervençàes por ajuda-mutua ", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo. - D.2.5. Shimbo, loshiaqui and Salata, Robinson (1988), "Manuais de orientacào para execuçào racionalizada de instalaçàes hidráulico-sanitárias e elétricas em intervençàes por ajuda-mutua ", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo. - D.2.6. Souza, Robertode and Zenha Kaupatez, Ros Mari (1987), "A construçào de moradias por ajudamutua- experiência no Estado de Sào Paulo", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas doEstadode Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo. - D.2.7. Whitaker de Souza e Silva, Wanda (1987), "A racionalizaçào dos projetos e as intervençàes por ajuda-mutua ", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo. - D.2.8. Zenha Kaupatez, Ros Mari and Castro Reinach, Henrique de (1987), "Projeto Villa Nova Cachoeirinha- a participaçào da populaçào na produçào de moradias", lnstituto de Pesquisas Technológicas do Estado de Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo.

D.3. Reports - D.3.1. Banco Nacional de Habitaçao (BNH)- Departamento de Pesquisas Aplicadas (DEPEA) (1984), "Auto ajuda - ajuda mutua, Rio de Janeiro, Avaliaçào de experiencias de auto-construçào e mutirào", Instituto de Pesquisas Technológicas doEstadode Sao Paulo (IPT), Sao Paulo. - D.3.2. Deutsche Geselischaft fiir technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (1997), "Etapas no Caminho para a Cooperaçào, funcionamento do "Processo F", Unidade 4 : Questàes fundamentais do desenvolvimento empresarial", Cooperçao Technica Alema. - D.3.3. Metra Canedo, Maria Elise and Bienenstein, Regina (1985), "Community participation in Brazil, Casestudy- Favela do Gato", Occasional Papers in planning no. 9, Department ofTown and Country Planning, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast.

116

Literature

D.4. Other - D.4.1. Gaillard, H. ( 1993 ), "De Urbane Informele Sector in Ontwikkelingslanden, in historisch en hedendaags perspectief, een synopsis", lecture notes, International Technological Development Studies, Centre for International Co-operation Activities (CICA). - D.4.2. Gaillard, H. (1994), "The Industrialization of Developing Countries, The Micro Level Perspective, Part 1: the search for an adequate theoretica! framework and research strategy ", lecture notes, International Technological Development Studies, Centre for International Co-operation Activities (CICA). - D.4.3. Heineck, Luiz Fernando M. (1997), "Planejamento e Controle deObras e Programaçiio deObras com Linha de Balanço ", Internet Course, UFSC. - D.4.4. Nucleo de Estudos e Projetos Habitacionais e Urbanos (NEPHU) (September 1994), "Asssesoria aos movimentos pela moradia: uma experiência, boletim nr. 1 ", Niterói. - D.4.5. Secretaria Municipal de Habitaçào (1988), "Rio Favela Bairro Programa", documentation, Prefeitura da Ciclade de Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro.

E. Social housing project by FEMI-Brasil E.l. Books

E.2. Articles E.3. Reports - E.3.1. Nucleo de Estudos e Projetos Habitacionais e Urbanos (NEPHU) (June 1998), "Projeto Urbanistico para urn Novo Assenlamento de Interesse Social em Nova Friburgo: Estudo Preliminar, Produto 01: Programa Detalhado de Traba/hoe Produto 02: Rol de Variaveis a Seren Considerados no Levantamento Domiciliair do PUC-Rio", Niterói. - E.3.2. Nucleo de Estudos e Projetos Habitacionais e Urbanos (NEPHU) (September 1998), "Projeto Urbanistico para urn Novo Assenlamento de Interesse Social em Nova Friburgo: Estudo Preliminar, Produto 03: Zoneamento para Uso e Ocupaçào da Area e Produto 04: Definaçào das Diretrizes do Projeto ", Niterói. - E.3.3. Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) (Octobre 1998), "Programa Habitacional Multisetorial no Municipio de Nova Friburgo, Relalorio Descritivo sobre os Perfis Predominanies no Universo e sobre a Caracterizaçào Contextualizada no Municipio de Nova Friburgo, R.J. ", Rio de Janeiro. - E.3.4. Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) (December 1998), "Programa Habiticional Multisetorial no Municipio de Nova Friburgo, Delineamento da Propasta de Implantaçào, Acompanhamento e Avaliaçào do Programa Habitacional Multisetorial em Nova Friburgo, PHM-NF", Rio de Janeiro. - E.3.5. Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) (December 1998), "Programa Habitacional Multisetorial no Municipio de Nova Friburgo, Populaçào-a/vo do Programa Habitacional Multisetorial: Relatório Técnico-analitico dos Dados", Rio de Janeiro. - E.3.6. Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) (December 1998), "Programa Habiticional Multisetorial no Municipio de Nova Friburgo, Propasta Alternativa para Geraçào de Renda", Rio de Janeiro. - E.3.7. Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) (December 1998), "Programa Habitacional Multisetorial no Municipio de Nova Friburgo, Propasta de Alternativas para Formaçào Profissional", Rio de Janeiro. * Anexo I: Secretaria de Formaçào e Desenvolvimento Profissional (SEFOR), Ministeno do Trabalho (Novembre 1996), "PLANFOR, Plano Nacional de Educaçào Profissional; Termos de Referência dos Programas de Educaçào Profissional; Nacionais, Estaduais, Emergenciais", FAT/CODEFAT, Brasilia.

117

Literature

* Anexo 11: Fundo de Amparo ao Trabalhador (FAT) and Associaçao de Apoio ao Programa Comunidade Solidária (AAPCS) (2nd semester 1998), "COOPERATIVISMO Jniciaçiio e Prática", COOTESOLIIBRAES. * Anexo lil: Secretario Especial do Trabalho, Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, "Plano de Educaçiio Profissiona/1998", Rio de Janeiro. * Anexo IV: Secretario Especial do Trabalho, Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro (October 1997), "Projeto de Geraçiio de Traba/hoe Renda, Comunidades do Programa de Favela-Bairro", Rio de Janeiro. * Anexo V: Ministerio do Trabalho (1998), "lnformaçoes do Ministerio do Traba/ho do Governo do Brasi/", Internet-file. E.4. Other - E.4.1. Nucleo de Estudos e Projetos Habitacionais e Urbanos (NEPHU)/ FEMI-Brasil (September 1998February 1999), Information provided by persons workingfor NEPHU or for FEMI-Brasil, Niterói and Nova Friburgo. - E.4.2. Pontificia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio) (1998), Statistica/ data on popu/ation and housingin 23 urban/rural areasin Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro.

F. Research methods F.l. Books - F.l.l. Baarda, dr. D.B. and Goede, dr. M.P.M. de (1995), "Basishoek Methoden en Technieken, Praktische handleiding voor het opzetten en uitvoeren van onderzoek", Stenfert Kroese Uitgevers. - F.1.2. Baarda, dr. D.B. and Goede, dr. M.P.M. de and Andel, dr. J. van and Meeus, drs. M.T.H. (1992), "Werkboek Methoden en technieken", Stenfert Kroese Uitgevers.

F.2. Articles F.3. Reports F.4. Other - F.4.1. Gaillard, H. (1994), "Methodological Issues related to Cross-cultural research, A synopsis of the relevant literature", lecture notes, International Technologkal Development Studies, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (TUE). - F.4.2. Gaillard, H. (1996), "Methoden en Technieken van Onderzoek in Ontwikkelingslanden", notes on the course, International Technological Development Studies, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (TUE).

118

Glossary

Glossary The terms are defined in the light of their occurrence in this research.

a) Research definitions Conceptual definition abstract definition of a term, with definition as a description of a term in such a way that its meaning is clearly stated. Empirica/ relying on observation and experiment, not on theory. Model graphical representation of the relations which are assumed between the various terrns in the model. Operational definition translation of a conceptual definition in tangible measurable terrns. Practical relevanee the extent to and way in which the research results serve a socio-economie benefit Research popu/ation the total of objects to which a research refers and upon which a verdict is given. Sample part of a (operational) population on basis of which verdiets can be given on the population from which the sample is taken. Survey basic form of research, in which in general on a large number of research units data are collected on a large number of characteristics, which refer to opinions, motives, attitudes, personal- and backgroundcharacteristics. Theoretica/ basedon theory, the (explanation ofthe) general principlesof a scientific phenomenon, not on practice or experience. Theoretica! relevanee the extent to and way in which research results are scientifically relevant.

b) Conceptual definitions Construction technology the application of a mode of constructing in order to build (a part of) a building or an infrastructural provision.

-> Alternative not betonging to the customary existing modes of construction.

119

Glossary

Employment creation generating remunerated work.

-> Structural employment, which proceeds from the regular, formal employment structure and is not intended for only a limited time period. Ferrocement stair a stair, which is a series of steps leading from one floor of a building to another, made of ferrocement, which is a type of thin wall reinforeed concrete construction where a hydraulic cement is reinforeed with layers of continuous and relatively small diameter mesh and thin steel rods. Future inhabitants those people, belonging to the lower-income groups of Nova Friburgo, who in the near future, ranging from a 1.5 to 3.5 years from now, will come to live in the housing units within the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil in Nova Friburgo, Brazil. Lower-income groups those groups ofthe population in society, which earn a low to very low family income, comprising between a half till a 5 Brazilian minimum salaries.

-> From the point of view of housing and infrastructural facilities those people whose needs of housing and infrastructural facilities can only be met if some kind of outside help is available (government subsidies, non-profit housing projects, ... ). Production unit an industrial organization, in which inputs with the help of energy and management are in a production process manufactured into products. Social housing the construction of low-cost housing, including social and physical infrastructural facilities, for lowerincome groups in the society, executed by non-commercial organisations or institutions. Sustainable contributing to technica!, economical, social and environmental objectives in relation to the whole life cycle of production and application of the product, making itself appropriate for its purpose.

c) Teehoical definitions Admixture a material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement or reinforcement, used as an ingredient ofthe cement mortar, and added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing. Aggregate the natural sands, gravels, and crushed stone used for mixing with cernenting material in making the mortar. Concrete a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of aggregate; in Portland cement-concrete, the binder is a mixture of Portland cement and water. Corrosion destruction of metal by chemica!, electrochemical or electrolytic reaction with its environment.

120

G/ossary

Ferrocement a type of thin wall reinforeed concrete construction where usually a hydraulic cement is reinforeed with thin steel rods and/or layers of continuous and relatively small diameter mesh. Mesh may be made of metallic material of other suitable materiaL Hydrau/ie cement (je Portland) cement produced by calcining a naturally occurring argillaceous limestone at a temperature below the sintering point and then grinding it to a fine powder. Load the weight carried by a structure, being its dead load and possible live load. Matrix in the case ofmortar, the cement paste in which the fine aggregate particles are embedded; in the case of concrete, the mortar in which the coarse aggregate particles are embedded. Mesh reinforcement a series of longitudinal and transverse wires arranged substantially at right angles to each other and fastened together at all points of intersection. Modulus of elasticity the ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses below the proportional limit of the materiaL Mortar a mixture of cement, fine/gross aggregates and water. Reinforeed concrete concrete containing adequate (steel) reinforcement (prestressed or not prestressed) and designed on the assumption that the two materials act together in resisting forces. Stress the force on a memher divided by the area which carries the force. Technology systematic application ofknowledge/mode of doing in order to execute practical tasks in industry. Ultimate tensile strength the load at which a specimen breaks, divided by its original area (before breaking); it is usually called the ultimate strength, or tensile strength. Workability the ease with which a concrete can be placed; wet concretes are workable but weak.

d) Socio-economie definitions Appropriate suited to the purpose, the concemed product or production is suited for the concemed area/market in relation to the socio-economie, cultural and environmental context. Association group of persons joined together fora common purpose, which can be a cultural, recreational, social, communal or professional one.

121

Glossary

Current assets those present things owned by an organization that have a money value and that may be sold to pay debts; the sum of inventories, marketabie securities, prepaid items, accounts receivable (trade credits extended to product buyers) and cash at the present time, among which the working capita!. Current liabilities financial obligations at the present time, mainly accounts payable (statements of money to be paid, according to credit terms provided by suppliers). Depreciation costs charges made in the annual net iocome statement (profit-loss account) for the productive use of fixed assets, presenting investrnent expenditures. Depreciation is an accounting method used to distribute the initia! investment costs of fixed assets over the lifetime of the corresponding investrnent. Economically viabie capable of developing and surviving in the economy without outside support Fixed assets the resources required for constructing and equipping an investment project, consisting of the fixed investrnent costs (buildings, equipment & tools, etc.) plus pre-production expenditures (training, fees, etc.) Informal sector the not formal part of economy, where the process of income-generation is characterised by the central feature that it is umegulated by the institutions of society, in alegal and social environment in which similar activities are regulated. fnvestment a long-term commitrnent of economie resources made with the objective of producing and obtaining net gains in the future. Overhead costs the service, administration and sales cost eentres that accrue in conjunction with the production within a project, distinguishable to respectively factory, administration and marketing overhead costs. Participation the act oftaking part in something, in this case taking part ofthe population ofthe lower-income groups in Nova Friburgo in an association or activity, or taking part in the social housing project by FEMI-Brasil.

-> Cultural taking part in a cultural association or activity, like a dramatic society, reading club or related activity.

-> Professional taking part in an association or activity in re lation to one's profession, like a professional association of a specific sub-sector, a syndicate or related activity.

-> Social taking part in a social association or activity ofthe community, like a residents or a religious association or communal construction activities (mutiröes). Working capita/ the resources needed to make the production unit operate; the amount of funds required to produce the goods and services necessary to satisfy demand at its lowest point.

122

Glossary

e) Glossary literature sourees This glossary is based on the following literature sourees : - Baarda, dr. D.B. and Goede, de dr. M.P.M. (1995), "Basishoek Methoden en Technieken, Praktische handleiding voor het opzetten en uitvoeren van onderzoek, Tweede herziene druk", Stenfert Kroese, Educatieve partners Nederland BV, Houten, Holland. - Behrens, W. and Hawranek, P.M. ( 1991 ), "Manual for the Preparation of Industrial Feasibility Studies, Newly revised and expanded edition ", United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Vienna, Austria. - FEMI-Brasil (September 1998- February 1999), lnformation on the social housing project by FEMIBrasil", Nova Friburgo, Brazil. - Homby, A.S. (1974), "Oxford's advanced learner's dictionaryofcurrent English", Oxford University Press, London, Great Britain. - Geerts, prof.dr. G. and Hestermans, dr. H., in co-operation with Kruyskamp, dr. C. (1989), "Van Date, Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal", Van Dale Lexicografie bv, Utrecht, Holland. - Koenen, M. J. and Endepols, J. (1973), "Koenen, Handwoordenboek der Nederlandse Taal", WoltersNoordhoffNV, Groningen, Holland. - Shrestha, Leader Man (1992), "Ferrocement primer", Internet-file, C.W.Institute oftechnology, Pune University, Maharashtra, India.

123