Idea Transcript
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Emotions Controversies
of Emotion Which comes first, physiological arousal or subjective experience of an emotion? Can we act emotionally before appraising a situation, or does thinking always precede an emotion?
Emotion Basics
Emotion and motivation are complimentary process. The concept of emotion emphasizes arousal, both physical and mental, while motivation emphasizes how this arousal becomes action.
Emotions help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others.
EMOTION
Emotions
Why We Have Emotions
Emotions – full body responses
Involve
Physiological arousal Expressive behaviors Conscious experience
Humans are most emotional of ALL animals
While our emotions are very different, they all involve a state of mental and physical arousal focused on some event of importance.
Emotions are the result of genetics and learning, especially early in life.
Emotions serve as arousal states that help organisms cope with important recurring situations.
Learned emotional responses, along and genetics are both important components of many psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders and phobias.
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Universality of Emotions
The Limbic System
Despite different languages, cultures and social norms, studies suggest that people “speak and understand substantially the same ‘facial language’ the world around.”
While the two pathways differ, they do have some things in common. Both rely heavily on the limbic system.
The amygdala plays an especially important role in both emotion pathways. In the past it was thought that the amygdala was simply involved in negative emotions. Recently it has been discovered that it plays a role in positive emotions as well.
Essentially, people share a set of universal emotion expressions that give support to the idea of a biological heritage of the human species.
Emotion in Men and Women Origins of Emotions
The biggest breakthrough in the study of emotions was the discovery of two distinct emotional pathways in the brain.
In our culture, on average, women are viewed as far more emotional than men. This may be the result of two factors. 1. Biology, and the genetic make-up of men and women do
One of the pathways is fast, and operates mainly at an unconscious level where it screens incoming stimuli and helps us respond quickly to stimuli even before they reach consciousness.
lead to women “having more emotion.”
2. Culture, may be the bigger of the two causes. Boys and girls
These cues seem to have a built-in, innate sensitivity to certain cuesexplains why we have more fears of spiders, heights and lightening than cars or electricity.
learn different lessons about emotion and emotional control. Boys are largely taught to hide emotions that may be seen as weaknesses and are praised for emotions that show strength and dominance. Girls are taught the exact opposite.
Origins of Emotion
The other pathway is much slower and linked to explicit memory. While it generates emotions more slowly, it delivers more complex information to our consciousness.
Higher levels of certain hormones
Display rules of emotion
Gender Effects on Emotion
Women
Better detecting emotions
Smile more Gesture with more expression More expressive faces More readily talk about emotion
This system relies heavily on the cerebral cortex, which is why we can feel fear, despite knowing there is no real basis for that feeling.
especially nonverbal cues of them
Men
Men & Women
Express anger more readily Difficult to read nonverbal cues of opposite sex
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Lateralization of Emotion
Different parts of our brain deal with different emotions. In the cerebral cortex, the right hemisphere generally specializes in negative emotions and the left hemisphere generally processes more positive and joyful emotions.
The idea that each hemisphere specializes in different classes of emotion has been called lateralization of emotion.
Psychological Theories of Emotion
Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer (1962)
Two-Factor Theory – 2 experience emotion, must be physically aroused & be able to cognitively label the arousal
Two-Factor Theory: This theory suggests that the emotions we feel depend on two things:
Theories of Emotion: Historical Approaches
There are multiple theories on how our emotions affect out behavior and mental processes. William James & Carl Lange (1890s)
James-Lange Theory
Experience of emotion = awareness of bodily responses to emotionproducing stimulus An emotion provoking stimulus a physical response, that then leads to emotion.
Emotion follows behavior “We feel sorry because we cry; angry because we strike; afraid because we tremble.”-William James
Only determining characteristic – how we label the arousal we feel
1) our internal physical state 2) the external situation we find ourselves in.
JamesLange theory
Cannonbard theory
Twofactor theory
Stimulus: snake
Stimulus: snake
Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate
Emotion fear
Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear
Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Stimulus Cognitive interpretation “I feel afraid!”
Emotion fear
Theories of Emotion: Historical Approaches
Psychological Theories of Emotion
Walter Cannon (1929) & Philip Bard (1934)
James’ son-in-law Cannon-Bard Theory- A theory that an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time.
Emotion and behavior happen simultaneously
Cognitive Appraisal Theory: The thought that we look back on a situation and consciously decide how we should feel about the situation.
Ex. Grades, Papers, Projects, Tests
Opponent-Process Theory: Theory that we trigger one emotion by suppressing its opposite emotion.
Ex. Drugs-the highs experienced by some drugs are replaced with lows (withdrawals). Eventually people take drugs not for the highs, but to avoid the lows.
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
Fear
Yerkes-Dodson law: A theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only to a certain point. Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance. Also known as the Inverted U.
Response to dangerous situations coordinated by autonomic nervous system
ANS 2 divisions
Sympathetic Nervous System – arousal
Parasympathetic Nervous System – calming
Theories of Emotion: Cognition & Emotion
Sympathetic Division (Arousing)
Agreed brain process info outside of consciousness Argues: must be a minimal amount of unconscious thinking
Theories of Emotion: Cognition & Emotion Robert Zajonc (1980 & 1984)
Emotion & cognition are separate Interpretations of situations are slower than emotional reactions Supported by neural pathways skipping thinking parts of brain and going directly to amygdala
Might explain why feelings influence thought
Development of feelings before cognition in history of humans
Parasympathetic Division (Calming)
Pupils Dilate
EYES
Pupils Contract
Decreases
SALIVATION
Increases
Perspires
SKIN
Dries
Increases
RESPIRATION
Decreases
Accelerates
HEART
Slows
Inhibits
DIGESTION
Activates
Secrete Stress Hormones
ADRENAL GLANDS
Decrease Secretion of Stress Hormones
The Expression of Emotion
Nonverbal Communication
Also known as body language Frequent messengers of emotions Ex: facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures
Physiological Activation
Appraisal Emotional Responses
Event
Slows breathing Slows heart rate And slows secretion of stress hormones
Autonomic Nervous System: Division of Labor
Richard Lazarus (1991 & 1998)
Accelerates heart rate Increases respiration Increases secretion of hormones that help “fight or flight”
Expressive Behavior Subjective Experience
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Seven Basic Emotions
Contempt
Paul Ekman, a leading psychologist in emotions, suggests humans everywhere can recognize seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise.
•Anger •Happiness •Disgust •Surprise •Sadness •Fear
Display Rules
According to Ekman, the seven emotions are universal, but the display rules vary greatly, depending on the culture.
He defines display rules as the permissible ways of displaying emotions in a given society.
Anger
Disgust
Fear
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Happiness
Reading Emotion
Sadness
In addition to being universal, the ability to read facial expressions is nearly ageless. Psychologists think that children as young as 5 years old have the same ability to recognize emotion on a person’s face as an adult does.
More Emotions
While we can recognize Ekman’s seven emotions, most of us can think of others like greed, envy, regret, optimism, etc. Robert Plutchik suggests that rather than seven, we have eight primary emotions and eight secondary emotions. He depicts this in his “Emotion Wheel.”
•More complex emotions occur when pairs of adjacent emotions combine. Ex: love is a combination of joy and acceptance.
Surprise
Culture Effects on Emotion
2 factors affecting expression & interpretation of emotions
Power – person with LESS power more motivated to read nonverbal cues & will read them better Growing up in more expressive families or cultures
Display Rules – cultural rules governing how and when a person should express emotion Cultures disagree about meaning behind gestures However, some measures of emotion universal
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Motivation Motivation is all the processes involved in starting, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities.
Motivation
Psychologists see motivation as being an important part of human nature:
Instincts
Types of Motivation
Drive: Biologically instigated motivation. A state of tension is created, which humans will seek to correct.
Motive: Motivational process that is learned.
Instincts – inherited, complex behavior occurring throughout a species
Original textbook by William James (1890)
37 instincts (Ex: Jealousy, Curiosity, Cleanliness) Found inadequate
More added
Eventually led to 10,000 instincts! Need to simplify
While some motivated behaviors clearly fall into one of these two categories, many have roots in both biology and cognition/learning.
Instinct Theory: The theory that all behaviors will be determined by innate factors and biologically based behaviors that generally lead to survival.
Ex: Hunger
Drive-reduction theory – idea that a psychological need creates a state of tension (drive), motivating and organism to satisfy that need Ex: Eating and Drinking Difficult to explain particular activities Led to shift to biological, cognitive, & clinical explanations for motivation
Achievement
Theories of Motivation
Drive came about as way to try to explain motivation Drive – states of tension that result from an internal imbalance that prompts an individual to restore the balance
Drinking water
Led to drive-reduction theory
Drive and Motivation
Motivation connects observable behavior to internal states Motivation accounts for variability in behavior Motivation creates perseverance despite adversity Motives relate biology to behavior
The term instinct was becoming overused, so the psychologist changed the phrase they use to fixed-action patterns.
Birds migrating, salmon returning to creeks to spawn
Why do you think this theory became outdated? Does this theory really explain behavior?
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Problems with Extrinsic Motivation
Drive Reduction Theory
Drive-Reduction Theory: The idea that a physiological need creates a state of tension (a drive) motivating and organism to satisfy their needs.
Drive-reduction theory states that a person will eat food as a result of a drive of hunger (a state of tension that humans seek to correct). The theory aims for homeostasis, or biological balance
Need
Drive
(food, water)
(hunger, thirst)
Problem – behavior might not stay once rewards or punishments removed
Intrinsic Motivation: desire to perform a behavior for one’s own sake, because it is interesting or fun
The overjustification effect is the idea that if we give extrinsic rewards or motivators for things that people already love to do and would do without a reinforcer, eventually the person’s intrinsic motivation will be replaced by that extrinsic motivation.
Ex: Professional athletes, musicians
Results in higher achievement
Sometimes both work together
So which type of motivation is better? Which produces more, positive results?
Research indicates that intrinsic motivation has an edge over extrinsic motivation in most cases.
This does not mean that extrinsic motivation isn’t good or does not work. In many cases, the two work together.
Evidence suggests that the removal of an extrinsic motivation will result in behavior levels lower than before the rewards were given.
According to researchers, intrinsic is better than extrinsic
Overjustificaion
Example: Will a student’s grades go down if their parents stop giving them money for earning As and Bs?
(eating, drinking)
Extrinsic Motivation: desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment
Drive-reducing behaviors
Cognitive Explanations: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
A primary concern about external rewards, however, is that behaviors maintained by extrinsic motivation alone may not be enough to be effectively sustained once the motivation is gone.
For example, the journalism students who wash cars as a fund raiser all spring and summer to pay for their trip to the national convention in St. Louis in the fall are working to make money….extrinsic motivation. Their desire to go to the convention, however, is intrinsic motivation.
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Theories of Motivation
Cognitive Social-Learning Theory: Our behavior is determined by two factors:
Abraham Maslow
Recognized some needs must go before others
Idea of pyramid = must satisfy lower, basic needs first Highest level = self actualization
1) the expectation of attaining a goal; 2) the personal value of the goal
Clinical Explanations
Locus of Control: our belief that we control the outcome of our own lives-intrinsic vs. extrinsic control
Created Hierarchy of Needs (1970)
The need to live up to one’s fullest & unique potential
Psychodynamic Theory: Our motivation comes from the deep, dark parts of our unconscious minds (the id). We have two basic needs:
1) Eros: desire for sex 2) Thantos: aggression and destruction **Was trying to explain mental disorders, not everyday behaviors
Biological Explanations: Arousals
Different levels of arousal (or alertness) Arousal theorists
Maslow argued that humans behave to satisfy specific types of needs. He broke them into five categories: Biological: Hunger, thirst, warmth Safety: Avoid danger Attachment: Wanting to belong to something Esteem: Seeing oneself as competent and effective Self-actualization: Being all that you can possibly be
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance
optimal level of stimulus people like to maintain
Motivation is attempt to maintain optimal level
Biological Explanations: Homeostasis
Yerkes-Dodson Law: principle that arousal helps performance on the difficulty of the task
Masolow’s Hierarchy/Humanistic
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Maslow said that there is a natural hierarchy or rank to the needs humans have.
Before one of the higher needs can be fulfilled, the needs on the levels below must be met, at least to some degree.
Homeostasis
98.6 degrees F is normal temp. Homeostasis: body’s tendency to maintain balanced or constant internal state Includes regulation of
Hormones Water levels in cells Blood sugar levels
Most needs are met at a rate of about 85% before a person can move onto a higher need.
Different than drive-reduction theory b/c this includes avoiding deficits and surpluses
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Maslow’s Hierarchy
Criticism of Maslow
Although critics will admit Maslow’s Hierarchy was the first real step toward a comprehensive theory of motivation, they say it isn’t complete.
Other areas it doesn’t explain?
Video Clips – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Movies Up
--http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iuc f76E-R2s
People often neglect their basic biological needs for more social needs Cross-cultural needs: individualistic vs. collectivist cultures see needs differently Sensation seeking: Why would someone jump out of a plane for “fun?”
Achievement
Henry Murray (1938)
Achievement motivation includes desire for
Ratatouille
-http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tz Q9vrvTAtk
Draw Your Own Hierarchy
In your notes, draw your own hierarchy. Be sure to give names and labels to each level. There is no minimum or maximum to the number of levels, but I would expect that it will take more than 3 levels.
David McClelland (1953)
Safety, Warmth Freedom
People who write stories with achievement themes rank high in achievement motivation People with high achievement motivation persist in face of difficulty
Ex: artists, scholars, athletes
Motivating Ourselves
3 ways to develop self-motivation
Being a Duck
Friends, Love, Belonging
Came up with way to measure achievement motivation
Self Confidence, Purpose
Significant accomplishment Mastery of ideas, things, or people Attaining a high standard
Associate high achievement with positive emotions Connect achievement with your efforts Raise your expectations
Food, Water, Oxygen, Sleep
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Motivating Others
Environment & Hunger
4 steps to motivate others
External incentives
Cultivate intrinsic motivation Attend to individual motives Set specific, challenging goals Choose an appropriate leadership style
Culture
Task leadership: goal-oriented leader that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention Social leadership: group-oriented leader that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
Americans view obesity as weakness African-Americans & Latinos less worried about weight and more accepting of overweight individuals Affects taste
Dislike foods we have not been exposed to Repeated exposure to new food inc. want to try new things
Eating Disorders: Anorexia
Physiology of Hunger
Sight, sound, and smell of food that seem to affect eating habits External Eater is more affected by external incentives
Glucose – form of sugar that circulates throughout the body
Major source of body’s energy Running low makes you hungry
Insulin – hormone that allows our cells to use glucose for energy or convert it to fat
Leptin – protein produced by bloated fat cells, which send “stop eating” message
Orexin – hunger-triggering hormone produced by hypothalamus
Anorexia Nervosa – normal weight person has distorted self-perception of being “fat” Self-starvation regimens Become dangerously underweight Considered 15% or more underweight 9 out of 10 times = adolescent female Often can display characteristics of bulimia Starts as a diet
Insulin goes up, glucose goes down
Obesity = insensitivity to leptin Glucose levels drop, orexin levels rise, making us hungry
Physiology of Hunger
Hypothalamus is key in hunger
Actively regulates appetite Considered “weight thermostat” Set point = point at which an individual’s hypothalamus is supposedly set
Eating Disorders: Bulimia
Bulimia Nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by excessive eating (bingeing), followed by vomiting (purging)
Characterized by
Falling below increases hunger triggering a lowered metabolic rate to restore lost weight Relies on
Basal metabolic rate – resting rate at which we burn calories for energy Specific number of fat cells (can expand in size & increase in #) Hormones that work together to keep weight where it’s designed
May include laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise Fear of gaining weight Preoccupation with food Suffering from depression and/or anxiety
Origins in a diet broken by gorging
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Eating Disorders: Causes
Causes may include
Traumatic Stressors
Certain events go beyond a “normal” stressor; examples would be the World Tsunami in 2004, 9/11, Columbine, Hurricane Katriana, 9/11, etc.
These are called traumatic stressors. To be considered a traumatic stressor, it must be a situation that threatens yours, or others’ physical safety and promotes a feeling of helplessness.
Genetic links Cultural pressures
Particularly strong in weight-conscious cultures (ex: USA) Mothers concerned with own weight are more likely to have children with eating disorders Pictures Commercials
Dying to Be Thin
Response to Traumatic Stressors
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/thin/program.html
What would you do if someone you knew had an eating disorder? How would you help them? What can you do to help change their misconceptions about their weight and the culture around them?
Stress
In psychology, stress is not a situation, but a response.
Psychologists talk about stress and stressors a little different than you or I might:
Stress: A physical and mental response to a a challenging or threatening situation Stressor: A stressful stimulus or situation demanding adaptation
Human created catastrophes are always worse, why?
In the face of catastrophic situations, most people pass through five stages: 1)
Psychic Numbness: shock, confusion, lack of understanding
2)
Automatic Action: little awareness of the experience, poor memory/recall
3)
Communal Effort: people work together, but with little planning
4)
Letdown: the setting-in of the magnitude and impact of the situation
5)
Recovery: Survivors adapt to changes caused by the disaster
PTSD
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Individuals who have undergone severe ordeals-rape, combat, beatings, torture-may experience a delayed pattern of stress symptoms that can appear as long as years after the event.
Victims of PTSD often have the following symptoms:
Distracted Disorganized Suffer memory difficulties Experience psychic numbing (diminished hedonic capacity) Feelings of alienation
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Response to a Normal Stressor
The physical response to a normal stressor is fairly universal as well and follows the same sequence:
An initiation of arousal A protective behavioral reaction (fight or flight) Internal response of the autonomic nervous system A decrease in the effectiveness of the immune system
General Adaptation Syndrome
GAS-A pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor.
Alarm Reaction – the body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a stressor
Level of normal resistance
Resistance – the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor
Exhaustion – the body depletes it’s resources
Successful Resistance Illness/death
Alarm Reaction
Resistance
Exhaustion
Types of Stress
Despite the bad name that stress has, it is actually a vital part of our lives, as long as it is controlled.
There are two main types of stress:
Acute Stress: A temporary pattern of stressor-activated arousal with a distinct onset, and limited duration
Chronic Stress: A continuous state of stressful arousal, persisting over time.
Short term stress
Long term stress
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