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Exploración de Marte [show article only] hover over links in text for more info Carrera espacial De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre [show wikipedia page here]
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Marte. La exploración espacial de Marte comenzó en el contexto de la carrera espacial entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, durante la Guerra Fría entre estos dos países. El interés en Marte y en la posibilidad de que albergue vida, se remonta ya a 1877 cuando el astrónomo italiano Giovanni Schiaparelli afirmó haber visto canales por todo el planeta. Posteriormente, otros astrónomos habían intentado comprobar la postulación del astrónomo estadounidense Percival Lowell que sugería que los presuntos canales descubiertos por Schiaparelli eran un sistema de irrigación creado por seres inteligentes. Aunque no había pruebas reales de estas especulaciones, se creó toda una serie de teorías o mitos sobre Marte, que trascendieron en la literatura y en la creación de leyendas sobre supuestos marcianos que hacían visitas a distintas partes de la Tierra.
1. The Soviet Union achieved an early lead in the space race by launching the first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 (replica) in 1957 2. The United States led during the "Moon race" by landing Neil Armstrong (pictured) and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, July 1969. 3. Astronaut Thomas P. Stafford and cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov shake hands in space, signifying the end of the "space race" 4. Wernher von Braun (1912–1977), technical director of Nazi Germany 's missile program, became the United States' lead rocket engineer during the 1950s and 1960s Estados Unidos
Índice 1 Las primeras misiones y orbitadores 1.1 Primeras misiones soviéticas 2 Programa Mariner 3 Misiones destacadas 3.1 1960-1969: Primeras exploraciones; los Mariners 3.2 1970-1979: Vikings 3.3 El siglo XXI 4 Misiones canceladas 5 Ventanas de lanzamiento 6 Línea de tiempo de la exploración 7 Véase también 8 Referencias 9 Enlaces externos
1. Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764 2. Flag 3. The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620. 4. The Declaration of Independence: the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Second Continental Congress in 1776 Unión Soviética
1. Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920 2. Flag 3. Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov, head of the NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was edited out of the image.
Las primeras misiones y orbitadores
Guerra Fría
Primeras misiones soviéticas Las primeras misiones soviéticas tuvieron lugar a partir del programa Marsnik, que consistió en dos vuelos cercanos con sonda en octubre de 1960. Las dos sondas fallaron en salir de la Tierra y quedaron atrapadas en la órbita, una de ellas alcanzó una altura máxima de 120 km antes de reentrar a la Tierra. Otra sonda fue la Mars 1962A que realizaría un sobrevuelo. Fue lanzada el 24 de octubre de 1962, mientras que la Mars 1962B, que incluía un aterrizador, fue lanzada en diciembre de ese mismo año. La primera falló en salir de la órbita de la Tierra y en la segunda explotó la etapa superior antes de darle el último empuje directo a Marte. Mars 1 lanzada el 1 de noviembre de 1962, sería una sonda automática interplanetaria, la primera del programa soviético de sondas a Marte. Volaría a una distancia de 11.000 km del planeta, tomaría fotos de la superficie y mandaría información sobre la radiación cósmica, impactos de micrometeoritos, sobre el campo magnético de Marte, radiación en el ambiente, estructura de la atmósfera, y posibles componentes orgánicos presentes. Se mantuvieron 61 transmisiones de radio con intervalos cada 2 días. El 21 de marzo de 1963, cuando la nave se encontraba a 106.760.000 km de la Tierra, cesó la comunicación, debido a fallos de la antena de transmisión. Luego, en 1964 empezó el programa Zond, que consistía en la Zond 1964A, que falló su lanzamiento, y la Zond 2, que perdió contacto después de unas maniobras a mitad de camino en mayo de 1965.
Programa Mariner Este programa comenzó en 1964 cuando el Jet Propulsion Laboratory lanzó las Sondas Mariner 3 (lanzada el 5 de noviembre de 1964) y Mariner 4 (lanzada el 28 de noviembre de 1964), para realizar vuelos cercanos a Marte.
1. Photograph of the Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war. 2. Allied troops in Vladivostok, August 1918, during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. 3. The " Big Three " at the Yalta Conference: Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin, 1945. Marte (planeta)
1. Mars compared to Earth 2. Mars imaged by the Hubble Telescope in 2003 3. Artist's impression shows how Mars may have looked about four billion years ago. 1877
La Mariner 4 pasó por Marte el 14 de julio de 1965, dando las primeras fotos cercanas al planeta; mostró lugares con impactos similares a los de la luna. En la siguiente ventana de lanzamiento, la NASA lanzó más sondas, que llegaron a Marte en 1969. La Mariner 9 se convirtió en la primera sonda espacial en entrar en la órbita marciana, ésta llegó al mismo tiempo que las sondas soviéticas Mars 2 y Mars 3, que encontraron grandes tormentas de polvo en progreso. Fue entonces que desde el control de misión de la Mariner se decidió llevarla a Fobos para tomar fotos.
Misiones destacadas
1. Hermann Hesse 2. Frederick Soddy 3. Cornelius Vanderbilt
1960-1969: Primeras exploraciones; los Mariners Véase también: Proyecto Mariner Mars 71
Giovanni Schiaparelli
Una de las primeras fotos de la superficie marciana (Mariner 4). Las sondas soviéticas Marsnik 1960A y Marsnik 1960B, lanzadas el 10 y el 14 de octubre de 1960 con una masa de 640 kg encabezaron la lista de ingenios lanzados desde la Tierra con destino a Marte, si bien no consiguieron escapar de la órbita terrestre y fueron destruidas. Igualmente fallida resultó la Marsnik 1, que el 1º de noviembre de 1962 despegó con 893,5 kg de peso. Se trataba de una sonda que pretendía sobrevolar el planeta a una distancia de 11.000 km; pasó a 193.000 km de Marte el 19 de junio de 1963, si bien se había perdido contacto con ella el 21 de marzo de 1963, cuando se encontraba a 106.706.000 km de la Tierra, convirtiéndose en el primer objeto humano en aproximarse al planeta. A fines de 1964 Estados Unidos envió la Mariner 3 a Marte, sonda que fracasaría por problemas de ingeniería. En 1965, Estados Unidos envió la Mariner 4 que consiguió transmitir las primeras fotografías de Marte tomadas en su cercanía en julio del mismo año; Mariner 4 encontró un paisaje desolado, desértico y con abundantes cráteres, mientras que la Zond 2 de la entonces Unión Soviética lograría, luego de varios meses, sobrevolar Marte el 6 de agosto de 1965 a una distancia de 1.500 kilómetros y a una velocidad relativa de 5,62 km/s, sin enviar datos. En 1969 llegaron las Mariner 6 y 7 de Estados Unidos, sobrevolando la superficie del planeta a unos 3.500 kilómetros de altura. Ambas consiguieron enviar unas 200 fotografías de las regiones ecuatoriales.
1. Giovanni Schiaparelli 2. Schiaparelli's grave at the Monumental Cemetery of Milan, Italy Percival Lowell
1. Percival Lowell 2. Percival Lowell c. 1904 3. Martian canals depicted by Percival Lowell. 4. Percival Lowell in 1914, observing Venus in the daytime with the 24-inch (61 cm) Alvan Clark & Sons refracting telescope at Flagstaff, Arizona Programa Mars
1970-1979: Vikings Véase también: Programa Viking
Primera foto clara en la historia tomada desde la superficie de Marte (Viking 1). En 1971 se consiguen varias nuevas marcas en la historia de la conquista del espacio (primera satelización de una sonda en Marte el 13 de noviembre, Mariner 9, primer objeto humano en el planeta el 27 de noviembre, Marsnik 2, primera transmisión desde su superficie el 2 de diciembre, Marsnik 3)
La sonda Marsnik 5, se situó en órbita marciana en febrero de 1974, enviando fotografías, tras el fracaso de su predecesora, la Marsnik 4, que pasó a 2.200 km del planeta.
1. Mars 1 stamp 2. Mars 2 stamp 3. Current 1960
La Mariner 9 se convierte en el primer satélite artificial de Marte el 13 de noviembre de 1971. Una vez posicionada consiguió captar las grandes tormentas de polvo que se originan en el hemisferio sur y que oscurecen toda su superficie. La Unión Soviética se convierte en la primera potencia que logra depositar en la superficie un vehículo de exploración (astromóvil) controlado a distancia con su Marsnik 3, que tocó la superficie a unos 20,7 m/s aproximadamente a 45ºS y 158ºO a las 13:50:35 GMT del 2 de diciembre (tras el fallo y pérdida durante el descenso de la Marsnik 2), pero poco después de iniciar la transferencia de las primeras imágenes se perdió contacto con la Tierra. Igualmente el pequeño astromóvil que porta, el PROP-M, queda inoperante.
1. A section of lunch counter from the Greensboro, North Carolina Woolworth's where the Greensboro sit-ins began is now preserved in the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History 2. The iconic picture of Che Guevara." 3. Tiros I prototype on display at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum 4. Francis Gary Powers wearing special pressure suit for stratospheric flying Mars 1962A
Posteriormente, la soviética Marsnik 6, lanzada el 5 de agosto de 1973, consiguió ponerse en órbita a 1.500 km de Marte hacia el 12 de marzo de 1974. La sonda de aterrizaje descendió a 24º sur y 25 º oeste, al nordeste de la cuenca de Argyre. Durante su descenso transmitió medidas atmosféricas, pero interrumpió las transmisiones 0'3 segundos antes de tomar suelo.
1. Current Aterrizador
Foto tomada por la Viking 2 lander. También en marzo de 1974 llega al planeta la Marsnik 7, pasando a 1.300 km del mismo y fracasando en su misión. En 1976 Estados Unidos hace descender en el planeta las sondas Viking 1 y Viking 2 que consiguen transmitir fotografías de la superficie desde las planicies de Chryse y Utopía. Estas dos misiones realizaron experimentos para detectar vida en la superficie marciana y cuyos resultados fueron más polémicos que concluyentes[cita requerida]. Las sondas Viking permanecieron activas hasta 1980 - 1982. Las sondas Fobos 1 y 2 parte en 1988, pero una nave dejó de transmitir por el camino y la otra hizo lo mismo cuando se disponía a acercarse a Fobos en 1989. En 1992 la misión Mars Observer de los Estados Unidos pierde todo contacto con la nave al momento de entrar en órbita, fracaso al que seguirá el de la misión rusa Mars 96 cuatro años más tarde.
1. Apollo 16 lunar lander. 2. Mars Polar Lander prep 3. The lander which brought the Spirit rover to the surface of Mars. 4. Surface of Saturn's moon Titan as seen by the Huygens probe after landing in 2005 Mars 1
Sojouner. El primer ´rover´ marciano (foto). En 1997 llega a Marte la Mars Pathfinder que desciende en Aris Valley llevando el astromóvil autopropulsado Sojourner; principalmente es un vehículo para pruebas de tecnologías nuevas. Su exploración de la superficie dura 2 meses y en el proceso es televisado a millones de personas. El sitio de aterrizaje del Mars Pathfinder se bautizó Sagan Memorial Station, en honor a Carl Sagan. Este mismo año también llega a Marte la Mars Global Surveyor, sonda que orbita Marte.
1. Mars 1 2. "Mars 1" stamp in Soviet Union 3. Current 1962
1. February 23: Friendship 7 inspected by President Kennedy and Astronaut John Glenn 2. October 14: Pictures of Soviet missile silos in Cuba, taken by US spy planes 3. Jim Carrey 4. Abdullah II of Jordan Kilómetro
Mars Global Surveyor (dibujo). La primera sonda orbital japonesa al planeta, llamada Nozomi sería lanzada el 4 de julio de 1998, sobrevoló Marte el 14 de diciembre de 2003, pero varios fallos condujeron al fracaso de la misión. Dos años más tarde, en 1999, Estados Unidos envía y pierde a la Mars Climate Orbiter y a la Mars Polar Lander. La primera, según la versión oficial ampliamente criticada, fue perdida por el uso de unidades de medición anglosajonas en lugar de unidades métricas decimales, lo que provocó un grave error según los directivos de la misión. La segunda, perdida en el aterrizaje en Marte, fue objeto de un intento de rastreo fotográfico llevado a cabo por la nave Mars Global Surveyor. A principios del año 2005 se pensó que se habían encontrado los restos de la Mars Polar Lander. Desafortunadamente, exámenes más detallados de las imágenes demostraron que ese no era el caso y la Mars Polar Lander sigue desaparecida. Estos fallidos intentos de llegar a Marte representaron un duro y doble golpe para el programa de exploración de Marte de Estados Unidos.
El siglo XXI
1. "km" redirects here. For other uses, see KM (disambiguation). 2. Chinese expressway distances road sign in eastern Beijing. Although the primary text is in Chinese, the distances use internationally recognised characters. Radiación cósmica
1. Pacini makes a measurement in 1910. 2. Cosmic ray flux versus particle energy 3. Increase of ionization with altitude as measured by Hess in 1912 (left) and by Kolhörster (right) 4. Hess lands after his balloon flight in 1912. Campo magnético
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter sobre Marte (dibujo). En 2001 Estados Unidos envía a Marte a la Mars Odyssey que se acomoda en una órbita marciana de 2 horas. Realiza una misión de cartografía de la distribución y concentración de elementos químicos y minerales en la superficie del planeta. Descubre la existencia de hielo, lo que apoya la teoría de las grandes cantidades de agua en Marte y provoca entusiasmo al ser una fuente potencial del líquido elemento para una futura misión tripulada a Marte.
1. One of the first drawings of a magnetic field, by René Descartes, 1644. It illustrated his theory that magnetism was caused by the circulation of tiny helical particles, "threaded parts", through threaded pores in magnets. 2. Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical magnet with its axis of symmetry inside the image plane. The magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines, which show the direction of the field at different points. Radiación
1. Illustration of the relative abilities of three different types of ionizing radiation to penetrate solid matter. Typical alpha particles () are stopped by a sheet of paper, while beta particles () are stopped by an aluminium plate. Gamma radiation () is damped when it penetrates lead. Note caveats in the text about this simplified diagram. Atmósfera
Autorretrato del Mars Science Laboratory (foto). En 2003 Gran Bretaña en colaboración con la Agencia Espacial Europea envía a la Mars Express que permanece en órbita y al Beagle 2 que desciende a la superficie pero no vuelve a emitir señales de vida desde entonces. Paralelamente, Estados Unidos envía con éxito al Spirit y al Opportunity (dentro de la misión Mars Exploration Rover), que realizan exploraciones de la superficie y mediciones de las condiciones atmosféricas que han podido confirmar nuevamente la teoría de la enorme cantidad de agua que existió en Marte y que existe en forma de hielo ahora. En resumen, los robots estadounidenses descubrieron que efectivamente hubo un ambiente habitable en el planeta rojo.
1. Mars's thin atmosphere 2. Earth's atmospheric gases scatter blue light more than other wavelengths, giving the Earth a blue halo when seen from space. Radiocomunicación
La nave Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter de la NASA fue lanzada en un cohete Atlas 5 el /08 de 2005 desde Cabo Cañaveral, EEUU. Llegó a Marte en marzo del año 2006. Uno de los objetivos principales de esta misión es la búsqueda de agua: podrá detectar acuíferos subterráneos si es que existen y están cerca de la superficie. Esta sonda obtendrá imágenes de la superficie de Marte con más resolución de lo obtenido hasta ahora. En agosto de 2007 se efectuó el lanzamiento de la sonda Phoenix y que aterrizó en el polo norte de Marte a finales de mayo de 2008. En 2008 había seis instrumentos espaciales fabricados por el hombre funcionando en Marte': Los robots Spirit (astromóvil) y Opportunity (astromóvil) y el Phoenix (aterrizador) que aterrizó en el Polo Norte. A su vez las tres sondas orbitales: el Mars Odyssey (orbitador) y el Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (orbitador) de los Estados Unidos y la sonda orbital de la Agencia Espacial Europea, el Mars Express (orbitador).
1. Long wave radio broadcasting station, Motala, Sweden 2. Slovak Radio Building, Bratislava, Slovakia (architects: Štefan Svetko, Štefan Ďurkovič and Barnabáš Kissling, 1967-1983) 3. Broadcasting tower in Trondheim, Norway 1963
En 2011 se lanzó la sonda rusa Phobos-Grunt con destino al satélite de Marte Fobos, pero luego de orbitar la Tierra algunos días sus sistemas electrónicos fallaron al intentar ponerlo en camino a su destino.
1. January 8: Mona Lisa in Washington, D.C. 2. March 21: Alcatraz closes 3. August 28: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom 4. November 22: Lyndon Baines Johnson is sworn in as U.S. President after assassination of John F. Kennedy. 1964
Atardecer en Marte capturado por el Curiosity. (Foto en color real) El 26 de noviembre de 2011 fue lanzada la Mars Science Laboratory (abreviada MSL), conocida como Curiosity. Se trata de una misión espacial que incluye un astromóvil de exploración marciana dirigida por la NASA. Este vehículo es tres veces más pesado y dos veces más grande que los vehículos utilizados en la misión Mars Exploration Rover (2004). La comunidad internacional ha proporcionado algunos de los instrumentos que porta esta misión lanzada utilizando un cohete Atlas V 541. El astromóvil se encuentra en desarrollo de sus tareas analizando muestras de suelo y polvo rocoso marciano. La duración original de la misión era de 1 año marciano (1,88 años terrestres). Uno de sus objetivos es investigar la capacidad actual o pasada de Marte para alojar vida. En poco más de un año en el planeta rojo, el astromóvil MSL ha encontrado evidencia de que Marte presentó en el pasado condiciones favorables para albergar vida microbiológica. El rover también encontró evidencia de la existencia pasada de un lago de agua en donde hoy está el cráter Gale, así como también estimó la presencia de un 2% de agua en la composición global del suelo rocoso del planeta.[1][2]
1. January 8: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson 's War on Poverty 2. April 22: 1964 New York World's Fair 3. April 8: Gemini 1 launched. 4. Nicolas Cage Programa Zond
El 16 de diciembre de 2014, Curiosity registró con el instrumento SAM aumentos bruscos en los niveles de gas metano en el cráter Gale. Estos muestran que los valores de base son más bajos de lo pensado, de apenas 0,7 partes por billón en volumen (ppmv), pero en seis ocasiones aumentaron considerablemente, una de las veces hasta sobrepasar las siete ppmv, 10 veces más. Esto indica que hay “una fuente adicional de metano de origen desconocido.”[3]
Misiones canceladas Programa Voyager (Marte) de los años 1970 se planeaban dos orbitadores y dos landers que se lanzarían en un solo cohete Saturno V Mars Aerostat – Misión Rusa Francesa,[4] para ser lanzada en la ventana de lanzamiento de 1992, pospuesta en 1994 y cancelada en 1996. Mars 98, Misión Rusa que incluía un orbitador, lander y un rover planeada para la ventana de lanzamiento de 1998 Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander, para octubre de 2001 NetLander Mission 2007 a 2009, misión Holandesa Mars Telecommunications Orbiter, septiembre de 2009 misión principal para telecomunicación. Wright Flyer, una misión usando un planeador propuesta para el 17 de diciembre de 2003, para conmemorar el centenario del vuelo de los hermanos Wright.
Ventanas de lanzamiento
1. Zond 2 (interplanetary) part of 3MV family 2. Zond with L3 stages in assembly hangar 3. Proton 7K-L1 with Zond rollout 4. Soyuz 7K-OK (1967–1970) Zond 2
Año
Lanzamiento
Nave espacial (lanzada o planeada)
2013
Nov 2013
MAVEN, Mars Orbiter Mission
2016 Ene 2016 – Abril 2016
ExoMars TGO
2018 Abril 2018 – Mayo 2018
InSight
Jul 2020 – Sep 2020
Mariner 3
Oportunidades 2013-2020 [7]
2020
1. Zond 2 2. Current
Las ventanas de lanzamiento de energía mínima para una expedición marciana ocurren a intervalos de aproximadamente dos años y dos meses (específicamente 780 días, el período sinódico del planeta con respecto a la Tierra). Además, la energía de transferencia disponible más baja varía en un ciclo de aproximadamente 16 años.[5] Por ejemplo, un mínimo ocurrió en las ventanas de lanzamiento de 1969 y 1971, alcanzando un pico a finales de los setenta y alcanzando otro mínimo en 1986 y 1988.[6] Las ventanas de
ExoMars rover, Mars 2020, Mars Hope, 2020 Chinese Mars Mission, Mangalyaan 2, Red Dragon
1. The Mariner 3 spacecraft 2. Current Mariner 4
lanzamiento son:[cita requerida] Noviembre a diciembre de 1996 Diciembre de 1998 a enero de 1999 Abril de 2001 Agosto de 2005 Diciembre de 2009 Febrero de 2012
Línea de tiempo de la exploración Misión Marsnik 1960A
Lanzamiento
Llegada a Terminación Marte
Objetivo
Resultado
10/10/1960
10/10/1960
Vuelo cercano
Falla en lanzamiento
Mars 1960B 14/10/1960
14/10/1960
Vuelo cercano
Falla en lanzamiento
Vuelo cercano
Destruida después del lanzamiento
Sputnik 22 (Mars 1962A)
Mars 1
24/10/1962
24/10/1962
01/11/1962
21/03/1963
Vuelo cercano
Recopiló poca información, se perdió contacto al llegar a Marte
04/11/1962
19/01/1963
Aterrizador
Falló al salir de la órbita de la Tierra
Zond 1964A 04/06/1964
04/06/1964
Vuelo cercano
Falla de lanzamiento
Vuelo cercano
Falla en lanzamiento, su trayectoria la puso en órbita alrededor del sol, actualmente sigue ahí
Vuelo cercano
Éxito de vuelo cercano. no hay más datos
05/1965
Vuelo cercano
Se perdió contacto
Sputnik 24 (Mars 1962B)
Mariner 3
05/11/1964
05/11/1964
Mariner 4
28/11/1964
14/07/1965 21/12/1967
Zond 2
30/11/1964
Mariner 6
/01/1969
31/07/1969 08/1969
Vuelo cercano
Éxito
Mariner 7
27/03/1969
05/08/1969 08/1969
Vuelo cercano
Éxito
1. The Mariner 4 spacecraft 2. Mariner 4 is prepared for a weight test on November 1, 1963 3. Launch of Mariner 4 4. Jack N. James (center), JPL's Mariner 4 Project Manager, with a group in the White House presenting the spacecraft's famous picture Number 11 of Mars to US President Lyndon B. Johnson (center right) in July 1965. 1965
1. Green Library at Florida International University in Miami, FL 2. The newly adopted Flag of Canada 3. The Gateway Arch 4. Julia Ormond NASA
Mars 1969A 27/03/1969
27/03/1969
Orbitador
Falla al lanzamiento
1. 1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James Webb in background. They are discussing the Mariner program, with a model presented. 2. Seal of NASA 3. At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von Braun is at center. 4. Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962
Mars 1969B 02/04/1969
02/04/1969
Orbitador
Falla al lanzamiento
1969
Misión (1970Llegada a Lanzamiento Terminación 1989) Marte
Objetivo
Resultado
08/05/1971
08/05/1971
Orbitador
Falla en lanzamiento
Cosmos 419 10/05/1971
12/05/1971
Orbitador
Falla en lanzamiento
13/11/1971 27/10/1972
Orbitador
Éxito
22/08/1972
Orbitador
Éxito
27/11/1971
Rover[8]
Impacto en la superficie de Marte
22/08/1972
Orbitador
Éxito
Rover
Aterrizó exitosamente en la superficie Mars 2 pero se perdió el contacto pocos segundos después.
Mariner 8
Mariner 9
Mars 2
Mars 3
Mars 4
Mars 5
Mars 6
Mars 7
30/05/1971
19/05/1971
27/11/1971
28/05/1971
02/12/1971
21/07/1973
10/02/1974 10/02/1974
25/07/1973
02/02/1974 21/02/1974
15/08/1973
09/08/1973
20/07/1976
Viking 2
09/09/1975
03/09/1976
Fobos 2
07/07/1988
Aterrizador
17/08/1980
Orbitador
Éxito
13/11/1982
Aterrizador
Éxito en aterrizar
25/07/1978
Orbitador
Éxito
11/04/1980
Aterrizador
Éxito
Orbitador
Se perdió contacto en su ruta a Marte.
Aterrizador
No desplegado
Orbitador
Éxito parcial entró en órbita y regresó un poco de información, se pierde contacto después del despliegue del Lander.
Aterrizador
No desplegado
02/09/1988
12/07/1988
Orbitador
Éxito parcial, entró en órbita, Mars 3 regresó información y después de 9 días se perdió contacto.
La sonda que aterrizaría se separó pero falló en dar contacto.
09/03/1974 09/03/1974
20/08/1975
Orbitador
Aterrizador
29/01/1989 27/03/1989
Misión (1990Llegada a Lanzamiento Terminación 1999) Marte
Objetivo
Resultados
25/09/1992
24/08/1993 21/08/1993
Orbitador
Se perdió contacto a su llegada a Marte
Mars Global 07/11/1996 Surveyor
11/09/1997 05/11/2006
Orbitador
Éxito
Orbitador / Aterrizador
Falla en lanzamiento se estrella en el océano Pacífico
Mars Observer
Mars 96
Mars Pathfinder Nozomi (Planeta-B)
16/11/1996
17/11/1996
04/12/1996
04/07/1997 27/09/1997
03/07/1998
09/12/2003
Mars 11/12/1998 Climate Orbiter
Mars Polar Lander Deep Space 2 (DS2)
23/09/1999 23/09/1999
03/01/1999
24/10/2001
02/06/2003
Objetivo
Resultados
Actualmente Orbitador operativa
Éxito
Actualmente Orbitador operativa
Éxito
06/02/2004
Aterrizador
Se perdió contacto mientras aterrizaba. Se cree que se estrelló
Rover
Éxito
Actualmente Rover operativa
Éxito
25/12/2003
Beagle 2
10/07/2003
04/01/2004 25/05/2011
Opportunity 07/07/2003
25/01/2004
02/03/2004
25/02/2007 30/09/2016
Mars Reconnaissance 12/08/2005 Orbiter
10/03/2006
Vuelo cercano
Actualmente Orbitador operativa
Phoenix
04/08/2007
10 de 25/05/2008 noviembre de 2008
Dawn
27/8/2007
17/2/2009
Aterrizador
Actualmente Vuelo cercano operativa Aterrizador / Retorno de muestras
Fobos-Grunt (A Fobos) 8/11/2011
8/11/2011
Yinghuo-1 Mars Science Laboratory[9]
Aterrizadores
Se perdió contacto a su llegada
Llegada a Terminación Marte
Mars Express Orbiter
Rosetta (sonda)
Orbitador
Se estrelló al descender debido a complicaciones de unidades métricas
03/12/1999 03/12/1999
07/04/2001
Spirit
Orbitador
Complicación en la ruta a Marte, nunca entró en órbita
Aterrizador
Misión (s.XXI) Lanzamiento Mars Odyssey
Aterrizador / rover Éxito
Orbitador
Éxito
Éxito
Éxito
Éxito Falla luego del lanzamiento. La nave queda orbitando la Tierra y se estrella días más tarde.
26/11/2011
06/08/2012
Actualmente Rover operativa
Éxito
Mars Orbiter 05/11/2013 Mission[10]
24/09/2014
Actualmente Orbitador operativa
Éxito
21/09/2014
Actualmente Orbitador operativa
Éxito
Actualmente Orbitador operativa
Inserción orbital exitosa. Misión en desarrollo.
19/10/2016
Se estrella.
MAVEN[11]
ExoMars ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter[12]
18/11/2013
14/03/2016
19/10/2016
ExoMars Schiaparelli EDM
Aterrizador
Llegada a Terminación Marte
Futuro
Lanzamiento
InSight[13]
05/2018[14][15]
Aterrizador
Confirmada
ExoMars[16]
05/08/2020[17]
Rover y Aterrizador
Confirmada
Mars 2020[18]
2020
Rover
Confirmada
Orbitador, aterrizador y rover
Confirmada[21]
Aterrizador y Retorno de muestras
A confirmar
Vuelo cercano tripulado
A confirmar
Orbitador
A confirmar
2022
Aterrizador
A confirmar
08/2022
Aterrizador, retorno de muestras
A confirmar
Aterrizador
A confirmar
Aterrizador, retorno de muestras
A confirmar
MGRSO[19] 2020[20]
Boomerang 2020 (A Fobos)[22]
Inspiration Mars 2021[23] Foundation Mars Orbiter 2022 2022[24] Cargo Missions[25] MMX[26] (A Fobos)
Demo Mission[27]
07/2023
2022
Phootprint[28] (A 2024 Fobos)
Objetivo
Estado
SRM [29]
2024
Orbitador, retorno A confirmar de muestras
Cargo & Crew Missions[25]
2024
Misión tripulada A confirmar
ComSat Mission[27]
2024
Orbitador
A confirmar
Aterrizador y Lanzador de muestras
A confirmar
A partir del Ekspeditsia- 2024 M [30]
A partir del 2026
Orbitador/Retorno A confirmar de muestras
2026
Rover
A confirmar
2026
Orbitador
A confirmar
SRL[31]
2028
Aterrizador, rover, lanzador de A confirmar muestras
Cargo Missions[27]
2029
6 Aterrizadores de carga.
A confirmar
[32]
A partir del 2030
Retorno de muestras
A confirmar
[33]
Década del 2030
Misión tripulada A confirmar
Rover & ComSat Mission[27]
Crew One Mission[27]
2031
2032
Aterrizador tripulado
A confirmar
Véase también Anexo:Sondas espaciales lanzadas a Marte Anexo:Objetos artificiales en Marte Anexo:Satélites artificiales de Marte Contaminación interplanetaria Anexo:Misiones espaciales Sistema de transporte interplanetario
Referencias 1. Greicius, Tony (2013-12-09). «NASA Rover Results Include First Age Measurement on Mars and Help for Human Exploration». NASA. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 2. Científicas, SINC Servicio de Información y Noticias (2013-09-26). Las muestras recogidas por Curiosity confirman la presencia de agua en Marte. Consultado el 2018-0103. 3. Domínguez, Nuño (2014-12-16). «‘Curiosity’ detecta una misteriosa fuente de metano en Marte». EL PAÍS. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 4. C. Tarrieu, "Status of the Mars 96 Aerostat Development", Paper IAF-93-Q.3.399, 44th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, 1993. 5. David S. F. Portree, Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000, NASA Monographs in Aerospace History Series, Number 21, February 2001. Available as NASA SP-2001-4521. 6. Error en la cita: Etiqueta inválida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas portree20012 7. «D. McCleese, et al. - Robotic Mars Exploration Strategy» . nasa.gov. Consultado el 9 de febrero de 2017. 8. "The First Rover on Mars - The Soviets Did It in 1971" The Planetary Report July/August 1990 issue. URL accessed March 30, 2006. 9. Greicius, Tony (2015-01-20). «Mars Science Laboratory - Curiosity». NASA (en inglés). Consultado el 2018-01-03. 10. en:Mars Orbiter Mission 11. Hille, Karl (2015-02-24). «MAVEN». NASA (en inglés). Consultado el 2018-01-03. 12. «ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli Mission (2016)». exploration.esa.int (en inglés británico). Consultado el 2018-01-03. 13. en:InSight 14. «Single Site on Mars Advanced for 2016 NASA Lander». Solar System Exploration. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 15. «NASA Suspends 2016 Launch of InSight Mission to Mars». NASA/JPL. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 16. «ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli Mission (2016)». exploration.esa.int (en inglés británico). Consultado el 2018-01-03. 17. «ExoMars Rover Seeks Exit From Dire Straits». www.planetary.org (en inglés). Consultado el 2018-01-03. 18. «Sección cienciaen Perfil.com». Perfil.com. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 19. «Un rover chino para explorar Marte | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 20. Pitcher, Jenna (2015-11-05). «China Unveils Mars Probe for 2020 Mission to Find Signs of Alien Life». IGN (en inglés estadounidense). Consultado el 2018-01-03. 21. «La misión china a Marte de 2020 | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 201801-03. 22. «Ekspeditsia-M, una misión rusa para traer un pedazo de Marte a la Tierra | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 23. «Dennis Tito's 2021 Human Mars Flyby Mission Explained (Infographic)». Space.com. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 24. «Una nueva sonda marciana de la NASA para 2022 | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 25. a b «El plan de SpaceX para conquistar el sistema solar, versión 2.0 | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 26. «Misión MMX: una sonda japonesa para traer muestras de las lunas de Marte | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 27. a b c d e «Roadmap - Mission - Mars One». Mars One. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 28. «Misiones europeas a Marte para la próxima década | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 29. «http://danielmarin.naukas.com/2015/08/14/como-planea-la-nasa-traer-muestras-demarte-a-la-tierra/». 30. «Ekspeditsia-M, una misión rusa para traer un pedazo de Marte a la Tierra | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 31. «Cómo planea la NASA traer muestras de Marte a la Tierra | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 32. «Un rover chino para explorar Marte | Astronáutica | Eureka». Eureka. Consultado el 2018-01-03. 33. «Sección cienciaen Perfil.com». Perfil.com. Consultado el 2018-01-03.
"Curiosity Laboratory". Pequeños científicos
Enlaces externos Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Exploración de Marte. Viaje a Marte Noticias sobre un futuro viaje a Marte. En inglés El sitio web de la NASA sobre la exploración de Marte Información de todas las misiones a Marte exploreMarsnow Simulación interactiva de una base en Marte. Solar Views Mucha información sobre Marte y sobre su exploración. Viajes tripulados a Marte
[hide]
Propuestos para el siglo XXI
Programa Aurora · Austere Human Missions to Mars · Programa espacial chino · Proyecto Constelación · Inspiration Mars · Sistema de transporte interplanetario · Mars Base Camp · Mars One · Mars Piloted Orbital Station · Mars to Stay · Vision for Space Exploration
Propuestos para el siglo XX
The Mars Project · Martian Piloted Complex · TMK · Ride Report · Space Exploration Initiative · Mars Direct · Alegato a Marte (libro) · Mars Design Reference Mission (3.0)
Mars analogs (list)
MARS-500 · Mars Analogue Research Station Program (FMARS · MDRS · Euro-MARS · MARS-Oz) · Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition · Base Concordia · HI-SEAS · NEEMO
Abogacía
Proyecto Cuevas de Marte · ICAMSR · Mars Institute · Mars Society
Miscelánea
Colonización de Marte · Exploración de Marte · Ficción (Películas · Novelas) · Vehículos tripulados en Marte · Mars orbit rendezvous · Terraformación de Marte
Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Exploración_de_Marte&oldid=105720760» Categoría: Exploración de Marte Categorías ocultas: Wikipedia:Páginas con errores de referencia Wikipedia:Artículos con pasajes que requieren referencias
RELATED RESEARCH TOPICS
1. 37th President Richard M. Nixon 2. January 14: Explosion kills 27 on USS Enterprise 3. Neil Armstrong descends a ladder to become the first human to step onto the surface of the Moon during Apollo 11 4. Michael Schumacher
No entró en órbita pero realizó un vuelo cercano
Éxito parcial, regresó información durante el descenso pero se perdió contacto al aterrizar.
12/03/1974 12/03/1974
Viking 1
Phobos 1
02/12/1971
1. Mars 3 Orbiter and Lander (visible at top) 2. Mars 2 Lander model at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Russia 3. Mars Prop-M Rover 4. Current
1. Mars 3 Orbiter 2. Mars 3 Lander model at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow 3. Candidate hardware for 1971 Soviet Mars 3 lander. The predicted landing site was at latitude 45 degrees south, longitude 202 degrees east, in Ptolemaeus Crater (images: HiRISE, MRO November 2007/left & 10 March 2013/right). 4. Current
1. Carrera espacial – The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union and the United States, for supremacy in spaceflight capability. The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, the Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, unmanned space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon. The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4,1957 orbiting of Sputnik 1, the race peaked with the July 20,1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed manned lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them, the Space Race has left a legacy of Earth communications and weather satellites, and continuing human space presence on the International Space Station. It has also sparked increases in spending on education and research and development, the origins of the Space Race can be traced to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles. Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at Kummersdorf-West in 1932, von Braun dreamed of conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology. They led the team built the Aggregate-4 rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4 as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 and its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little warning. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945, after the war, the V-2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs. The United States also acquired a number of complete V2 rockets. The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the part of Germany. On Stalins orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems, the Soviet rocket engineers were led by Sergei Korolev. He had been involved in clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s. After the war, he became the USSRs chief rocket and spacecraft engineer and his identity was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as the Chief Designer. In the West, his name was officially revealed when he died in 1966. They were not allowed to participate in final Soviet missile design, with their help, particularly Helmut Gröttrups group, Korolev reverse-engineered the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the R-1, in 1948. Later, he developed his own designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Gröttrup Groups G4-R10 design from 1949. The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951–53 and he also started developing liquid-fueled rockets in 1921, yet he had not been taken seriously by the public 2. Estados Unidos – Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci 3. Unión Soviética – The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states 4. Guerra Fría – The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare 5. Marte (planeta) – Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is referred to as the Red Planet because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and secondhighest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet, Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan, there are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 6⁄1000 that of the Earths, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be largely of water. The volume of ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted. On November 22,2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior, Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earths atmosphere. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth with an area only slightly less than the total area of Earths dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earths volume and 11% of Earths mass, the red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, other common colors include golden, brown, tan. Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ±65 kilometers, consisting primarily of iron and this iron sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earths. The core is surrounded by a mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet 6. 1877 – As of the start of 1877, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India by the Royal Titles Act 1876, introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, january 8 – American Indian Wars – Battle of Wolf Mountain, Crazy Horse and his warriors fight their last battle with the United States Cavalry in Montana. January 20 – The Conference of Constantinople ends with Ottoman Turkey rejecting proposals of internal reform, january 29 – The Satsuma Rebellion, a revolt of disaffected samurai in Japan against the new imperial government. The Rebellion lasts until September of that year when it is crushed by a professionally led army of draftees, march – The Nineteenth Century magazine is founded in London. March 4 Emile Berliner invents the microphone, pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys ballet Swan Lake debuts. March 15 –1877 Australia v. England series, The first Test cricket match is held between England and Australia, march 24 – For the only time in history, The Boat Race between the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford is declared a dead heat. April 10 – The first human cannonball act in the British Isles, April 12 – The United Kingdom annexes the South African Republic, violating the Sand River Convention of 1852, causing a new Xhosa War. April 24 – Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire, may 5 – American Indian Wars, Sitting Bull leads his band of Lakota into Canada to avoid harassment by the United States Army under Colonel Nelson Miles. May 6 – Realizing that his people are weakened by cold and hunger, may 8–11 – At Gilmores Gardens in New York City, the first Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show is held. May 9 – Iquique earthquake and tsunami, An earthquake of at least magnitude 8.5 Ms occurs on the west coast of South America, may 16 – The 16 May 1877 crisis occurs in France. May 21 – By a speech in the Parliament of Romania by Mihail Kogălniceanu, june 15 – Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy. June 17 – American Indian Wars – Battle of White Bird Canyon, june 20 – Alexander Graham Bell installs the worlds first commercial telephone service in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. June 21 – The Molly Maguires are hanged at Carbon County Prison in Mauch Chunk, june 26 – The eruption of the volcano Cotopaxi in Ecuador causes severe mudflows that wipe out surrounding cities and valleys, killing 1,000. June 30 – The British Mediterranean fleet is sent to Besika Bay, july – Conclusion of serial publication of Leo Tolstoys Anna Karenina in The Russian Messenger. July 9 – The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club begins its first lawn tennis tournament at Wimbledon, Louis, briefly establishing a Communist government before U. S. President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in the armed forces. July 19 – Russo-Turkish War, The first battle in the Siege of Plevna is fought, july 30 – The second battle in the Siege of Plevna is fought. July 30 – Russo-Turkish War, The Turkish army and its allies destroy the Bulgarian city of Stara Zagora, the army loses 29 soldiers and the Indians lose 89 warriors in an Army victory. August 12 – American astronomer Asaph Hall discovers Deimos, the moon of Mars 7. Giovanni Schiaparelli – Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli was an Italian astronomer and science historian. He was educated at the University of Turin, and later studied at Berlin Observatory, in 1859–1860 he worked in Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg, and then worked for over forty years at Brera Observatory in Milan. Among Schiaparellis contributions are his telescopic observations of Mars, in his initial observations, he named the seas and continents of Mars. While the term indicates an artificial construction, the term channels connotes that the observed features were natural configurations of the planetary surface. Later, with thanks to the observations of the Italian astronomer Vincenzo Cerulli. I have already pointed out that, in the absence of rain on Mars and he proved, for example, that the orbit of the Leonid meteor shower coincided with that of the comet Tempel-Tuttle. These observations led the astronomer to formulate the hypothesis, subsequently proved to be correct and he was also a keen observer of the inner planets Mercury and Venus. He made several drawings and determined their rotation periods, in 1965, it was shown that his and most other subsequent measurements of Mercurys period were incorrect. Schiaparelli was a scholar of the history of classical astronomy, lalande Prize Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Bruce Medal The main-belt asteroid 4062 Schiaparelli, named on 15 September 1989. The lunar crater Schiaparelli The Martian crater Schiaparelli Schiaparelli Dorsum on Mercury The 2016 ExoMars Schiaparelli lander and his niece, Elsa Schiaparelli, became a noted designer or maker of haute couture. 1873 – Le stelle cadenti 1893 – La vita sul pianeta Marte 1925 – Scritti sulla storia della astronomia antica in three volumes, Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, biography from www. daviddarling. info. Obituaries, G. V. Schiaparelli, J. G. Galle, J. B. N. Hennessey J. Coles, J. E. Gore, The Observatory, Vol.33, p. 311–318, August 1910 Source texts from Wikisource in Italian and English. Le Mani su Marte, I diari di G. V, Works by Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Giovanni Schiaparelli at Internet Archive AN185 193/194 ApJ32313 MNRAS71282 PASP22164 8. Percival Lowell – Percival Lawrence Lowell was an American businessman, author, mathematician, and astronomer who fueled speculation that there were canals on Mars. He founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona and formed the beginning of the effort led to the discovery of Pluto 14 years after his death. Percival Lowell was a member of the wealthy Boston, Massachusetts and he was born in Cambridge on March 13,1855, the brother of Abbott Lawrence Lowell and Amy Lowell. Percival graduated from the Noble and Greenough School in 1872 and Harvard University in 1876 with distinction in mathematics, at his college graduation, he gave a speech, considered very advanced for its time, on the nebular hypothesis. He was later awarded honorary degrees from Amherst College and Clark University, after graduation he ran a cotton mill for six years. In the 1880s, Lowell traveled extensively in the Far East, in August 1883, he served as a foreign secretary and counselor for a special Korean diplomatic mission to the United States. He lived there for two months. He also spent significant periods of time in Japan, writing books on Japanese religion, psychology, and behavior. Books by Percival Lowell on the Orient include Noto, An Unexplored Corner of Japan and Occult Japan, or the Way of the Gods and his time in Korea inspired Chosön, The Land of the Morning Calm. The writer Lafcadio Hearn called it a colossal, splendid, godlike book and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1892. He moved back to the United States in 1893, beginning in the winter of 1893–94, using his wealth and influence, Lowell dedicated himself to the study of astronomy, founding the observatory which bears his name. In 1904, Lowell received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, for the last 23 years of his life astronomy, Lowell Observatory, and his and others work at his observatory were the focal points of his life. World War I very much saddened Lowell, a dedicated pacifist and this, along with some setbacks in his astronomical work, undermined his health and contributed to his death from a stroke on November 12,1916, aged 61. Lowell is buried on Mars Hill near his observatory, Lowell claimed to stick to the church though at least one current author describes him as an agnostic. Lowell became determined to study Mars and astronomy as a career after reading Camille Flammarions La planète Mars. He was particularly interested in the canals of Mars, as drawn by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli, in 1894 Lowell chose Flagstaff, Arizona Territory, as the home of his new observatory. At an altitude of over 2,100 meters, with few cloudy nights and this marked the first time an observatory had been deliberately located in a remote, elevated place for optimal seeing. For the next fifteen years he studied Mars extensively, and made drawings of the surface markings as he perceived them 9. Programa Mars – The Mars program was a series of unmanned spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1973. The spacecraft were intended to explore Mars, and included flyby probes, early Mars spacecraft were small, and launched by Molniya rockets. Starting with two failures in 1969, the heavier Proton-K rocket was used to launch larger 5 tonne spacecraft, consisting of an orbiter, the orbiter bus design was likely somewhat rushed into service and immature, considering that it performed very reliably in the Venera variant after 1975. The names of the Mars missions do not need to be translated, as the word Mars is spelled and pronounced approximately the same way in English and Russian. In addition to the Mars program, the Soviet Union also sent a probe to Mars as part of the Zond program, Zond 2, two more spacecraft were sent during the Phobos program. In 1996, Russia launched Mars 96, its first interplanetary mission since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the first Soviet attempts to send a probe to Mars were the two Mars 1M spacecraft, which each had a mass of about 650 kg. Both were launched in 1960 and failed to achieve orbit, the spacecraft were dubbed Marsnik by the Western media. Mars 1 was launched in 1962 but failed en route to Mars, Mars 2M No.521 and Mars 2M No.522, known in the West as Mars 1969A and B, were heavier spacecraft with masses of 5 tonnes. They were launched by Proton-K rockets, and consisted of orbiters, the Mars 4M spacecraft, Mars 2 and Mars 3 missions consisted of identical spacecraft, each with an orbiter and an attached lander, which became the first spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars. The descent module entered the Martian atmosphere at roughly 6.0 km/s at a steeper angle than planned, the descent system malfunctioned and the lander crashed at 45°S 30°W, delivering the Soviet Union coat of arms to the surface. Meanwhile, the engine performed a burn to put the spacecraft into a 1380 x 24,940 km. Scientific instruments were turned on for about 30 minutes near periapsis. The descent module entered the Martian atmosphere at roughly 5.7 km/s, through aerodynamic braking, parachutes, and retrorockets, the lander achieved a soft landing at 45°S 158°W and began operations. However, after 20 seconds the instruments stopped working for unknown reasons, Mars 3 lander still managed to transmit a portion of the first picture of Martian surface. Meanwhile, the orbiter had suffered from a loss of fuel. The engine instead performed a burn to put the spacecraft into a long 12-day-19-hour period orbit about Mars with an inclination thought to be similar to that of Mars 2. Both landers had a small Mars rover on board, which would move across the surface on skis while connected to the lander with a 15-meter umbilical. Two small metal rods were used for obstacle avoidance, as radio signals from Earth would take too long to drive the rovers using remote control 10. 1960 – January – The state of emergency is lifted in Kenya, officially ending the Mau Mau Uprising. January 1 – Cameroon gains its independence from Frenchadministered U. N. trusteeship, senator John F. Kennedy announces his candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination. January 6 – The Associations Law comes into force in Iraq, January 9–11 – Aswan High Dam construction begins in Egypt. January 10 – British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan makes the Wind of Change speech for the first time, January 14 – The Reserve Bank and Commonwealth Bank are created in Australia. January 15 – The first televised anime, Three Tales, debuts on NHK, January 19 – The Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan is signed in Washington, D. C. January 21 – A coal mine collapses at Coalbrook, South Africa, January 22 In France, President Charles de Gaulle fires Jacques Massu, the commander-in-chief of the French troops in Algeria. Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh descend into the Mariana Trench in the bathyscaphe Trieste, reaching the depth of 10,911 meters, January 24 – A major insurrection occurs in Algiers against French colonial policy. January 25 – In Washington, D. C. the National Association of Broadcasters reacts to the scandal by threatening fines for any disc jockeys who accepted money for playing particular records. January 28 – The National Football League announces expansion teams for Dallas to start in the 1960 NFL season, paul for the 1961 NFL season. January 30 – The African National Party is founded in Chad, february 1 – In Greensboro, North Carolina, four black students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University begin a sit-in at a segregated Woolworths lunch counter. Although they are refused service, they are allowed to stay at the counter, the event triggers many similar non-violent protests throughout the Southern United States, and six months later the original four protesters are served lunch at the same counter. February 3 – Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Harold Macmillan makes the Wind of Change speech to the South African Parliament in Cape Town, february 5 – The first CERN particle accelerator becomes operational in Geneva, Switzerland. February 9 Joanne Woodward receives the first star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, adolph Coors III, the chairman of the board of the Coors Brewing Company, is kidnapped, and his captors demand a ransom of $500,000. Coors is later murdered, and Joseph Corbett, Jr. is indicted for the crime. February 10 – A conference about the independence of the Belgian Congo begins in Brussels. February 11 The N-class blimp ZPG-3W of the U. S. Navy is destroyed during a storm over Massachusetts, twelve Indian soldiers die in clashes with Red Chinese troops along their small common border. February 13 – France tests its first atomic bomb in the Sahara Desert of Algeria, february 18 – The 1960 Winter Olympics begin at the Squaw Valley Ski Resort, in Placer County, California. February 26 – A New York-bound Alitalia airliner crashes into a cemetery at Shannon, Ireland, shortly after takeoff, killing 34 of the 52 persons on board