final report - World Bank Group [PDF]

FINAL REPORT

THE D EV E LO P MEN T IMP ACT OF S OLAR HO ME S YS TE M IN T HE P RO V IN CE OF L AMP U NG

RE SE AR CH T E AM: PM LAKSONO ANTON SOEDJAR WO YUST INUS TRI SUBAGYA YUST INA T RI WAHYUNINGSIH

YAYASAN DIAN DESA, YOGYAKA RTA, 2003

FOR EW OR D This report is the result of 18 months study to estimate the development impact of Solar Home System in the Province of Lampung. The impact is particularly addressed to the issues of social economic status of the SHS household users, gender equity, lifestyle and efficiency cost of energy expenditure. Here the study takes into account the appropriation of the system by individual members of household is a very crucial factor for understanding the impact of SHS to the transformation of status and role in the household. This study is conducted by Yayasan Dian Desa at the request of Project Support Group of the SHS Project. In this respect Jim Finucane is the initiator who initiated and conceptualized this work. The accomplishment of this whole study depends on innumerable support and assistance from many individuals and institutions perticularly during the fieldwork. Our gratitude goes primarily to our field assistants in Bandar Lampung. They are Wuli Marwanto, Edy Susanto, Rudy Leo Chandrika, Yovan Yorvane, Teguh Suprayitno, Ricky Wibowo, Jeffri Bagus Bachtiar, Wiwit, Budhi Ariyati and Futri. We would like to convey our thanks also to our hosts Pak Rejo, Mbah Rejo, Mbah Harjo, Mas Bambang and to our informants whose names can not be mentioned one by one in this report. Last but not least, we would like also to thank to our editors Bonivasius Dwi P and Ms. Adventina Putranti who have made this report more readable. Yayasan Dian Desa is grateful for the genuine cooperation of PT Mambruk during the fieldwork. Finally Yayasan Dian Desa hopes that the result of this study will be useful for the development of the Solar Home System.

Research Team

i

EXC UTIVE S U MMAR Y This report is the result of a study by Yayasan Dian Desa at the request of the SHS Project Support Group to estimate the development impact of the SHS use in the province of Lampung. The study consists of three steps. The first was a survey to establish the base-line data of the socio-economic and cultural conditions and to assess the needs that led to the households deciding to install the SHS. This step was conducted at the time when the household users installed the SHS. The second step survey was the preliminary assessment to identify different effects of the use of the SHS in the households after six months. Then, the last step was the third survey to verifify the impacts of the SHS one year after the installation. Based on the social economic indicators, it can be reflected that the majority of SHS users belong to the middle and upper classes in the community. Most of them are peasants who rely on agricultural sectors as their livelihood, both for subsistence and cash. In this sense, their income earnings fluctuate depending on the seasons, and the market prices of their crop commodities. The first round follow up survey had found that the drought during the past dry season and the falling prices of the crops had contributed to declining incomes. In the third survey, the economic condition seemed a bit improved compared to that six months earlier. Regarding the household financial management, the majority of respondents have not yet utilized the banking system. They still manage their finance in a simple way, such as borrowing money from their neighbors or local installment plan union if they need some, and keeping their money under the pillow if they have some extra. The information about SHS is circulated through neighbors, household members, and door-to-door salesmen than through mass media. Such information is more widely received by the respondents since they can directly observe the application of the system in the neighborhood. To some extent, those who have not yet installed the system also get advantages from the SHS when they visit or watch television in their neighbors’ houses. Most of respondents know how the system works. In some cases, they claim that they are able to repair the equipment. Nevertheless, when some parts of the system are down, they tend to entrust the technicians of the marketing agency to repair it. Their need to purchase SHS in a competitive price has inspired some strangers to manipulate the image of SHS for purpose of selling emergency lamps. There are at least 25 households of the non SHS users inflicting a financial loss for the case in Way Serdang village. The reseacher team also find the similar cases in other areas, such as Seputih Mataram, Pardasuka, Punduh Pidada, etc. When the

ii

researcher approaches them to cross check the issue, they are mostly angry at first. Then, they eventually ask for an apology when the team clarify the matters. The SHS installation has not yet dramatically improved the living condition of the users but it has small impacts on the gender basis of the division of labors, households’ life style and the efficiency of the cost for the energy expenditure. The social economic status does not change much because of the SHS. In some cases, some households used their SHS to generate additional income because they could extend their shop services until late at night. The division of labors in the households remains the same because women still hold the dominant role in domestic activities, while men still maintain their role in public domain. With the SHS lighting many women work over time on their domestic tasks. The role of the women in the domestic sectors is therefore reinforced. On the other hand, most men take the advantage of the SHS for pleasure. The use of SHS somehow brings about impacts on the education of the children. The children are encouraged to study more with the extension of lighting, particularly for reading activities. More children of the SHS users attain better achievements in their school due to the increase of their time allocation to do their homework. Likewise, the households of SHS users also get the benefit to access the flow of information, specifically from the radio and television. The availability of power supply for the electronic equipments enables the SHS user respondents to update information of modern life style or at least to break up the isolation of their villages. Regarding the habit of house cleaning, apparently some change occurs. The households that seldom cleaned their houses, after installing SHS do the such activities at least once or twice a day. In some instances, respondents claim to clean their houses many more times when they find the house dirty.

Perhaps, the

brightness of the SHS lighting awakens their feeling of discomfort to see the untidiness of their houses. This study indicates that the house of the SHS users is more often used as the venue for social gatherings. The decision to choose the SHS users’ houses for gatherings is somehow due to its lighting facility. Hence, the SHS use may lead the owner to get involved more actively in the community life because their house will be chosen for the center of social activities, particularly at night. In terms of household expenditure for energy, this survey reveals the significant cost reduction. There is less purchasing of dry cell batteries and kerosene as well as less cost for recharging car batteries. These three energy sources are actually the most affected by the use of SHS. However, the use of SHS has not

iii

implied any radical changes for the use of energy sources because most respondents combine various energy sources for different purposes. Dealing with the remoteness of the respondents’ living areas, the SHS likely contributes to breaking their feelings of being isolated. With the limited distribution of printed media, they can access the information on regional, national and even global issues from the electronic media. Recently some satellite telephone shops (wartel) in the neighborhood are also powered by the SHS. These wartels help them to get engaged in national and international communications with their relatives in other parts of the world, such as Saudi Arabia and Malaysia. Thus, it slightly overcome the insufficient facilities of public transportation in their countryside. All in all, this study affirms the positive impacts of the SHS use on the households due to its support for education, social gatherings, cleanliness of the houses, and the reduction of cost for the household energy expenditure.

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RING K AS AN Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Surya untuk rumah tangga atau Solar Home System (SHS) telah diperkenalkan di Indonesia sejak tahun 1980-an. SHS memiliki teknologi yang ramah lingkungan, bersih dan tidak menimbulkan polusi. Sosialisasi penerapan pemakaian SHS dilakukan oleh berbagai institusi di tingkat pemerintah, swasta maupun lembaga donor. Tahun 1999, teknologi ini mulai terakreditasi dan mulai efektif diterapkan di beberapa daerah di Indonesia. Pada tahap pendistribusian secara komersial, World Bank memberikan subsidi melalui sektor swasta yang terlibat dalam pemasarannya. Sektor swasta tersebut antara lain PT Mambruk Tenaga Surya, PT Altari, dan PT Guna Elektro, PT Sundaya, dsb. Wilayah yang digunakan sebagai pilot project bagi penyebarannya adalah Propinsi Jawa Barat, Propinsi Lampung dan Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan. Ada pun studi ini dilakukan dalam rangka penelitian untuk mencermati dampak penggunaan SHS dalam rumah tangga. Sementara studi ini sendiri bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan dan menganalisa pengguna dan non pengguna SHS dari sisi ekonomi, sosial, dan budaya. Tujuan khususnya adalah untuk mengetahui dampak pemakaian SHS terhadap tingkat pendidikan, peran masing-masing anggota keluarga, migrasi, motivasi pembelian, harapan dan kebutuhan akan SHS bagi rumah tangga. Penelitian ini berlangsung melalui tiga tahap. Tahap pertama adalah Baseline Study dengan menggali informasi awal mengenai kondisi umum dan karakteristik responden serta motivasi mereka memasang SHS. Penelitian pada tahap ini dilakukan saat responden sedang memasang SHS di rumah mereka. Tahap kedua merupakan kajian awal terhadap dampak yang muncul setelah responden menggunakan SHS dalam kurun waktu enam bulan. Penelitian tahap ketiga dilakukan genap satu tahun setelah responden menggunakan SHS dengan sasaran utama mengkaji dan melakukan verifikasi dampak yang ditimbulkan dari pemakaian SHS. Pendekatan yang dipakai untuk melakukan penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif (survey) dan kualitatif. Survey dilakukan terhadap 50 responden pemasang dan 50 responden non pemasang SHS. Dalam tahap akhir dari proses penelitian ini jumlah responden menjadi 48 pemasang dan 47 non pemasang. Hal tersebut terjadi karena pada survey tahap kedua tiga responden yang sebelumnya non pemasang kemudian menjadi pemasang. Jumlah itu menggantikan tiga responden pemasang yang minta dicabut penggunaan SHS mereka. Pada tahap penelitian yang ketiga terdapat dua

v

responden pemasang lagi yang minta dicabut.

Wawancara dibedakan antara

anggota keluarga, yang terdiri dari ayah, ibu, anak laki-laki dan anak perempuan. Selain itu juga dilakukan wawancara mendalam untuk menggali data-data yang lebih detail dari beberapa rumah tangga yang telah disurvey. Metode lain yang digunakan untuk mempertajam penggalian data adalah dengan Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Pesertanya dipilih berdasarkan lokasi pemasangan yang berkelompok. Kebanyakan pemasang SHS berasal dari wilayah yang disebut daerah gagal listrik, yaitu mereka yang daerahnya dekat dengan jaringan listrik PLN tetapi tidak pernah

mendapatkan

tanggapan

untuk

memperoleh

layanan

atau

penyambungannya. Di samping itu, sebagian besar dari pemasang SHS adalah warga transmigran dari Jawa yang telah tinggal di propinsi Lampung dalam satu atau dua generasi. Status sosial ekonomi mereka umumnya dari status menengah ke atas yang mata pencahariannya adalah pertanian, terutama yang telah memiliki sawah selain berladang. Bisa dikatakan petani pemasang SHS ini berasal dari mereka yang telah mampu memenuhi kebutuhan subsisten pangannya. Hal tersebut dapat juga terlihat dari kondisi rumah, kepemilikan serta pengeluarannya yang rata-rata berada di atas Rp 500.000,- per bulan. Kendati demikian, kebanyakan diantara mereka membeli SHS dengan cara kredit karena dipandang lebih ringan beban tanggungan pengeluaran bulanan mereka. Para pemasang SHS ini juga tidak bisa dibedakan menurut tingkat pendidikan mereka. Baik orang yang tidak pernah sekolah hingga orang yang mengenyam perguruan tinggi membeli SHS. Bahkan, kebanyakan para pemasang SHS ini berasal dari mereka yang tingkat pendidikannya tergolong rendah. Dengan demikian, tingkat pendidikan tidak merupakan faktor penentu apakah orang memasang SHS atau tidak. SHS bisa dimiliki oleh semua orang tidak terbatas pada mereka yang memiliki pendidikan atau pengetahuan yang dipandang tinggi. Rumah tangga yang mempunyai televisi dan sering menonton televisi cenderung untuk membeli SHS. Dalam hal ini, bisa diduga bahwa dengan pemasangan SHS, orang membayangkan bisa menikmati tontonan televisi tanpa harus repot menambah daya aki setiap saat ke tempat strumnya. Di samping itu, rumah tangga yang sering menjadi tuan rumah bagi pertemuan warga komunitasnya juga cenderung memasang SHS. Hal ini berkaitan dengan fungsi kemudahan penerangan yang umumnya dibutuhkan pada pertemuan malam hari saat mereka tidak lagi bekerja di luar rumah. Para pemasang SHS juga kebanyakan berasal dari rumah tangga yang ingin menetap di daerah yang sekarang ditempati. Kendati demikian, mereka juga memiliki mobilitas ruang yang cukup tinggi dengan seringnya bepergian di luar daerah

vi

mereka. Berkaitan dengan hal ini, informasi SHS rupanya juga tersebar melalui jalur laki-laki yang kebanyakan memiliki peran lebih besar di luar rumah di samping lakilaki yang banyak berurusan dengan tanggung jawab atau keputusan dalam membeli peralatan elektronik dan perbaikannya serta penerangan rumah. Sebagian besar pemasang SHS rupanya juga memiliki harapan dan motivasi yang tinggi. Mereka memesan pemasangan SHS kepada penjual umumnya kurang dari satu minggu semenjak mengetahui informasinya. Informasi yang paling efektif tampaknya justru dari tetangga mereka meskipun ada iklan yang disiarkan melalui radio atau surat kabar oleh agen penjual SHS. Tampaknya hal ini merupakan efek dari strategi promosi dari rumah ke rumah yang dilakukan oleh pihak penjual. Dalam hal ini orang cenderung melihat terlebih dahulu SHS yang sudah dipasang tetangga mereka sebelum membeli. Keinginan yang tinggi untuk memiliki SHS dengan harga murah rupanya telah dimanfaatkan oleh pihak-pihak yang ingin mengambil untung dari citra baik SHS di mata masyarakat. Sebagaian warga masyarakat mengutarakan bahwa mereka telah tertipu oleh para penjual lampu darurat (emergency lamp) yang mempromosikan lampu itu sebagai miniatur SHS yang cara kerjanya cukup dijemur di terik siang hari manakala lampu tidak mau menyala kehabisan daya. Hasil penelitian ini selanjutnya bisa disarikan dalam beberapa hal berikut. Pertama,

pemakaian

SHS

belum

terlihat

memberikan

kontribusi

terhadap

peningkatan status sosial ekonomi rumah tangga. Dalam hal ini, daya SHS yang terpasang, masih memiliki keterbatasan dalam kapasitasnya untuk mengembangkan usaha atau sumber pendapatan. SHS yang umumnya terpasang praktis hanya bisa untuk membantu penerangan rumah dan menghidupkan beberapa alat elektronik. Kedua, pemakaian SHS semakin memperkuat peran dan posisi domestik perempuan di dalam rumah tangga. Pembagian kerja dan pengambilan keputusan di dalam rumah tangga masih menekankan perbedaan peran laki-laki dan perempuan dalam domain tugas dan tanggung jawab yang berlainan. Perempuan bertanggung jawab dalam ruang domestik, membereskan pekerjaan-pekerjaan di dalam rumah serta mengelola keuangan, sedangkan laki-laki cenderung berada dalam ruang publik seperti menghadiri pertemuan sosial, aktivitas kemasyarakatan selain mencari sumber penghasilan utama untuk rumah tangganya. Berkenaan dengan peran gender ini, para ibu-ibu diuntungkan dengan penerangan SHS karena bisa membereskan pekerjaan rumah tangganya di malam hari sementara suaminya cenderung meluangkan waktu dengan menikmati hiburan televisi, radio atau sekedar duduk-duduk mengobrol baik dengan tetangga atau anggota keluarga mereka.

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Di samping itu, SHS pun dipandang sebagai barang yang berasosiasi dengan laki-laki karena perawatannya berada dalam tanggung jawab mereka walaupun ketika membeli diputuskan secara bersama antara suami dan isterinya. Namun demikian, keterlibatan perempuan dalam pengambilan keputusan pembelian SHS ini lebih berkaitan dengan tugasnya dalam mengelola keuangan keluarga karena harga SHS yang cukup mahal untuk keuangan rumah tangga mereka. Perlu dicatat di sini bahwa masalah keuangan keluarga responden sebagian besar dikelola secara tradisional dan sedikit di antara mereka yang berhubungan dengan layanan perbankan. Ketiga, SHS memberikan dampak positif bagi gaya hidup individu dalam rumah tangga yang memasangnya. Anak-anak menjadi lebih giat belajar dan hasilnya pun terlihat dengan peningkatan prestasi belajar mereka di sekolah. Orang tua mereka pun mengaku memperoleh manfaat karena bisa mengikuti informasi dari media elektronik. Mereka juga mengemukakan bahwa berkat SHS ini membawa rasa aman dan menghilangkan perasaan keterpencilan di desa mereka. Penelitian ini juga menemukan

bahwa

aktivitas

membersihkan

rumah

menjadi

lebih

sering

dibandingkan semasa rumahnya belum menggunakan penerangan SHS. Selain itu, partisipasi mereka dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat pun meningkat karena rumah mereka menjadi lebih sering dipakai untuk perkumpulan sosial dan keagamaan di malam hari. Keempat, penggunaan SHS telah menurunkan pengeluaran rumah tangga mereka untuk energi, khususnya minyak tanah, baterai dan aki. Dalam hal ini, penggunaan SHS tidak serta merta menghilangkan pemakaian sumber energi lain tetapi mengkombinasikannya untuk keperluan yang berlainan di samping sebagai cadangan manakala daya SHS menurun. Berkaitan dengan ketersediaan daya yang dihasilkan SHS ini pula, tercatat bahwa jumlah perangkat elektronik dalam rumah tangga seperti televisi, tape recorder, radio bahkan VCD kian bertambah. Kelima, secara umum pengertian tentang cara kerja SHS telah diketahui di kalangan

responden baik yang memasang atau yang tidak.

Bahkan di antara

mereka ada yang mengaku bisa memperbaiki sendiri apabila terjadi gangguan atau kerusakan. Namun demikian, sedikit di antara responden yang pernah mengalami kerusakan SHS-nya menyerahkan perbaikan itu pada teknisi dari agen penjualan. Keenam, sebagian besar responden pengguna SHS ini juga menyatakan puas dengan kondisi SHS-nya. Bahkan beberapa di antara mereka berniat membelinya lagi untuk menambah daya yang dihasilkan. Sebagian lagi yang merasa puas tetapi tidak berniat membeli lagi dikarenakan oleh kesulitan keuangan dalam rumah tangga dan kredit mereka yang belum lunas. Sementara itu, mereka yang

viii

mengaku tidak puas disebabkan oleh kapasitas daya yang dihasilkan oleh SHS terbatas dalam memenuhi kebutuhan listrik mereka. Mereka masih membayangkan bahwa kapasitas SHS yang mereka pasang tak ubahnya dengan kapasitas daya dari jaringan listrik PLN. Beberapa temuan lain yang menarik selanjutnya bisa dibaca dan dicermati di dalam laporan penelitian ini.

ix

T AB LE OF C O NTEN T FOREW ORD ……………………………………………………………………

I

EXECUT IV E S UMM ARY ………………………………………………………..

II

RINGKAS AN ……………………………………………………………………

V

T ABL E O F CO NT ENT ………………………………………………………….

X

T HE LIS T O F T ABL E …………………………………………………………..

XI II

T HE LIS T O F CHART ……………………………………………………………

XVI I

T HE LIS T O F FI GURE …………………………………………………………..

XVI I

CHAPT ER I INTRODUCTI ON A. Background …………………………………………………..

1

B. Statement of the Problem …………………………………..

3

C. Objectives …………………………………………………….

4

D. Assumption and Hypothesis ………………………………..

4

E. Research Methodology ……………………………………...

5

E.1. Approach …………………………………………………

5

E.2. Sampling …………………………………………………

6

E.3. Interview …………………………………………………

8

E.4. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) ………………………

8

F. Research Site ………………………………………………..

9

G. Research Schedule ………………………………………….

10

H. The Organization of the Report …………………………….

10

CHAPT ER II T HE INTRODUCTI ON OF COMM ERCI AL SOL AR HOM E S YST EM IN T HE PROVI NCE O F L AMP UNG A. Environmental Condition ………………………………… 12 A. 1. Geography and Topography …………………………. 13 A. 2. Population ……………………………………………….14 B. Way of Life …………………………………………………….

15

C. Price of Energy and Electricity Grid ………………………...

19

D. The Distribution of Solar Home System (SHS) ……………

22

D.1. Promotion and Advertisement …………………………

24

D.1.1 Door to Door Promotion ………………………...

24

D.1.2. Radio Broadcast ………………………………..

25

D.1.3. Newspaper Advertisement ……………………..

26

D.2. Sales Mechanisms and Services …………………….

27

x

E. The Needs of SHS ……………………………………………..

28

CHAPT ER II I T HE SO CI AL E CO NOM IC F EATURES O F T HE S URV EY RESP ONDENTS A. Ethnic Identity, Family Size, and Age Distribution ………..

30

B. Social Economic Status ……………………………………..

32

B.1. House and Land Ownership …………………………..

33

B. 2. Source of Income and Occupation ……………………

36

B. 3. Expenditure ………………………………………………

38

B. 4. Valuable Belongings …………………………………...

40

C. Financial Management of the Respondents’ Households ..

41

D. The Information and Knowledge of SHS ……………………

43

D. 1. Information of SHS …………………………………….

43

D. 2. Knowledge of the SHS …………………………………

45

E. Motivation to Install the SHS …………………………………

47

F. Purchase and Payment ………………………………………

49

G. The Maintenance and Reparation of the SHS …………….

51

CHAPT ER I V

T HE IMP ACTS O F SO LAR HOM E SYS T EM ON D EV EL OPM ENT

A. The Social Economic Status the SHS Users ………………

53

A.1. Occupation and Income ………………………………..

54

A.2. Expenditure and Valuable Belongings ………………..

56

B. The Different Impacts of the SHS Use in the Household …

62

B.1. The Division of Labor ……………………………………

62

B.2. Length of Activities ……………………………………...

73

C. The Change of Lifestyle ………………………………………

77

C.1. Education …………………………………………………

78

C.2. Social Participation ……………………………………

82

C.3. Cleanliness of the SHS Users’ Houses ……………….

83

C.4. Spatial Mobility …………………………………………..

84

D. Accessibility …………………………………………………….

86

E. The Energy Use and Expenditure ……………………………

89

E.1. The Source of Energy in the Household ………………

90

xi

E.2. The Used Energy for Lighting Devices ………………..

92

E.3. The Used Energy for Electronics ………………………

92

E.4. Monthly Household Expenditure of Energy …………..

93

F. The Use of SHS ……………………………………………….

97

G. Social Identity ………………………………………………….

95

H. H. Expectations and Satisfaction ……………………………

100

CHAPT ER V CO NCLUS IO N ……………………………………………

104

BIBLI O GRAP HY ……………………………………………………….

108

APP ENDIX

xii

THE L IS T O F T ABLE 1. Table 1. 1 The Number of Respondents 2. Table 1. 2 The Distribution of Respondents Based on the Districts 3. Table 2. 1 The Total Area and Population Density/ km² in the Province of Lampung

4. Table 2. 2 The Price List of Basic Goods in Bandar Lampung 5. Table 2. 3 The Average Price of Energy in Lampung (IDR) 6. Table 2. 4 Electricity Generated and Sold per Branch in Lampung Province, 2001

7. Table 2. 5 The Audited SHS in Lampung up to June 2003 8. Table 2. 6 The Price of List of the SHS in PT Mambruk 9. Table 2. 7 The Distance between Electricity Grid from the House of Respondents

10. Table 3. 1 The Ethnic Identity of the Respondents 11. Table 3. 2 The Number of Household Members 12. Table 3. 3 Age Distribution of the Household Members 13. Table 3. 4 The Roof of the Respondent’s House 14. Table 3. 5 The Housing Condition Based on the Wall 15. Table 3. 6 The Housing Condition Based on the Type of Floor 16. Table 3. 7 The Value of the Respondent’s House and Its Yard 17. Table 3. 8 Land Ownership 18. Table 3. 9 Land Use Pattern 19. Table 3. 10 Respondent’s Occupation 20. Table 3. 11 Monthly Household Income 21. Table 3. 12 Monthly Household Expenditure 22. Table 3. 13 The Monthly Expenditure 23. Table 3. 14 The Value of Household Belongings 24. Table 3. 15 The Value of the Respondent’s Livestock 25. Table 3. 16 Respondents and Bank Services 26. Table 3. 17 Reasons for Not Going to the Bank 27. Table 3. 18 Household’s Members Who Know Information on SHS 28. Table 3. 19 Agents of SHS Information 29. Table 3. 20 Respondent’s Knowledge about SHS 30. Table 3. 21 The Interest of Husband and Wife to Install SHS 31. Table 3. 22 Length of Wait to Order SHS xiii

32. Table 3. 23 The Way of Ordering SHS 33. Table 3. 24 The Reasons of Husband and Wife to Install SHS 34. Table 3. 25 The Mechanism of Payment 35. Table 3. 26 The SHS Trouble 36. Table 4. 1 The SHS User and Non User According to the Income Source 37. Table 4. 2 Monthly Income of the SHS Users 38. Table 4. 3 The Respondent’s Claim of Having Advantage from Using the SHS 39. Table 4. 4 Monthly Expenditure of the SHS User 40. Table 4. 5 Monthly Expenditure of SHS User for Productive Activities 41. Table 4. 6 New Valuable Goods Bought during the Research Process 42. Table 4. 7 The SHS User and Non User According to Their Land Ownership 43. Table 4. 8 The Land Use Pattern 44. Table 4. 9 Cooking Activities in the Household by Gender 45. Table 4. 10 Childrearing Activities in the Household by Gender 46. Table 4. 11 Laundering Activities in the Household by Gender 47. Table 4. 12 Frequency of Doing House Cleaning by Gender 48. Table. 4. 13 The Maintenance of SHS by Gender 49. Table 4. 14 Fulfilling Energy Needs by Gender 50. Table 4. 15 Doing Farmland by Gender 51. Table 4. 16 Keeping Livestock by Gender 52. Table 4. 17 Participation of SHS User in Social Gatherings 53. Table 4. 18 Participation of SHS User in Religious Gatherings 54. Table 4. 19 Decision Maker in Building House 55. Table 4. 20 Decision Maker in Buying Electronics 56. Table 4. 21 Decision Maker to Repair Electronics 57. Table 4. 22 Decision Maker for Children Schooling 58. Table 4. 23 Decision Maker to Educate Children 59. Table 4. 24 Decision Maker to Buy Kitchen Tools 60. Table 4. 25 Decision Maker to Prepare Food 61. Table 4. 26 The Length of Productive Activities by Gender 62. Table 4. 27 The Length of Recreation by Gender 63. Table 4. 28 The Length of Bedtime by Gender 64. Table 4. 29 The Advantage from the SHS by Gender 65. Table 4. 30 Reasons for the Advantages of Having SHS 66. Table 4. 31 The Educational Attainment of the Household Members xiv

67. Table 4. 32 The Length of Children’s Study 68. Table 4. 33 The Achievement of Children at School 69. Table 4. 34 Frequency of Watching Television 70. Tabel 4. 35 Respondent’s Favorite Program on Television 71. Table 4. 36 Frequency of Listening to the Radio 72. Table 4. 37 Frequency of Reading Newspaper 73. Table 4. 38 Frequency of Hosting Community Activities 74. Table 4. 39 Frequency of House Cleaning 75. Table 4. 40 Reasons to Stay by Gender 76. Table 4. 41 Frequency of Traveling Out 77. Table 4. 42 Differential Responses on the Accessibility in Communication 78. Table 4. 43 Media of Communication 79. Table 4. 44 Getting Access to Information Amongst Different Household Members of SHS User

80. Table 4. 45 Getting Access to Information Amongst Different Household Members of non-SHS User

81. Table 4. 46 Sources of Information for Members of the SHS Household 82. Table 4. 47 The Energy Source in the Household of SHS User. 83. Table 4. 48 Lighting Tools in the SHS User 84. Table 4. 49 Electronic Appliances in the SHS User 85. Table 4. 50 SHS user Household Monthly Expenditure for Buying Dry Cell, Kerosene and for Recharging Car Battery (Volume)

86. Table 4. 51 SHS User Household Monthly Expenditure for Dry Cell, Kerosene and for Recharging Car Batteries (IDR)

87. Table 4. 52 Monthly Energy Expenditure for Appliances before Using SHS 88. Table 4. 53 Monthly Energy Expenditure for Appliances after a Year Using SHS

89. Table 4. 54 Length of Daily SHS Use 90. Table 4. 55 Power Capacity of Electronic Appliances 91. Table 4. 56 Responses of the SHS Users on the Advantage of the System 92. Table 4. 57 The Expectation of Household Members at the Time of SHS Installment

93. Table 4. 58 Differential Responses toward the SHS 94. Table 4. 59 Planning to Buy More SHS: Husband and Wife

xv

THE L IS T O F C H ART 1. Chart 1 Fluctuation Price of Crop Commodity ………………………… 15 2. Chart 2 Fluctuation Price of Agricultural Commodity …………………

16

3. Chart 3. Average Retail Price of Basic Commodity …………………..

17

THE L IS T O F F IG UR E 1. Figure 1 Household Survey in Kasui …………………………………… 5 2. Figure 2 Indepth Interview in Mesuji ……………………………………. 6 3. Figure 3 Focus Group Discussion in Seputih Mataram ………………. 8 4. Figure 4 Village in Pardasuka …………………………………………… 22 5. Figure 4 Preparation to Install SHS …………………………………….. 24 6. Figure 5 SHS Installation ………………………………………………… 44 7. Figure 6 Electrycity by SHS ……………………………………………… 45 8. Figure 7 SHS Battery …………………………………………………….. 51 9. Figure 8 The Damage Of Battery ……………………………………….. 52 10. Figure 9 SHS Users in Mesuji …. ………………………………………. 61 11. Figure 10 Wartel ……………………………………………………………86 12. Figure 11 Fuel Energy …………………………………………………….. 91 13. Figure 12 SHS Used for Electronic Appliances ………………………… 96

xvi

CH AP TE R I IN TRO DU CTION

A. Background A solar home system (SHS) is an alternative source of modern energy. It provides high quality and convenient service for non-grid connected rural households, which are able to use the SHS instead of kerosene for lighting and instead of batteries for radio/cassette or television. As a part of a program to develop sustainable access, the World Bank and the Government of Indonesia through the SHS Project have supported efforts by the private sector to distribute SHS through commercial market mechanisms since 1999. The coverage areas of the project are the province of West Java, Lampung, and South Sulawesi. The companies involved in the project are PT Mambruk, PT Altari, PT Guna Elektro, PT Sundaya, PT MetroIndo and PT Gerbang. This research is a study by Yayasan Dian Desa, conducted at the request of the Project Support Group of the SHS Project. The purpose of the study is to explore the development impacts of the use of SHS within households and, to a lesser extent, within communities. This is a pilot study, focused on selected household in the province of Lampung. The study has been conducted in three stages. The first step was to collect base-line data of the socio-economic and cultural conditions of the households and communities and to assess the needs of the households that contributed to the decision to purchase an SHS. This step was conducted at the time the SHS was installed in the household. The second step was to identify the different effects that the use of the SHS had had on the households, particularly the impacts on the different members of the households. This was carried out in the second survey, which was conducted approximately six months after the installation of the SHS in the household. The third stage was to conduct the third household level survey, after approximately six additional months, to further track the effects of the SHS and to form a basis for explaining the impact of the SHS on the living conditions of the users one year after the SHS installment. Focus group interviews and interviews of community leaders were also conducted to explore the possible impacts.

1

The newly installed SHS technology may provide different advantages to the individual members of the SHS user households. From this assumption, there are potentially observable shifts in the pattern of the individual household member’s daily activities due to the use of SHS. New habits may emerge and in the long run the roles of the individuals in the households may

be

reconstructed. This study pays a special attention to these potential impacts. The impacts of the use of SHS in this study aremeasured by exploring the differences between the conditions as found during the baseline survey at the time of the SHS installation and at the time of the second and third rounds of the surveys. The data are analysed quantitatively to determine how the SHS is used within a household, who uses it, how it affects the duties, activities, roles, status and income of the household members, and how it affects the relationship between the household members and the community. The study examines the advantages of using the SHS in relation to gender, generation, and social status. The changing life style and identity of the SHS users are taken into account in the analysis. Beyond the household level, the study attempts to assess the impact of the SHS on the prospect of the local community, whether or not the SHS installation is beneficial for both the SHS users and non-SHS users. Although the direct benefit for the whole local community may be very limited or insignificant, it assumes that a single installation will produce a certain ripple or snow-ball effect in the community. This report has been prepared after the third survey round. It is the accumulation of the study results, containing the updated data and analysis from the previous research steps. It exposes the impact of the SHS on the living conditions of the users one year after the SHS installation. Therefore, it verifies the findings of the first follow-up survey and irons out several of the rival factors that influence its findings. This final report particularly provides the dynamic features of the introduction of the SHS in Lampung, the profile of SHS users, the impact of the use of SHS on the development of the households and community, concluding remarks, and some recommendations.

B. Statement of the Problem In general, the study attempts to reveal the impacts of the use of the SHS on the development of both the households and community. It also explores the motivation, experience and expectation of the SHS users

2

concerning the operation of the system. To estimate the impacts, the study focuses on a set of variables and attempts to track them through the three rounds of the study. Those variables include socio-economic status, life style, cost efficiency of the expenditures on energy, and the individual appropriation of the system. Specifically, this study inquires both the explorative and structural questions. The explorative questions: 1.

Why do certain households choose SHS as their alternative energy?

2.

From what social and economic status do the SHS users come from?

3.

How do they get information and knowledge about SHS?

4.

What are the factors influencing their decisions to install a SHS?

5.

What different initial expectations are there amongst the household members when the SHS is installed?

The structural questions: 1. Does the SHS bring about the improvement in social economic status of the users? Does it foster income generation activities? 2. Does the SHS lead to the reduction of the household’s expenditures on energy? If so, how do those variables change? 3. Does the use of SHS affect the division of labor in the households? How far is the division of labor in the households affected? Does the use of the SHS support to the gender equity? 4. Who gets the benefits from the system? What are their advantages? 5. Does the SHS influence education, spatial mobilization, and social participation? Does the use of the SHS shape life style of the users? How far is their life style influenced? 6. How do the SHS users maintain and take care of the system? How do they repair it when it is out of order? Who repairs it? What components must be replaced and how often must they be replaced? 7. Are there any households withdrawing from using the SHS? If so, Why?

C. Objectives The objective of the study is to explore and describe the impacts of the use of SHS. Explicitly, the research objectives are:

3

1. To identify different motivations, reasons, and expectations in installing the SHS in the housheold and community. 2. To delve into the implications of the use of SHS on the division of labor and changing individual roles in the households. 3. To discover the impacts of SHS installation on the households in their social economic status, transformation of lifestyle and the efficiency cost of the expenditure for the energy. 4. To explorethe impacts of the SHS on the development of both the households and the community. 5. To describe the use and appropriation of the SHS in the households and in the community. 6. To gather information to assist the analysis of the financial and economic impacts of the project.

D. Assumption and Hypothesis The study explores whether there are different impacts of the SHS among members of the households. The use of SHS is viewed as a potential triggering factor contributing to changes in the division of labor, roles and the individual status within the households. This is due to the use and appropriation of the SHS by each household member for her/his own benefit. The use of SHS may lead to the individual’s shifting of attitudes and behavior in everyday-life. Thus the study examines the hypothesis that there are some relationships between the installation and use of an SHS and the social economic status and the life style of household members.

E. Research Methodology The research was carried out in three steps of data gathering and analysis. The first was to establish the base line data by interviewing the respondent households at the day of the SHS installation in their houses. The data on the key indicators were collected and examined by looking into the relationships of several variables in both the households that hadpurchased the SHS from the commercial vendors and neighboring households that had not ordered the equipment as the control

4

group. The baseline survey also collected data on the way the people had gained information that led to the purchase, how they were motivated to make the purchase and their expectations of the system. The second step was the first followup round of research which aimed at initial observations and estimates of the impact of the use of SHS over the initial six months. The respondents who had installed the systems and the control group were revisited and interviewed based on the same variables of the baseline survey. The respondents were revisited during the third and final round of survey at a point approximately one year after the installations of the systems.

E.1. APPROACH The

study

followed

quantitative

(survey)

and

qualitative

approaches. The quantitative approach was done through the series of three comparative surveys, which applied similar questionnaires to the same respondents at specific time intervals.

Through introductory

discussions, Information on the membership of each household was determined and categorized depending on the member’s status, e.g., husband, wife, son and daughter. The leading adult and children household members were, then, were interviewed separately, that is wives and husbands were interviewed separately. The children to be interviewed wereselected from the eldest son and the eldest daughter within the household whose age is more than 12 years old. This is to anticipate their willingness to answer questions as well as their ability to articulate their experiences. The result of the survey data was later computed and processed by the SPSS-10 database. The qualitative approach was applied to gather details and insights from certain key informants. The key informants were determined from those who possess

particular

knowledge of SHS in the area during the study. They are asked, in details, for information regarding their competences. The selection of key informants was conducted in accordance with the capability of the informants to

5

provide information, and their willingness to share their experiences with the researcher. The technique of this approach was in-depth interviewing and direct observations. Further, focus group discussions (FGD) were held to reflect on the findings emerging from the collected survey data with regard to the respective community and to assist in illuminating the similarities and the differences of the opinions from different SHS users. The participants of the FGD were respondents, who reside close to one another. This was the basis of the selection practical logistical reasons, i.e., to make it possible for the researcher to coordinate and to reach the focus group members. E.2. SAMPLI NG The survey sample was selected purposively. In the base line study, the total number of the respondents were100 households. It consisted of 50 households of SHS buyers from the available vendors in the area, and 50 households of non-SHS buyers as the control group. In the first and second rounds of follow up surveys, the number of the household respondents changed due to the respondents’ departure from the area and the termination of using the SHS. During the research process, five SHS users and three non-SHS users from the control group stopped being respondents. The three non-SHS users

became SHS

users following the first follow up survey round and thus were no longer included in the control group and are counted as SHS users. Finally, the total number of the respondents at the last step of the research is 95 households consisting of 48 SHS users and 47 non-SHS users. The dynamics of the respondent composition is presented in table 1.1 Table 1.1. The Number of Respondents Research Step

Number of Respondents SHS User

Control

Total

Baseline

50

50

100

First Round

50

47

97

Second Round

48

47

95

Source: Primary Data 2003

6

Of the five SHS users who stopped being respondents, two of them had moved to other villages after the baseline survey. The other three refused to participate in the follow survey interviews; these respondents explained that they found

no advantage of using the SHS, they felt they had been

disillusioned by the SHS promotion, and they were unable to pay the installments (they had purchased the systems with credit from the vendor). For these three households, the systems had already been uninstalled and taken back by the sale’s agent from the respondents’ houses. In this survey, the number of the respondents’ children that were interviewed also varied. The baseline survey managed to interview 62 boys and 44 girls. The number then decreased to 28 boys and 22 girls in the first follow up round. At the last step of the survey, the research team interviewed 33 boys and 25 girls. The variability of this number occurs because some of them have moved to the city, with the most typical reasons being either to continue their education or to work. E.3. INT ERVI EW O F K EY I NFO RM ATI ONS The key informant interview is conducted to gather detailed information and insights on the SHS development in the area of the study. It is a complement to generate additional data to that has been obtained from the survey questionaires. The interview guide is designed in a form of flexible questions based on the flow of information given during the field work. The key informants comprise several persons either as individuals or group representatives. They come from the stake holders of the project and related institutions that are concerned about the development of the SHS. In this regard, the researcher team members have gathered information from the World Bank-SHS Project Support Group, BPPT, METI, PLN, PT Mambruk, and PT Altari. The researcher team also conducted such interviews with selected survey respondents whose experiences of using SHS show a range of confidence in SHS --ranging from confident, moderate, up to bad. The selection of the key informants is based, also, on their willingness to cooperate with the researchers.

7

E.4. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSI ON (FGD) FGD were held in order to recollect experiences, feelings, and memories of the SHS household users, so that they are able to share their own experience having SHS in their house with the fellow users and with the research team. By doing so, they are able to generate a better sharred knowledge on SHS. FGD is intended as a medium for the SHS user community to more fully appropriate the new technology as well as for the researchers to gain a better understanding of the context and impacts. There were two locations where FGD were conducted during the research. The first one was held in Mesuji and the other in Mataram Jaya. These two locations had been selected to host the FGDs for a practical reason. There are a sufficient number of SHS users in Mesuji and Mataram Jaya, who live in a close vicinity. FGDs were held three times in each location following the three steps of data collection. The participants of the FGD came from various socio-economic strata. Each FGD required about two hours in a complete participatory spirit.

F. Research Site The research activities were carried out in the Province of Lampung. The province had been selected as the research site because it is an active area for commercial SHS market development that is supported by the government and the World Bank through the SHS project. The sampling procedure required respondents who had just installed the SHS at the time of the baseline survey. The selection of respondents for the baseline survey followed the direction of the actual SHS sales until it reached 50 buyers in the province. The respondents’ residences are thus located in seven districts of the province of Lampung (as presented in table 1.2). With the assistance of the vendors, the research team track out to the addresses of the respondents, most of them being in remote, scattered areas in the countryside of Lampung.

8

Table 1.2. The Distribution of Respondents Based on the Districts Districts

Baseline F

%

First Round F

%

Second Round F

%

Tanggamus

18

18.0

18

18.6

18

18.9

South Lampung East Lampung

18 2

18.0 2.0

18 2

18.6 2.1

18 2

18.9 2.1

The Center of Lampung

26

26.0

24

24.7

23

24.3

North Lampung Way Kanan

2 10

2.0 10.0

2 10

2.1 10.2

2 10

2.1 10.5

Tulang Bawang

24

24.0

23

23.7

22

23.2

100

100.0

97

100.0

95

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data, 2002 & 2003

G. Research Schedule As the research is divided into three steps, the schedule for the interviews was also arranged in three periods. The first period was scheduled beginning on the fourth week of March, 2002. The first period was delayed due to low sales and eventually could be carried out from April 11th to June 9th, 2002, with the interview being done on the day of the SHS installation in the house of the respondents. The second period started from the mid October and ended up on December 2002, and the third period was done from the early of June up to the July 31st , 2003.

H. The Organization of the Report This report consists of five chapters. The first chapter is an introductory chapter that contains a brief presentation of the research background, questions, objectives, assumption and hypothesis, and the research methodology. Chapter two summarizes the general setting -

the

geographical and environmental condition, as well as the macro social economic situation in the province of Lampung during the study. This chapter also describes the fluctuation of the main crop prices in the province and the basic commodities that influenced the livelihood of the respondents. To streamline the estimation of the development impact of the SHS in the households, the condition of electricity grid and other energy sources are discussed as well. Chapter three is the description of the respondents’ characteristics. It provides features on the social economic aspects

of the respondent

9

households. The management of income and income sources in the household are also discussed in this chapter Chapter four is an explanatory analysis on variables of social and economical status of the SHS users side by side with the non-users as the control group. The assessment is made through cross tabulation of the relevant variables found in the baseline and its verification of the findings in the first round survey. Those variables include the social economic status, the division of labor by gender and generation, the life style and their cost of energy. Moreover, this chapter also reveals the perceptions and the expectations of the user on their SHS. Finally, chapter five draws conclusion and recommendations of the study.

10

CH AP TE R II THE IN TRO DU CTIO N O F C O MME RC IAL SO LAR HO ME S YS TE M IN T HE P RO V IN CE OF L AMP U NG A concise understanding of the natural and historical backgrounds of the SHS users studied can assist explain the motivation of the households when they decide to purchase an SHS and their perceptions of the SHS at that time. It is instructive for this study to describe the most relevant environmental condition and the way of life in the Province of Lampung, where all respondents of this study live. The development of electricity grid and its constraints is included in this description as it is a major technological factor, which opens up or closes the market for SHS. This chapter also describes the selling strategy of the SHS vendors, which has helped make the SHS available in the market. Even though the different marketing strategies among the different vendors may become an interesting research theme in itself, this report includes only PT Mambruk Tenaga Surya’s marketing strategies and activities, since all sales in the area at the time of the baseline survey were being done by PT Mambruk and thus respondents of this study are customers of PT Mambruk.

A. Environmental Condition The environmental characteristics of Lampung leadits population to cultivate plantation and agricultural commodities. Even though its coastal areas are widely spread out around the eastern, southern and western part of the province, the fishing activities are less developed than agricultural ones. This condition is likely shaped by the characteristics of its population in which most of them comprise Javanese transmigrants whose livelihood relies on agriculture rather than aquatic culture. To the extent of the population background, it is therefore the topographic and climate characters in the area that cause a potential effect to the social economic status of the province by which seasonal crop commodities are affected much. A.1. GEO GRAP HY AND T OPO GRAP HY The province of Lampung is situated in the southern tip of Sumatera Island. On the northern part, it borders on the province of South Sumatra and Bengkulu. Sunda Strait is on the southern part, while Java Sea and the Indonesian Ocean is on the eastern and

11

western parts of its coastal areas. This province is divided into ten regencies: Lampung Utara, Lampung Timur, Lampung Barat, Lampung Selatan, Lampung Tengah, Tanggamus, Way Kanan, Tulang Bawang, Bandar Lampung and the municipality of Metro. The capital city of the province is Tanjung Karang. The province covers the area of 35.288,35 km 2, which is located on -103040’ – 105050’ East Longitude and -3045’ – 60 45’ South Latitude. The type of the topography includes the hilly and mountainous area, rolling hills, alluvial land, tidal marshland and river basins. The mountainous area is in Bukit Barisan with its peaks at Tanggamus, Pasawaran and Raja Basa. It is generally steep and sheer with the angle of 25% and a height of 300 M – 1500 M above the sea level. The area is mainly covered by forest vegetation. Within this area, there is low hill with narrow flat land and slope between 8%-15%. The height is about 300M-500M from the sea level in which the settlement and crop plantation are mostly founded. In this area, people cultivate plantations like coffee, cloves, pepper, and other crops such as corn and vegetables. The area is located in Bandar Lampung, Gedong Tataan, Sukoharjo, Pulau Panggung and Kalirejo. Some areas of the province are covered by alluvial land. Those areas include Lampung Tengah, Lampung Timur, Tulang Bawang, and along the West coast parallel with Bukit Barisan. Their heights are about 25-75 M with slopes between 0% - 3%. Coupled with the availability of several rivers in the areas, such as Way Sekampung, Way Tulang Bawang, and Way Mesuji, people are able to grow rice and vegetables. There are five main river basins in the province, as follows: Tulang Bawang river basin, Seputih river basin, Sekampung river basin, Semangka river basin, Way Jepara river basin. Since those rivers have low debit of water in the dry season, there are only a few areas where people are able to grow plants and vegetables. As the part of the topography, the eastern coast of the province constitutes tidal marshes with a height of 0.5 – 1 M above the sea level according to the tides of the sea (BPS Propinsi Lampung, 2001). Lampung is located below the equator at 50 south lattitude. It has a tropical humid climate with damp sea winds from the Indonesian ocean blowing to two directions every year. The two directions are (1) November – March, when the wind blows from the West and North

12

West; (2) July- August, when the wind blows from the East and South east. The average velocity is about 5.83 km per hour. In the mainland area with the height of 30 – 60 M above the sea level, the temperature generally varies between 260 – 280C, the maximum is 330 C and the minimum is about 220C. The average humidity at the meteorogical station is about 80% - 88%. A.2. POP UL ATI ON This province has been a main destination for transmigrants from Java, Bali, and other islands since early 1900s.

The Javanese,

Sundanese, Balinese, and other transmigrants have flowed into Lampung both spontaneously and under the transmigration scheme. They contribute not only to a rapid population growth to Lampung, but also to heterogeneity of cultures and ethnicities. Today, the total population of Lampung is 6.654.354 people which belong to 1.615.010 households. Its growth-rate population (2,67% per year) occupies the highest percentage in Indonesia. In average the population density is almost 200 people per square kilometer. Except for the cities of Metro and Bandar Lampung, the population density in all districts shows no extreme differences. Thus the population of Lampung is spread almost in very wide areas, which causes in many cases any centralized system of communication and service distribution, such as centralized grid electricity, to be problematic and expensive. Lampung needs therefore, e.g., more a diffused system of electric distribution rather than the centralized one. Table2.1 below performs the density of the province by regency in 2003. T ABL E 2.1 T HE T OT AL AREA AND POP UL AT IO N DENSI T Y/ KM² I N T HE PROVI NCE O F LAMP UNG Regency

2

Area (km )

Population Density / km

Lampung Barat

4.950,40

73,93

Tanggamus

3.356,61

238,36

Lampung Selatan Lampung Timur

3.180,78 4.337,89

356,26 200,43

Lampung Tengah

4.789,82

218,42

Lampung Utara Way Kanan

2.725,63 3.921,63

194,01 91,19

Tulang Bawang

7.770,84

89,03

2

13

Bandar Lampung City Metro City Total

192,96

3.851,10

61,79

1.912,20

35.288,35

188,57

Source: Lampung in Figures, 2003

B. Way of Life The environmental condition of Lampung gives enough benefits to the people to cultivate crops as well as forest commodities. Due to the shortage of irrigation systems in most parts of the areas, people grow cassava, corn, and soybean in their farmland. Big plantation companies produce agricultural commodities for the world market such as pepper, tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar cane, rubber, coconut, and oil palm. Lampung also has quite e few mining resources. More and more people are working as laborers in the plantation and mining industries. However the incomes of Lampung are still coming mainly from the agricultural sectors, which indeed determines the cash flow and the people’s buying capability in the province. Chart 1. Fluctuation Price of Crop Commodity Rupiah/ Kg. 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 Pepper

15000 10000

Robusta Coffee

5000

Copra

0 1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Year

Source: Statistic on Record, BPS- Lampung 2003

The chart above draws the fluctuation of crop prices within the past five years. The prices of crop commodities move in different directions from year to year. The price of pepper that has become one of the main commodities in Lampung is the most unstable. After it hiked up in 1999 when the price reached IDR 36,000 per kg, a result of higher international prices and the sharp depreciation of the Rupiah, It fell to IDR 15,000,-/ kg. In the following years; IDR 13,430,-/ kg is the current price. The price of robusta coffee, which was as high as IDR16,000,- in 1999, has continously declined since, to IDR 4,420/kg recently. In contrast, copra which is another important crop in Lampung, has seen a gradual increase in its price. At the time of the second round of the

14

survey, the price was IDR 1,768,-/kg. Up to now, the indicator of SHS sales and the payment methods arranged by the vendors are linked to the harvesting of export commodities such as coffee, pepper and copra. In fact, the prices of those crops has decreased for quite sometime and their fluctuation has been unpredictable. Specifically, the study found that more people who were growing cassava could afford the SHS either by paying cash or by installment plan. Most of the respondents of the study are cassava planters. According to its seasonal harvest, the price of cassava typically begins to increase in February, and reachs its peak in May. The price of cassava has tended to be stable in IDR 200,- /kg. In comparison to the prices per kg of the other agricultural commodities, cassava is indeed at the lowest, but it also has been the most stable. Chart 2. Fluctuation Price of Agricultural Commodity Rupiah/ Kg. 8000 7000 Peanut

6000 5000 4000 Potato

3000

Soya Bean

2000 Maize

1000 Cassava

0 1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Year

Sourc e: Statistic on Record, BPS- Lampung 2003

Better management and crop rotation, however, has increased the villagers’ buying power. The respondents in Mesuji claim that within a seven month period they manage to earn three to four million rupiahs from two hectares of cassava (around ten tons per hectare). Moreover, this income from cassava is not the only source of income. Many villagers have other sources of income as workers in the tapioca and sugar industries, ojek drivers and petty food traders in the market. These facts indicate that the cash flow in the villages

15

seems to spread almost evenly from month to month although it is not yet independent from the fluctuation of the cash-crop prices in the market. In contrast to the falling price of crop commodities, the prices of basic goods tend to go up slightly. As indicated in chart 3, the prices incline upwards on stable line from 1998 to 2002. There is a saying among the respondents that “once the price increases, it never goes down”. The exception is the practice of increasing prices of basic commodities during the month of Ramadhan, when they can double. Average Retail Price of Basic Commodities Rupiah/ Kg 20000 Salted Fish

18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000

Cooking 4000 Sugar Rice

2000 0 1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Year

Source: Statistic on Record, BPS- Lampung 2003

During the Ramadhan, Moslems fast along the day up to thirty days, and it ends on Id Fitri. People usually associate the fasting days by reducing their productive hours, especially for those whose work exhausts a lot of physical energy. It, therefore, requests more demand of the basic goods despite the low productivity. The peak season of the demand happens in the week of Id, at the end of Ramadhan, when people celebrate the tradition by having festivals with their family and neighbors. This condition, thus, leads to the raising of the prices of the basic goods in the market to accommodate the increasing demand. Last year, the increases had started two days before the beginning of the fasting month (Lampung Post, 5 November 2002). Not only were the prices of the nine basic goods (sembako) raised, but the prices of vegetables were also. Table 2.2 illustrates the record of the increase of basic good prices in the

16

market of Bandar Lampung on November 5, 2002 in concomitant with the coming of Ramadhan month. Table 2.2. The Price List of Basic Goods in Bandar Lampung Commodity

Price (IDR/kg.) Before

Present

Cooking Oil (yellow)

4,600

4,800

Cooking Oil (white) Sugar

4,700 3,800

5000 4,000

Egg

7,000

8,000

Flour Mills Rice (good quality)

2,800 2,800

3,000 3,000

2,200 10,000 – 15,000

2,500 18,000 – 20,000

Green Chili

8,000

12,000

Tomato Onion

2,500 6,000

4,000 7,000

Garlic

4,000

5,000

Rice (low quality) Red Chili

Source: Lampung Post, 2002

C. Price of Energy and Electricity Grid The energy prices, when the follow up surveys were conducted, also had increased in comparison with when the baseline study was made. Table 2.3 points to the average of the increasing price of energy in most parts of Lampung during the survey. The varying prices of energy depend on the location and its availability and the official policy to gradually reduce the high subsidies that were given from kerosene, diesel and gasoline. It is obviously seen that the more remote the area, the higher the prices of energy, except for the fuel woods in which people could collect from forest for free.

Table 2.3. The Average Price of Energy in Lampung (IDR) Energy

Baseline

First Round

Second Round

Fuel Wood (per ikat)*

1,500

1,500

2,000

Kerosene Diesel

1,125 1,500

1,250 1,600

1300 2,000

Gasoline Charging Car Battery

1,750 1,500

1,850 2,000

2,250 2,000

2,000

2,000

2,100

Dry Cell Battery * 1 ikat = 5 kg.

17

Source: Primary Data, 2002-2003

Most of the population in this province has not obtained the electricity service from the State Electricity Grid yet. According to the statistics based on record of 2001, there was 851.007.313 kWh sold from the 1.018.039.043 kWh electricity generated. The direct customers comprise 491.430 households (30.43% of the total population); there are also an unknown number of indirect customers, that is households who are connected through the practice of sharing connections and through other informal methods. There are regencies, in which the number of direct customers of PLN is less than 30%. These regencies are Tulang Bawang (6,9%), Way Kanan (15%), Kabupaten Lampung Tengah (20%), Kabupaten Lampung Utara (25%), dan Kabupaten Lampung Barat (25 %). The province has two hydro power stations, they are Way Besai power station with the capacity of 2 x 45MW and Batu Tegi power station with the capacity of 2 x 14 MW. Moreover, the province is supplied by the power from gas power station of Tanjung Enim in South Sumatra as much as 64,006,018 KWH. State Electricity Enterprise (PLN) Tanjung Karang Branch records that 10 % of electricity generated had been unsold yet. The comparative amount of electricity generated and sold is performed in the table 2. 4. Electricity service is concentrated in Tanjung Karang where the capital of the province is situated. Even though the other places are also connected with the grid, the service mostly takes place in urban areas. The grid of electricity is still limited in rural areas. As it is described in the base line-study, the villagers usually generate the electricity either by diesel, genset or car batteries. Table 2.4 Electricity Generated and Sold per Branch in Lampung Province, 2001 Branch

Electricity Generated (KWH)

Electricity Sold (KWH)

Tanjungkarang

599,488,007

480,300,896

Talang Padang

113,516,722

90,685,873

73,682,776

61,704,034

Metro

118,684,558

102,924,682

Bandar Jaya

168,983,483

147,572,101

Kotabumi

105,011,087

81,030,341

30,389,266

24,835,401

Kalianda

Bukit Kemuning

18

Liwa Total

26,161,176

20,651,259

1,195,917,075

1,009,704,551

Source: PT PLN Cabang Tanjung Karang,2001

According to some respondents’ experiences, however, the generator would not last for a period longer than three consecutive years. Besides, due to this technical constraint, people feel it is inconvenient using a generator set. Many respondents envisage that a genset organized in the community (i.e., an independent village grid) would only benefit the elite group, and there would be the problem of the noise it produces. On other hand, those who have already been connected to the PLN grid, are not quite satisfied with the service. Brownouts occur quite often for many reasons. When we conducted the baseline of this study, the reason for it was the flood, which destroyed the Way Besai power station. PLN claimed they lost 90 Megawatt due to the closing of Way Besai power station and it caused shortage of electricity supply for Lampung. Thus, PLN rotates its distribution by shutting down its power twice a week. On the contrary, when we conducted the first round survey, the brownouts were explained as caused by the shortage of water up to about 50% both in Way Besai power station and Batu Tegi power station. . The Chief of PLN of Lampung district stated that the shortage of water had reduced Way Besai power station capacity to 35 MW, while Batu Tegi power station could only produce 12,5 MW. Facing this lack of power up to 60 MW, PLN turns off the power circularly from one area to the other. The reported policy is four days on and one day off (Lampung Post, 28th September and 5th November 2002). Moreover, the policy for new extensions of the grid is confusing. The lack of information on the policy is somehow creating opportunities for corruption and maliciousness. Some villagers in the East Lampung have waited for the grid installation for a year after they paid around IDR 1,900,000 to the PLN agent in their district. First, they are asked to pay IDR 1,500,000 when they have a meeting

with

PLN

officers,

the

contractor and the village officers. But, later, they are asked for another IDR 400,000 by the committee. The only reason given for the extra payment is that the initial payment wasnot sufficient. Nonetheless, the grid extensionhas not

19

been realized yet. In West Lampung, the villagers are asked to pay a deposit as much as IDR 5,000,000 for the grid installation, but up to now it is not neve realized. However, as we confirmed such issues to PLN, their officers accuse that there must be a broker or a third party who tries to take advantage of the situation. They are also unable to describe the master plan of the grid extension in the province.

D. The Distribution of Solar Home System (SHS) The solar home system is rarely used although PT Sudimara had introduced it since 1980s. This company had been there for ten years and had achieved a high selling point. It was a success story at that time. Later, with the economic crisis, the SHS sales from PT Sudimara decreased and then ended. Several SHS produced by Sudimara can still be found in the areas. Then, after the worst of the crisis had passed, PT Altari came to continue the marketing of SHS in Lampung from its South Sumatera branch office in Tugumulyo, OKI. In Lampung, Altari now only has a warehouse. Nowadays, PT Mambruk and PT Sundaya are the two agents that actively distribute the SHS under the World Bank Support Project Program. According to an informant, Sundaya started to sell the SHS in Lampung in early 2003, , while PT Mambruk has operated in the Lampung market since 2001. There are three other agencies that do the SHS selling under the World Bank project, namely PT Guna Elekro, PT Metro and PT Gerbang, butthe researcher team confirmed that they were not operating in Lampung. Along with the companies from the SHS project,, there is also a company selling used SHS in Lampung, namely PT Cahaya Mantap Mustika Sari. This company collects the used SHS from the government’s SHS projects in Sulawesi, Java and other islands, as well as in Lampung, where people have replaced the system with electricity after getting connected with the PLN grid. PT Cahaya Mantap Mustika Sari sells the unit in the province with lower prices compared to the new one. The price is around IDR 2,500,000, cash without warranty. Although it is done commercially, this SHS market does not receive a subsidy from the World Bank SHS Project. The reason is that they sell a second-hand product. Up to June 2003, World Bank has audited data that there are totally 2,065 new units, equals with 101,324 Wp, sold in the province of Lampung.. Amongst

20

the SHS dealers, PT Mambruk takes the biggest market share in Lampung by selling 808 units. Table 2.5. The Audited SHS in Lampung up to June 2003 Dealers

Unit

WP

N

%

Altari

418

20.2

17,466

Mambruk Guna Elektro

808 660

39.1 32.0

42,020 32,888

Sundaya

179

8.7

8,950

2,065

0.0 100.0

101,324

Metro Total

Source: World Bank – PSG, 2003

D.1. PROMOT IO N AND ADV ERTIS EM ENT There are various ways in promoting the SHS in the province of Lampung. Different dealers may use different strategies to attract the customers to buy the SHS. In terms of promotion activities, PT Mambruk, for instance, takes various media

simultaneously i.e:

community

visits,

meetings,

door-to-door

salesman

local

radio

broadcasts and newspapers. D.1.1 DOOR TO DO OR PROMOT IO N In terms of door to door promotion, SHS salesmen must sometimes stay in local villagers’ houses due to the absence of hotels in these remote market areast. More than that, staying in the villagers’ houses may give them more opportunities to improve their rapport with the

prospective

customers.

To

attain

sales,

some

salesmen,

furthermore, try their own style by acknowledging their customer’s habits,

language

and

culture. As they proved it,especially in Javanese villages, it is considered an effective

strategy

to

convince people to order the SHS. In fact, some of them mention that there is a significantly different rate of SHS acceptance across ethnic boundaries.

21

Another strategy to promote the product in villages is also carried out by making intensive salesman attendance there. For example, several salesmen of PT Mambruk states that they are often roaming around the prospective areas within a week. At the same time, they try convince the villagers perpetually that SHS meets to their needs of electric current besides offering the convenient investment through the renewable energy. Accordingly, it works as there are many villagers asking them directly to install SHS in their houses. Some other customers make orders while they are looking at the installation of SHS in their neighbors’. D.1.2. RADI O BROADCAS T Radios are an effective way to promote SHS in a remote area, because radio is the only media of communication for those customers who live in out of the way places. Most villagers in Lampung listen to the radio everyday. One particular spot of radio advertisement on SHS broadcasted in a local station apparently worked well in attracting the attention of the Javanese transmigrants in Lampung. This advertisement starts with the conversation between two Javanese (as it is indicated by their use of Indonesian language accented in Javanese) talking about the inconvenient operation of the diesel generator. In the noisy atmosphere of the diesel generator when someone needs light in the evening, his younger brother (addressing to the person with Pakde) recommends him to replace it with the promising system of SHS. His younger brother says that the SHS will solve the problem of electricity shortage. It will generate the electric current without gasoline or kerosene, accordingly. He said “Tinggal ceklek langsung byar….” (you just need to click the button, then you will get the light). The short conversation is then followed by the advertorial statements of male and female broadcasters by turns. After a long introduction with the back-sound of dangdut music, the male broadcaster says : “We’d like to introduce to you the electricity generated by solar energy (SHS). It is more productive, no fuels needed, environment friendly, easy to use, and sustainable….” Then, the female one adds :

22

“The SHS can utilize any kinds of electronic equipments such as televisions, irons, water pumps, telecomunication café (wartel) and many more equipment ”. The male broadcaster further mentions the address for ordering: “Please contact promptly the Sejahtera Cooperation, Mesuji E – SP 4, Way Serdang, Tulang Bawang. The phone number is 0828724754. We will come to serve you in your place right away.” “Yes… using the SHS principally means click and then ‘byaaar’….”, asserted the female broadcaster in affectionate voice. “The SHS gives you a long time lighting …” closes the male broadcaster. Although the broadcasting advertisement may not be the only source of information, the image of SHS in this particular advertisement seems to be exaggerated. Unlike the other electric generator, the SHS can not meet the needs of people for electric current to supply all kinds electronic equipments. D.1.3. NEW SPAP ER ADV ERTI S EM ENT Another important medium to promote the SHS is advertisements in local newspapers, as is done from time to time by PT Mambruk. Although the circulation of local newspapers is very limited, advertisements are considered an effective medium to introduce SHS to a wider public. In one of the newspapers, the advertisement appears as follows:

Figure 1.1. The SHS Advertisement in a Local Newspaper

23

D.2. SAL ES M ECHANISMS AND S ERVI CES There are different mechanisms of selling the SHS amongst the agencies. It occurs because each agency distributes different product types and power capacity. PT Altari distributes two types of SHS with panels made by Solarex. The model of Solarex SX-40, which generates 40 WP, is sold for IDR 3,000,000, while Solarex VLX-53 costs IDR 3,600,000,-. PT Mambruk provides MTS-200 for IDR 3,500,000, MTS400 for 5,700,000,- and MTS-600 for IDR 7,740,000,- cash. The cash payment method is, however, tolerated by PT Mambruk within the duration of three months. It means if the customers could afford the amount of money requested within three months, the purchase is still accounted as cash price. PT Mambruk also offers installment plans to purchase the SHS. The plan is offered to help the customers to afford the SHS, due to the unavailability of cash. The installment plan and its term varies among 6 months, 18 months, 24 months and 30 months. Table 2.6 shows the price list of the SHS in the province of Lampung in 2002. The prices include 10% as the selling tax. Even when each dealer sells the SHS in different prices, they are committed to provide an after-sales service and warranty similarly, as part of the requirements of being eligible for the World Bank subsidy. The warranty includes the photovoltaic cells for 10 years, the automatic controller for 1 year and the car battery for 9 months.

24

Table 2.6. The Price of List of the SHS in PT Mambruk Type of

Cash

SHS

(IDR)

MTS-200

MTS-400

MTS-600

MLS 4

3,500,000

5,700,000

7,740,000

Credit (IDR) Down Payment

6 Month

12 Month

18 Month

24 Month

30 Month

750,000

514,000

280,000

205,000

165,000

143,000

1,000,000

468,000

255,000

186,000

150,000

130,000

1,250,000

422,000

230,000

168,000

136,000

118,000

1,500,000

376,000

205,000

150,000

121,000

105,000

1,750,000

330,000

180,000

132,000

107,000

93,000

1,500,000

780,000

425,000

309,000

250,000

215,000

1,750,000

743,000

400,000

291,000

235,000

203,000

2,000,000

688,000

375,000

273,000

220,000

190,000

2,250,000

642,000

350,000

255,000

206,000

178,000

2,500,000

596,000

325,000

273,000

191,000

165,000

2,000,000

1,062,000

579,000

420,000

340,000

292,000

2250,000

1016,000

554,000

402,000

325,000

280,000

2,500,000

970,000

529,000

384,000

310,000

267,000

2,750,000

924,000

504,000

366,000

296,000

255,000

3,000,000

878,000

479,000

348,000

281,000

242,000

1,200,000

Source: PT Mambruk tenaga Surya, 2002

E. The Needs of SHS As described earlier, electricity is a scarce resource in the survey areas a the grid of PLN is only available in limited areas. People, therefore, search for alternative solutions for their electricity needs. Several salesmen state that they mostly receive orders of SHS installation from near to the grid areas. The survey further finds out that 46.0% of the respondents live about less than five kilometers from the electricity grid. The closest distance is about half a kilometer, which consists of one household.

25

Table 2.7. The Distance between Electricity Grid from the House of Respondents Distance (km.) Less than 1

Frequency

Percent (%)

1

1.0

1 -5

45

45.0

6 – 25 > 25

23 31

23.0 31.0

Total

100

100.0

Source: Primary Data, 2002

It seems that the relatively close distance of the electricity grid from the houses of respondents influences their motivation to install SHS. The SHS salesmen particularly identify such sites as the area of electricity failure (daerah gagal listrik). In this sense, the villagers from these areas envy their neighboring villages who enjoy the electricity service. This situation triggers their strong motivation to find similar infrastructure. These areas are considered by the salesmen as high potential for the SHS market.

26

CH AP TE R III THE S OC IAL EC ON O MIC FE ATU RE S O F THE S URV E Y RE SP ON DE NTS

This chapter presents a general description of the dynamics of the social economic status of the respondents’ households during the whole research process. The social background of respondents including ethnic identity, family size and age distribution are delineated to identify their social characteristics. Then, this chapter exposes their economic status by looking at their income sources, expenditure and valuable belongings. The management of household finance is described to understand how the respondents manage their money. The respondents’ perceptions on banking system is also revealed. The chapter finally provides insights about the respondents’ motivation to install SHS, the constraints in purchasing it, their knowledge, as well as the maintenance of the system.

A. Ethnic Identity, Family Size, and Age Distribution The majority of the survey household respondents are not indigenous Sumatranese, although the research is conducted in the province of Lampung. Table 3.1 shows the composition of the ethnic groups in which Javanese is in the highest percentage. Following it, there are Sundanese, Madurese and Balinese. In contrast, there are only 3.2 % of the respondents are indigenous to Sumatra consisting of Ogan and Semendo people. The composition of the respondents that comprises more non-indigenous Sumatrans occurs as the province has become the transmigrant area since the colonial time. The researchers found that the migrants have been living in the province of Lampung for at least two generations through the program initiated by the national government. There were a few voluntary migrants from Java who did not take part in the program, but who had decided to move to Lampung province to improve their living condition. Table 3.1. The Ethnic Identity of the Respondents Ethnic Group

Frequency

Percent (%)

Javanese

75

78.9

Sundanese

15

15.7

27

Madurese

1

1.1

Balinese

1

1.1

Ogan Semendo

1 2

1.1 2.1

95

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data 2003

The high number of SHS customers in the transmigration area is not a coincidence. Inspite of the fact that the transmigration area is poorly facilitated by public infrastructure, such as transportation and electricity grid, the livelihood of transmigrants is well developed from their agricultural activities. During the harvest season, the availability of cash-money from selling crop commodities has enabled them to afford their needs of goods including SHS. The respondents’ background as the new migrants in the province is reflected in the average size of their households. Since the nuclear family is primarily requisited in this transmigration program, the average of household members in the respondents’ houses is relatively small. A household generally consists of a husband, a wife and two or three children. Table 3.2 indicates 30.5% of the household respondents comprise 1 to 3 members while 55.8 % of the household has 4 to 6 members. Most households are nuclear families. Newly married couples immediately setting up their household live separately from their parental house in a neolocal residence that has no connection with the parents of the wife or husband. Table 3.2. The Number of Household Members Household Members

Frequency

Percent (%)

1–3

29

30.5

4–6

53

55.8

13 95

13.7 100.0

7> Total Source: Primary Data 2003

Among the survey respondents, there are a widow and a widower. Based on the age distribution of the household respondents, 81.9% of the husbands are in the most productive age categories (16-55), so are the wives. In the same category, a similar trend is also found in the tendency that the husbands are older than their wives. Meanwhile, for the highest proportion of households the age of the most of the children is lower than 20 years old, indicating that they are still dependent on their parents socio-economically. The decreasing number of children over the age of 21 within the household is caused by the

28

post marital tradition in which the neolocal residence separate from their parents is preferred for the newly married couple. The following table 3.3 shows the age distribution within the households of the respondents. Table 3.3. Age Distribution of the Household Members Age

Husband

Wifes

Son

Daughter

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

1–5

-

0.0

-

0.0

11

15.3

3

4.4

6 – 10

-

0.0

-

0.0

9

12.5

17

25.0

11 – 15

-

0.0

-

0.0

19

26.4

14

20.6

16 – 20 21 – 25

1

0.0 1.1

2 11

2.1 11.7

16 6

22.2 8.3

21 8

30.9 11.8

26 – 30 31 – 35

11 11

11.7 11.7

15 21

16.0 22.3

8 1

11.1 1.4

3 2

4.4 2.9

36 – 40

18

19.1

13

13.8

2

2.8

-

0.0

41 – 45 46 – 50

13 15

13.8 16.0

18 4

19.1 4.3

-

0.0 0.0

-

0.0 0.0

51 – 55 > 55

8 17

8.5 18.1

6 4

6.4 4.3

-

0.0 0.0

-

0.0 0.0

Total

94

100.0

94

100.0

72

100.0

68

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

B. Social Economic Status The social economic status of the respondents in this survey is primarily measured by their household income, expenditure and valuable belongings. In estimating the household income, their occupation and other income sources are taken into account. Their expenditure and valuable belongings are also calculated in order to recognize their life style. The house and land ownership of the respondents is described to outline the settings of their social economic conditions. B.1. HOUS E AND L AND OW NERSHIP Most of the respondents’ houses are built in a good-looking way and are in a well maintained condition today. The majority of transmigrants, who used to live in smply-construted houses provided by the transmigration program, have renovated and even reconstructed the buildings. A few disadvantaged households who might not be able to improve their economic life have let their house remain in its original

29

condition, with palm leaf roof, woven bamboo walls, and uncemented floor. Table 3.4. shows that 94.7% roofs of the houses are made of tile. Table 3.4. The Roof of the Respondent’s House Type of Roofing

Frequency

Percent (%)

Tile

90

94.7

Iron Sheet

2

2.1

Asbestos-tiled roof Palm Leaves

1 2

1.1 2.1

Total

95

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The use of roof tiles is likely affected by the tradition of Javanese houses to which ethnic group the vast majority of respondents belong to. However, according to local standard, tiles are more expensive than iron sheet, asbestos or palm leaves. Thus, the use of roof tiles may indicate high socio-economic status of its owner. Based on the type of walls used, 71.6% of the houses have cemented wall. Beside its strength, the cemented walls also indicate a relatively better socio-economic status of its owner. One informant told the researcher that he could finally afford the cemented walls after waiting for about fifteen years. Accordingly, he produces the bricks as the basic materials of the house by himself. The present condition of his house is very much better compared to the one on his first arrival in Lampung when the transmigrants were entitled to a very simple 6 x 3 m² wooden house provided by the government. Table 3.5. The Housing Condition Based on the Wall Type of Wall

Frequency

Percent (%)

Ceramics

1

1.1

Cemented Wall

68

71.6

Wood Bamboo

22 4

23.2 4.2

Total

95

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Furthermore, the better housing condition of the respondents could be determined from the renovation of their floors. Table 3.6 specifies that floors of 81.1% of the houses have been cemented and even 3.2 % out of them are covered with ceramics. The rest 18.1% are still with

30

ground floor. In this sense, this condition displays the socio economic status of the house owner in which the better condition of their housing indicates the higher status of their owners. Table 3.6. The Housing Condition Based on the Type of Floor Type of Floor

Frequency

Percent (%)

Ceramics

3

3.2

Cement

77

81.1

Ground Total

15 95

15.7 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Regarding the housing condition and the current price of the land, most of the respondents (55.7%) calculate that the value of their houses is less than Rp 20,000,000 (approximately equivalent to $2,200 at exchange rates prevailing during the research). Only 1.1% of the respondents estimate the value of their house more than Rp. 50,000,000. This means the socio-economic status of the respondents based on the value of their house can be categorized into the middle to low class. Table 3. 7. points to the details. Table 3.7. The Value of the Respondent’s House and Its Yard Value (Rp.)

Frequency

Percent (%)

Less than 10,000,000

37

38.9

10,000,001 – 20,000,000

16

16.8

20,000,001 – 30,000,000

14

14.7

30,000,001 – 40,000,000 40,000,001 – 50,000,000

20 7

21.1 7.4

More than 50,000,000 Total

1 95

1.1 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

According to the land ownership, 12.6% of the respondent households posses less than one hectare farmland, while the majority (65.3%) own 1 to 3 hectares. This majority consists of the former transmigrants who received two hectare land allotment each from the government beside a house. Some households may have sold a part of their allotment, some others (17.9%) are able to expand their ownership as it is pointed in table 3.8

31

Table 3.8. Land Ownership Land Size (ha.)

Frequency

Percent (%)

Less than 1

12

12.6

1–3

62

65.3

3.1 – 5 5.1 – 7

10 3

10.5 3.2

7.1 – 9 More than 9

2 2

2.1 2.1

NA

4

4.2

95

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data 2003

The pattern of land use is generally distinguished into two categories, in accordance with the topography and the availability of water in the area. In the mountaineous area, which is far from the water stream, people develop dryland agriculture. Meanwhile, the ricefield commonly grows in the lowland where the irrigation system is well developed. For most farmland respondents, the dryland agriculture suits the topography and the climate. People grow cash crop such as coffee, black pepper, cinnamon and cassava. Others, however, cultivate rice primarily for consumption. Table 3. 9 shows that 74.7% of the households use their land for the dryland agriculture while the other 25.3% do the rice cultivation (8.4%) or both activities (16.9%). Table 3.9. Land Use Pattern Land Use

Frequency

Rice field

Percent (%)

8

8.4

Dry land agriculture

71

74.7

Both rice field and dry land Total

16 95

16.9 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

B.2. SOURCE O F INCOM E AND OCCUP AT IO N The vast majority of respondents depend on the agricultural activities to make a living. Even though they are involved in trading activities or other services such as laborers, drivers, administrative workers, including civil servants, they own land to cultivate crops. There are about 77.9% of respondents who claim that they generate their income from agriculture sector. The rest engage themselves as civil servants, laborers, and entrepreneurs. Furthermore, there are about

32

37.9% of respondents saying that they have other income sources due to insufficient earnings from a single source. They sell their services in various work fields, such as carpenters, construction workers, drivers, laborers of tapioca producers, food vendors, etc. Table 3.10 illustrates the occupational status of the household respondents obtained in the present survey. In that, the composition is not much different from the previous findings. However, it is indicated that most of the households attempt to be engaged in income generating activities, except for 18.9% of women who claim to be the housewives. 46.2% of sons and 55.6% of daughters remain studying. It is important to notice that, even when they say they are housewives or students, they are likely to get involved in various productive activities to improve the well being of their households. Table 3.10. Respondent’s Occupation Occupation

Husband F

%

Wife F

Son %

F

Daughter %

F

%

Civil Servant/Military

9

9.5

5

5.2

3

4.6

-

0.0

Entrepreneur Trader

5 4

5.2 4.2

4 15

4.2 15.8

1 2

1.5 3.1

1

0.0 1.8

Farmer Labor Worker

74 2

77.9 2.1

51 -

53.7 0.0

19 5

29.3 7.7

11 4

20.4 7.4

1

1.1

20

21.1

35

53.8

38

70.4

95

100.0

95

100.0

65

100.0

54

100.0

NA Total Source: Primary Data 2003

Ironically, although people are employed in various activities for remuneration and income earning, the average of the household monthly income points to low status. Half of respondents claim that the income they earn is less than IDR 500,000,- This amount is, as a matter of fact, lower than that they earned in the last season when they were suffering from the drought. Some of them are able to increase their income into the category of IDR 500,000 to 1,000,000, but, on the other hand, those, who previously earned more than IDR 1,000,000, now have to earn less. Thus, there are only 8.4% who could maintain the income level above IDR 1,000,000.

33

Table 3.11. Monthly Household Income Income

Baseline

(IDR)

First round

Second round

F

%

F

%

F

%

< 500.000

53

53.0

66

68.0

49

51.6

500.000 -1.000.000

24

24.0

11

11.4

38

40.0

> 1.000.000 NR

17 6

17.0 6.0

10 10

10.3 10.3

8 0

8.4 0.0

100

100.0

97

100.0

95

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data 2003

Compared to the baseline survey, there are 13.7% of respondents claiming that their present income has gone up, while 55.8% of them stating that it remains the same and 29.5% say it is going down. Concerning their low-income earnings, people revealed several arguments. In their opinions, the main reasons are the external factors, which are mainly caused by the unfriendliness of the last dry season. Accordingly, the effects of the drought have caused them a lot of hardship to start cultivating new plants, and to grow plants. Meanwhile, the respondents observed that the prices of the crop commodities have remained low in the market. B.3. EXPENDI TURE The

expenditure

of

respondents’

households

is

somehow

appropriate with their income earnings. The average monthly expenditure is in the range of IDR 472,510 to 588,872. The mean of the third survey points to IDR 508,359. Table 3.12 indicates the distribution of households’ expenditure in which there are 60% respondents spending less than IDR 500,000. The households who are used to spending more than IDR 1,000,000. showed the tendency of declining expenditures during the research, compared to the findings of the baseline survey. Compared to their income, this trend of expenditure indicates that people might be living in a condition that they could only fulfill their subsistence. Only few people are able to save money, mainly those who earn more than IDR. 500,000.- per month.

34

Table 3.12. Monthly Household Expenditure Expenditure

Baseline

(IDR)

First round

Second round

F

%

F

%

F

%

< 500.000 500.000 –1.000.000

55 34

55.0 34.0

58 18

59.8 18.5

57 31

60.0 32.6

> 1.000.000

11

11.0

9

9.3

7

7.4

NR Total

0 100

0.0 100.0

12 97

12.4 100.0

0 95

0.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The follow up surveys confirmed a similar pattern to the results of the baseline study in which the households of respondents are likely to put priority of their income for productive expenditure, which includes the expenditures for food, education, medicine, agricultural tools and other capital goods. Meanwhile, consumption, social and other expenditures tended to be in contraction during the follow up surveys compared to the baseline survey. The expenditures for consumption refers to the expenses for the consumptive goods such as clothes, electronic appliances and recreation. The social expenditure points to the money allocation for social activities, such as contributions for village development, or personal donation for their neighbors in special occasions as a part of the tradition. The other expenditures are estimated from unintended expenses of the households. Table 3.13. The Monthly Expenditure Condition

Measurement

Expenditure on (IDR) Social

Others

98,058.8

82,443.2

128,291.3

300,000.0

50,000.0

50,000.0

100,000.0

Mode

300,000.0

100,000.0

100,000.0

50,000.0

Std. Dev

616.163.8

137,283.2

99,259.4

116,862,3

Average

300,710.0

117,940.0

54,230.0

59,050.0

Median

200,000.0

50,000.0

35,000.0

25,000.0

Mode

150,000.0

50,000.0

50,000.0

50,000.0

Std. Dev

263,050.0

165,180.0

73,640.0

89,800.0

Second

Average

365,073.7

83,061.1

63,635.3

6,550.0

Round

Median

300,000.0

50,000.0

50,000.0

500.0

Mode

300,000.0

100,000.0

50,000.0

0

Std. Dev

284,871.7

85,793.3

81,552,8

8,714.6

Baseline

First round

Production

Consumption

Average

436,770.1

Median

Source: Primary Data 2003

35

The bigger allocation of the expenditure for production is related to the season in which they start to cultivate their lands. During the cultivation season, they spend their money to buy fertilizers, pesticides, pay additional laborers and other capitals for their livelihood. It is different to the findings of the first follow up round survey, in which the respondents preferred to allocate their income to buy valuable goods rather than to spend for consumption or other functions due to local celebrations, when they tend to display their well-being status in their house.

C.4. VAL UABL E BEL ONGI NGS Certain valuable belongings may become an attribute of the socioeconomic status of the respondent households. Their values are calculated by converting the goods into their current self-estimated prices. The first category includes furniture, radios/ tape players, televisions, bicycles, motorcycles, and cars. The second accounts for their livestock such as chickens, goats, buffalos and cows. The common goods in the households comprise furniture and radios/ tape players, bicycles, motorcycles, televisions, and even vcd players. Table 3.14. draws that 52.6% of household belongings are in the range of IDR 1,000,001 – IDR 5,000,000, and 27.4% in the range of IDR 5,000,001 – IDR 10,000,000. The households that possess cars are rare (2 households). They are usually the most affluent people in the community.

Table 3.14. The Value of Household Belongings Value (IDR)

Frequency

Percent (%)

Less than 1,000,000

8

8.4

1,000,001 – 5,000,000

50

52.6

5,000,001 – 10,000,000 10,000,001 – 20,000,000

26 8

27.4 8.4

20,000,001 – 30,000,000 More than 30,000,000

1 2

1.1 2.1

Total

95

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

36

Since their basic livelihood is agriculture, most respondents keep livestocks mostly for saving. The common ones are chickens and goats. Table 3.15 indicates that 83.2% own livestock. Amongst them, 49.4% points to the value of less than Rp. 1,000,000.00. The percentage tends to decline in a line with the increasing value of the livestock such as cows or buffalos. This trend shows that the livestock is bred not only for investment but also for ploughing the farmland. Table 3.15. The Value of the Respondent’s Livestock Value (IDR)

Frequency

Percent (%)

Less than 1,000,000

39

49.4

1,000,001 – 5,000,000

26

32.9

5,000,001 – 10,000,000 10,000,001 – 20,000,000

11 1

13.9 1.3

20,000,001 – 30,000,000

1

1.3

30,000,001 – 40,000,000 More than 40,000,000

1 -

1.3 0.0

Total

79

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

Based on the indication of the social economic status, it can be reflected that the majority of the respondents belong to low to middle classes. Most of them are peasants whose livelihood relies on agriculture. Their income earnings fluctuate depending on the season and the prices of their crop commodities. The second survey findings indicated that the drought during the past dry season and the falling prices of the crops led to decreasing incomet. In the third survey of the research, their economic condition seemed to have improved a little bit compared to that six months earlier.

C. Financial Management of the Respondents’ Households The households of respondents generally manage their financial matters in a conventional way. The management of the finance is mainly in the hands of women although the decision to allocate the expenditure for the certain reasons is made with the spouses. Women distribute the take-home pay from various sources primarily to meet the daily needs of the household members. If they have a surplus, they will usually turn it to the valuable things like gold, jewelry or land, in which the values tend to increase all the time. Then, these valuable things will be sold when they need cash money.

37

Most of the respondents mention that they have not yet been familiar with the service of banking system. It might be related to availability of the bank where the lowest level of its branch is generally located in the district or village center. For the respondents who mostly live in hamlets or neighborhoods within villages that are far away from the bank service, going to bank is time consuming and costly. Amongst the respondents, there are only 27.4% of the households that use the bank service for different kinds of transactions, such as savings, transferring money or asking for loan. For some others, they use local cooperatives, informal installment plan unions, neighbors or relatives to deal with loans, while they prefer to keep money under the pillow if they have a little extra. Table 3.16 Respondents and Bank Services Encounter with Bank

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Yes

26

27.4

No

69

72.6

Total

95

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

From the respondents who often go to the bank, Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) is the most reachable. About 73.1% of them are BRI customers while the others are connected with Bank Danamon (7.7%), BCA (3.8%), BNI (3.8%), BPD(3.8%), Bank EKA (3.8%), BTPN (3.8%), and Bank Mandiri (3.8%). The availability of the BRI branches in the district and village centers is the dominant factor for the existing relationship between respondents and the bank. Instead of the banking system, the common financial institutions utilized by the households are installment plan unions or local cooperatives in the community. In addition, the households that are reluctant to deal with the bank give several reasons as indicated in the following table. Table 3.17 Reasons for Not Going to the Bank Reasons

Frequency

Percentage (%)

16

23.2

Too many requirements

2

2.9

Unreachable bank site Lack of urgency of going to the bank

4 9

5.8 13.0

Money spending for other expenses

1

1.4

10 5

14.5 7.2

6

8.7

Fear for indebtedness

No remaining cash money Lack of information of banking procedures Unwillingness to deal with the bank

38

NA

16

23.2

Total

69

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Beside the reasons mentioned above, people feel uncomfortable to deal with the bank especially to propose a loan because they perceive the complication of the requirements and its collateral burden. In terms of the loan collateral, for instance, the bank requests a land certificate, an identity card and a letter of recommendation from either village officers or local institutions. Several respondents feel inconvenient with the procedure because they think that private matters should not be heard by others. Several other people are not in favor of the bank’s charging interest.

D. THE INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE OF SHS The SHS has been distributed in Lampung through commercial agency as a part of Worldbank support project since 1999. Promotional activities have been made in various ways by the agents as a part of their marketing strategies, i.e : door-to-door sales, printable media, and broadcasting media. The survey tracks out the flow of SHS information coming up to the respondents, and records the respondents’ motivations to buy the system. It is important to understand the respondents’ perception the system and the maintenance requirements. D.1. Information of SHS In the base line study, the survey found that there are many channels of SHS information coming into the respondents’ houses. Husbands seem to have received more intensively the flow of SHS information than their spouses prior to the purchase. Table 3.18 shows that 71.0% of the husbands acquired the SHS information even though some of them (21.0%) are not SHS buyers. On the other side, wives who got the information point to 40 % which means 10% less than the SHS users as the respondents of the survey indicate. It shows that there are more wives who probably were not informed about the SHS, even when their husbands might have decided to buy it. Perhaps, it occurs because the SHS is socialized through public spheres where husbands (male) were more often participating, e.g., village gatherings and other social meetings. Even when it is promoted through door to door visits, the SHS salesmen (who are all male) are usually welcomed

39

by the husbands as the head of the household. In addition, several children who claimed to know about the SHS mostly learn it from school. Table 3.18. Household’s Members Who Know Information on SHS Know SHS Information

Husband

Wife

Son

Daughter

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Yes

71

71.0

40

40.0

23

29.1

8

11.4

No

20

20.0

50

50.0

5

6.3

1

1.4

NR Total

9 100

9.0 100.0

10 100

10.0 100.0

51 79

64.6 100.00

61 70

87.1 100.00

Source: Primary Data 2002

As the respondents claim, various agents mediate the SHS information. The prominent agents of SHS information are their neighbors and salesmen. Compared to the SHS salesmen, their neighbors spread the information more intensively (25.68% higher) if each of them is accounted as a single agent of information. This trend accords with the focus group discussion findings in which

the

participants obtain the information about the SHS right after they take a look at their neighbors’ installations. Moreover, they could enjoy the light produced by the SHS or television programs in their neighbors’ houses while visiting them. On the

other

household

hand, members

and local leaders are also important agents providing

information

on the SHS. Somehow, local newspapers and radio broadcasts are less intensive in promoting the SHS as most of the respondents mentioned.

40

Table 3.19. Agents of SHS Information Agents of Information

Frequency

Percent (%)

Household Member

10

6.8

Neighbors

71

48.0

Local leader Salesmen

2 33

1.4 22.3

Radio advertisement HH member and newspaper

1 4

0.7 2.7

HH member and neighbor

4

2.7

HH member and salesman HH member, neighbor and salesman Neighbor and Local Leader Neighbor and Salesman Neighbor, Local Leader and Salesman Total

2

1.4

4

2.7

3 12

2.0 8.1

2

1.4

148

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

D.2. KNOW LEDGE O F T HE SHS After period of six months after the baseline survey, more of the the same respondents were informed on SHS. They have become more familiar with the SHS since people could witness how the SHS operates in the neighborhood. To some extent, those who have not yet installed the system also were getting advantages from the SHS. They could watch television when visiting their neighbors who own one. The secondsurvey found that 84.5% of the respondents understand that the SHS

provides

an

electric

source.

The

percentage increased to 91.6% in the third survey. Today, not only do the majority of the respondents, both the SHS users and nonusers, hear or recognize the SHS, but they also understand and know the operation of the system. As table 3.20 indicates, based on the third

survey,

the

vast

majority

have

understood the operation of SHS and the functions of main components in the system. For the SHS users, the knowledge is gained from the technicians when they install the system, and then, they tell others who ask them.

41

Table 3.20 Respondent’s Knowledge about SHS Knowledge Agree SHS is an electric source Solar power is converted to electric power through photovoltaic cell The current power is run by a car battery There is an automatic controller for charging the battery The current is able to turn on the light and television There is a necessity to consider the time management to get optimal function Damages can be repaired by themselves

Response (%) (N = 95) Not Disagree informed

NA

91.6

4.2

1.1

3.2

89.5

0.0

7.4

3.2

84.2

10.5

1.1

4.2

86.3

4.2

5.3

4.2

83.2

10.5

2.1

4.2

77.9

14.7

4.2

3.2

37.9

44.2

14.7

3.2

Source: Primary Data 2003

The interesting point here is that 14.7% of the respondents disagree that it is necessary to manage the time of using the system to optimize the SHS function. It seems that they neglect the limitation of power capacity of the system and behave as though SHS could provide a source of power limitlessly. In many of these cases, the SHS users’ neglect to manage the time of use causes the shortage of power, which they usually report to the vendor as either a damage or a handicap of the system. There are 37.9% who claim that they could repair the equipment by themselves when it is out of order. In contrast, there are 44.2% who strictly disagree with that idea. Indeed, some respondents have repaired the minor disfunction of the system by themselves, such as replacing the fuse or changing the damaged car battery, while a few others ask local technicians (non-SHS agents) to check it up. Nonetheless, most of them are, in fact, prefer to leave the problems to technician of the SHS agents because they are worried that they would only cause more trouble to their SHS.

E. Motivation to Install the SHS People understand or at least know that the purchase and installation of an SHS does not always respond to the wishes of all members of the household. Within the household, it seems quite common that the spouses

42

have different voices and interests. In the base line study, there is an indication that many of the husbands and wives who have installed the SHS are not really interested in buying it. Table 3.21 shows that only 46.0% of the husbands are interested in buying the SHS. It is 4% less than the actual number of households that submit the order for SHS installation. This gap implicitly reveals that the final decision to buy SHS might come from the persuasion of their spouses because the percentage of the wives who are interested in buying it only points to 42%. Table 3.21. The Interest of Husband and Wife to Install SHS Interest to install SHS

Yes No

Husband F

%

F

%

46

46.0

42

42.0

5

NR Total

Wife

5.0

51 100

51.0 100.0

2 56 100

2.0 56.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

Among the households that have installed SHS, 54% bought the SHS only a week after getting informed about SHS. This was possible because they have cash money from their harvest by the time the salesmen promote the SHS in their villages. They could immediately order for SHS installation before the salesmen leave the village. Several other respondents need more time to do so, 14 % need a month, 22% a year, and 8% more than a year (Table 3.22.). It is interesting that those who finally decided to buy the SHS after a year of the introduction saved their cash to afford the SHS.

Table 3.22. Length of Wait to Order SHS Length of Wait

Frequency

Percent (%)

Within a week

27

54.0

Within a month Within a year

7 11

14.0 22.0

4 1

8.0 2.0

50

100.0

More than a year NR Total Source: Primary Data 2002

The periodic attendance of the salesmen in the villages is important for those who are eager to buy the SHS. Concerning the method of ordering the SHS, table 3.23. indicates that 66% of the respondents wait for the arrival of

43

salesmen in their villages rather than go to the office of the marketing agencies when they need to install SHS. It seems that people are looking for a personal warranty from the salesmen rather than from the institutions. Besides, people think that going to the office of the marketing agency is inefficient considering the distance between their houses and the office of the agency in the district or provincial capital. Some people (18%) who are interested in buying SHS ask their neighbors first for the purchasing procedure although they tend to order the SHS personally. Table 3.23. The Way of Ordering SHS Description

Frequency

Percent (%)

Waiting for salesman

33

66.0

Going to sales agency Looking for information from neighbors NR Total

2

4.0

9

18.0

6 50

12.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

As the respondents mentioned, there are five major reasons for installing the SHS. The main reason is primarily concerning the electricity needs. The reason given by husbands is, however, contradictory to their spouses’ reasons. The wives indicate that household members’ persuasion shows a higher percentage (42.0%) than electricity needs (38.0%). Considering the higher and more dominant position of the husbands in the household decision making, their need to install the SHS is influential to their spouses. At the same time, 30% of the husbands indicated that it was other household members wishes that motivated the purchase of the SHS. The neighbors’ experience in using SHS as well as salesmen’s promotion are then less significant in influencing their decisions. In addition, there are 2% of the husbands and 4% of their spouses stating that the cheap price of SHS is put into their consideration.

Table 3.24. The Reasons of Husband and Wife to Install SHS Reasons

Husband F

The Household Member’s urging Following neighbor Salesman persuasion Electricity needs Cheap price

%

Wife F

%

15

30.0

21

42.0

6 5

12.0 10.0

1 1

2.0 2..0

23 1

46.0 2.0

19 2

38.0 4.0

44

Total

50

100.0

50

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

The need to install the SHS does not precisely occur in a vacum condition. The promotion and service of the marketing agents are important factors that arouse the motivation of the respondents to buy it. This is particularly related to the fact that the respondents obtain the SHS information mainly from their neighbors and from the door-to-door visits rather than mass media. In so doing, the intensity of salesmen’s frequency in visiting their coverage market areas affects people’s perceptions of their need to install SHS.

F. PURCHASE AND PAYMENT There are two methods of purchasing procedure offered by the marketing agency. The customers may pay either in cash or in installment plan. In the procedure, any payment made within less than three month period is still counted cash. Meanwhile, the installment plan is offered in four different terms of payment: six months, twelve months, eighteen months and thirty months. The length of plan determines the amount of deposit and the rate of interest. In terms of installment plan, the agent also tolarates the payment by seasons since the majority of the respondents in the coverage market areas are peasants whose cash income depends on the seasonal crop harvest. In this particular procedure, the agent collects their monthly installment within a period of six months when the customers have ready cash after selling the harvest of their crops. As the base line study found, more than half of the respondents are more linterested in purchasing the SHS using the installment plan method. The salient reason is accordingly that it would not burden their routine household expenditure. Table 3.25. The Mechanism of Payment Payment

Frequency

Percent (%)

Cash

16

32.0

Credit

33

66.0

1

2.0

50

100.0

NR Total Source: Primary Data 2002

45

However, the method of purchase sets a serious problem for the agents of the SHS. It is not only because the customers live in scattered areas and so far away from the service points that the collector finds it inefficient to visit them regularly, but also because the customers have a low commitment to pay the installment. An informant who is sales agent records that the bad loans come from about 60% of his SHS customers in the province of Lampung. For those who have failed to pay the installment for more than three months without reasonable arguments, the agent then dismantles the system. From the 33 respondents who purchased the SHS using installment plan, 27 are bad loans. Five respondents have already given up the SHS. Three of them have dropped out since the first round survey. Among those respondents, there are 37.1% (10 respondents) who claim they cannot afford the installment. They give various reasons for that, such as no cash available, lack of income and

irregular attendence of the collector to ask for the installment. Some

others have not definitely passed over the due date of their installment term. (Note – the marketing agency informed that the payments in the survey areas were unusually poor during the time of the survey due to the drought.)

G. TH E MAINTENANC E AND REPARATION OF THE SHS After a year using the SHS, there were 12several households that had faced problems with the system during the previous six months Similarly, the first follow up survey had found 11 of the SHS users had encounter trouble during the previous six months. All the troubles that were warranty covered had already been fixed up by the marketing agents under warranty. Table 3.26 shows the trouble that occurs in the SHS. Table 3.26. The SHS Trouble Trouble

First Round

Second round

F

%

F

%

Damage of car-battery

5

45.5

3

25.0

Disfunction of fuse

2

18.2

2

16.7

Automatic controller

1

9.0

2

16.7

Short circuit Low power

3 -

27.3

2

0.0 16.7

Neon light off NR

-

2 1

16.7 8.2

12

100.0

Total

11

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

46

Five households had a trouble at the time of the visit for the third survey It include trouble in the car battery (1); disfunction of the automatic controller (2); low power (1); and the out-of-order neon light (1). The agent hadreplaced the car battery of the SHS owned by one of these respondents four times. Two other respondents who encountered the same problem had replaced the battery by themselves because the warranty of the car battery had expired. Meanwhile, except for the car battery, the other repondents see the trouble as minor problems because, in their opinions, their SHS could still work. In some cases, the damage in car battery is likely caused by the ignorance of the respondents to regulate the use of its power. It is operated for various appliances without considering its limited capacity. There are also some informants who state that they often recharge the car batteries in the charging station and place it again in the box of the system whenever they face the power shortage. One respondent mentioned that the car battery of his SHS and its box, one day, fell from the wall where it was stuck to. Fortunately, the car battery was not damaged, according to the owner. So, he piled several used grease-oil cans up to support the box of the car battery. In dealing with the trouble of the system, all respondents’ first action is usually to complain about it to their neighbors who also own the system while waiting for the sale agents or technicians to come and repair it. Some of them silently fix the problem by themselves or ask the local non-SHS technicians. The length of time needed to fix up problems is different from one case to another. Except for the five of the respondents who claim that their SHS was in trouble at the the time of the third survey, one respondent says that he needs only one day to fix it.

Another

says

a

week

and

three

other

respondents two weeks.

47

Amongst those respondents who have faced problems with the system, eight of them have asked the technicians and sales agents to fix it. Accordingly, the sales agents come as soon as they are informed but the respondents sometimes wait until the collector or salesmen visit or pass by their houses. The reparation itself is generally tackled within less than one day as some respondents experience. After a year, the replacements of the components, except for the photovoltaic cells, and the charge for the repair are no longer covered by the warranty. In the case of the five respondents whose SHS have not yet been repaired, they have been waiting for the technician from the agency for a month. Most of the respondents are actually worried that the collectors and salesmen may at some time no longer be available to visit them. They would not know who to ask for the repair if their SHS is in trouble.

48

CH AP TE R IV THE IMPACTS O F SO LAR HO ME S YS TE M DE VE LOP ME NT

The use of SHS presumably causes impacts on its users and snow-ball effects in the community. In this perspective, the use of SHS is viewed as the triggering factor, which entails transformation of the division of labor, the role and the individual status within the households because each household member uses and appropriates the SHS for her/his own benefit. In the long run, these indirect and gradual transformations which take place in the household may also have effects within the local community. To estimate the development impact of the SHS both in the household and community level, this chapter set out the results of the series of three comparative survey rounds. The impacts are explored from the set of indicators which have been observed since the beginning of the study. Those indicators include socio economic status, division of labor, life style, energy expenditure and social identity. In this respect, the description will employ the baseline survey data as the cornerstone of the analysis, with the first followup as the initial indicator of findings and the second followup as then verifying or otherwise the findings of the first round survey.

A. The Social Economic Status the SHS Users The study indicates that the majority of the SHS users belong to the better-off households. Some changes in their socio economic status occurred during the research process. However, the installation of SHS might not necessarily be the only determinant factor of the changing socio-economic condition of the household because other factors might also interfere too. In this section, the socio-economic status of the SHS users will be exposed through several variables that consist of their income, expenditure and valuable belongings after a year operating the system. The impact of the SHS will be explored through the extrapolation of those interacting variables. A.1. Occupation and Income The income source of the households somehow influences the respondents’ decision to install the SHS. The indication has actually appeared from the base line data (table 4.1) that there is a trend that those who work as civil servants/ military, entrepreneurs and traders tend

49

to purchase the SHS. The percentage of the users from those occupations is higher than the non-SHS users although the actual number is less compared to the number of farmers who are the majority of respondents. In this line, the farmers, both the SHS users (70%) and the non-users (76%) occupy almost similar percentage. The interesting point also performs that there is no labor worker installing the SHS. The research findings indicate that the SHS user may consider the amount of their income source first, prior to making a decision to buy the SHS. This is done not only because the SHS price is expensive, according to them, but also because their income source from their main occupation does not ensure the affordability to pay the price. Therefore, people whose occupations are civil servants, entrepreneurs or traders are more likely purchasing it because such occupations ensure the regular availability of monthly income. Meanwhile, farmers whose cash income depend on the seasonal crops might doubt their capability to afford it. Table 4.1. The SHS User and Non User According to the Income Source Occupation

SHS User N

%

Total Non User N

%

N

%

Civil Servant/ Military

6

12.0

5

10.0

11

11.0

Entrepreneur Trader

5 4

10.0 8.0

3 2

6.0 4.0

8 6

8.0 6.0

Farmer Labor Worker

35 0

70.0 0.0

38 2

76.0 4.0

73 2

73.0 2.0

Total

50

100.0

50

100.0

100

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

The trend above is affirmed by a possitive association between the SHS user and their monthly income. The higher the income of a houshold, the more likely they want to buy the SHS. At the base line data, it is also pinpointed that there are 62.0% of SHS users coming from the households whose monthly income is more than IDR. 500,000. For those whose average income is less than IDR 500,000 monthly, purchasing SHS may be a burden for their financial matters. In the past season, there were almost half of the SHS users who earned less than IDR 500,000, but nowadays their income condition has begun to recover within the level of more than IDR 500,000. The respondents’ declining income is apparently influenced by the drastic

50

drop of crop harvest due to the unfriendly dry-season within the past six months period. Yet, the households that used to receive more than IDR 1,000,000. have been unable to improve their condition since their fall. Table 4.2 Monthly Income of the SHS Users Income

SHS User

(Rp.)

Baseline

First Round

Second Round

F

%

F

%

F

%

< 500,000

17

34.0

32

64.0

19

39.6

500,000 – 1,000,000

16

32.0

8

16.0

23

47.9

> 1,000,000

15

30.0

6

12.0

6

12.5

NA Total

2 50

4.0 100.0

4 50

8.0 100.0

0 48

0.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Even though, the respondents’ income is getting better recently, it is not merely a direct effect of using the SHS. Indeed, some of them who established stores (6.3% husbands and 14.5% wives) claim to have a direct impact of using the SHS for their income earnings because the light produced by the SHS enable them to extend their store services until late at night. For the majority, the impact of the SHS use for increasing their income is almost invisible. Except for extending store services, there are no productive activities economically being fostered by the SHS. However, most of them recognize the advantages and the convenience of using the SHS. In this sense, the activities facilitated by the SHS are primarily housework and children’s studying activities. Table 4.3 shows the respondents’ claim to the advantages of using the SHS. Table 4.3. The Respondent’s Claim of Having Advantage from Using the SHS Activities

Household work

Husband

Wife

Son F

Daughter

F

%

F

%

%

F

%

15

31.3

27

56.3

3

9.1

3

12.0

Store service

3

6.3

7

14.5

1

3.0

1

4.0

Social Gatherings

8

16.7

2

4.2

-

0.0

-

0.0

Security Office work

4 1

8.3 2.1

1 -

2.1 0.0

1

0.0 3.0

-

0.0 0.0

Studying Watching TV

7 4

14.5 8.3

1 1

2.1 2.1

9 1

27.3 3.0

7 1

28.0 4.0

51

NR Total

6

12.5

9

18.7

18

54.6

13

52.0

48

100.0

48

100.0

33

100.0

25

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The invisible impacts of the SHS to develop the income may also be related with the condition that most of the installed SHS in the respondents’ houses provide 50 WP. With this limited energy capacity, the SHS is hardly able to be used for fostering the income generation activities. Many activities are indeed helped by using the SHS, but those activities are housework, which is unpaid. Several respondents claim that their income is going up within this year. It comes from the increasing wages, profit from selling crops and other side-job earnings like copra makers, ojek drivers – jobs that are not related with the advantage of using the SHS. A.2. Expenditure and Valuable Belongings The SHS is actually needed by all levels community, but it tends to be afforded by the higher socio economic status of households.The base line study found that the SHS users are the respondents whose expenditure tends to be higher than Rp. 500,000 monthly. Table 4.4 shows that 58.0% of the respondents belong to this category by the time they install the SHS. Nonetheless, their expenditure then indicates contraction at the lowest rate along this year. Many households that previously spent more than IDR 500,000 monthly, have now reduced their spending. The reduction of the expenditure budget is in line with their drops in income, asmost respondents received less amount of money during the second and third survey rounds than the amount they earned six months and year earlier during the baseline survey. This occurs as a result of the economic depression in the province that followed the drought and the dropping prices of crop commodities, while the prices of the basic needs goods were raised. Table 4.4 Monthly Expenditure of the SHS User Expenditure (IDR)

< 500,000

SHS User Baseline

First Round

Second Round

F

%

F

%

F

%

21

42.0

25

50.0

26

54.2

52

500,000 – 1,000,000 > 1,000,000 NA Total

21

42.0

11

22.0

17

35.4

8

16.0

8

16.0

5

10.4

50

0.0 100.0

6 50

12.0 100.0

48

0.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Based on the expenditure for productive activities, the SHS users come from the households that spend more money for this allotment. The productive expenditures include buying staple food, education, agricultural tools, medicine and capital goods. The SHS is accounted a capital good because it enables the users to generate more activities even when it does not mean making money. Compared to the baseline and first followup survey, the expenditures for productive activities during the third survey had increased. As it is shown in table 4.5, there are only 4.2% of the households spending less than IDR 100,000 per month. The average is IDR 400,666.7 which is 9.9% higher than the non-SHS users. Nonetheless, the number of households, whose expenditure for productive activities is more than IDR 500,000, declined over the final six months ago. Perhaps, they are not yet eager to spend their money as they need to maintain their capital due to the bad condition of the previous season. Table 4.5. Monthly Expenditure of SHS User for Productive Activities Expenditure (IDR)

SHS User Baseline F

First Round %

F

%

Second Round F

%

< 100,000

3

6.0

7

14.0

2

4.2

100,001 – 200,000

6

12.0

15

35.0

10

20.7

200,001 – 300,000

12

24.0

5

10.0

15

31.3

300,001 – 400,000 400,001 – 500,000

7 7

14.0 14.0

4 9

8.0 18.0

7 5

14.6 10.4

15 50

30.0 100.0

10 50

20.0 100.0

9 48

18.8 100.0

> 500,000 Total Source: Primary Data 2003

The coming of the rainy season, however, had changed people’s priority in allocating their money by the time of the third survey. The 2002 drought had made people feel reluctant to invest their money in agricultural activities, but this was not the case by the final survey round. This is indicated by the declining trend of respondents to buy valuable consumptive goods such as furniture, electronics, bicycles or

53

motorcycles. Six month earlier, there were almost half of the respondents (46.3%) turning their money to consumer goods. During the third survey their number had decreased to 37.5%. This is because they began to put higher priority for capital goods. Some respondents bought lands as well as livestock like chickens, ducks, sheep and cows. There is no significant difference between the SHS users and the nonusers in this particular issue. Table 4.6 shows the valuable major goods bought by some respondents during the research process. Table 4.6 New Valuable Goods Bought during the Research Process Type of Goods

SHS User First Round

Total

Second Round

F

%

F

%

F

%

Furniture

5

10.0

6

12.5

11

11.2

Electronics

5

10.0

4

8.3

9

9.2

Bicycle

3

6.0

1

2.1

4

4.2

Motorcycle

1

2.0

5

10.4

6

6.1

Car

1

2.0

1

2.1

2

2.0

Furniture and Electronics Furniture, Bicycle and Electronics Furniture and Motorcycle Furniture, Bicycle and Motorcycle Furniture, Electronics and Motorcycle Furniture, Electronics, Bicycle and Motorcycle NA

1

2.0

-

0.0

1

1.0

3

6.0

1

2.1

4

4.2

2

4.0

-

0.0

2

2.0

1

2.0

-

0.0

1

1.0

1

2.0

-

0.0

1

1.0

1

2.0

-

0.0

1

1.0

26

52.0

30

62.5

56

57.1

Total

50

100.0

48

100.0

98

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The priority to spend to income for agricultural activities is reasonable amongst the majority of the respondents because they are farmers who need capital to start planting at the beginning of the cultivation season. As obtained in the base line data (table 4.7), most of them own a land of more than one hectare for agricultural purposes. Those who occupy an area smaller than one hectare may not be able to afford the SHS unless they have other non-farming income sources. It is simply because a bigger land promises a bigger income in the harvest season. If it is compared to their occupation or income sources, the

54

number of the household owning less than one hectare is comparable with the small percentage of the labor workers buying the SHS unit. However, not all of bigger-land owners are SHS users because they have an alternative choice for electric provision, such as conventional generators like genset or diesel. Table 4.7. The SHS User and Non User According to Their Land Ownership Land Ownership

SHS

(ha.)

User F

< 1

Total Non User

%

F

%

F

%

2

4.0

10

20.0

12

12.0

1.1 – 3

31

62.0

31

62.0

62

62.0

3.1 – 5 5.1 – 7

9 2

18.0 4.0

1 1

2.0 2.0

10 3

10.0 3.0

7.1 – 9 >9

1 1

2.0 2.0

1 1

2.0 2.0

2 2

2.0 2.0

NR

4

8.0

5

10.0

9

9.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

100

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data 2002

Even though the background of most SHS users is agricultural, not all farmers are able to afford an SHS unit. Table 4.8 indicates that there is a trend in which farmers owning ricefield tend to use the SHS more than those who only cultivate the dryland. Although dry land farmers who are the SHS users occupy the highest percentage compare to the other SHS user farmers in general, the percentage is less than the number of the non SHS user farmers (60.0% against 84.0%). On the contrary, the farmers owning ricefields incline to be SHS users. It may deal with their calculation for which they prioritize their needs for the subsistence. Those who do not possess ricefields have to allocate their income first to food for survival rather than invest in other kinds of goods such as the SHS. When the level of the subsistence has been achieved and surpassed with a food surplus, they may think of purchasing other things.

55

Table 4.8 The Land Use Pattern Land Use

SHS User F

Ricefield

Total Non User

%

F

%

F

%

9

18.0

0

0.0

9

9.0

30 11

60.0 22.0

84 5

42.0 10.0

72 16

72.0 16.0

None

0

0.0

3

6.0

3

3.0

Total

50

50.0

50

100.0

100

100.0

Dryland agriculture Both types

Source: Primary Data 2002

By looking into several indicators above, the study affirms that the SHS users are the households coming from better social economic status in the community. The source of income and its average monthly amount have apparently become the main consideration to make the decision for installing the SHS. According to the expenditure and the valuable belongings and assets, it is clear that the social economic status of the SHS users is the category in which their livelihood is beyond the level of subsistence. In this category, they no longer put a priority to afford food for survival, but they have a surplus for other things, including purchasing the SHS. So, even when a majority of the SHS users are farmers, they own more than one hectare land, apart from their land for ricefield cultivation. The impact of SHS on development is not yet visible in terms of changes in the social economic status of the respondents. The recent condition indicates that they have just been recovering from an economic depression as the effects of the long dry-season in the province last year. Nowadays, their situation is getting better. Their income has increased, and they allocate most of it for capital goods or productive expenditure. However, their social economic life does not recover solely because of the SHS use, but because of the better macro economic atmosphere within the past six months. In its limited capacity, the SHS is hardly able to generate income for their activities except a few households that take the advantage of its

56

lighting to extend their store services. Many other activities are indeed helped by using the SHS, but those activities are generally unpaid work.

B. The Different Impacts of the SHS Use in the Household The use of SHS in the household can affect gender roles and status in the households. Even though the capacity of SHS to generate power is limited, its lighting gives the opportunity for the users to extend their working or other activity hours up to late at night. There is a question, however, of who will make use of this opportunity. Will it be everybody or just certain individuals in the household? In this respect the use of SHS may imply the existence of new divisions of labor in the households. Thus it may change gender relations in the household, too. Based on this assumption, this survey attempts to explore this particular issue by looking at changes in the division of labor and at the decision making process in the households after a year using the SHS. B.1. T HE DIVIS IO N O F L ABOR The baseline study indicates that husbands and wives are engaged in different domains of activities. Generally, husbands tend to participate in formal public activities and occasions such as attending neighborhood gatherings and other community rituals. Most husbands are the breadwinners for their households. They spend most of their time outside their houses during the day to earn income for their households or in other activities. Meanwhile women spend most of their time at home doing household duties, such as child rearing and taking care of other household activities. Therefore, the respondent women play a more dominant role in the domestic sphere. Only one respondent woman, whose husband has passed away, participates in the public domain where men usually do. This study indicates that the SHS does not trigger any radical change that turns the pattern of the division of labor in the household up side down. Women are still playing a dominant role in the domestic sector. As it is presented in table 4.9 – 4.11, the activities of woman are primarily focused inside the house. Amongst the SHS users, 95.8% of the wives of them frequently do cooking (95.8%), childrearing (56.3%) and laundering (91.6%). On the other hand, men less frequently take care of the domestic

57

tasks. There are 60.4% men who never do cooking, 60.4% never do childrearing and 62.5% never do laundering. Table 4. 9 Cooking Activities in the Household by Gender Frequency

Cooking

Of

Baseline

Activity

Man

First Round

Woman

Man

Second Round

Woman

Man

Woman

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Frequently

9

18

42

84

1

2

44

88

4

8.3

46

95.8

Sometimes

7

14

-

0

12

24

4

8

6

12.5

0

0

Seldom

1

2

2

4

8

16

2

4

9

18.9

0

0

Never

32

64

2

4

28

56

0

0

29

60.4

0

0

NR

1

2

4

8

1

2

0

0

0

0.0

2

4.2

Total

50

100

50

100

50

100

50

100

48

100.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The percentage of women who do cooking seems to increase at the last completion of the survey. Those who previosly claimed that they sometimes and seldom did the activity in the past, now frequently handle this particular activity. The use of SHS makes them feel that it is more convenient to do the tasks in the kitchen especially at night. However, child rearing is done less by both men and women in the final survey. The activity is carried out less compared to the previous baseline and the first followup survey. In this regard, the existing SHS may influence this activity by which children are able to have amusement from turning on the television set or radio. So, their parents especially the mothers (56.3%) can leave them either to watch television or to listen to the radio while they are carrying out other activities. Table 4. 10 Childrearing Activities in the Household by Gender Frequency

Childrearing

Of

Baseline

activities

Man

First Round

Woman

Man

Second Round

Woman

Man

Woman

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Frequently

10

20

30

60

9

18

29

58

9

18.8

27

56.3

Sometimes

14

28

1

2

7

14

3

6

7

14.6

0

0

Never

3

6

3

6

6

12

4

8

3

6.3

3

6.3

Seldom

22

44

12

24

26

52

11

22

29

60.4

16

33.3

58

NR

1

2

4

8

2

4

3

6

0

0.0

2

4.2

Total

50

100

50

100

50

100

50

100

48

100.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Laundering is still, based on the third survey, done mostly by women rather than men even though there are some men who say that they do the activity frequently (10.4%), some others (16.7%) claim they sometimes do laundry, and the rest (10.4%) say they seldom do it. The men who state that they never wash clothes is in similar trend to that in the previous survey rounds. It affirms that laundering is actually women’s job in the households as their husbands have to away from their houses to do farming or to look for other income sources. Table 4. 11. Laundering Activities in the Household by Gender Frequency

Laundering

of activities

Baseline Man

First Round

Woman

Man

Second Round

Woman

Man

Woman

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Frequently

3

6

41

82

3

6

41

82

5

10.4

44

91.6

Sometimes

7

14

2

4

7

14

5

10

8

16.7

0

0.0

Never

2

4

1

2

9

18

1

2

5

10.4

1

2.1

37

74

2

4

31

62

1

2

30

62.5

1

2.1

1

2

4

8

0

0

2

4

0

0.0

2

4.2

50

100

50

100

50

100

50

100

48

100.0

48

100.0

Seldom NR Total

Source: Primary Data 2003

In terms of house cleaning, women’s role (93.7%) is dominant though 14.6% of the interviewed men claimed that they frequently do the task, too. Some other men claim that they some times do it (54.2%), and the rest (12.5%) seldom do. It means that there is an increasing intensity of cleaning the house because the men participate in this particular activity more than before.

59

Table 4.12 Frequency of Doing House Cleaning by Gender Frequently of

House Cleaning

activities

Baseline Man

First Round

Woman

Man

Second Round

Woman

Man

Woman

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Frequently

20

40

41

82

9

18

42

84

7

14.6

45

93.7

Sometimes

14

28

1

2

19

38

3

6

26

54.2

0

0

Never

1

2

2

4

11

22

2

4

6

12.5

1

2.1

Seldom

14

28

2

4

11

22

1

2

9

18.8

0

0

NR

1

2

4

8

0

0

2

4

0

0.0

2

4.2

Total

50

100

50

100

50

100

50

100

48

100.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

However, the responsibility to take care of their SHS is apparently in the hands of the men. Table 4.13 points that there are 68.7% of men who frequently or sometimes clean the photovoltaic cell, the lights, and check its car battery. In contrast, 77.1% of the women (and 25% of the men) acknowledge that they never take care of SHS. The trend is similar to the findings of the first followup survey round. Since cleaning the photovoltaic cells and the lights needs someone who dares to climb up on to the roof, no woman wants to do it. Besides, taking care of the car battery, which is viewed as part of the field of engineering, is widely understood amongst the predominantly Javanese respondents as men’s domain.

Table. 4. 13 The Maintenance of SHS by Gender Frequency of

Taking Care of SHS

activities

First Round Man

Second Round

Woman

Man

Woman

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Frequently

16

32

2

4

28

56

4

8.3

Sometimes

12

24

1

2

5

10

0

0.0

Seldom

8

16

3

6

1

2

0

0.0

Never

14

28

39

78

12

24

37

77.1

NR

0

0

5

10

2

4

7

14.6

Total

50

100

50

100

50

100

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The domain of men is considered by the respondents to consist of activities that are associated with risk and require strong and energetic

60

figures. Based on the same reasoning, men are considered to be the heads and the breadwinners for the households. They are responsible for ensuring the wealth of their family members and handling all matters related to public affairs. Therefore, most of their time is spent outside their houses. Tables 4.14 - 4.16 indicates the tendency of activities in which men’s role is dominant. Table 4.14 Fulfilling Energy Needs by Gender Frequently of activities

frequently Sometimes Seldom Never NR Total

F 33 5 4 7 1 50

Baseline Man Woman % F % 66 22 44 10 7 14 8 7 14 14 14 28 2 5 10 100 50 100

F 36 6 1 7 0 50

Fullfilment of energy First Round Man Woman % F % 72 17 34 12 12 24 2 8 16 14 11 22 0 2 4 100 50 100

Second Man F % 31 64.6 5 10.4 3 6.2 8 16.7 1 2.1 48 100.0

Round Woman F % 18 37.5 8 16.7 10 20.8 10 20.8 2 4.2 48 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Men are dominant in fulfilling the need of energy, doing farmland, and taking care of livestock. However, 37.5% of the women actively fulfill the needs for energy particularly for fuel wood and kerosene, which are available in the surrounding village. Most men would provide gasoline, and liquid petroleum gas, which are not available in their neighborhood because they may need a trip out of village to buy some. Men’s role in doing farmland and keeping livestock is also dominant. In these activities the involvement of women is apparently only to assist their husbands. On the other hand, women prefer to take care of the livestock, such as chickens and ducks. Providing grass for their livestock, bathing the cows, buffalos or sheep are also considered men’s jobs. Table 4.15 Doing Farmland by Gender Frequency of activities

Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never NR Total

F 37 3 0 9 1 50

Baseline Man Woman % F % 74 21 42 6 9 18 0 1 2 18 15 30 2 4 8 100 50 100

Doing Farmland First Round Man Woman F % F % 38 76 21 42 4 8 7 14 2 4 3 6 5 10 17 34 1 2 2 4 50 100 50 100

F 32 7 0 8 1 48

Second Man % 66.6 14.6 0.0 16.7 2.1 100.0

Round Woman F % 21 43.7 6 12.5 6 12.5 13 27.1 2 4.2 48 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

61

Table 4.16 Keeping Livestock by Gender Frequency of activities

Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never NR Total

Baseline Man Woman F % F % 23 46 21 42 2 4 4 8 5 10 1 2 16 32 18 36 4 8 6 12 50 100 50 100

Keeping Livestock First Round Man Woman F % F % 27 54 6 12 5 10 12 24 2 4 6 12 15 30 23 46 1 2 3 6 50 100 50 100

Second Man F % 26 52 9 18 1 2 11 22 1 2 50 100

Round Woman F % 9 18 11 22 10 20 16 32 2 4 50 100

Source: Primary Data 2003

In terms of attending the social gatherings, there are various degrees of participation amongst the household members of the SHS users. Men’s participation is higher than women’s. Besides, social gatherings are commonly held for men because men are considered the heads of the families, in which at the gatherings they represent

their

families. In some cases, some families send their eldest boys to represent their fathers, perhaps, because the father is sick or out of the village. They never send their daughters for the purpose. Table 4.17 shows the differentces between men (97.9%) and women (70.8%) in their participation in social gatherings. Table 4.17 Participation of SHS User in Social Gatherings Frequency of attendance

Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never NR Total

Participation in Social Gathering Baseline First Round Second Round Man Woman Man Woman Man Woman F % F % F % F % F % F % 37 74 23 46 25 50 13 26 33 68.8 14 29.2 3 6 6 12 5 10 10 20 11 22.9 10 20.8 2 4 1 2 11 22 3 6 3 6.2 10 20.8 7 14 16 32 9 18 20 40 1 2.1 12 25.0 1 2 4 8 0 0 4 8 0 0.0 2 4.2 50 100 50 100 50 100 50 100 48 100.0 48 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

In religious gatherings, table 4.18 shows some contrasts between men’s and women’s recent participation. The religious gatherings are actually different from the social ones because both men and women are usually invited to such occasions. However, the women’s participation is still less than the men’s. They generally attend the religious gatherings once in a while (sometimes --20.8% and seldom --14.6%).

62

Table 4.18 Participation of SHS User in Religious Gatherings Freque ncy of attenda nce Freque ntly Someti mes Seldom Never NR Total

Baseline Man Woman F % F % 39 78 31 62

Participation in Religious Gathering First Round Second Round Man Woman Man Woman F % F % F % F % 33 66 26 42 39 81.2 22

3

6

2

4

8

16

8

16

2

1 6 1 50

2 12 2 10 0

4 9 4 50

8 18 8 100

4 5 0 50

8 10 0 100

5 8 3 50

10 16 6 100

6 1 0 48

4.2

10 7 6 3 48

Source: Primary Data 2003

The results of the second followup survey as compared to the results of the base line and the first followup round of the survey, do not indicate any significant transformation in the division of labors in the households. Women are still dominant in handling domestic affairs, while men are more dominant in public affairs. Women may participate in public spheres such as assisting her husband in the farmland, earning more income, or fulfilling energy, but their participation is rather accounted for as a secondary role. The participation of the women in public spheres is particularly triggered by their husband’s low income or to complement their spouse’s activities, just as an extension of their domestic roles. The different status and role of men and women in the households are reflected further in the decision making process. The respondents consider that ideally the decision making process is made together by both husbands and wives, particularly if it is related to substantial matters such as the households’ welfare. The survey finds, however, various tendencies of who is more influential in decision making (table 4.19 to table 4.25). Building and renovating houses are mostly decided together by both the husband and wife. Although men may decide alone to build their house as well as to buy electronics, including the SHS, women never decide alone in these particular cases. Making decision together between the husband and the wife in this particular instance depends on the values of the expenditure. The more valuable the expenditure, the more likely the decision will be taken together. Wives are necessarily involved in deciding

63

the significant amount of money since they are the finance manager of the household. Table 4.19 Decision Maker in Building, Buying House Decision

House Building

Maker

Baseline

First Round

F

%

7

14.0

42

Wife NR Total

Husband Husband and Wife

F

Second Round

%

F

%

11

22.0

11

22.9

84.0

39

78.0

37

77.1

0 1

0.0 2.0

0 0

0.0 0.0

0 0

0.0 0.0

50

100.0

100.0

48

100.0

50

Source: Primary Data 2003

There is a consistency of data regarding this power relation in the households. Husbands and their spouses mainly discuss the matter together before building or renovating their houses. In some households, the decision is indeed made by the husbands, but they in most cases also have informed their spouses. The comparable trend likely occurs when they buy electronics and the SHS although there are some husbands (31.2%) and wives (2.1%) who claim that they decide these matters alone. Table 4.20. Decision Maker in Buying Electronics Decision

Buying Electronics

Maker

Baseline

First Round

F

%

Husband

10

20.0

Husband and Wife

F

Second Round

%

F

%

12

24.0

15

31.2

39

78.0

38

76.0

32

66.7

Wife

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

2.1

NR Total

1 50

2.0 100.0

0.0 100.0

0 48

0.0 100.0

0 50

Source: Primary Data 2003

Table 4.20 indicates that 93.7% of the husbands usually make a decision regarding the reparation of the electronic equipments, including the SHS. Although there are 66.0 % of SHS users mentioning that the decision to buy the SHS is made together (as found in the base line study), the reparation and service are ultimately in the hands of the husbands.

64

Table 4.21 Decision Maker to Repair Electronics Decision

Electronic Reparation

Maker

Baseline

First Round

F

%

46 1

Wife NR Total

Husband Husband and Wife

Second Round

F

%

F

%

92.0 2.0

47 0

94.0 0.0

45 3

93.7 6.3

2

4.0

2

4.0

0

0.0

1 50

2.0 100.0

1 50

2.0 100.0

0 48

0.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The moderate position of husbands and wives in the households is shown in decisions pertinent to children education. Even though men usually spend most of their time outside the house to do farmland or other activities, they still play an important role to determine whether or not their children are going to be sent to school; what kind of school it is, and where the school is located. There are (Table 4.22) similar tendencies in participation of husbands and wives in matters concerningtheir children’s schooling. Table 4.22 Decision Maker for Children Schooling Decision

Sending to School

Maker

Baseline

Husband Husband and Wife Wife NR Total

First Round F

F

%

8

16.0

8

16.0

4

8.3

41 0

82.0 0.0

41 0

84.0 0.0

42 2

87.5 4.2

1

2.0

0

50

100.0

50

%

Second Round

0.0 100.0

F

%

0

0.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Moreover, both the husbands and wives play an important role in reminding or to punishing their children when they make mistakes. In this sense, such punishment is often executed as part of the education for which children have to learn values and rules in the households as well as in the society. Thus, it is reasonable if there are 35.4% husbands claiming that they make the key decision punishing the children considering their authority in the households. Occasionally, wives also play an important role in giving punishment to the children especially when their husbands are away.

65

Table 4.23 Decision Maker to Educate Children Decision

Punishing

Maker

Baseline

First Round

F

%

Husband Husband and Wife

16 20

32.0 40.0

Wife

12

NR Total

2 50

F

Second Round

%

F

%

17 18

34.0 36.0

17 24

35.4 50.0

24.0

13

26.0

6

12.5

4.0 100.0

2 50

4.0 100.0

1 48

2.1 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Exclusively, wives are responsible for the kitchen matters. They are also responsible to buy and to take care of the kitchen tools as well as to prepare meals for the family. This piece of information validates the previous findings that women are still engaged primarily in the domestic tasks. Kitchen tools have become the main concern of wives because they are the ones who would use them for cooking. For several matters, They may consult with their husbands prior to making decisions on kitchen matters, for instance: to design the position of the stove or to purchase bamboo wood for the racks, etc. Table 4.24 Decision Maker to Buy Kitchen Tools Decision Maker

Providing Kitchen Tools Baseline F

Husband

First Round

%

F

Second Round

%

F

%

2

4.0

2

4.0

0

0.0

Husband and Wife

10

20.0

7

14.0

3

6.2

Wife

37

74.0

41

82.0

45

93.8

NR Total Source: Primary Data 2003

1

2.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

48

100.0

Likewise, wives not only handle the task of cooking, but also prepare the meals on the dining table everyday (91.6%). They have to take responsibility for their daily budget to buy rice, vegetable, fish or meat including spices, and to choose the daily menu of the family. Some men are involved in food preparation, as shown in table 4.25 because he may be concerned with his favorite menu (6.3%) or he is widower (2.1%).

66

Table 4.25 Decision Maker to Prepare Food Decision

Preparing Food

Maker

Baseline F

%

9 3

18.0 6.0

Wife

37

NR Total

1 50

Husband Husband and Wife

First Round F

Second Round

%

F

%

1 0

2.0 0.0

2 2

4.2 4.2

74.0

49

98.0

44

91.6

2.0 100.0

0 50

0.0 100.0

0 48

0.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The different roles of men and women is persistently rigid. Both of them are involved in the different domains of household tasks and responsibilities. Several indicators of the decision-making process above pinpoint the gap and disparity of gender relations. Although the different domains seem to complement each other, it does mean that the relationship is balanced. The findings indicate that the gender role and status in the household and community are not likely transformed because of using the SHS. B.2. LENGT H O F ACTIV ITI ES The use of SHS however implies changing the pattern of individual activities. Since the system provides simple electric power for lighting and electronic appliances, it influences the time allocation for many activities. The use of SHS enables the users to extend activities for longer hours at night. The surveys reveal that there is a change in the SHS users’ time allocation for productive activities, recreation, and sleeping time. The SHS even strengthens the domestic roles of women since they can conduct chores at night. The productive activities include the whole actions to generate values, which do not necessarily mean producing income directly. This survey defines the productive activities as any kinds of work, such as doing farmland, providing grass for their livestock, chores, fetching water, attending the store, etc. In terms of the production activities, the second followup round survey findings indicate that women’s productive activities in the households of the SHS users are 10.1 hours in average, while men spend 8.0 hours everyday. Compared to the base line survey, women’s time allocation for this category increases 2.2 hours, but men’s decreases 1.2 hours in average. Table 4.26 indicates that in the households of SHS

67

users there are 22.9% of women working more than 9 hours everyday and 16.7% of men are in similar range. On the contrary, the non-SHS users have lower productive hours. Women activities are 8.0 hours and men are 7.3 hours everyday in average. Table 4.26 The Length of Productive Activities by Gender Length of Productive

Baseline

Activities

Man

(Hours)

F

12

3

6.0

4

8.0

1

2.0

3

6.0

1

2.1

1

2.1

NA Total

1

2.0

4

8.0

-

0.0

2

4.0

-

0.0

2

4.2

50 100.0 Source: Primary Data 2003

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

100.0

48

100.0

-

%

Man

Second round

%

48

F

%

The SHS users spend longer time for recreation after one year with the SHS compared to the baseline. Recreations involve any kind of individual activity to enjoy leisure time such as watching TV, listening to the tape recorder, radio, chatting with neighbors and the other family members, etc. In average, men of the SHS users spend 6.5 hours and women 7.1 hours for recreations. Their recreation time has increased 1.2 hours for both men and women. Table 4.27 describes that in the households of the SHS users 41.7% of the men and 47.9% of the women spend their time for recreation for more than 6 hours per day. Table 4. 27 The Length of Recreation by Gender Length of

Baseline Man

Recreation

First Round

Woman

(Hours)

F

%

F

%

12

1

NA

1

Man

Second round

Woman

Man

Woman

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

16.0

16

32.0

21

42.0

10

20.8

10

20.8

21

42.0

12

24.0

7

14.0

18

37.5

13

27.1

11

22.0

10

20.0

11

22.0

9

18.8

8

16.7

6

12.0

11

22.0

8

16.0

11

22.9

15

31.2

2.0

-

0.0

1

2.0

-

0.0

-

0.0

-

0.0

2.0

4

8.0

-

0.0

3

6.0

-

0.0

2

4.2

Total 50 100.0 Source: Primary Data 2003

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

100.0

48

100.0

48

68

Even though the SHS users have longer time for productive activities and recreation, the length of bedtime does not change much. There are only 12.5% men and 10.4% women installing SHS spend their bedtime less than 6 hours. The other men and women mostly sleep for more than 6 hours. There is no contrast between the SHS users and the non users according to their sleeping time in the second followup survey. Interestingly, the first followup survey had shown that non-SHS users have longer bedtime than the SHS users. Perhaps, the SHS users after one year of using the system are no longer excited with their systems so that they go to bed early instead of spending their time watching television or hanging out at night. The use of SHS intensifies the productive activities and recreation, but it does not reduce their bedtime. Table 4.28 The Length of Bedtime by Gender Length of

Baseline

Bedtime

Man

First Round

Woman

(Hours)

F

%

12

19 8

NA Total

1

Man F

Second round

Woman

%

F

%

Man F

Woman

F

%

-

0.0

-

0.0

1

2.0

-

0.0

-

0.0

1

2.0

13

26.0

4

8.0

6

12.5

5

10.4

18

36.0

26

52.0

31

62.0

19

39.6

19

39.6

38.0

20

40.0

7

14.0

8

16.0

14

29.2

17

35.4

16.0

7

14.0

4

8.0

3

6.0

9

18.7

5

10.4

2.0

4

8.0

-

0.0

3

6.0

-

0.0

2

4.2

50 100.0 Source: Primary Data 2003

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

100.0

48

100.0

48

%

F

According to the indicators above, the use of the SHS brings about small impacts on the increase of time for productive activities and recreation in the households. Indeed, most of the respondents both men and women claim that they get advantages from the SHS for individual activities. While 12.5% men and 8.3% women state that they are not sure whether or not they have already got any benefit from the system. Some of them are amongst the respondents whose SHS was once in trouble (see chapter 3).

69

%

Table 4.29 The Advantage from the SHS by Gender Man

Advantage

Woman

F

%

F

%

Yes

40

83.3

39

81.3

No NA

6 2

12.5 4.2

4 5

8.3 10.4

Total

48

100.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The reasons for getting the advantages from the SHS are presented in table 4. 30. Three major points are xpressed in their reasons. The first point deals with the function of SHS for lighting, i.e., to support children’s studying activities, to make religious and social gatherings more convenient, to extend time for doing housework, and to foster the feeling of security. The second point relates to the capability of the SHS to generate electric power, which allows people to turn on their television set, radio, and other electronic appliances. The third point refers to different advantages of the SHS for men and women. More women (56.2%) feel that the advantage of having SHS is to support them do their housework. The other interesting different advantages of SHS are related with the extension of store services. In this case,

women feel the

difference more. Table 4.30 Explanations of the Advantages of Having SHS Reasons

Man

Woman

Total

F

%

F

Supporting children’s study

7

14.6

1

Making convenience for religious activity

7

14.6

2

4.2

9

9.4

Extending store service Giving efficient lighting

3 4

6.3 8.3

7 1

14.6 2.1

10 5

10.5 5.2

Security

1

2.1

-

0.0

1

1.0

4 14

8.3 29.2

1 27

2.1 56.2

5 41

5.2 42.7

Extending office work Social gatherings

1 1

2.1 2.1

-

0.0 0.0

1 1

1.0 1.0

NR

6

12.4

9

18.7

15

15.7

48

100.0

48

100.0

96

100.0

Amusement Doing Homework

Total

% 2.1

F 8

% 8.3

Source: Primary Data 2003

70

In short, there is no indication of an impact of SHS on the division of labor according to gender relation. The use of SHS does notbreak up the construction of gender relations in the households. Women are persistently attuned to handle the domestic duties such as accomplishing chores and managing the household’s finance, while men are assigned to participate in public affairs. Work that involves physical strength or invoke more risks is still considered the task for men. The SHS is even associated with men’s domain although the decision to buy it is made together by both the man and his wife. In this sense, the involvement of women in making decisions to buy SHS is presumably due to the fact that the household’s money is in women’s hand. If there is an impact of SHS on gender specific roles, it is one of intensification through its contribution to extend women’s housework time. Here, the use of SHS has fixed women’s position in the domestic sector.

C. The Change of Lifestyle It is very likely that the SHS users’ life style may have been affected by the application of the system. Its lighting does make it convenient for the SHS household members to carry on other activities, for instance it helps children to study and get a better achievement at school, attract more social gatherings, and arouse new habits. By taking into account the impact of the SHS on education, social participation, house cleaning, mobility and accessibility for information and communication, this section addresses changes of lifestyle caused by the use of SHS. C.1. EDUCATIO N The respondents’ felt need to install SHS has no relationship with their educational background. The base line study (as presented in table 4.31) has observed that the vast majority of the SHS users accomplished the elementary school education only, and their children mostly pass either elementary or the junior school level. Besides the fact that their education is acquired merely to read and write, a big number of them never read newspaper or magazine except for those who have achieved high levels of education or who work in the office.

71

Table 4.31 The Educational Attainment of the Household Members Education

Husband F

Wife

%

F

Son %

F

Daughter %

F

%

No Schooling Elementary School

8 22

16.0 44.0

8 27

16.0 54.0

5 15

12.5 37.5

4 11

13.3 36.7

Junior High school

8

16.0

6

12.0

15

37.5

10

33.3

Senior High school University

8 1

16.0 2.0

5 2

10.0 4.0

4 -

10.0 0.0

3 -

10.0 0.0

Others Total

3 50

6.0 100.0

2 50

4.0 100.0

1 40

2.5 100.0

2 30

6.7 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2002

Even though the SHS provides convenient use of lighting, especially in the evening or at night, this survey found that the SHS is actually unable to change the habits of children studying. At the first followup round of the survey, there are some respondents whose children are still at school claim that their children have become more diligent either individually or in groups, particularly in spending more of their time for studying in the evening or at night. Some of them have extended their time for studying from less than 2 hours to more than the range. However, the second followup survey after six more months found that their length of time for studying inclines to go back to the same level as the time prior to the SHS installation. Nowadays, their length of studying time looks similar among the children of the non SHS users who mostly spend less than 2 hours for studying. Some children somehow are no longer so excited with their SHS that used to encourage them to study. Table 4. 32 The Length of Children’s Study Length of Study

SHS Users Baseline

(hours)

F

Never 4

7 -

14.0 0.0

17 4

34.0 8.0

2 -

4.2 0.0

NA Total

10 50

20.0 100.0

18 50

36.0 100.0

16 48

33.3 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The parents report after one year that their children’s school achievement is a little bit declining compared to the one at six month ago.

72

There are 29.2% of the SHS users state that their children attain better achievement in school as pointed in table 4. 33. This percentage is going down by 6.8% compared to the previous first followup round survey, but it is still higher than the at the baseline at the time when they installed the SHS. Perhaps, it can be considered the indirect of effect of the SHS that its use for lighting make children feel more convenient when they study in the evening or at night. Table 4.33 The Achievement of Children at School Compared with Baseline Achievement

First Round

Second Round

Improved

F

%

F

%

Yes

18

36.0

14

29.2

No

14

28.0

16

33.3

NR Total

18 50

36.0 100.0

18 48

37.5 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The installation of SHS enables people to turn on the radio and television. In this manner, the SHS household members can update and learn more information and knowledge, beside entertainment. Prior to the SHS installation, the vast majority of the respondents mention that they frequently watch television (92.0%) either in their house or in their neighbors’. Television and other electronic appliances prior to the installation of the SHS usually used a car battery to supply the power. Six months after they have installed the SHS, 44.0% respondents say they watch television more often than before and while 34.0% report that there is no change. The average length of time to watch television is half an hour longer than the non-SHS users. At present, the amount of time seems to decrease into 35.4% and 33.3%, but the percentage remains higher and longer compared to the non-SHS users. On average, they spend 2.38 hours in front of the television everyday. It means people who own SHS may get advanced and more intensive information from the television.

73

Table 4. 34 Frequency of Watching Television as Compared with Baseline Watching

First Round

Television

F

More often Constant

Second Round %

F

%

22

44.0

17

35.4

17

34.0

16

33.3

Less

7

14.0

6

12.5

Never NA

3 1

6.0 2.0

4 5

8.3 10.5

50

100.0

48

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data 2003

Television programs that the respondents enjoy vary according to the respondents’ interests, i.e. news, sport, music and film. Not all Indonesian television channels are accessible in their villages. Amongst the 11 television channels, the common channels that they could receive are TVRI, SCTV, RCTI and Indosiar. The respondents’ favorite television programs are presented in table 4.35. There are 43.8% saying that news has become their favorite. The news program includes political economic issues, and especially crime reports like “buser” on SCTV or “patroli” on Indosiar. Others prefer film, music and sports, particularly boxing, wrestling and soccer.

Table 4.35 Respondent’s Favorite Program on Television Programs

Frequency

%

News

21

47.7

Sports

7

15.9

Film Music

9 7

20.5 15.9

Total

44

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The habit of listening to the radio is quite parallel with the habit of watching television, but it seems that people prefer sitting in front of their television to turning on their radio. Since the time they installed the SHS up to six months later, there are 36.0% of the SHS users who claim that they listen to the radio more often, while 28.0% of them do not change their habit due to their routine activities. At present, the number of the respondents who claim to spend more time in front of their TV set decreases 12.5% while the other 35.4% stay the same. According to

74

them, their favorite programs on radio are news (45.2%), music (38.7%), religious teaching (9.7%), and oral theater (3.2%). This trend is, however, not much different from the non SHS users in which their average time of listening to the radio is 2.11’ hours. It is just fifteen minutes less than the SHS users. Likewise, the use of SHS does not lead the users to access more radio broadcasting programs, even when they could use the system for its power supply beside using dry cell batteries. Table 4.36 Frequency of Listening to the Radio compared to the Baseline Listening to The Radio

First Round F

%

Second Round F

%

More often

18

36.0

6

12.5

Constant Less

14 3

28.0 6.0

17 8

35.4 16.7

Never NA

12 3

24.0 6.0

15 2

31.3 4.2

50

100.0

48

100.0

Total Source: Primary Data 2003

As indicated earlier, the habit of reading newspaper is rare amongst the repondents (28.0%). Most of the readers, especially the civil servants read the newspaper at their offices because of the limited distribution of the newspapers in their areas. On the contrary, some people complain about the lighting produced by their SHS, which, in their opinions, is insufficient for the convenience of reading in the evening or at night. Therefore, the use of SHS may not influence this habit much. Table 4.37 indicates the respondents’ habit of reading newspapers. Table 4.37 Frequency of Reading Newspaper compared to the Baseline Reading Newspaper

First Round

Second Round

F

%

F

%

More often

3

6.0

-

0.0

Constant Less

6 6

12.0 12.0

8 4

16.7 8.3

33

66.0

34

70.8

2 50

4.0 100.0

2 48

4.2 100.0

Never NA Total Source: Primary Data 2003

The use of SHS brings about an impact on education. The children are encouraged to study with the extension of lighting in the evening and

75

at night although their parents may not see its advantage particularly for reading activities. More children of the SHS users attain better achievement at school along with the increasing length of time for studying. Likewise, the households of the SHS users are also benefited in accessing the flow of information, specifically from television and radio. The availability of power supply for their electronic appliances enable them to update information of modern life style or at least to break up the isolation of their areas. Nonetheless, the development impact is less visible in the second round of followup survey compared to the one conducted six months after the installation of the SHS. Probably, this occurs because they now see the SHS as an ordinary thing and no longer excite them. C.2. SOCI AL P ARTI CIP AT IO N The social gatherings are commonly held in the community regarding the social and religious activities or problems occurring in their neighborhood. In terms of social activities, the gatherings generally involve men as the heads of the families and therefore they are usually arranged in the evening or at night after they take a rest after doing their jobs in the farmland or elsewhere. Some of the social gatherings indeed invite the women to participate, for example the family welfare movement (PKK) or health integrated service (posyandu), and it is usually conducted in the morning or afternoon. The base line study revealed that there is no significant difference in participation between the SHS users and the non SHS users either in attending or hosting social gatherings. The first and second rounds of followup surveys found that the houses of the SHS users are chosen as the venue for the social gatherings slightly more often as indicated in table 4.38. The decision to choose the SHS users’ houses for gatherings is somehow deemed appropriate for a practical reason that is the convenience provided by lighting facility. Hence, the SHS use may encourage the owner of the house to get involved more actively in the community life because their houses are chosen as the center for social activities, particularly at night.

76

Table 4. 38 Frequency of Hosting Community Activities Hosting

First Round

Social Meetings

F

More often Constant

Second Round %

F

%

13 15

26.0 30.0

8 24

16.7 50.0

1

2.0

3

6.3

Never

10

20.0

4

8.3

NA

11

22.0

9

18.7

Total

50

100.0

48

100.0

Less

Source: Primary Data 2003

C.3. CLEANLI NESS O F T HE SHS USERS’ HO US ES The housing condition of both the SHS user and the non-SHS user are generally similar according to its material as well as construction. Moreover, they more or less belong to the same level of socio-economic status as it has been described in the base line study. Nonetheless, the cleanliness of the houses is seemingly different among one another. The SHS installation likely changes their attitude in cleaning their houses. This activity is mainly done by women as one of their domestic tasks. In fact, the previous first round and second round followup surveys found higher intensity among the SHS users in cleaning their houses compared to the non SHS users. Table 4. 39 indicates the changing tendency of their attitude toward cleaning the house. Table 4. 39 Frequency of House Cleaning House Cleaning Never

Baseline F % 7 14.0

First Round Second Round F % F % 1 2.0 0 0.0

Once a day

14

28.0

6

12.0

7

14.6

Twice a day

16

32.0

21

42.0

20

41.7

5 9

10.0 18.0

5 14

10.0 28.0

3 14

6.3 29.2

0 50

0.0 100.0

3 50

6.0 100.0

4 48

8.3 100.0

Three times a day Whenever it is dirty NA Total Source: Primary Data 2003

Regarding their attitude in the house cleaning, a changing pattern occurs. Those who used to leave their houses dirty, now clean them at least once or twice a day, or whenever it is dirty. The brightness of the SHS lighting may influence their uncomfortable feeling to see untidiness inside their houses .

77

C.4. SPATI AL M O BIL IT Y The followup surveys affirmed the findings of base line study that the majority of the respondents have no plan to move from their present living areas. Some of them in the second round followup survey indeed think of migrating to other places (12.0%), but they do not mention their destinations. These respondents exclude the two households of the SHS users who have already moved out to other areas when the first round survey was conducted. In this case, if they have not yet paid the SHS installment plan, the sales agency then will dismantle it, and offer it to other new customers to take over the rest of the payment. There are three main reasons argued by the respondents who consider moving from their present living areas. Firstly, they feel insecure in the present homes due to crimes happening in their neighborhood. Secondly, they also feel isolated because of lack of public transportation, entertainment and other facilities. Thirdly, they think of looking for better jobs with the higher income earnings than is possible to find in urban areas. Accordingly, if they stay in their present village, they think that they will remain isolated, uneducated, and poor. Likewise, some children plan to move out temporarily because they want to continue their study in a higher school level in the city. On the other hand, there are six major reasons revealed by the respondents who do not plan to move out to other living areas. Their reasons are presented in table 4.40. A big number of respondents state that they have already settled down (24.2%) and felt at home (35.8%) in their present place.

78

Table 4. 40 Reasons to Stay by Gender (after one year with SHS) Reasons to stay

Man

Woman

F

%

Rely on livelihood in the present place Feel at home

12 29

12.6 30.5

6 39

6.3 41.1

18 68

9.5 35.8

Feel settle down here

26

27.5

20

21.1

46

24.2

Grow old No extra money to move

10 8

10.5 8.4

3 2

3.1 2.1

13 10

6.8 5.3

-

0.0 0.0

1 10

1.1 10.5

1 10

0.5 5.3

10

10.5

14

14.7

24

12.6

95

100.0

95

100.0

190

100.0

Feel Safe Dependent on spouse NA Total Source: Primary Data 2003

F

Total

%

F

%

Even though the vast majority of the respondents have no plan to migrate, their traveling frequency is relatively high. The result of base line study reveals that 63.0% of the respondents often make trips out of their living areas. The percentage points to 76.0% amongst the SHS users who sometimes go out of their villages for several reasons, including working, visiting relatives or just for recreation. In this line, some of them mention that their traveling frequency is similar to the ones the made six months and a year ago. Some others claim they do less than before (18.8%). Table 4. 41. Frequency of Traveling Out compared to the Baseline Travelling Out

First Round F

More often

%

Second Round F

%

3

6.0

9

18.8

Constant

25

50.0

16

33.3

Less NR

8 14

16.0 28.0

9 14

18.8 29.1

Total

50

100.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Except for the households that own shops at home, the SHS was not found to create new job opportunities for the users, such as home industry. There are some activities that may have converted from battery charged by a charging station to battery charged by the solar pv module, as was case of a telephone shop mentioned in the next paragraph.

79

D. Accessibility The countryside of the province, where the survey respondents live, is not absolutely isolated from other areas. Each village is connected to the others by a relatively widened road, and some parts of it are thinly asphalted. The obstacles that the villagers face when the want to go to other places is deemed due to the limited operation of public transportation and the threatening crime along the trip. The popular transportation to reach the villages is hired motorcycles (ojek). The communication facility in the rural areas recently is developing with the establishment of telephone shops (wartel) in the countryside. With the absence of the line grid, the telephone connection is made by satellite, while its machine is mostly operated by the electric power supply

from

car

batteries.

As

observed during the research, one of the telephone shops in the district of Way Serdang, Tulang Bawang use the SHS to generate the power supply for both the machine and the lighting. However, the accessibility of communication is still restricted in several areas because of the remoteness of the location. In addition to the scarcity of phone shops, the post offices only operate in the administration centers of the district. Hence, there are still more people unable to make convenient use of the services yet. Table 4. 42 presents the response of the respondents to the extent of the communication services. Table 4. 42 Different Responses on the Convenient Accessibility in Communication Accessibility

Husband

in Communication

Wife

Son

Daughter

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Yes

34

35.8

35

36.8

10

30.3

7

28.0

No NA

52 9

54.7 9.5

38 22

40.0 23.2

13 10

39.4 30.3

15 3

60.0 12.0

Total

95

100.0

95

100.0

33

100.0

25

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Based on the media of communication, several respondents in the households begin to use telephone by satellite service although the

80

charge is still very expensive for them. For instance: a long distance call from Mesuji SP-7 to Tanjung Karang cost IDR 200,- per second. However, there is one household of the respondents using a cell phone as shown in table 4.43. Postal mail is also common medium of communication, but this service can only be used by literate people, and by those living close to the district center where the post office is generally founded. Most respondents continue for external links to practice the face to face communication or use an intermediary person to deliver the messages. Table 4.43 Media of External Communication Used Most Media

Husband F

Cellular phone

%

Wife F

Son %

F

Daughter %

F

%

1

1.1

1

1.1

-

0.0

-

0.0

Telephone

10

10.5

7

7.4

4

12.1

2

8.0

Postal mail Face to face

22 33

23.2 34.7

14 38

14.7 40.0

7 17

21.2 51.5

7 11

28.0 44.0

Intermediary person

27

28.4

30

31.6

4

12.1

3

12.0

NA Total

2 95

2.1 100.0

4 95

4.2 100.0

1 33

3.1 100.0

2 25

8.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

In terms of information, the SHS plays an important function to facilitate civil education. Amongst the survey respondents, there are more SHS users who confirm that they gain information from electronic media. This learning process is certainly made possible with the SHS supply of electric power that turns the radio or television on. The following tables 4.44 and 4.45 illustrate the comparison between the SHS users and the non SHS users regarding the accessibility of electronic media based information. Accordingly, the households of the SHS users could access more information. In this line, the non SHS users perform similar tendency, but the percentage is lower than the SHS users. It means that all respondents are not generally isolated from the information on the one hand, but on the other hand the accessibility to the information is limited to the household respondents that own power generators for their electronic media such as SHS, diesel, genset or car batteries. Furthermore, it is pinpointed that men are considered more concerned with the information. Both husbands and sons show higher attention to information than the wives and daughters.

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Table 4. 44 Getting Access to Information from Electronic Media Amongst Different Household Members of SHS User Access to Information

Husband F

Wife

%

F

Son %

F

Daughter %

F

%

Yes

45

93.8

36

75.0

12

36.4

9

36.0

No

3

6.2

9

18.8

4

12.1

2

8.0

NA Total

-

0.0

3

6.2

17

51.5

14

56.0

48

100.0

48

100.0

33

100.0

25

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

Table 4. 45 Getting Access to Information from Electronic Media Amongst Different Household Members of non-SHS User Access to Information

Husband F

Wife

%

F

Son %

F

Daughter %

F

%

Yes

30

63.8

29

61.7

12

36.4

6

24.0

No NA

14 3

29.8 6.4

18 -

38.3 0.0

3 18

9.1 54.5

7 12

28.0 48.0

Total

47

100.0

47

100.0

33

100.0

25

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

The majority of the respondents address television and radio as their main important sources of information. Some others mention either getting information from printed mass media, friends, neighbors or the combination of all. Table 4.46 present various sources of information according to the household members of the SHS users. In this instance, it does not illustrate the statement of the non SHS users since the result indicates similar tendency that most of them gain information from the electronic media rather than from the printed media or neighbors/ friends.

Table 4.46 Main Sources of Information for Members of the SHS Household Husband (N=48) F %

Sources Information Television Radio Broadcast Printed media Neighbors/ friends

Wife (N=48 F

%

Son (N=33) F %

Daughter (N=25) F %

39

81.3

31

64.6

16

48.5

9

36.0

23 6

47.9 12.5

15 8

31.3 16.7

7 4

21.2 12.1

3 2

12.0 8.0

6

12.5

13

27.1

1

3.0

3

12.0

Source: Primary Data, 2003

Obviously, the survey respondents do not live in isolation even though their villages lack public transportation. The recent establishment

82

of telephone shops (wartel) avails them to long distance communication with

their

social

relations

in

other

areas.

In

this

case,

the

telecommunication slightly overcomes the problems of spatial distance due to the restriction of public transportation services. Furthermore, the problem of remoteness is broken up through the electronic media. The regional, national even global issues are still accessible in their living area. Some people have power supply to turn on television and radio despite the absence of the printed mass media. In this point, the SHS users are benefiting from the installment of the system.

E. THE ENERGY USE AND EXPENDITURE There are various energy sources commonly used in the respondents’ households. They are fuel wood, charcoal, LPG and other fossil fuel, such as kerosene, diesel fuel, and gasoline. Due to the absence of electricity grid in all sites of the respondents, the electric power is supplied from car batteries, dry cell batteries and diesel generators. The use of multiple energy sources are complementary. The SHS significantly reduces the quantity of energy used, and therefore shrinks the household expenditure. This part delineates the combination of the energy source used by the SHS users and their budget reduction for this expense.

E.1. T HE SO URCE O F ENERGY IN T HE HO US EHOL D Tthere is no SHS user relying absolutely on a single source of energy. All of them combine different sources of energy as it is reflected in table 4.47. Fuel wood and kerosene are the most needed energy in the households. There are 75.0% of the SHS users using the fuel wood, which is particularly demanded to build a fire for cooking. The percentage is going down about 11.0% over the year between the baseline and the third survey; they might have changed their traditional fireplace with either kerosene stove or LPG stove. For the respondents who use fuel wood, the cheaper cost and its availability in their surrounding forest are their main concern. Kerosene is the most needed energy source, according to the respondents although the number of households using it tend to decline, there are still 87.5% of the SHS users demand kerosene for multiple functions. They use it to start up the fireplace, stove, lantern, hurricane

83

lamp, petromax. Even after they installed SHS, they claim that the additional lighting is needed as a back up in case of low power supply either because of the exhaustion due to intensive use for other electronic appliances or due to cloudy weather. Table 4. 47. The Energy Source in the Household of SHS User Baseline N = 50 F %

First Round N = 50 F %

Wood fuel

47

94.0

43

86.0

36

75.0

Kerosene

50

100.0

47

94.0

42

87.5

Solar Gasoline

3 27

6.0 54.0

3 26

6.0 52.0

3 29

6.3 60.4

LPG Dry Cell Battery

1 45

2.0 90.0

1 37

2.0 74.0

3 38

6.3 79.2

Car Battery

42

84.0

22

44.0

6

12.5

2

4.0

1

2.0

1

2.1

Energy Source

Diesel

Second Round N = 48 F %

Source: Primary Data 2003

For the respondent possessing motorcycles or cars, gasoline is required. There are 60.4% of the households claiming that they need gasoline for the engine of their motorcycles or cars. Meanwhile, there are only 6.3% of the respondents needing diesel fuel. This is specifically demanded by diesel generators and cars. Amongst the respondents using diesel fuel, one of them is the SHS users who claim that it is used for his diesel generator. In this case, the owner argues that he owns the diesel generator to supply power. It is an exception since the household is an affluent family in the community. Thus, they can afford both providing diesel generator and the SHS. The prevalent device to get electricity in the households of the non-SHS is car batteries. There are about 51.0% of them using car batteries both for lighting and electronic appliances. For the same purpose, 12.5% of the SHS users keep using the car batteres. Aside from the back up lighting, the car battery is supplementary to the power supply for electronic aplliances. Most of the SHS users mention that they have already sold the car batteries to their neighbors who cannot afford the SHS.

84

Dry cell batteries are also used amongst the SHS users. They buy dry cell batteries particularly for portable electronics like radios or walkmans and flashlights. Some people indeed claim that they always bring their radios to the farmland to accompany them in doing their routine activites, and while taking a rest there. The remaining high demand of dry cell batteries may be affected by those habits as well as its indispensable function for flash light so that the reduction of 10.8% come from the electronics in their houses. The use of the combined energy sources practically prevail each limitation to meet their power demands. Therefore, the different sources are used to complement one another. The installation of SHS is unable to reduce the diversification of energy used in the households, but there is a gradual decline in use of kerosene and car batteries. E.2. T HE US ED ENERGY FO R L I GHTI NG DEV ICES Based on the energy used for lighting devices, the kerosene is still demanded as the complement to the SHS. Several households remain using ublik (lantern), huricane lamps and petromax beside the SHS. Ublik is a candle like light. The source of the light is the burning string damped in a bottle or a can full of kerosene. Table 4. 48 indicate its variation in usage among the households of SHS users by which the ublik and petromax usage sharply decreases, but hurricane lamps and neon lights are on its reverse. The declining use of the lantern is due to the intention to reduce the unwanted risks such as burning houses because of people’s carelessness. Table 4. 48 Lighting Tools in the SHS User Baseline N = 50 F %

First Round N = 50 F %

Ublik

46

92.0

14

28.0

14

29.2

Huricane lamp Petromax

22 19

44.0 38.0

22 5

44.0 10.0

35 5

72.9 10.4

Bulb TL/ Neon

5 25

10.0 50.0

10 25

20.0 50.0

4 31

8.3 64.6

Lighting Tools

Second Round N = 48 F %

Source: Primary Data 2003

Hurricane lamps are more preferrable as the main lighting devices along with the SHS use. Likewise, the owners of petromax still turn the

85

device on for additional lighting. This tendency exemplifies that the use of the SHS does not simultaneously replace the other lighting devices. Conversely, it serves as the lighting improvement in the households. There are 14.6% of the SHS users solely relying on the SHS for the lighting without any backups while the rest provide hurricane lamps to back it up. E.3. T HE US ED ENERGY FO R EL ECT RO NI CS For the majority of the respondents, the various use of energy sources is needed not only for lighting, but also for the electronic appliances. The number of electronic appliances in the households indicates high burden for the power supply. There is a graduallyincreasing number of electronics in the households after using the SHS. The radio, tape recorder, B/W television, and VCD are major appliances bought by the respondents supplied by the electric power of the SHS. Table 4.49 presents the possession of electronics in the households. Table 4. 49 Electronic Appliances in the SHS User Baseline N = 50 F %

First Round N = 50 F %

Radio

26

52.0

28

56.0

32

66.7

Tape Recorder B/WTelevision

19 24

38.0 48.0

19 33

38.0 66.0

20 35

41.7 72.9

Color Television

3

6.0

3

6.0

3

6.3

VCD Fan

1 1

2.0 2.0

4 1

8.0 2.0

9 1

18.8 2.1

Electronics

Second Round N = 48 F %

Source: Primary Data 2003

The power supply shortage commonly occurs amongst them not only because of the various uses of electronics, but also because of the irregularity of operation. For instance, as it is observed in some households, in the morning before leaving for the farmland, either the radio or tape recorder is on for a while. Then, it stops until their children start watching television right after coming home from school. The electronics are mostly off when they feel bored of the programs, but it will be turned on again in the evening till night before going to sleep. In some cases, people watch television up to midnight, especially when they enjoy their favorite programs such as boxing, wrestling or shadow puppet

86

performance. To the SHS users, the fact that the irregularity of the electronics operation may cause a problem of the power shortage seems to be ignored.

E.4. M ONTHL Y HO US EHOL D EXP ENDIT URE O F ENERGY On household expenditure for energy, the second followup survey finds significant reduction of the SHS user’s expenditure for energy. The use of SHS has eventually reduced the expenses on dry cell batteries and kerosene as well as the cost of recharging car batteries. Here, the reduction of the expenditure for kerosene is the most significant. Table 4.50 shows that the average consumption of kerosene amongst the SHS users steeply declined from 25.88 liters to 14.05 liters per month (45.71% deduction). This reduction is a little bit less than the initial six months period when the respondents experienced the new SHS (6.32 liters per month). But, their spending is still at a lower point than the non-SHS users’ spending, which is 18.76 liters per month. Table 4. 50 SHS user Household Monthly Expenditure for Buying Dry Cell, Kerosene and for Recharging Car Battery (Volume) Condition

Measurement

Expenditure (volume)

Median

Dry Cell (piece) 3.00

Kerosene (liter) 10.00

Charge (times) 2.00

Average

3.54

14.05

2.50

Median

3.00

2.50

1.00

Average

2.94

6.32

1.25

Baseline (SHS &

Median

4.00

20.00

4.00

Non-SHS users)

Average

4.09

25.88

3.86

Non-SHS users at

Median

2.50

15.00

3.00

Second round

Average

3.64

18.76

2.97

Second Round First Round

Source: Primary Data 2003

The monthly average of recharging car batteries done by the SHS users go down from 3.86 to become 2.50 times per month (35.23% deduction), which is lower than what is done by the non-SHS users (2.97 times per month). Moreover, There are six SHS users who maintain the use of car batteries as presented in the preceding table 4.47. Accordingly, they use it as a backup power on the cloudy days, or whenever they experience the power shortage.

87

A year after using SHS, in average, the purchase of dry cell batteries decreases from 4.09 units to 3.54 pieces. This small reduction is mainly related with the habit of the respondents to bring portable radio to their farmland. Beside the habit mentioned, the dry cell batteries are certainly needed by the SHS users for the flashlights. Due to the increasing prices, in terms of rupiah value, the decrease of the expenditure for those three items looks a bit modest compared to the volume decrease monthly. A year after using SHS, the expenditure for kerosene is deducted about 51.70%. At the same time, there is a cost efficiency of 14.31% from the dry cells and 55.11% from recharging car batteries. In average, the SHS users are able to save approximately IDR 28,401.06 (47.29%) every month from the overall cost of kerosene, dry cell- and car-batteries after using the system. Table 4.51 SHS User Household Monthly Expenditure for Dry Cell, Kerosene and for Recharging Car Batteries (IDR) Condition

Measurement

Total

Expenditure (IDR) Dry Cell

Kerosene

Charge

Median

5,000.00

12,000.00

4,500.00

21,500.00

Average

6,975.00

19,442.50

5,233.33

31,650.83

Median

6,000.00

7,500.00

4,000.00

17,500.00

Average

5,819.44

16,671.74

4,653.85

27,145.03

Baseline (SHS &

Median

8,000.00

36,000.00

10,000.00

54,000.00

non-SHS Users)

Average

8,140.00

40,254.00

11,657.89

60,051.89

Non SHS Users

Median

7,500.00

19,750.00

7,750.00

35,000.00

Second Round

Average

7,461.54

23,654.13

8,294.12

39,409.79

Second Round First Round

Source: Primary Data 2003

For some reasons, which need more clarification, the expenditure of the non-SHS users for energy also decreases. This amount points from IDR 60,051.89 to IDR 39,409.79 or 34.37% which is quite similar to the findings of the previous first round survey. Perhaps, the decrease of both the SHS and the non-SHS users’ expenditure for energy is caused by the drought related macro economic depression in the province of Lampung. In the in-depth interviewing they told us that the prices of basic goods in the market increase quite significantly since last year. The prices of energy like kerosene, dry cells and car battery recharge are at similar tendency simultaneously. Conversely, the prices of the crop commodities that they produce from the farmland are declining (see chapter 2). Due to this

88

depression, people have probably cutback their spending all together. However, the SHS users seem to be able to cutback their expenditure in kerosene, dry cell batteries and car batteries more than the non-SHS users. The efficiency of the SHS use is specifically uncovered in table 4.52 and table 4. 53. The two tables compare the average monthly expenditure before and after the SHS installation. This comparison is made in accordance with the number, length of use and expense of some lighting devices. as well as electronic appliances. The number and the length of use of lighting devices (hurricane lamps and petromax), in fact, tend to decrease and so does the use of car batteries for lighting and neon. On the other hand, the cost of the device maintenance and operation tends to increase all the time. Table 4.52 Monthly Energy Expenditure for Appliances before Using SHS Average Monthly Expenditure (IDR) Number (per household) 2.97

Hours per day 11.20

6,000.00

-

Operational cost 4,500

Petromax

0.38

4.20

75,000.00

10,000.00

11,250.00

Car Batterries

0.54

5.00

200,000.00

1,000.00

7,500.00

TV BW Tape Recorder

0.70 0.22

3.00 2.00

450,000.00 300,000.00

-

7,500.00 -

Radio VCD

0.28 -

2.00 -

100,000.00 -

-

8,000.00 -

Appliances Huricane Lamps

Device price

Maintenance cost

Source: Primary Data 2002

Table 4.53 Monthly Energy Expenditure for Appliances after a Year Using SHS Average Monthly Expenditure (IDR) Number (per household 2.82

Hours per day 8.00

6,573.04

Maintenance cost 4,731.82

Operational cost 6,577.78

Petromax Car Batteries

0.20 0.27

3.25 3.09

75,000.00 238,000.00

2,000.00 -

9,000.00 8,500.00

TV BW Tape Recorder

0.79 0.42

3.11 1.56

371,176.47 402,727.27

15,000.00

4,380.00 9,000.00

Radio

0.67

3.10

278,125.00

12,333.33

7,866.67

VCD

0.19

1.62

418,181.18

-

-

Appliances Huricane Lamps

Device price

Source: Primary Data 2003

89

After a year using the SHS, the number of the respondents’ electronic appliances also increases. This would need additional cost for energy as well

as

additional

maintenance. The use of SHS

somehow

makes

people more consumptive. They

purchase

electronic

appliances such as televisions, radios, tape recorders or VCD players. One respondent who once purchased a color television with AC system then sold the appliance just because it is incompatible with the SHS’ direct current. The interesting point appears in the price of television that it is lower than the one of tape recorder. It occurs since many respondents are likely to buy a second hand television, but they prefer brand new tape recorders. Moreover, new tape recorders are sometimes amplified with sound booster or equalizer so that they need additional cost for their purchase.

F. THE USE OF SHS There are a lot of experiences in managing the SHS power in the households. Several informants say that the ways to regulate the SHS power depend on the capacity of car battery charging at the noon. If the sun shines brightly, they use the power for different appliances without worrying the lack of power in the evening up to the following morning. But if it is cloudy, they mainly use the power for only the lighting. Some others, however, are not aware of the power capacity so that lacking power often occurs at night because of it has over used. The main use of the SHS is primarily for lighting. The average use is 6.32 hours. Meanwhile, televisions are the second priority of its use amongst the other electronics. In average, the households turn on their television for three hours which is more or less similar to the time spent to listen to the radio (3.10 hours). Tape recorders and VCD players are apparently seldom operated. In a day, the households play the tape recorder for about two hours while VCD for 1.62 hours. Table 4. 54 specifically performs the length of time of SHS use for electronic and other home appliances.

90

Table 4. 54 Length of Daily SHS Use Length

Purpose

of Use

Lighting

(hours)

F

12

-

0.0

-

0.0

-

0.0

-

0.0

-

0.0

-

-

NR

14

29.1

17

35.4

32

66.7

10

20.8

40

83.3

47

97.9

Total 48 100.0 Source: Primary Data 2003

48

100.0

48

100.0

48

100.0

48

100.0

48

100.0

In terms of current capacity of the home appliances, the majority use less than 70 watts. Televisions are mostly black and white. The average of current use is 25.74 watts. For the lighting, the average current used is 11.96 watts. The highest average of watts used is for the tape recorder (35.15 watts). The highest point is an exception because there are two households (4.2%) using the decks with 100 watts at the maximum current so that the points looks higher than the average of other home appliances operation. Table 4. 55 Power Capacity of Electronic Appliances Power

Appliances

(Watts)

Lighting

Radio

F

%

F

%

2

4.2

8

16.7

10 – 19 20 – 29

23 1

47.9 2.1

14 6

30 - 39 40 – 49

1 1

2.1 2.1

50 – 59

-

60 – 69 70 and More

-

< 10

NR Total

20 48

Tape F

TV

VCD

Fan

%

F

%

F

%

F

2

4.2

1

2.1

-

0.0

-

0.0

29.2 12.5

5 1

10.4 2.1

22 2

45.8 4.2

3 2

6.3 4.2

1 -

2.1 0.0

0 -

0.0 0.0

-

0.0 0.0

3 2

6.3 4.2

2

0.0 0.0

-

0.0 0.0

0.0

-

0.0

3

6.3

1

2.1

1

2.1

-

0.0

0.0 0.0

1

0.0 2.1

2

0.0 4.2

5 1

10.4 2.1

-

0.0 0.0

-

0.0 0.0

41.7 100

19 48

39.6 100

35 48

72.9 100

11 48

22.9 100

40 48

83.3 100

47 48

%

97.9 100

Source: Primary Data 2003

G. SOCIAL IDENTITY The use and appropriation of SHS gives a way to the people to get acquainted with new technology. Although most of the SHS users live in remote

91

countryside areas, which lack transportation and other public services, after installing SHS, they see themselves as no longer isolated as before. The previous section discusses the advantage of the SHS to power telephone shops to break up the isolation. The influx of both national and global information starts to inhabit their houses continually through the radio and television. This flow of information could change the way people look at themselves. Table 4.56 indicates this process by showing their responses to the effect of the SHS for their life. At least 85.4% of the interviewed men and 60.4% of the women articulate the advantages of the SHS in diminishing their feelings of being isolated. The use of SHS gives them an access to be engaged in a wider world, which they could learn from the media. Now they can learn current issues on the changes of local, national and even global situations ceaselessly at will. Here the SHS plays the supporting role since it provides power to operate both the radio and television. Table 4.56 Responses of the SHS Users on the Effects of SHS Advantage of the SHS

Man (N = 48)

Woman (N = 48)

Boy (N = 33)

F

%

F

%

41

85.4

29

60.4

4

12.1

8

32.0

40

83.3

40

83.3

15

45.5

11

44.0

Reducing the energy expenditure

38

79.2

32

66.7

11

33.3

6

24.0

Making any activities easier

40

83.3

39

81.3

15

45.5

12

48.0

Self Empowerment

30

62.5

33

68.8

8

24.2

5

20.0

Reducing the sense of being isolated Enhancing the security

F

%

Girl (N = 25) F

%

Source: Primary Data 2003

The direct effect of the SHS is on the provision of the lighting because it makes people feel more secure, especially in the dark. Most of them spell out the benefit of security after using the SHS to provide lighting. Accordingly, they say criminals will think twice to break into their house because the lights produced by the SHS will make criminal visible Besides, more neighbors are willing to visit them at night. The SHS lighting serves people in carrying out activities at night. Some people who work in offices can extend doing their tasks at home, while others ,who own stores, can provide night services. At the same time, children also get the advantage from the SHS light in finishing up their homework and enjoying television or radio programs. Some women even claim that they can do their

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housework conveniently because of the SHS light. It was particularly experienced during the month of Ramadhan. They could prepare meals better and more conveniently before dawn. Most respondents (79.2% of men and 66.7% of women) confirm that their SHS are cost-efficient. Unfortunately, about one third of the SHS users are still not able to assess the cost reduction of their energy expenditure, because they use the SHS in combination with other sources of power, and they are unable to calculate the wattage and the duration of the electronic use. Most people are, in fact, very optimistic in seeing their future, although they know that their wellbeing depends on working hard. They know that the SHS is not the only factor that determines their better life and their capability to improve their standard of living. Nonetheless, it is acknowledged that the SHS indirectly support them to enhance the use of media to open their mind and to empower themselves.

H. Expectations and Satisfaction The majority of the respondents are satisfied with the performance of the SHS. If we look into their expectations when they installed it a year ago, this satisfaction is due to the capability of the SHS to meet their need for lighting. The strong motivation to install the SHS is actually the urgency to replace their previous lighting devices, which mainly consume kerosene, like ublik, hurricane lamps and petromax. Most of them state that those devices have made them always inhale the smell of kerosene, forcing them to keep them alert to reduce the fatal risk of burning houses. Besides, it produces poor light.

Table 4.57 The Expectation of Household Members at the Time of SHS Installment Expectations

Husband F

Efficiency for lighting Convenience Comfort

%

F

Son %

F

Daughter %

F

%

39

78.0

34

68.0

10

20.0

2

4.0

3 3

6.0 6.0

5 3

10.0 6.0

0 1

0.0 2.0

0 4

0.0 8.0

5

10.0

8

16.0

39

78.0

44

84.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

NR Total

Wife

Source: Primary Data 2002

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There are 64.5% men and 68.8% women who are happy with the system. They belong to the households that use the system regularly and primarily for lighting. The more number of women who claim satisfaction indicate that the SHS actually help with their housework. In the meantime, there are also 27.1% men and 4.2 % women who tend to be moderate. They are neither truly satisfied nor disappointed with the SHS. In this category, their SHS is not only used for lighting, but also irregularly used for electronic appliances. Therefore, they sometimes get power shortage. Some of them, however, realize that the problems may not happen as long as they are able to control its operation. Table 4.58 Differential Responses toward the SHS Response

First Round Men

Women

F

%

F

Satisfy

30

60.0

28

Moderate

7

14.0

6

Not satisfy

8

16.0

5 50

10.0 100.0

NR Total

Second Round

%

Men

Women

F

%

F

%

56.0

31

64.5

33

68.8

12.0

13

27.1

2

4.2

11

22.0

2

4.2

9

18.7

5 50

10.0 100.0

4 48

8.3 100.0

2 48

4.2 100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

However, there are 4.2% men and 18.7% women who express dissatisfaction with their SHS. This may be related to the limited power of the SHS and to the harmful system as they experienced it. The shortage of power mainly comes up when the system is exhausted by being overused and not managed well. For some reasons, this matter occurs because people neglect the limited power capacity of the system. Some may not pay sufficient attention to its limitation because they have been persuaded by the sales promotion agents saying an SHS produces electricity comparable to the grid system. If the SHS is used for lighting purpose only, it indeed suits the fulfillment. User’s satisfaction is also reflected from their plan to buy more SHS for an extension of power capacity. Table 4.59 shows the number of respondents who want to buy additional SHS. They give various reasons concerning their plan to buy more systems, i.e., its efficiency, the needs for more current power, and its convenience and flexibility, especially to operate electronic appliances. At the same time, there are 43.8% of the non SHS users who actually want to buy the system.

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The interesting point is that the respondents both men and women who want to buy more packages are more or less in constant number since the base line study was conducted. However, none not yet carried out their plan by the time of the second followup survey. Their reasons for postponing the purchase is that they need to complete the payment for their first SHS and they have a low availability of cash income for the time being. Table 4.59 Planning to Buy More SHS: Husband and Wife Plan to

Baseline

Buy

Men

First Round

Women

Men

Second Round

Women

Men

Women

More

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

Yes

13

26.0

14

28.0

14

28.0

11

22.0

11

22.9

10

20.8

No NR

35 2

70.0 4.0

31 5

62.0 10.0

34 2

68.0 4.0

32 7

64.0 14.0

35 2

72.9 4.2

33 5

68.8 10.4

Total

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

50

100.0

48

100.0

48

100.0

Source: Primary Data 2003

In contrast with the households who plan to buy more, there are about 70.8% respondents who do not plan to add the system. Beside dissatisfaction, their salient reason is that they can not afford the new one (54.2%) and that they still have to pay their installment (11.5%). The other households seem to want to buy diesel generators (6.3%), or wait for the PLN grid in the neighborhood (8.3%). When the second followup was conducted, the majority of the SHS users were worried that service for their SHS will be in inconvenient after they have completed the payment. They think the salesman, collector or technician may be absent from their villages after the payments are completed.. According to their experiences, asking

local (non agent) technicians might not be

beneficial because they may not be able to handle it properly except for the minor problems.

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CH AP TE R V CON C LU SION The solar home system (SHS) has been introduced as an alternative source of energy for the households in Indonesia since the late 1980. The use of SHS provides higher quality and more convenient service, which could substitute kerosene for lighting and batteries for radios/cassette players or black-white televisions. The efforts to make the system popular are initiated through various programs designed by both the government and other development agencies. As a part of the program to develop the SHS, the World Bank has supported the private sectors in distributing the system in the commercial market since 1999. The companies involved in the project are PT Mambruk, PT Altari, PT Guna Elektro, PT Sundaya, PT MetroIndo and PT Gerbang. The market areas of the project cover the province of West Java, Lampung, and South Sulawesi, and adjoining kabupaten in adjacent provinces This study aims at estimating the impact of SHS to the development, especially of the different impacts on the household members. The results and the analysis explain quantitatively how an SHS is used within a household, who uses it,

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how it affects the duties, activities, roles, status and income of the household members, and how it affects the household members in their relation with the community. It describes the users of SHS based on gender, generation, and social status. According to the social economic indicators, the majority of the SHS users belong to the middle to upper classes of the society. Although, most of them are peasants who rely on agricultural activities as their livelihood, their average income is at least IDR 500.000 monthly. Their income earnings fluctuate depending on the seasons, and the market prices of their crop commodities. The first follow up round survey found that the drought during the past dry season and the falling prices of their cash crops had lower the incomes of the households of most respondents. Six months later, during the second follow up survey, the macro economic condition seemed to have improved slightly, but it remained difficult for them to increase their incomes. Regarding the household financial management, the majority of the respondents have not utilized the banking system. They manage their household finance in a simpleway, such as borrowing money from their neighbors or local installment plan unions when they need some, and keeping their money under pillow if they have some extra. The unavailability of the bank service close to the homes of the respondents and the required collateral may also be the main reasons for their reluctance to deal with the banking system. The majority of the respondents however purchase the SHS by installment plan. The salient reason is accordingly that the installment would not burden their routine household expenditure. The term of the installment plan as offered by the marketing agencies vary between from 6 months, 18 months, 24 months up to 30 months. Until the end of the last survey, there are still 27 respondents who have not yet paid their loans. Five respondents had given up the SHS. To some extent, the method of purchase and the method of collection of the installments establishes a serious problem for the sales agents of SHS. The customers live in scattered areas and so far away from the service point that the collectors find it inefficient to visit them regularly, and also because some of the customers have a low commitment to pay the installment. The need of the respondents to install SHS does not precisely occur in a void condition. The promotion and service of marketing agency play an important role to gain the motivation of the respondents to buy it. This is particularly related to the fact that the respondents obtain the SHS information mainly from their neighbors and the door-to-door visits rather than from mass media. In so doing, the intensity of

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salesmen’s frequency appearing in their coverage market areas will intensify the people’s need to purchase and nstall SHS. After a period of a year, information on SHS has spread widely in the province of Lampung. Even the non-SHS users are now familiar with the system. They recognize the system since they can watch the system applications in the neighborhood. Those who have not yet installed the system get advantages from the SHS when they watch television in their neighbors’ houses. Moreover, they know how the system works. In some cases, they also claim that they are able to repair it by themselves. Nevertheless, when the system is down, the majority of respondents entrust the reparation to the technicians of the sales agency The social economic status does not change significantly because of the SHS. In some cases, a few households with SHS were able to have an income generation benefit because they could extend their shop services in the evening. On the other hand, some respondents state that their expenditures have risen due to SHS as as they have been spending for electronic appliances. The use of SHS slightly touches gender issues on the divisions of labor, households’ life style and the efficiency of cost for the energy expenditure. The division of labor in the households remains the same in that women still hold the dominant role in domestic activities, while men still maintain their role in the public domain. The SHS lighting, particularly in the kitchen, generally lets the women work over time on their household duties. On the other hand, most men take the advantage of the SHS for increased for pleasure. The use of SHS somehow brings about an impact on education of the children. The children are encouraged to study with the extension of lighting in the evening. In fact, more children of the SHS users have reportedly attained better achievements in their school due to the increase of their time allocation to do their homework. Likewise, the households of SHS users also get the benefit to access the flow of information, specifically from the

radio and television. The availability of

power supply for the electronics enables the SHS user respondents to update information on modern life style and break up isolation of their villages. Regarding the habits of the house cleaning, apparently some changes occur. The households that never clean their houses, now, after installing the SHS, clean them at least once or twice a day. In some instances the respondents claim to clean their houses many more times just when the house looks dirty. Perhaps, the light produced by the SHS lighting awakens their feeling of discomfort to see the untidiness of their houses.

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This study indicates that the houses of the SHS users are more often used as the venue for social gatherings. The decision to choose the SHS users’ houses for meetings is somehow due to its lighting facility. Hence, the SHS use may lead to the owner’s getting involved more actively in the community life because their houses might be chosen for the center of the social activities, particularly in the evenings. In terms of household expenditure for energy, this survey reveals the significant cost reduction of the SHS users’ expenditure for energy. The operation of the SHS leads to less purchases of dry cell batteries and kerosene as well as the less charging of car batteries. These three energy sources are actually the most affected by the use of SHS. However, the use of SHS has not implied any radical changes in the use of energy sources because most respondents combine various energy sources for different purposes. Dealing with the remoteness of the respondents’ living areas, the SHS likely contributes to break their feelings of being isolated. In the limited distribution of the printed media, they can access the information of regional, national, and even global issues from the electronic media as long as they own a radio or a television set. Recently some satellite telephone shops (wartel) in the neighborhood are powered by the SHS. These wartels help them to get engaged in the national and international communication with their relatives in other parts of the world, such as in Saudi Arabia and in Malaysia. Thus, it slightly overcomes the insufficient facilities of public transportation in their countryside. The most promising impact of the use of SHS is shown by the decrease of the car battery charging cost amongst the SHS user up to 35 % and six out of 42 respondents retain their old way of using car battery. The use of kerosene for lighting amongst the SHS users decreased in average of 45,7%, or from 25,9 liters to 14,1 litters per month. However, this shift of energy source has been followed by the increase of buying electronic appliances BW television, VCD, and radio. All in all this research presents the positive impact of the SHS use in the household due to its support for education, social gatherings, cleanliness of the house, and the reduction of the cost for the household energy expenditure. On the other hand, the use of SHS has not directly improved the household income except for a few households whose shop services could be extended until late at night. Despite releasing women from their traditional position, the use of SHS has kept women in their traditional domain and men get the pleasure of it.

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Warga Masih Keluhkan Byarpet PLN. Lampung Post. 4 Maret

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Harga Kopi Lampung Makin Terpuruk. Lampung Post. 5 Maret

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Byarpet, Warga “Melawan” dengan Teplok dan Genset. Lampung Post. 14 Maret

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Pemda Tak Punya Dana Buat Listrik. Lampung Post. 23 Maret

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Pedagang Lampu Minyak Keliling Makin Marak. Lampung Post.9 April

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Mati Lampu Versus Anak Sekolah. Lampung Post. 21 April

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Kopi Lampung Semakin Pudar. Lampung Express Plus. 22 April

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Frekuensi Gangguan Jaringan Listrik di Lampung Tinggi. Lampung Post. 10 Mei 1

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Harga Lada, Sayur Mayur Turun Lampung Post , 12 September

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Pekan Ini Sayur Mayur di Metro Meningkat. Lampung Post, 21 September

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Lada Stabil, Kopi Naik. Lampung Post. 28 September

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Kemarau, Petani Singkong Panen Dini. Lampung Post. 30Oktober

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Harga Kopi dan Lada Belum Membaik. Lampung Post. November

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Kemarau Picu Kenaikan Harga. Lampung Post. 6 November

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Harga Sembako kian Melonjak. Lampung Post. 5 November

------- Di Metro Harga Lada Putih Naik 50% . Lampung Post. 7November ------- Sayur Mayur di Menggala Masih Bertahan Tinggi. Lampung Post. 18 November ------- Harga Sembako, Terus Melambung. Lampung Post. 27 November

2003 Tegangan Listrik Turun Drastis: 200 Pelanggan PLN Ancam Demo. Lampung Post. Februari 26. ------

PLN Siap Ambil Alih KLP SSM. Lampung Post. 20 Maret

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PLN Tunggu Dukungan Pemda Lamtim dan Lamteng. Lampung Post. 1 April

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Petani di Mesuji Kesulitan Air. Lampung Post. 2 April

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PLN Sosialisasi Standar mutu Pelayanan. Lampung Post. 5 April

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Hingga 2006, Kondisi Kelistrikan: Pemadaman. Lampung Post. 1 Mei

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15 Tahun, Harga Lada tak Pernah Bagus. Lampung Post. 12 Mei

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Lampung Krisis listrik 5 MW. Lampung Post. 13 Mei

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PLN Lakukan Pemeliharaan Pembangkit. Lampung Post. 20 Mei

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Akibat Devisit Daya: Lampung Padam Sebagian. Lampung Post. 22 Mei

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Atasi harga Anjlok, Petani Diminta Simpan Gabah. Lampung Post. 23 Mei

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Listrik Padam, Genset RSUAY Hanya Bertahan hidup 3 Jam. Lampung Post. 23 Mei.

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Harga Biji kopi makin Anjlok. Lampung Post. 25 Mei

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45 Pelanggan PLN Terjaring Operasi Petir. Lampung Post. 80 Persen Diputus. Lampung Post Juni 6

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Kopi Robusta Andalan Ekspor. Lampung Post. 18 Juni ------

Lampung

Masih

Rentan

Biaya Pasang Listrik Bisa Rp. 2,5 Juta. Lampung Post. 28 Juni

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