GCSE Philosophy and Ethics - The Bicester School [PDF]

GCSE Philosophy and Ethics THROUGH CHRISTIANITY AND SECULAR VIEWPOINTS KIRSTY WOOLASTON

Contents (Click to View) FOUR TOP TIPS ................................................................................................................................................... 3 PHILOSOPHY 1: BELIEFS ABOUT DEITY .............................................................................................................. 4 The Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 4 THE NATURE OF GOD ..................................................................................................................................... 4 EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD ........................................................................................................ 6 RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE ............................................................................................................................. 6 ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 7 THE ARGUMENT FROM CAUSATION ......................................................................................................... 7 EVIDENCE AGAINST THE EXISTENCE OF GOD ................................................................................................ 8 SCIENCE AND RELIGION ............................................................................................................................. 8 UNANSWERED PRAYERS ............................................................................................................................ 9 THE PROBLEM OF EVIL ............................................................................................................................... 9 PHILOSOPHY 1: END OF LIFE ............................................................................................................................ 10 The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 10 THE BODY AND SOUL ................................................................................................................................... 10 LIFE AFTER DEATH ........................................................................................................................................ 11 SECULAR ATTITUDES TO LIFE AFTER DEATH ................................................................................................ 12 CHRISTIAN FUNERAL RITES .......................................................................................................................... 12 PHILOSOPHY 2: GOOD AND EVIL ..................................................................................................................... 14 The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 14 WHAT IS THE PROBLEM OF EVIL? ................................................................................................................ 14 What does Christianity teach about good and evil? .................................................................................. 14 SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF EVIL ................................................................................................................. 15 DEALING WITH EVIL AND SUFFERING .......................................................................................................... 16 MAKING MORAL DECISIONS ........................................................................................................................ 17 PHILOSOPHY 2: RELIGION AND SCIENCE ......................................................................................................... 18 The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 18 CREATIONISM .............................................................................................................................................. 18 HUMANS AND ANIMALS .............................................................................................................................. 19 THE ENVIRONMENT ..................................................................................................................................... 20 ETHICS 1: RELIGION AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS ......................................................................................... 21 The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 21 ATTITUDES TO WOMEN IN THE UK.............................................................................................................. 21 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS MARRIAGE............................................................................................. 22 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TO SEX OUTSIDE MARRIAGE ................................................................................... 23 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS DIVORCE ................................................................................................ 23 HOMOSEXUALITY ......................................................................................................................................... 24 CONTRACEPTION ......................................................................................................................................... 24 ETHICS 1: RELIGION AND MEDICAL ETHICS ..................................................................................................... 26 1 Back to Contents

The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 26 THE NATURE OF ABORTION ......................................................................................................................... 26 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS ABORTION ............................................................................................. 27 THE NATURE OF EUTHANASIA ..................................................................................................................... 27 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS EUTHANASIA ......................................................................................... 28 FERTILITY TREATMENT ................................................................................................................................. 28 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS IVF ......................................................................................................... 29 CLONING ...................................................................................................................................................... 29 SUICIDE......................................................................................................................................................... 30 ANIMAL TESTING ......................................................................................................................................... 30 ETHICS 2: RELIGION, PEACE AND JUSTICE ....................................................................................................... 32 The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 32 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS WAR ...................................................................................................... 32 JUST WAR THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 33 PACIFISM ...................................................................................................................................................... 33 CRIME AND PUNISHMENT ........................................................................................................................... 34 SOCIAL INJUSTICE ......................................................................................................................................... 34 ETHICS 2: RELIGION AND EQUALITY ................................................................................................................ 36 The Key Terms .............................................................................................................................................. 36 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS RACISM ................................................................................................. 36 CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS OTHER RELIGIONS ................................................................................. 37 FORGIVENESS AND RECONCILIATION .......................................................................................................... 38 TYPES OF CHRISTIAN ........................................................................................................................................ 39 SOURCES OF GUIDANCE/TEACHINGS .............................................................................................................. 39 EXAM TECHNIQUE............................................................................................................................................ 40 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 40

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FOUR TOP TIPS

1. KEY TERMS Learn the key terms given in each section throughout the revision guide. This will allow you to get full marks in the part ‘a’ questions. You should also use these in your answers whenever you can to demonstrate good knowledge.

2. ANSWER THE QUESTION Read the questions very carefully. You need to make sure you are giving answers that are relevant to the question. Try and use the same language as the question in your answer.

3. STICK TO TIMINGS The exam is 1 hour long – 60 minutes. You have to answer ONE question from two sections. Each question has five parts and is worth 27 marks. 3 of those marks are awarded for spelling, punctuation and grammar so be careful. Stick to the timings outlined on page 68 and keep an eye on the time.

4. USE EVIDENCE You need to do more than vaguely say that “Christians believe...” You need to learn specific evidence from the Bible or from the teachings of religious leaders or groups. Try and be specific: “The Bible forbids homosexuality” won’t get you as many marks as “The Book of Leviticus states that ‘you should lie with a man as with a woman, for that is an abomination.’”

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PHILOSOPHY 1: BELIEFS ABOUT DEITY What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you will have studied the nature of God and why it is that people do or do not believe in God. This includes the influence of religious experience, how William Paley and St. Thomas Aquinas ‘proved’ the existence of God and why the existence of evil is often used to disprove God.

The Key Terms Deity

Another name for a God

Agnosticism

Not being sure if God exists / belief that we cannot know if God exists

Atheism

The belief that God does not exist

Conversion

When your life is changed by giving yourself to God / changing your religion

Free will

The belief that humans are free to make their own choices

Miracle

An event that breaks the laws of science and could only have been done by God

Moral evil

Actions done by humans that cause suffering

Natural evil

Events that lead to suffering but have nothing to do with humans

Numinous

The feeling of the presence of something greater than you

Omnibenevolent

The belief that God is all-good/all-loving

Omnipotent

The belief that God is all-powerful

Omniscient

The belief that God is all-seeing/all-knowing – he can see everything happening now and in the future

Omnipresence

The belief that God is all-present.

Immanence

God is within all.

Transcendence

God is above all.

Prayer

An attempt to contact God, usually through words

Monotheism

The belief in only one God.

Big Bang theory

Scientific theory which suggests that there was a massive explosion about 18 billion years ago and that this led to the creation of the whole universe.

Intelligent design

A theory which says that life is so complex that it must have been designed by a higher intelligent being, and did not evolve by natural selection.

Natural selection

Theory that tiny differences and genetic mutations between creatures of the same species can sometimes make one individual slightly better suited to their environment than others. This means that it survives longer and has more offspring who inherit that trait.

THE NATURE OF GOD Christians believe that God is made up of three parts or persons. This is called the Trinity. This means that there are three ways of God being God:  God the Father- the transcendent creator  God the Son- Jesus who is immanent and personal, who came to earth and lived a human life.  God the Holy Spirit- immanent, the way that God inspires and guides Christians every day. Christian beliefs about the nature of God (nature means his characteristics) God the Father

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           

There is only one God God is a Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit God is perfect and loving (benevolent) God is all powerful (omnipotent) God is everywhere (omnipresent) God knows everything (omniscient) God created the universe for a purpose God keeps the universe going God intervenes in the universe God loves everyone unconditionally (though people have to comply with various conditions in order to achieve salvation) God will judge everyone God is outside of time and space, he is transcendent and eternal

God the Son       

God lived on earth as Jesus Jesus was both God and human Jesus was born to a human woman, Mary, but conceived of the Holy Spirit Because Jesus was human he was subject to pain, suffering, and sorrow like other human beings Jesus was executed by crucifixion but rose from the dead at the Resurrection Jesus’ life provides a perfect example of how God wants people to live Jesus died on the Cross so that those who believe in him will be forgiven all their sins. This is called atonement- Jesus’ death makes people at one with God. This is what Christians mean when they say that Jesus is the saviour or redeemer of the world.

God the Holy Spirit    

After the Resurrection, Jesus remained on earth for only a few days before going up into Heaven Jesus promised that he would stay with his followers, so after he went to Heaven he sent his Spirit to guide them on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-11). The Holy Spirit continues to guide, comfort, and encourage Christians The Holy Spirit is represented by the dove.

KEY TEXTS/ EVIDENCE Genesis 1:26 –God made humans in his image (Imago Dei) Genesis 3.8 –God walking on water Isiah 66.13a – God as a mother Matthew 11.27 – Jesus is the Son of God

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EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE You need to know the four types of religious experience, how each of them leads to belief in God and how they can be criticised. Type of Religious Experience

Leads to theism because...

Can be criticised because...

1.

Numinous: this is the feeling of being part of something greater than you. This sometimes known as a transcendental experience.

The individual feels part of something and they link that to God. You are likely to believe that the ‘presence’ you sense must be God.

A feeling does not prove that God exists – you might just be appreciating beauty or feeling very happy about something.

2.

Conversion: this is when an experience of God makes someone change their life and become religious. Sometimes known as being ‘born again’. A famous example is St. Paul in the Bible.

It usually involves having a vision or some sort of experience that proves to that person that there is a God who should be worshipped. After a conversion experience, it feels impossible to be an atheist

There is little evidence that conversion experiences are real – visions could be explained in lots of different ways.

3.

Prayer: there are many types of prayer. These can be formal or informal.

If a person feels God is listening or that God has responded to their prayer then that can make them believe that God exists.

Answered prayers may be a coincidence. Prayers that go unanswered might make someone less likely to be a theist.

4.

Miracle: an event that cannot be explained without the intervention of God. There are four types of miracles:  Miracles over nature  Healing miracles  Resurrection  Exorcism

If a miracle has occurred then it is evidence of God. Witnessing this can be a transcendent experience. Examples of miracles:  John 2:1 Jesus turns water to wine  Matthew 14:22 Jesus walks on water  Luke 18:41 Jesus restores a blind beggars sight.  John 11:1 Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead.

Miracles might be faked or events misunderstood. There are very few modern miracles.

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ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN This is an argument for the existence of God. You need to be able to explain the argument and how it leads to belief in God. You also need to be able to criticise it. How does evidence of ‘design’ lead to theism? 1. 2. 3. 4.

The world is very complex, which means that it is all very carefully balanced. An example of this complexity is the human eye. William Paley said that if you were to find a watch on a beach, you would realise that it had to have had a watchmaker. As the world is far more complex than a simple watch, we must assume that there is a world-maker that designed all the laws of the universe sot that everything worked. The only being powerful enough to be the Designer must be God.

Essentially, this argument tries to prove God’s existence by saying that the world must have had a designer and that the only being powerful enough to design the world is God. In the exam, try and refer to William Paley’s Watch argument as it is probably the most famous version. How can this be criticised? 1. If God designed the world then he designed ‘evil’ as well, as the world includes lots of examples of cruelty 2. The work of scientists like Charles Darwin and Richard Dawkins show that the world evolved over time through chance alone 3. Why does the ‘Designer’ have to be God? 4. The world is not the same as a watch and cannot be compared to it – a watch is a man-made unnatural device.

THE ARGUMENT FROM CAUSATION This is another argument for the existence of God. This was proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas. It is sometimes called the Cosmological Argument. You need to be able to explain the argument and why some people disagree with it. How does evidence of causation lead to theism? 1. When we look at the world, we can see that everything has a cause and an effect. For example, the cause of revising is motivation and the desire to do well. The effect is better exam results. 2. Thomas Aquinas said that everything must have a cause that is different from itself – something cannot be caused by itself. 3. Aquinas then said that there has to be a first cause that was not caused by anything else – there must a First Cause or Uncaused Cause. This is sometimes known as an Unmoved Mover. An example of this is a chain of dominoes – something must have caused the first domino to fall. 4. The only being powerful enough to be Uncaused or Unmoved is God, as God is omnipotent. Therefore, God must exist. How can this be criticised? 1. If Aquinas says that something cannot cause itself, why does that not also apply to God? 2. Why does the Unmoved Mover have to be God? 3. Why does there have to be an Uncaused Cause or an Unmoved Mover? Couldn’t the causes go on and on into infinity? 4. The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe came into being by itself – it did not have a cause.

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EVIDENCE AGAINST THE EXISTENCE OF GOD SCIENCE AND RELIGION For this topic you need to be able to explain Christian beliefs about the origin of the universe, the scientific explanations for the origins of the universe and how religious people have responded to these. The Scientific Explanation 1. The universe began with the Big Bang about 14 billion years ago. The universe has been expanded ever since (as proved by something called Red Shift). 2. Over billions of years, the stars and planets formed until eventually the Earth appeared. Life formed on earth as a result of a chance mixture of different factors. 3. Over time, life evolved, as shown by fossils and the great scientist Charles Darwin. This evolution was a result of random mutations (changes). Life-forms that were best able to survive reproduced and passed their mutations on to their descendants. 4. About 2.5 million years ago, humans evolved. Religious Responses to Science 1. Some Christians believe that scientists are completely wrong. They are known as Creationists – they believe that the universe was created by God. Many Christians believe that God made the world in six days, as described in the Book of Genesis. They believe the Bible is never wrong. This has led some creationists to say that the world is actually 6000 years old e.g. James Ussher, a 17th century Bishop calculated the events in the bible and concluded that creation took place on 23rd October 4004BCE. 2. Some Creationists believe in the Apparent Age Hypothesis – this is the belief that God made the world appear old when it is actually still young. This explains the fossil record and why rocks have been dated to be millions of years old. 3. Some Christians agree with evolution and the Big Bang. They argue that God is simply the ultimate cause of the Big Bang – God set it off. This is sometimes known as Causation and can be seen to fit in with Aquinas’ ideas. 4. Some Christians are Compatibilist. They say that religion and science can support one another. They might believe in Intelligent Design – that God guided evolution.

For the exam, it is good to consider why the majority of scientists criticise creationism. 1. Scientific evidence tells us that there were around 14 billion years between the beginning of the universe and the appearance of humans 2. Human being evolved from single-celled organisms – they were not created in one go 3. The Creation Story in Genesis says that the sun was created after the earth and plants. Science has shown that plants cannot exist without the sun, therefore the order of events do not make sense. 4. The Creation Story makes no reference to all of the other species that lived and became extinct before humans, such as dinosaurs.

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UNANSWERED PRAYERS For this topic, you need to be able to explain how unanswered prayers might cause someone to be an atheist and how Christians explain God not answering their prayers. Remember, prayer can be seen as a reason for believing in God. How can unanswered prayers lead to atheism? 1. If you never feel the presence of God while you are praying, you may come to believe that there is nothing there at all 2. If God does not answer your prayer and allows you or someone you care for to suffer, this may lead you to believe that God is cruel – as the Christian God is meant to be omnibenevolent, this might suggest he does not exist at all 3. If God is omniscient that means he knows everything we pray for. If our prayers are not answered, does that mean he does not know what is going on? 4. It is hard to believe in an omnipotent God if he is unable to answer our prayers. How have Christians responded to the problem of unanswered prayers? 1. Some Christians believe that God does not answer requests made in prayers – if he felt you needed something, he would already have given it to you 2. Some Christians say that the point of prayer is to worship God and praise him – not to ask for personal things 3. God gives us what we need, not what we want – sometimes what we are asking for is selfish or might harm another person. 4. Christians should love God and praise him, regardless of their prayers being answered or not. God will do what is best for his worshippers.

THE PROBLEM OF EVIL For this topic, you need to be able to explain why the existence of evil and suffering causes problems for Christians and how different Christians justify the existence of an all-loving and all-powerful God. You also need to be able to tell the difference between moral and natural evil. Really excellent answers in the exam will use the ‘omni’ words and refer to the different types of evil. Moral Evil: this is evil caused by human actions. An example of this can be murder, bullying or stealing. Natural Evil: this is evil that is not caused by humans. An example of this is natural disasters. How does the existence of evil and suffering cause problems for theists? 1. If God is omnibenevolent, he should want to remove evil and suffering from the world. Christians refer to God as ‘Father’. A father should love his children and protect them. 2. If God is omnipotent, he has the power to remove evil and suffering from the world if he chooses to. 3. God is the creator of the world and of humans – this means that he can be seen as ultimately responsible for Natural Evil like tsunamis and earthquakes. He also allows people like Hitler to exist. 4. The problem of evil is if God is omnibenevolent, omniscient and omnipotent, how can evil and suffering exist? How do Christians respond to the Problem of Evil? An attempt to explain how God can allow evil and suffering to exist is called a theodicy. There are several Christian theodicies. 1. God allows evil and suffering in the world to test our faith and see how we react to it. In the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, the sheep are the ones who help other people. They get to go to heaven. 2. Moral evil is caused by humans abusing their free will. This was taught by St. Augustine. 3. Many Christians claim that God has a plan that we cannot understand. This is shown the Book of Job. Many Christians do not worry about how evil and suffering can exist, but focus on dealing with it. 4. Evil and suffering exist in the world because of Original Sin. This is when Adam and Eve disobeyed God in the Garden of Eden by eating from the forbidden Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. Because of this, humans were kicked out of paradise and were forced to suffer. By believing in Jesus, Christians can escape suffering and enter heaven.

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PHILOSOPHY 1: END OF LIFE What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you will have studied Christian and non-religious (secular), beliefs about the soul, the afterlife and how these beliefs affect their behaviour. You will have studied Christian beliefs about the salvation, redemption and suffering of Christ and explored Christian funeral rites.

The Key Terms Atonement

Christian belief that the death of Jesus brought about reconciliation between God and humanity. Jesus was the saviour and redeemer of the world.

Baptism

A Christian ceremony of purification with water.

Immortal

Having eternal life.

Original sin

The sin Eve brought into the world when she picked the fruit from the tree of knowledge in the garden of Eden.

Soul

That part of a person which is separate from their physical body.

Crucifixion

When Jesus was crucified on the cross in Jerusalem.

Purgatory

Roman Catholic belief that after death many souls go to purgatory where they are prepared to go to heaven.

Immortality of the soul

The idea that the soul lives on after the death of the body

Near-death experience

When someone who is about to die has an out of body experience

Paranormal

Unexplained events thought to have spiritual causes

Reincarnation

When we die our souls are reborn into a new body

Resurrection

The body stays in the grave until the end of the world when it is raised.

Saviour

Someone who rescues someone else.

Redemption

Jesus saved people from punishment for the sins of humanity and redeemed them.

Salvation

Jesus saved people from the consequences of sin.

THE BODY AND SOUL For this topic, you need to be able to explain Christian beliefs about the relationship between the body and soul. Christian beliefs about the body and soul:

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        

The soul is the non-physical part of person while the body is the physical part. The soul is often described as ones essence. Christians believe that the soul is immortal. Christians believe that the soul is the ‘breath of life’ which God gave to Adam (Genesis 2:7) Christians believe that humans were created in Gods image (Genesis 1:26 Imago Dei) Christians believe that by picking the fruit from the tree of knowledge, Eve introduced ‘original sin’ into the world. Original sin is cleansed when someone is baptised. Christians teach about the importance of Jesus’ death and resurrection. Jesus died to atone the original sin of Adam and Eve and overcame the power of death. Jesus redeemed humanity of sin which means that people can survive death and reach heaven.

Other ideas about the soul: 

The Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that the soul was the core essence of a being but, he argued it wasn’t separate from the body. Therefore, not eternal. Aristotle used a knife analogy to explain his ideas.



The Greek philosopher Plato believed that the soul is the essence of a person, the part that makes each of us who we are as individuals. The soul decides how we act and is eternal.

LIFE AFTER DEATH For this topic, you need to know what is it that Christians believe about the afterlife, why it is that they believe it and the impact this has on their everyday lives. The best candidates will be able to refer to different types of Christian. Remember, the vast majority of Christians believe that there is life after death.

The Afterlife All Christians believe that God will judge them after death. Some Christians believe that this judgement takes place immediately after death (Particular judgement) whilst others believe that there will be a day of judgement in the future (General judgement). Most Christians believe in heaven and hell. Heaven is seen as a place where you are forever in God’s presence. Hell is being separated from God. Traditional beliefs about hell were that it was a place of eternal torment and suffering. Roman Catholics believe in a third place called ‘purgatory’. This is where you might go to work off sins before you are allowed into heaven. Protestants do not believe in Purgatory as it is not mentioned in the Bible. Why do Christians believe? 1. Christians believe that Jesus died and was resurrected at Easter. The story is found in all four Gospels in the New Testament of the Bible. This demonstrates that there is life after death. St. Paul, who wrote much of the New Testament in the Bible, stated that those who believe in Jesus will be resurrected. 2. Many Christians believe that when we die we go immediately to heaven or hell. This is known as Immortality of the Soul. This belief is based on stories in the Bible like the Penitent Thief. Jesus promises the thief that “today you will be with me in paradise.” This is seen as evidence of life after death. The belief that we all go to either heaven or hell immediately is found in Roman Catholicism and in traditional Protestantism. 3. The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats was told by Jesus. It says that at the end of the world, everybody will be resurrected. Jesus will then split people up into either sheep (who will go to heaven) or goats (who will go to hell). Where you go depends on how you lived your life. Some Christians like Evangelical Protestants believe that when we die will simply sleep until the end of the world when we will all be resurrected at once. 4. There are many accounts over the last two thousand years of Christians speaking with people who have died – in particular Jesus or saints like the Virgin Mary.

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How does belief in the afterlife affect the way Christians live their lives? 1. The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats says that those who were allowed into heaven were those who did good deeds. This leads Christians to make sure that they have treated others well. 2. Christians will try and follow the example of Jesus, who said that they must love God and love their neighbours as themselves. 3. Christians might try and convert others to their religion, as they believe that anyone who does not believe in Jesus and God will go to hell forever. 4. Many Christians will try and demonstrate their faith by praying and going to church.

SECULAR ATTITUDES TO LIFE AFTER DEATH For this topic you need to be able to explain why some non-religious people believe in life after death and why others do not. Non-Religious Beliefs about Life after Death 1. Some secular people point to near-death experience as evidence of life after death. A NDE involves a person seeing/feeling something when their heart has stopped beating. Sometimes people report seeing a dead loved one or a religious figure and a feeling of peace. This sometimes includes an out of body experience. 2. Some people see evidence of the paranormal as proof of there being life after death. This includes belief in ghosts – many people, known as mediums; claim to be able to speak to the dead. 3. Evidence of reincarnation is often used by religious and secular people as proof of life after death. Some people claim to be able to remember past lives. 4. Most non-religious people tend to believe there is no afterlife. This is because they reject belief in God and say there is no scientific evidence that we live on after we are dead. They might also not believe because they have been raised in a non-religious family.

CHRISTIAN FUNERAL RITES For this topic, you need to be able to identify what happens at a Christian funeral service and explain the significance of it. Funeral services are very important for two reasons: •

It shows respect for the dead and includes various ceremonies which people believe are necessary to ensure that people go on to whatever their next life will be.

•

It also gives relatives and friends of the deceased time to mourn and show their grief in a certain way.

How do Christians prepare for death?   

Before a person dies a Christian minister may visit the person and help them to prepare for death. Before death Roman Catholics ask a priest to visit them and to anoint them with oil. This is a sacrament. Christian funeral services usually take place in a church and the body is then either buried or cremated.

What happens at a Christian funeral service? 

The opening of a funeral is usually the reading of this passage: "I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though they die like everyone else, will live again." (John 11: 25)



Verses from the Old or New Testament are read. 'The Lord is my Shepherd' Psalm 23.

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   

  

The priest, a family member or friend will talk about the person who has died (Eulogy) this can be quite a personal section, reflecting on the person's life and their role in the Christian church. The congregation pray for thanksgiving, penitence and readiness for death. The priest speaks these words: "Let us commend (the person's name) to the mercy of God, our maker and redeemer." The priest then reads a prayer of entrusting and commending. The most solemn moment of the service is the committal. It is when the coffin is lowered into the grave and covered with earth, or at a cremation, when the curtains are closed around the coffin as the following words are said "We therefore commit this body to the ground; earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust; in the sure and certain hope of the Resurrection to eternal life." In this way people are reminded that we are all human and made by God (Genesis 3:19). There may also be a selection of hymns which are sung throughout the service, they are usually about resurrection. People often send flowers - they represent the new life and the beauty of the world which the dead person is about to enter. Candles are lit to remind people that Jesus was the Light of the World and that because of him; Christians can be saved from their sins and go to heaven.

Roman Catholic funerals are slightly different and can be with or without Mass: There is usually a special Eucharist called a Requiem Mass where prayers are said for the dead person's soul. Holy water is sprinkled and there is an opening song and prayer. Sermons from the Bible are read out. The Eucharist prayer is said and Holy Communion is received.

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PHILOSOPHY 2: GOOD AND EVIL What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you will have studied Christian beliefs about good and evil, original sin and Christian responses to the problem of evil.

The Key Terms Evil

Without goodness (seen as bad)

Suffering

Having something horrible happen to you

The Fall

When Adam and Eve were said to ‘fall’ because Eve ate from the tree of knowledge in the Garden of Eden

Natural Evil

Evil caused by nature

Moral behaviour

Actions people take in life which could be good or bad

Temptation

Being tempted (led) to do something (normally a bad action)

Moral evil

Evil caused by people

Freewill

Have the freedom to make our own decisions

There are two types of evil: 

Natural evil - suffering caused by events that have nothing to do with humans, and which are to do with the way the world is, e.g., natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, floods or earthquakes



Moral (or human) evil - suffering caused by humans acting in a way that is considered morally wrong e.g., bullying, murder, rape, theft or terrorism.



Human evil and natural evil can often work together, with human evil making natural evil worse – or better! For example, the suffering caused by an earthquake or floods can be made worse by people looting, but it can be made more bearable by people showing compassion and making personal sacrifices to help those who are suffering. It is important to remember that: 'evil' is a cause of suffering; 'suffering' is a result of evil.

 

Natural Evil- evil caused by nature Moral Evil- evil caused by humans

WHAT IS THE PROBLEM OF EVIL? The existence of evil leads many to question the nature of God and can lead to atheism and agnosticism. Some people argue that a good God would not allow evil and suffering in the world. If this is the case then there are a number of options: -God does not exist -God is not all-powerful -God is not all-loving -God is responsible for everything including evil and suffering What does Christianity teach about good and evil?

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

God has given people free will – the ability to choose between right and wrong for themselves.



God has shown people how they should live but it is up to them to decide whether or not to follow God’s instructions. o

God gave man a list of religious and moral rules to follow e.g. The Ten Commandments that were given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai.

o

God sent his only son as an example of how to live. Jesus’ actions and teachings are recorded in the Gospels.

SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF EVIL The Problem of Evil is one of the main arguments in favour of atheism. Many Christians have tried to solve the problem and show that God is omnibenevolent and omnipotent in spite of the existence of evil. These attempts are called theodicies. EVIL COMES FROM FREE WILL  In Genesis 3, Adam and Eve choose to eat the forbidden fruit and commit original sin. St. Augustine wrote that the reason for evil was because human beings fell from being perfect to being corrupt. He said there is no such thing as ‘evil’ – it is just an absence of good. This is because everything in the universe was created by God and as he is perfect he would not have created ‘evil.’ When we act in an evil way, it means that we have not done what is good – through our own choices.  St. Paul said that “sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin and in this way death came to all men, because all sinned.” This is the idea that because of Adam and Eve there is sin in the world. Evil and suffering are the result of our own free choices – we can choose to be good or we can choose to do evil deeds. Paul says that because he loves humans, God became human as Jesus and allowed himself to be sacrificed. By believing in him and being baptised, Christians believe that they can be cleansed of Original Sin and be forgiven for any evil choices they have made.  However, some people have argued that human beings do not really have free will. Our actions are influenced by lots of different factors. Some Christians believe that God has already decided what decisions we make. This is called predestination. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that it has already been decided who will go to heaven and who will go to hell. EVIL COMES FROM THE DEVIL 

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Some Christians believe the Devil (also known as Satan, which means ‘Adversary’ or ‘Enemy’) is the source of much evil in the world. He is the ruler of hell and commands many demons. Many Christians believe that these demons (and the devil himself) can possess people or influence them to behave in evil ways. While the Bible never clearly talks about the origins of the Devil, most Christians believe that he is the fallen angel Lucifer. According to Christian myths, Lucifer rebelled against God and was cast out of heaven and into hell. He is also supposed to have taken the form of the serpent in the Garden of Eden to tempt Adam and Eve into committing Original Sin – it was the Devil that led them astray and got them expelled from Paradise. In the Book of Revelation, there is a reference to “that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him.” However, some Christians do not believe in the real figure of the ‘Devil’, however. They believe the idea of hell as a place of fire and pain and suffering isn’t real and that people do not do evil deeds because they are possessed by demons.

EVIL IS A TEST 

Christians believe that good people will go to heaven and evil people will go to hell. This is shown in Jesus’ story of the Sheep and the Goats. He told his followers that at the end of the world the Son of Man (by which he means himself) will come back and judge the living and the dead. Those who did good deeds (the sheep) will go to heaven, while those who did not (the goats) will go to hell. This is backed up by St. Paul, who wrote that we are justified (saved) by having faith in Jesus Christ. This means that we have to prove that

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we have faith and that we can be good – so evil exists as a test. If you keep your faith in the face of evil and suffering then you will get to go to heaven. God wants us to choose to be good, to show our faith. Love is more valuable if it is chosen – you would not value the love of someone if it was created because of a love spell. A famous story to back up the idea of evil as a test is the story of Job in the Old Testament. Job was a righteous man (he showed respect to God and behaved morally). God had rewarded him with a wife, lots of children, plenty of land and wealth, good health and a good position in his community. However, Satan says to God that Job is only righteous because he has these things, not because he is truly righteous. So God allows Satan to kill Job’s family, ruin his business and destroy his health – Job develops boils all over his skin, a barbarian horde slaughter all his livestock (the source of his wealth) and his house collapses on all of his children, killing them. In spite of this, Job remains faithful to God, so God restores his wealth and gives him a new wife who Job had new children with. Evil and Suffering are part of God’s plan – it is his way of testing out how people really feel about him. Life is a test, which God sets us because he loves us.

EVIL IS EDIFYING 

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St. Irenaeus, an important Christian philosopher, believed that the existence of evil and suffering is edifying. He believes that Original Sin was the result of a mistake made by Adam and Eve because they were not mature enough to understand what was happening. They were like children – so they needed to experience suffering in order to develop and mature. God loves us, so he allows us to suffer in order to make us stronger people. If the world was perfect and there was no danger or challenge, then we would have no need to develop ourselves or our society. If there is nothing difficult about life, why would you investigate the sciences or create art and music to make life more enjoyable? The existence of suffering is good for us. All great artists are spurred on by their suffering and their pain, as well as the good things in life. As well as this, having evil and suffering helps us appreciate the good things in our life. If we did not have evil and suffering to compare goodness and happiness with then we would not even recognise it. It is easier to appreciate beauty if you know what is ugly. God could prevent us from suffering, but he does not protect us from everything bad because he loves us. It is our jobs as humans to learn from our suffering and the difficulties in life and make an effort to get back to that paradise state by believing in God.

DEALING WITH EVIL AND SUFFERING There are a wide range of strategies we might use to cope with evil and suffering. Many of these are used by secular and religious people alike. However, religious people might also draw on the comfort they find in their religious community or teachings, focus their mind on a good afterlife and use prayer to help them cope. Christians use the following strategies to help them cope with suffering:  Refer to the Bible for guidance  Read parables (stories) from the Bible which contain moral messages  Follow Jesus’ example (What would Jesus do?)  Follow their conscience. Some Christian thinks their conscience comes from God

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MAKING MORAL DECISIONS The existence of evil and suffering in the world does not only raise questions about how to cope with distress, but also about how we can know the right way to behave. There are many places and people we approach to give us guidance some of which are better than others. In order to help Christians make moral decision they use some of the following:  Prayer- For many Christians, prayer is a good way to gain guidance. This might be through having time to reflect on what is happening, or because they believe that God will let them know what they should do.  Jesus / Faith in Christ- This might involve looking at the teachings or example of Jesus and trying to follow in his footsteps. This might use Parables (like the Good Samaritan) or Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross to save humanity.  The Bible- This might be used to gain advice on how to behave by looking at Bible stories, important Biblical figures and laws like the Ten Commandments and the Greatest Commandment.  Conscience- For many Christians our conscience is the voice of God speaking to us and giving us advice. Other people, like Freud, tell us that it is all the rules we learned as small children.  Family & Peers- For many people the best source of guidance is our family or peers – the people who know us and understand our situation. For Christians this might also include their priest or members of their church.  Teachings of the Roman Catholic Church- Roman Catholics believe that the Pope has the authority of Jesus as he is believed to have given this to the first Pope, St. Peter. Any guidance given by the Pope and found in the Catechisms (teachings) of the Church could be used.  Human Reason and Example- Humanists (who believe that religion is wholly unnecessary in today’s world) argue that we can understand morality by using our human ability to think and the shared experiences of the human community. This might include looking at role models from all walks of life, as well as thinking through our problems and how they might affect others.

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PHILOSOPHY 2: RELIGION AND SCIENCE What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you will have studied both Christian and scientific explanations of the origins of the universe and Christian beliefs about the relationship between humanity, animals and the environment.

The Key Terms Humanity Origin Purpose Environmental issues Big Bang Cosmology Charles Darwin Evolution Stewardship Soul Dominion

The human race The beginning of something or someone The reason for something Issues concerned with the health of the planet e.g. global warming A scientific theory which states that the universe was created by a large explosion billions of years ago The study of the origins of the universe A biologist who created the idea of evolution (also known as Darwinian theory) The scientific theory which states that humans developed from other animals The Christian teaching which states that God gave the world to humans to be guardians over A spirit or a part of God which people have but animals do not. Christians believe your soul lives on after your body dies. The idea that people have power over the world and everything in it

RELIGION AND SCIENCE For this topic you need to be able to explain Christian beliefs about the origin of the universe, the scientific explanations for the origins of the universe and how religious people have responded to these.

CREATIONISM The Christian story of creation and the origins of the world are found in the first book of the Bible, Genesis. Christian ideas about the origins of the universe:  According to Genesis, God made the world and everything in it in six days and rested on the seventh.  Christians believe that the world was not created by accident.  This means that everything in the world exists for a reason and that God has a purpose for it. Christian ideas about the origins of humanity:  The book of Genesis describes how God created all animals and plants while creating the world.  In the first account of creation, it describes how men and women were a special creation.  The first man and woman were Adam and Eve. God created the Garden of Eden for them to live in.  Human beings were created in the image of God (Imago Dei).  God made all animals and presented them to Adam so that he could name them. This shows that humans had control over animals.  God tells the humans ‘be fruitful and increase in number, fill the earth and subdue it’.  Adam and Eve lived in a perfect world until they disobeyed God by eating the fruit from the forbidden tree.  In the second account of creation in Genesis, humans were created before the plants and animals. The Evangelical Protestants view:  Traditional Christians believe that Genesis (and indeed the rest of the Bible) gives accounts of events which are literally true. They believe in scriptural inerrancy.  They believe that the Bible comes from God and He does not make mistakes.  Therefore Genesis presents the facts of the origins of the world and humanity.

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These people are referred to as ‘creationists’. Some Creationists believe in the Apparent Age Hypothesis – this is the belief that God made the world appear old when it is actually still young. This explains the fossil record and why rocks have been dated to be millions of years old. Creationists sometimes support their views with the work of James Ussher, a seventeenth century English bishop, who calculated the actual time of creation by working through all the dates and times given in the bible. He eventually worked out that it took place at 9am on 26th October 4004BCE, many billions of years after the date later given by science.

The Liberal Protestant view:  Many modern Christians agree with scientists that the universe was created by the Big Bang. They may also believe in evolution.  Some Christians are Compatibilist. They say that religion and science can support one another. They might believe in Intelligent Design – that God guided evolution.  These Christians believe that the stories in the Bible are myths. This means that they do not state facts but they are a way of representing what actually happened.  They may see the Bible stories as ways of praising God for his gift of life rather than giving an accurate account of the facts.

THE SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION    

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Cosmology is the study of the origins of the universe The universe began with the Big Bang about 14 billion years ago. The universe has been expanded ever since (as proved by something called Red Shift). Over billions of years, the stars and planets formed until eventually the Earth appeared. Life formed on earth as a result of a chance mixture of different factors. Over time, life evolved, as shown by fossils and the great scientist Charles Darwin. This evolution was a result of random mutations (changes). Life-forms that were best able to survive reproduced and passed their mutations on to their descendants. This is known as natural selection. About 2.5 million years ago, humans evolved. Fossils which show evidence of dinosaurs are used by scientists to prove Darwin’s ideas. Scientific theories state that neither the universe nor people were created on purpose. Instead, both happened by chance.

HUMANS AND ANIMALS Christians and secular people have varying views about the difference between humans and animals. For this topic you need to be able to explain the relationship between humans and animals. All Christians believe that animals should be treated with care and compassion, but there is a disagreement about whether or not humans are superior to animals and whether humans should be able to use them as they see fit. Animals should be used for scientific research:  Many Christians believe that God gave humans dominion (authority and control) over animals suggesting that they should be used as we see fit.  In Genesis, humans are given power over all living creatures and in Genesis 2 God tell Adam to name the animals. This suggests that God gave people free choice in the way they treat the world.  Humans are made in the image of God – they are like God. This makes them distinct from animals and special.  In Genesis Adam is given power over all living creatures which suggests that humans are special and therefore have special rights and duties which other animals do not share.  Most Christians believe that people and animals are different because people have souls but animals do not. Animals should not be used for scientific research:

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Some Christians believe that animals do have souls. St Frances of Assisi (the patron saint of animals) spoke out about animals and their treatment. St Frances believed that animals have souls. Most Christians believe in the idea of stewardship. This means that people are ‘stewards’ who have power over God’s other creations, but have a responsibility to look after them. This means that people should care for the earth and preserve it for future generations. However, the world belongs to God and humans are merely looking after it for God. It is clear from Jesus’ teaching that God cares about animals as well as people.

THE ENVIRONMENT For this topic you need to be able to explain Christian beliefs about stewardship and how they approach environmental issues.

How should Christians treat the environment?       

The Bible says that humans have power over animals. This idea is called dominion. Many Christians in the past have used this as an excuse not to care for the environment. However, more recently Christians have become more aware of environmental issues. Many Christians today refer to the idea of stewardship and are interested in many environmental issues such as global warming or the destruction of rainforests. They have joined groups such as Greenpeace or the Worldwide Fund for Nature. Christians may also try to reduce the amount of pollution they produce and recycle instead of throwing away. The Catholic Church has recently released a set of modern sins. Polluting the environment is one of these sins. This shows that Christians are taking environmental problems more seriously than in the past. One way in which Christians show their care and thankfulness for the environment is in worship. Harvest festival is modern Christian festival which began in 1843. It is a thanksgiving for the harvest and all that God provides.

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ETHICS 1: RELIGION AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you need to be able to explain the roles of men and women in a Christian family and within the church. This unit also covers Christian and secular (non-religious) attitudes towards sex outside marriage (including pre-marital and extra-marital sex or adultery), homosexuality, civil partnerships and contraception. For this unit you also need to understand the features of a Christian wedding ceremony and explore Christian attitudes towards divorce.

The Key Terms Adultery

A sexual act between a married person and someone other than their marriage partner

Celibacy

Someone who abstains from sexual activity.

Chastity

Abstaining from sexual activity because of religious vows, e.g. a nun or monk.

Civil Partnership

A legal ceremony giving a homosexual couple the same legal rights as a husband and wife

Cohabitation

Living together without being married

Contraception

Intentionally preventing pregnancy from occurring

Faithfulness

Staying with your marriage partner and only having sex with them

Homosexuality

Sexual attraction to the same sex

Nuclear Family

Mother, father and children living together as a unit

Pre-Marital Sex

Sex before marriage

Procreation

Making a new life

Promiscuity

Having sex with a number of partners without commitment

Re-marriage

Marrying again after being divorced from a previous marriage

Rhythm method

Planning sex around the most infertile times in a woman’s monthly cycle.

Sacrament

An outward, physical sign of an inward, invisible grace (faith in God). The Roman Catholic and Orthodox church recognise seven sacraments e.g. marriage.

Vows

Promises made between the couple getting married with God as a witness.

ATTITUDES TO WOMEN IN THE UK You need to be able to explain how attitudes to women have changed and why this has taken place. You also need to be able to consider why some people say men and women are still unequal in society. How and why have attitudes towards men and women changed? 1. Since 1970 it has been illegal to pay women less than men for doing the same work. Sexism has been illegal since 1975. This means that men and women have equal rights under the law in the UK

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2. Changes in the job market mean that lots of ‘traditional’ male jobs like mining no longer exist. Women have become major wage-earners for families. 3. Men are expected to help around the house and with childcare. This is a big change from the 1960s. However, some sociologists have argued that women are still doing the majority of childcare and housework, even though they have full time jobs. 4. The feminist movement has empowered women to take leadership roles in the workplace and in society generally. However, most senior positions are still held by men.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS EQUAL RIGHTS FOR WOMEN For this topic you need to be able to explain Christian attitudes towards women within the family and within the church. This particularly relates to women priests (female ordination). Traditional Protestant Christians 1. In Genesis, it is Eve who first commits Original Sin. After this, God tells Eve that she must always listen to her husband. 2. In the New Testament, St. Paul writes that women should not speak or teach in Church 3. Jesus’ twelve apostles were all men 4. In Genesis, Eve was created as a helper and partner for Adam. St. Paul refers to this in the Letter to the Corinthians, where he says that wives should obey their husbands, be silent in Church and cover their heads covered. Modern Protestant Christians 1. Genesis 1 says that God created male and female in his image. This means that the two genders are equal. 2. St. Paul said “there is neither Jew nor Gentile, slave nor free, male and female, for you are all one in Jesus Christ.” This suggests that gender is not important as long as you have faith. 3. It was women who stayed with Jesus during the crucifixion and who first saw him when he was resurrected. Jesus showed respect to women like the Samaritan woman and the woman who anointed him in Bethany. Jesus was not sexist, so modern Christians should not be either. 4. There is evidence that there were important female leaders in the early church (such as Phoebe and Thecla). However, though the Church of England allows female ordination, there are still no women bishops allowed. Roman Catholic Christians 1. Men and women were created in the image of God according to Genesis 1, so they are equal. This is also taught by the Catechism of the church. 2. Jesus valued women and the role they can play in life. 3. Priests act on behalf of Jesus when they perform Mass therefore a woman cannot perform the ceremony. 4. The Apostles were all men and priests are successors of the Apostles. Therefore, only men can become priests.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS MARRIAGE Christians believe that the basis for the family is marriage. You need to be able to explain how marriage ceremonies reflect and emphasise Christian beliefs about the sanctity of marriage. Marriage is seen as a gift from God. The importance of marriage is stressed by Jesus in Mark’s gospel and stated in the marriage ceremony, ‘Therefore what God has joined together, let man not separate’. The marriage ceremony:  The wedding ceremony is full of symbols to show how important this commitment is.  The bride and groom exchange vows before God.  The giving of rings symbolise eternity  Throughout the service hymns are sung and readings given, usually from the Bible to show how the couple should treat one another and why marriage is so important.

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For Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians marriage is believed to be a sacrament – this means that the wedding vows are made to God and cannot be broken.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TO SEX OUTSIDE MARRIAGE For this topic you need to be able to explain why most Christians frown on pre-marital sex and why all Christians are against extra-marital sex (adultery). Christians expect married couples to show faithfulness to one another (they should never cheat on them and keep their marriage vows). Why do Christians believe sex should only take place within marriage? 1. Sex was given to humans by God for the purpose of procreation. Children should be raised by a married couple, so sex should only take place in marriage. 2. In the New Testament, St. Paul says that any type of sex outside marriage is a sin. Christians sometimes use the word ‘fornication’ for any type of sinful sex. 3. Adultery is forbidden in the Ten Commandments, so a Christian should never have sex outside of their marriage. Jesus also condemns adultery. 4. Roman Catholic Christians believe that marriage is a sacrament – this means it involves God as well as the husband and wife. This means that a married person can never break their vows. This is taught in the Catechisms of the Catholic Church. For some Christians, such as Liberal Protestants, sex can take place before marriage as long as it is within a long-term and faithful relationship. Liberal Protestants are still against promiscuity – sex without commitment with different partners. However, other Christians like Roman Catholics say that “human love does not tolerate trial marriages.” (The Catechism of the Catholic Church) For some Christians, sex is not an important part life. St Paul remained unmarried and taught that the ideal was for everyone to remain celibate. Within the Roman Catholic Church, priests are required to take a vow of celibacy as the church believes that if a priest was married he would be distracted from loving and serving God.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS DIVORCE For this topic, you do need to consider your OWN attitudes towards divorce and when you think it is / is not acceptable. You then need to be able to explain why some Christians (particularly Roman Catholics) forbid divorce and why other Christians do allow it to take place. The Roman Catholic Christian Attitude 1. Marriage is a sacrament. This means that God is present in the wedding vows. The only way a marriage can end is through the death of one of the partners. 2. Jesus stated that divorce is immoral in Mark’s Gospel and all Christians should follow Jesus’ teachings. 3. The Catechism of the Catholic Church make it clear that no human power can end a marriage – only God can. 4. As there can be no religious divorce, there can therefore be no re-marriage. If someone was to marry again they would be committing adultery in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church. This is a serious sin that goes against the Ten Commandments. 5. In certain circumstances, the Pope may grant an annulment to a couple who wish to divorce. An annulment says that the original marriage was flawed and therefore did not actually take place. The Non-Catholic Attitude 1. Most Christians believe that divorce is wrong, but some denominations (such as Methodists) may allow it and therefore allow re-marriage. 2. Divorce can be seen as the ‘lesser of two evils’, particularly if remaining in the marriage is harmful for the family. 3. Jesus did allow divorce in the Gospel of Matthew 19:19 if one of the partner’s had committed adultery. For some Christians, this means that divorce is acceptable if the reasons for it are severe enough.

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4. Jesus said that we should love our neighbour and show compassion. Divorce could allow a person to have a second chance in life.

HOMOSEXUALITY For this topic, you need to have considered your own opinions on homosexuality, civil partnerships and gay marriage. You need to be aware of how the law has changed and Christian attitudes. How has the law changed for gay people? Before 1967 homosexuality was illegal and seen as an illness. Recently gay couples have gained equal status to heterosexual couples. In 2004 the Civil Partnership Act was passed, allowing gay couples to register their relationship legally. Since then the Marriage (Same-Sex Couples) Bill was passed. This allows for gay weddings, though not in Church of England and Roman Catholic churches. The Roman Catholic Attitude 1. Roman Catholic Christians believe that homosexual sex is a sin, but that a person cannot help their sexual orientation. They believe that we should “love the sinner, hate the sin.” This means that homosexuals are to be respected, but they should also remain celibate (not have sex). 2. The purpose of sex is to create children. Therefore, any type of sex that does not lead to procreation is immoral. 3. The Bible condemns homosexual sex (e.g. Leviticus: you shall not lie with a man as with a woman, for that is an abomination.) The Catechism of the Catholic Church condemns homosexual sex. 4. Homosexuals (even if they are celibate) are banned from the Roman Catholic priesthood. Protestant Attitudes 1. Evangelical Protestants believe that homosexuality is a sin and that with prayer and the help of the Holy Spirit a person can cease to be homosexual. 2. Evangelical Protestants also believe that the Bible is never wrong and it clearly states that homosexual sex is immoral (as shown in Leviticus) so therefore, homosexuality is a sin. 3. Liberal Protestants can be supportive of long-term homosexual relationships as they believe the Bible needs to be reinterpreted in the modern world. 4. The Church of England recognises gay relationships and welcomes homosexuals in the church, but believes that any homosexual priest must be celibate. This is different from heterosexual priests who can be married.

CONTRACEPTION For this topic you do not need a detailed knowledge of contraceptive methods. You do need to consider your opinion on using contraception and the reasons why Christians are for or against it. Roman Catholic Christians 1. Roman Catholics believe the main purpose of sex is procreation (having children). Therefore, any form of sex that deliberately tries to prevent conception is immoral. Genesis 1:28: And the Lord commanded them: “Be fruitful and multiply.” 2. Roman Catholics are against the use of contraception because In the Bible, God kills Onan when he ‘spills his seed upon the ground’ rather than having sex with the woman God commanded him to sleep with. 3. Contraception is seen to be responsible for promiscuity and changes the purpose of sex from what God intended. It is seen to be unnatural. 4. Several Popes have forbidden contraception as unnatural and interfering with God. These teachings have been confirmed in the Catechism. 5. Roman Catholics do allow the use of the ‘rhythm method’. This involves having sex when the woman is the most infertile period of her menstrual cycle. However, this not a reliable form of contraception.

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Non-Catholic Christians 1. Most other Christians allow contraception to be used in order to restrict family size. This was confirmed by the Lambeth Conference of the Church of England in 1930. 2. The use of condoms can combat the spread of sexually transmitted diseases like HIV/AIDS. 3. God created sex for enjoyment as well as creating children. 4. Contraception can create better standards of living as having several pregnancies can damage a woman’s health and can be financially and emotionally draining.

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ETHICS 1: RELIGION AND MEDICAL ETHICS What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you will have studied the ethical issues surrounding abortion, euthanasia, fertility treatment, cloning, suicide and animal testing. You will have studied different Christian and secular attitudes towards each issue.

The Key Terms Abortion

The removal of a foetus from the womb before it can survive

AID

Artificial insemination by donor.

AIH

Artificial insemination by husband.

Assisted Suicide

Providing a seriously ill person with the means to commit suicide

Cloning

Making a replica

Doctrine of double effect

If doing something morally good has a morally bad side-effect, it is right to do it providing the bad side-effect was not intended. E.g. a doctor giving a terminally ill patient pain relief and as a consequence it speeds up death.

Euthanasia

The painless killing of someone dying – a mercy killing

IVF

In vitro fertilisation- when sperm and an egg are put together in a tube until an embryo is formed which is then transferred into a woman’s womb. When a baby is aborted through natural causes.

Miscarriage Non-voluntary euthanasia

Ending someone’s life painlessly when they are unable to ask, but you think they would want you to do it

Quality of life

Life must have some benefits for it to be worth living

Reproductive cloning

Cloning which creates offspring

Sanctity of life

The belief that life is holy and belongs to God.

Sin

An act which goes against God’s wishes.

Voluntary euthanasia

Ending life painlessly when someone asks you to do it.

THE NATURE OF ABORTION For this topic, you need to be able to explain what abortion is and why it is controversial. We will look at Christian and secular attitudes later. Facts about Abortion 1. Abortion is the deliberate ending of a pregnancy by removing the foetus from the uterus 2. Abortion was legalised in the UK in 1967, though it is still illegal in many places, including the Republic of Ireland. 3. Abortion can only take place during the first 24 weeks of a pregnancy in the UK.

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4. In order for an abortion to take place in the UK, the woman must have the consent of two doctors (neither of whom needs to be her GP). There are two main attitudes towards abortion: Pro-Life: people who are Pro-Life believe that the foetus is a person from the moment of conception (when the ovum is fertilised by the sperm). They often believe in the Sanctity of Life. Pro-Life people point out that some babies have survived being born at less than 24 weeks. They often believe that the rights of the foetus are more important than the rights of the woman. Pro-Choice: these people believe that a woman has a right to choose what happens to her body. They might not believe having an abortion is a good thing, but still say that a woman should not be forced to go through with a pregnancy she does not want. Many Pro-Choice thinkers point out that in countries where abortion is illegal many women have dangerous and sometimes fatal abortions, so it should be freely available.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS ABORTION For this topic it is really important that you talk about different types of Christian. Why are some Christians Pro-Life? Roman Catholics and Evangelical Protestants are Pro-Life. They believe that abortion is a sin. 1. Christians believe in the Sanctity of Life – the Book of Genesis in the Bible states that God creates life. This is supported elsewhere in the Bible (the book of Job) only God can create or destroy life. 2. They believe that life begins at the moment of conception. In the Book of Jeremiah God says “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you.” This suggests that we are people from the very beginning. One of the Ten Commandments is “Thou Shalt Not Kill.” 3. Unwanted children can be given up for adoption to those who are unable to have children of their own. 4. Though some pregnancies begin in a horrible way (such as rape) that is not the fault of the baby. It should be allowed to live and the mother should be given counselling and support. Why are some Christians Pro-Choice? 1. Some Christians, like Liberal Protestants, believe that abortion is wrong, but might be permitted in certain circumstances. It may be the lesser of two evils e.g. if the pregnancy will pose a threat to the mother’s life. 2. Jesus commanded Christians to love their neighbour as themselves – this means we should show each other compassion 3. The Sanctity of Life can be broken in just situations, like war 4. Jesus never wrote about abortion. He helped those in need.

THE NATURE OF EUTHANASIA Types of Euthanasia 1. Euthanasia – from a Greek word meaning ‘Good Death’, euthanasia refers to the merciful killing of a person. Nowadays, this is usually used to refer to killing someone painlessly who is suffering from a terrible illness. Euthanasia is illegal in the UK. 2. Voluntary Euthanasia – this is when a person asks to be euthanised. This is legal in Switzerland. Many British people wishing to die have gone abroad to stay at Dignitas, a euthanasia clinic. One of these was Dan James, a young rugby player paralysed while playing for his university. 3. Non-Voluntary Euthanasia – this is unable to ask for euthanasia (perhaps because they are in a coma) but you have a good reason for thinking they would want to be killed. 4. Assisted suicide – helping a person kill themselves. This is illegal in the UK. What are the arguments?

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Some people believe euthanasia should be legalised in the UK so that those who would simply go abroad to do it can do so at home. They argue that humans have the right to die with dignity, just as animals do when they are ill or in pain. Advances in medicine mean people live for much longer than they would normally and this is not always a good thing. These arguments are tied in with belief in Quality of Life.

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Some people believe it should not be legalised as it would damage the patient-doctor relationship. Euthanasia could be exploited to take advantage of the vulnerable. Also, how can we ever be certain that a person wants euthanasia? This ties in with Sanctity of Life.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS EUTHANASIA As with abortion, it is important you can talk about different Christian denominations. Euthanasia is Immoral 1. Euthanasia involves the deliberate killing of one human by another. This goes against the Ten Commandments and is therefore wrong. 2. Roman Catholics believe that both murder and suicide are mortal sins – this means that the person who does them goes to hell 3. Life is sacred – it is given to use by God and only God can take it away. In the Bible, Job says “The Lord giveth and the Lord taketh away.” 4. Many Christians see suffering as a test – if we commit suicide or have euthanasia then we fail that test. Euthanasia can be moral in some circumstances 1. While euthanasia and assisted suicide are both immoral, Roman Catholics and some Liberal Protestants believe it is not immoral to switch off life support machines if a person is brain-dead as they are no longer alive. 2. Roman Catholics believe it is acceptable to give someone a quantity of painkillers that might, as a side-effect, bring on death as long as your intention is only to relieve pain. This is called the Doctrine of Double Effect. 3. Roman Catholics believe that withdrawing or withholding “extraordinary” treatment (this is treatment that could cause distress and is unlikely to cure the patient) is acceptable. 4. Some Christians believe that euthanasia fits in with the teachings of Jesus when he said “Love thy neighbour as thyself.”

FERTILITY TREATMENT For this topic, you need to be able to explain what fertility treatment is and why it is controversial. You will examine different Christian and secular attitudes.

Facts about Fertility Treatment 1. IVF involves the egg and sperm being brought together in a test tube. If conception takes place and an embryo is formed, it is placed inside the woman’s uterus. 2. Another method of fertility treatment is artificial insemination. Sperm is collected and placed in the woman’s uterus artificially. Sometimes this is the husband’s sperm (AIH- artificial insemination by husband) but sometimes the sperm comes from a donor (AID- artificial insemination by donor). 3. Some women need to use an egg donor and act as a surrogate. 4. IVF and artificial insemination are both legal in the UK and are governed by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. 5. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990, states that: - Frozen embryos can be stored for a maximum of 10 years and can only be implanted if both partners agree.

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- Scientific experiments may only be carried out on embryos up until fourteen days after conception; after this time they may not be kept alive.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS IVF For this topic it is really important that you talk about different types of Christian.

What do Christians think about IVF? • Most Christians believe that it is okay for science to help childless couples to conceive, as long as it doesn’t involve anyone else. They believe this because in Genesis God commanded Adam to ‘Be fruitful & increase in number’ (Genesis 1:28). • There is evidence in the bible of infertility ‘Because the Lord had closed her womb’ (1 Samuel 1:5) Some Christians believe that this shows that we should not intervene, if God intends for us to have children then we will. • Roman Catholics believe that having a baby is not a God given right but a divine gift. • Roman Catholics only support the use of IVF if spare embryos are not created, destroyed or experimented on. All fertilised eggs must be placed in the mother. This causes a major problem with fertility treatment as spare embryos are created and some of these embryos are thrown away, stored or used for medical research. Many RCs believe that life begins at fertilisation and the embryos have rights. • Roman Catholics do not agree with AID as it is wrong to introduce a third person into the relationship. So AIH is permissible but many RCs are not keen though since the sperm comes from an unnatural sex act. • Some Christians believe that if AIH fails a couple should adopt instead. Many other Christians consider IVF an appropriate treatment if the wife’s eggs and husband’s sperm are used. • AID and egg donation are less favoured methods.

CLONING For this topic, you need to be able to explain Christian attitudes towards cloning.

Facts about cloning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Cloning creates a genetically identical animal or plant from another. The most famous cloned animal was Dolly the sheep in 1997. Many animals including frogs, mice, sheep and cows have been cloned. Plants are often cloned. Most countries have banned the use of cloning to produce human babies (Human reproductive cloning) but allow the use of Therapeutic cloning. 6. In Therapeutic cloning, single cells would be taken from a person and ‘reprogrammed’ to create new stem cells, which have the potential to develop into any type of cell in the body. When needed, these cells can be induced to grow into a particular type of cell such as heart, liver or brain that could be used in medical treatment. 7. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act was amended in 2001 to allow the use of embryos for stem cell research.

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Christian attitudes towards cloning: 1. Most Christians feel that human cloning (were it possible) is unacceptable and breaks the sanctity of life. 2. Many Christians feel that research into therapeutic cloning is against the will of God as it is unnatural. They argue that each person has individuality given by God and that human life should not be tampered with. 3. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that cloning separates the procreation of children from the sexual act and often involves the creation and subsequent destruction of a large number of fertilised eggs (as with IVF). This breaks the sanctity of life. 4. Others argue that we should use our God given intelligence to care for creation and if therapeutic cloning would benefit humans it is a good thing as long as it is controlled.

SUICIDE For this topic, you need to be able to explain different Christian attitudes towards suicide. Facts about suicide: 1. Suicide is when a person ends his or her own life. 2. Men are three times more likely to commit suicide than women. 3. There are many different reasons why people commit suicide including, depression, schizophrenia, bereavement, drug and alcohol related problems, bullying, incurable illness and feeling under pressure. 4. Sometimes people attempt suicide as a cry for help.

Christian attitudes towards suicide: 1. In the past, suicide was considered a serious crime and the church treated it as a sin. If someone was discovered trying to kill themselves, they would be severely punished. People who were successful in killing themselves were not allowed a Christian funeral or to be buried in the holy ground of the church yard. 2. Christians argue against suicide by saying: - God chooses when people are born and when they die (Book of Job) - Suffering can bring people closer to God - Suicide is a form of murder and breaks the 10 commandments. - St Paul taught that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit and so should be treated as a place where God lives. - Suicide is sometimes seen as selfish which ignores those left behind. 3. Roman Catholics view suicide as a mortal sin against the Holy Spirit which prevents the person entering heaven. 4. Today, people are much more understanding about the circumstances that might lead someone to consider suicide. The Samaritans is an organisation that was started in 1953 by the Reverend Chad Varah who was a Church of England vicar. It provides confidential emotional support to anyone needing it. The Samaritans is based on volunteers giving up their time to listen, talk and help those that need it.

ANIMAL TESTING

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For this topic, you need to be able to explain Christian attitudes towards the use of animals in medical research. Much of this information has been covered in PHILOSOPHY 2: RELIGION AND SCIENCE see page 27.

Facts about the use of animals in medical research: 1. In the past, medical experiments on animals have produced a vaccine for polio, assisted in the development of anaesthetics and helped to produce drugs for the treatment of asthma. 2. In the past, animals were not considered as important as humans and many do not believe that animals have souls or can have a relationship with God.

Christian beliefs about the use of animals in medical research: 1. Many Roman Catholics and Anglican Christians consider animal experimentation as an important method of testing life-saving drugs but the animals must not be hurt unnecessarily. 2. Some Christians do not approve of using animals in medical research. They believe that God made his covenant with animals as well as humans and that both humans and animals are part of God’s creation. 3. St Frances of Assisi said that animals ‘had the same source as us’ and therefore to inflict pain on any living creature is incompatible with living in a Christ-like way.

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ETHICS 2: RELIGION, PEACE AND JUSTICE What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you will have studied Christian attitudes towards war, violence, and pacifism. You will have explored the aims of punishment, different attitudes towards capital punishment and beliefs about social injustice.

The Key Terms Just War Theory Pacifism Quakers Justice Social Injustice Retribution Reformation Protection Deterrence Capital Punishment Restorative Justice Reparation Liberation Theology

Thomas Aquinas’ criteria for when a war is considered justifiable Belief that war and violence is always wrong Christian denomination that are pacifists Bringing about fairness and appropriate punishment for wrong doings A person/group of people being treated unfairly in society. The punishment fits the crime and the criminal pays for what they have done A chance for the criminal to change their behaviour To ensure that society is safe and protected from criminals A way of putting people off committing a crime because of the fear of the consequences. Another term for the Death Penalty This allows the victim to meet the criminal and question them. This allows the criminal to face up to what they have done Seeking to repair some of the damage their crime as caused Christian idea that God has the power to change situations in the world that are unjust.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS WAR For this topic, you need to be able to explain Christian attitudes towards war and pacifism. You need to have a good understanding of when is right to go to war and how war should be fought according to the ‘Just War Theory.

What is meant by a Holy War? 1. War is defined as a period of hostile relations between countries, states or factions that leads to fighting between armed forces. 2. All wars are the attempt of one power to defend itself against another or to take something from another group- this may be as fundamental as people’s freedom or for territory. 3. Holy war is an argument that it can sometimes be necessary and right to use physical violence in order to defend a religion. Not all denominations agree with the idea of holy war although there are examples in the Bible such as Joshua and the Battle of Jericho. 4. The most significant Holy wars which involved Christianity were the crusades. From 1101 to 1271 there were nine crusades. These were largely based on the belief of Christian Europe that it should take back the holy land and in particular Jerusalem from the Muslims who ruled it. These battles were often unsuccessful.

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JUST WAR THEORY The idea of a ‘Just war’ which is fought according to particular conditions has developed from the ideas of Cicero (106-43BCE) and St Thomas Aquinas (1224-74). The theory has three criteria: 1. Jus ad bellum: rules which state whether it is right to go to war - There must be a just

- The injustices suffered by one group must clearly be greater than those of the other group. - Only a legitimate authority can start the war.

- The war must be fought with the right intention- material gain is not a sufficient purpose. - There must be a reasonable chance of success.

- Force must be a last resort after all peaceful means and negotiations have failed.

- The hoped benefits of the war must be greater than the probable evil and harm it will cause. 2. Jus in bello: rules which define the conduct in war - War must be fought against enemy soldiers, and civilians must be protected.

- The force used should be proportional to the wrong that has been done and the possible good which may come from the war. - Minimum force should be used to limit unnecessary death and destruction. 3. Jus post bellum: rules which state how peace must be established after a war - There should be just cause to end war: the wrong has been righted and the enemy is ready to negotiate surrender. Or a war can be ended if it is clear that it cannot be won. - There must be no revenge taken.

- Peace terms must be made and accepted by legitimate authorities.

- The victor must ensure that any punishment is limited to the people who were directly responsible for the conflict. - Any terms of surrender must be proportional to the original reason for the war.

PACIFISM Christianity teaches that people should work towards a peaceful world and that fighting is always essentially evil. While some may feel that there are occasions when a war is just, others are pacifists and may become conscientious objectors.

Why do some Christians see themselves as pacifists?  Christian pacifists argue that the Christian principle of agape (self-less love) means that violence is never acceptable.  One of the best known groups of pacifists is the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) who believe that any type of violence is wrong because they see God within every living being and to harm anyone harms God.  There are sometimes occasions when pacifists may feel that they have to use violence. An example if this was Dietrich Bonhoffer. Bonhoffer was a German minister who was killed by the Nazis for helping the Jews escape from concentration camps and also for his part in the plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. Despite being a pacifist, Bonhoffer believed that the Nazis had to be stopped whatever the cost.  There are many occasions in the New Testament when Jesus preaches about the need for peace, for example ‘Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God’ Matthew 5:9.  Jesus preached a message of love, peace and forgiveness, ‘Love your enemies…’  Jesus is also seen as a man of peace when he entered the Jerusalem on a donkey. Also be will not allow violence to be used when he is arrested in the garden of Gethsemane- ‘For all who live by the sword will die by the sword’ Matthew 26:52.

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It is important to remember that whilst Jesus is seen as a man of peace, there are also occasions, such as when he throws the moneylenders out of the temple, when Jesus seems to be acting in a violent manner.

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT For this topic, you need to be able to explain the concept of justice, the aims of punishment, and beliefs about the treatment of criminals and attitudes towards capital punishment. What do Christians believe about justice and punishment?  Christianity teaches that justice is one of Four Cardinal Virtues: prudence, temperance, fortitude and justice. The Bible teaches that righteousness and Justice are central to who God is.  Many teachings on forgiveness are found in the New Testament. On the cross Jesus asked God to forgive the people who had crucified him. Jesus told Peter to forgive ‘seventy times seven’ and he also told the Parable of the Lost (Prodigal) Son who was forgiven by his father.  Christians usually believe that the aims of punishment are: 1. Deterrence –this may be applied to individually to deter the person from committing the same crime again or generally to deter people from doing the same thing again. 2. Protection –to protect society and innocent people from harm from others. 3. Retribution –so that society and the victims of crime can see that person be punished. 4. Reformation –to give the criminal the chance to reform and live a better life.     

In the Old Testament there are many examples of crimes for which the punishment is death and some Christians still believe that capital punishment is the only way to deal with the most serious crimes. Many other Christians believe that Jesus’ teachings of forgiveness and agape mean that all life must be treated as sacred and that although criminals must be punished justly it can never be right to take a life as punishment. Jesus teachings of forgiveness can be found in many places, for example in the story of the woman caught in adultery John: 8:3. Many Christians work with prisoners to help them lead better lives when they leave prison. They also visit them in prison in accordance with the teachings of the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats (Matthew 25:31). Some Christians are concerned over the way in which prisoners are treated. The Quaker, Elizabeth Fry (17801845) worked to improve prison conditions in the 19th century.

SOCIAL INJUSTICE For this topic, you need to be able to explain the concept of social injustice and justice. You also need to examine how Christians respond to social injustice.

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What is social injustice? Social injustice refers to the unfair treatment of people in society. These people are discriminated against and receive fewer rights and benefits than others. Christian teaching is that social injustice is wrong because all life was created by God and is therefore equally valuable to God. Teachings in both the Old and New Testament support that idea that social injustice is immoral and should be challenged.

How do Christians respond to social injustice? Some Christians respond to social injustice by working with organisations such as the Salvation Army, Cancel the Debt campaign and campaigns against racism. Many Christians take positive action against social injustice by joining organisations designed to fight for social equality, such as Amnesty International.

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Liberation Theology is a modern development within the Christian Church. It maintains that people who follow the teachings of Jesus have an obligation to take positive action to oppose social injustice and governmental abuse of power. Liberation theology can be seen most clearly in Latin America. In Latin America in the 1960’s, the governments were corrupt and the poor were being exploited. A number of priests (including Oscar Romero) took part in the movement to fight against social injustice and stand up for people’s rights. Unfortunately Romero was shot dead in 1980 for the part he played in the uprising.

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ETHICS 2: RELIGION AND EQUALITY What does this unit cover? As part of this unit, you need to be able to explain Christian beliefs about the role of women, racial harmony and other religions. You also need to be able to explain the central Christian belief of forgiveness. For Christian attitudes towards the role of women see ETHICS 2: RELIGION AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS page 31.

The Key Terms Apartheid

A political system in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990’s that separated the different peoples living there and gave privileges to those of European origin.

Discrimination

Treating people less favourably because of their ethnicity/gender/age/social class etc.

Ecumenism

The breaking down of barriers between Christian denominations.

Ethnic minority

An ethnicity (race) which is smaller than the majority

Evangelism

Prejudice

The idea that all Christians should go out into the world to convert people into following Christ. People who are sent to another country by a Church to spread its faith or to do social work. Believing some people are superior/inferior without knowing them

Racial harmony

Different races living together peacefully

Racism

The belief that some races are superior/inferior

Samaritan

Somebody who came from ancient Samaria.

Sexism

Discriminating against people because of their gender.

Missionaries

The principle of equality is that everyone should be treated fairly without suffering prejudice or discrimination. The principle of equality for everyone is enshrined in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. - Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

- Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms in this declaration, without distinction of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political opinion, nationality, property, birth or other status.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS RACISM For this topic, you need to be able to explain how attitudes towards racial harmony have changed and provide biblical evidence to support these views. Old Christian Beliefs about Racism  In the past, the Christian Church was accused of racism.  Many Christians in the 16th, 17th and 18th century believed certain races were inferior and could be treated as either 2nd class citizens or slaves because of two Bible verses: - Genesis 9:18-27 - This story says that the descendants of Noah’s third son (Ham) will be cursed and be the slaves of his second son Japheth. It was thought by some Christians that Ham’s descendants were all black people and the descendants of Japheth were all white people. - Ephesians 6:5 – ‘Slaves obey your masters’ – Some Christians thought this meant it was fine to have inferior races and slaves.

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Until the early 1990’s the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa promoted apartheid, which segregated black and white people. Apartheid was finally abolished in 1994.

Examples of Racism:  Slave Trade  The growth of Empires (E.g. British Empire)  Nazis towards Jews  Tutsis and Hutus in Rwanda  Feelings towards foreign immigrants today Causes of Racism:  Learned - from family, friends or society  Fear - of someone / something different  Power – A desire for power over another human being  Blame – A need to blame someone for the wrongs happenings

Why do Christians support racial harmony? 1. Jesus was not racist. He was treated a Samaritan woman as his equal and told the story of the Good Samaritan (where the Samaritan helps an injured Jews), even though the Samaritans were traditionally enemies of the Jews. He also healed a Roman even through the Romans were oppressing the Jews. 2. In Acts (a book in the New Testament) God told Peter than everything made by God is pure. 3. St. Paul taught that race is not important – the only important thing is loving Jesus. In the Letter to the Galatians, Paul says: “there is neither Jew nor Gentile, slave nor free, male and female, for you are all one in Jesus Christ.” 4. There are around 2 billion Christians in the world. This means that Christians must promote racial harmony as there are many different ethnic groups in Christianity. 5. According to Genesis humans are made in God’s image and therefore should be treated equally. 6. In Matthew 22:39 Jesus taught his disciples to Love thy neighbour / Treat others in the same way you would like to be treated. 7. Jesus treated foreigners very well and Christians follow his example. E.g. He went to dinner with Zaccheus, a hated tax collector for the Romans. 8. In 1985 the Church of England said “The Church should “make space for and include black Christians fully”’ 9. Pope John Paul (Catholic) condemned the fact that Christians contributed to the slave trade. Christian actively involved in the fight against Racism:  Martin Luther King believed in equality for blacks in USA in 1950’s and 60’s. He led marches, boycotts, and speeches, all non-violently. MLK helped to bring in the Civil Rights Act in 1965.  William Wilberforce was a politician who was against the slave trade in the early 1800’s in Great Britain. He campaigned in Parliament for decades, making himself ill. The Slave Trade act was passed in 1833.  Dietrich Bonheoffer was a Christian vicar in Germany who protested against the racist Nazis by forming a new church that opposed Hitler. He was linked to a plot to kill Hitler and was executed.

CHRISTIAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS OTHER RELIGIONS For this topic, you need to be able to explain how Christian attitudes towards other religions vary. Only Christianity has the answer  Evangelical Christians as well as many Christians in the past believe all ‘Non Christians’ DO NOT have the truth and must be converted to have their soul saved from hell. They believe in Evangelism i.e. spreading the message of Christianity.  Evangelical Protestants believe in the literal words of the Bible. The following passages have led Christians to believe that only Christianity has the answer and therefore it is their duty to convert others:

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- In the Gospel of John 14:6 Jesus said, ‘I am the way the truth and the Life, no one comes to the Father except though me.’ - ‘Whoever does not believe in him (Jesus) stands condemned already.’ John 3:18

- Jesus said, ‘Go and make disciples of all nations’ Matthew 28:19 For centuries, many Christians travelled abroad as missionaries. Their aim was to convert others to Christianity. Examples of famous missionaries include, David Livingstone a 19th century explorer of Africa. Christianity has the answer but should tolerate other religions and beliefs  Many Christians believe that the Christian faith is superior to other religions but people in other religions can be ‘saved’ from hell by having the right heart attitude even if their belief system is wrong.  They believe the Bible fully but don’t understand phrases like ‘except through me’ that Jesus said in a literal way but in a simpler and deeper way e.g. saying sorry to God and living a humble life.  They might be missionaries but they will be more understanding of others views.  They promote ecumenism- the movement where different Christian denominations work together with joint services and community work. All religions are equal  Some Christians believe that all religions are an expression of truth. They believe all are equal. They have this view because Jesus said, “In my Father’s house, there are many rooms.” John 14:2.  They just believe in the general principles in the Bible. E.g. love, humility. These principles can be found in all religions.  They will NOT be missionaries but might be involved in Inter-faith discussions  They WILL be involved in charity work but not as a way to change the others point of view. 

FORGIVENESS AND RECONCILIATION For this topic, you need to be able to explain why forgiveness is central Christian belief. Why do Christians believe in forgiveness?  Christians believe it is not always easy to forgive others but they must try to be reconciled (bring people back together)  They believe this because the Bible commands people to forgive -

‘Forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us’ Lord’s Prayer Matthew 6 :12

- Jesus taught his disciples to ‘love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be sons of your father in heaven’ Matthew 5:44

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- ‘If you do not forgive men their sins, your father in Heaven will not forgive your sins’ Matthew 6:15 The idea of forgiveness underpins the whole of Christianity. Jesus died on the cross to pay for (atone for) everyone’s sins so everyone could be forgiven. The central Christian service of Eucharist is a time for forgiveness and reconciliation when Christians remember and receive God’s forgiveness through the celebration of Jesus’ sacrifice. Jesus gave his apostles the power to forgive sins on behalf of God. Within the Roman Catholic Church the person seeking forgiveness goes to the priest to ask to be forgiven, this is called confession. Jesus taught others to forgive and Christians believe that they should follow his example; He said ‘Father forgive them for do not know what they are doing’ while on the cross. If people do not forgive bitterness and revenge can mess their head up.

Examples of Forgiveness:  Desmond Tutu who set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa to get bitter enemies to forgive each other  Gordon Wilson who forgave the IRA after blowing up his daughter and nearly killing him at Enniskillen bombing in 1987

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TYPES OF CHRISTIAN There are hundreds of denominations within Christianity. These can be split into different groups. For the exam you need to know about three. Roman Catholic The Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination within Christianity (roughly half of all Christians). The RCC is led by the Pope, who is based in Vatican City, Rome. The current Pope is called Francis I. The RCC is very traditional. It bases its teachings on the Bible (which is believed to be always correct) and on the Catechisms. These are teachings of the Church. These are seen to be as important as the Bible. Roman Catholics often focus on what is natural. Evangelical Protestants There are hundreds of Evangelical Protestants. Evangelism refers to spreading the ‘good news’. (‘Evangelist’ means ‘good messenger’ in Greek). This means that Evangelists focus on converting people to Christianity. They also focus on the Holy Spirit and believe that it works with Christians in everyday life. Evangelists believe that the Bible is never wrong and that we should follow the Bible’s instructions at all times. Different Evangelical Protestant groups include the Elim Pentecostal Church and the Assemblies of God. Evangelical Protestant churches are generally conservative. Extreme Evangelicals might include the infamous Westboro Baptist Church. Liberal Protestants Liberal Protestant churches tend to me much more flexible in how they use the Bible in the 21 st century. They tend to focus more on the message of the Bible rather than following its laws strictly. This means they are often much more open to female ordination (women priests) and to issues surrounding sex (e.g. contraception, sex before marriage and homosexuality.) Different Liberal Protestant groups include the Church of England and the Society of Friends (Quakers).

SOURCES OF GUIDANCE/TEACHINGS In the exam it is vital that you refer to specific evidence. For this you will need to use Christian sources. The more precise you are the more likely it is you will earn marks. Christianity The main source to be used in Christianity is the Bible. This includes a range of different teachings. Many Christians believe that the Bible is never wrong and that it is the word of God. Main sources of information are: 1. The Old Testament a. Genesis – the first book, describes the creation of the world and of human beings. It also includes the story of Original Sin. b. Exodus – contains the Ten Commandments c. Leviticus – contains many laws, in particular the condemning of homosexual sex d. Job – tells the story of a man who was made to suffer by God in order to test his faith. 2. New Testament a. The Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) tell the story of Jesus’ life and include his teachings. In particular Matthew includes the command to love your neighbour (sometimes called the Golden Rule or the Greatest Commandment). b. The Letters of St. Paul include many commands, rules and key Christian beliefs about how people should behave. Many Christians also look to their church for guidance. They might speak to their priest or minister as well. There are different types of Church teaching. This can include:

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1. Modern church teachings and interpretations of the Bible. This is often found in Liberal Protestantism, which considers modern viewpoints when looking at the Bible. 2. Roman Catholic teachings (found in the Catechism) are believed to be divinely inspired. Many of these are taught by the Pope, who Roman Catholics believe has the authority of St. Peter and is therefore never wrong.

EXAM TECHNIQUE You need to make sure that you are carefully sticking to timings. You must answer TWO out of the three sections for each paper. You must ONLY answer the question on Christianity and make sure that you answer all parts of the question (a,b,c,d and e). a) This is knowledge question and is only worth one mark so try to limit time spent on it. You only need to write 1 or 2 sentences and spend approximately 1-2 minutes answering it. b) This part of the question is worth two marks so be brief; spend approximately 2-3 minutes answering and write approximately 2-4 sentences. c) This part of the question is worth three marks and should take no more than 4 minutes and be 3 – 5 sentences. It usually asks for you to describe Christian beliefs. Make sure you just do that. E.g. Some Christians believe...... It usually doesn’t want you to expand on why – so make sure you don’t, save that for part d. d) This part of the question is worth six marks so spend 8-10 minutes on it. This part of the question asks you to explain a belief or attitude. For example you could be asked to ‘Explain Christian beliefs about life after death.’ In your answer make sure that you:  Briefly explain the Christian point(s) of view.  Back up with evidence from the Bible or other Christian sources.  Explain why the evidence supports that point of view.  Use specific religious words in your answer. For example when writing about medical ethics you could refer to the ‘sanctity of life which shows the all life is created by God as so is special.  If possible mention a famous Christian who responded to this issue, e.g. Racism – Martin Luther King. e) This part of the question is worth 12 marks so allow 12-15 minutes. By following the structure below it is easy to get really good marks:  Some people agree with this statement because.... x 1 or 2 reasons. Then say, However some other people might think differently because .... x 1 or 2 reasons.  Some Christians agree with the statement because.... x 2 to 3 reasons. Then say (if you can) However some Christians might disagree because.....x 2 to 3 reasons.  Ideally you need to put YOUR opinion throughout the answer but if you haven’t then you must put it at the end with reasons. E.g. I have considered both view points and my view is .... because.......x 2 to 3 reasons NOTE: You Cannot gain a ‘C’ grade unless you have put your opinion and a Christian view. Don’t forget to....  Refer to the Bible or Church views if you can or the views of famous Christians where appropriate.

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS PHILOSOPHY 1: BELIEF ABOUT DEITY a) What is a miracle? [1]

b) State two Christian beliefs about the nature of God. [2] c) What do Christians believe about Jesus? [3] d) Explain Christian beliefs about miracles. [6]

e) “There is a lot of evidence to prove that there is a God.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

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a) What does monotheism mean? [1] b) (i) Give one word that describes the nature of God. (ii) State what it means. [2] c) Describe how the Holy Spirit affects Christians. [3] d) Explain why Christians believe God exists. [6] e) “It is important for Christians to believe in miracles.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

PHILOSOPHY 1: END OF LIFE a) What is the meaning of ‘rites’? [1] b) Give two examples of Christian funeral rites. [2] c) Describe the relationship between the body and soul for a Christian. [3] d) Explain how beliefs about life after death could affect a Christian’s moral behaviour. [6] e) “We only have one life and it is on earth.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] a) b) c) d) e)

What is purgatory? [1] State two things that happen at a Christian funeral service. [2] Describe one Christian belief about the soul. [3] Explain how Christian funeral services might support the bereaved. [6] “It’s my life so I can do what I want.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] PHILOSOPHY 2: GOOD AND EVIL a) What does ‘immoral’ mean? [1] b) Describe one way in which Christians might try to cope with suffering. [2] c) How does the idea of free will explain why there is evil in the world? [3] d) Explain why Christians might feel it is important to behaviour morally. [6] e) “There is no such thing as evil.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] a) b) c) d) e)

What is meant by the term ‘evil’? [1] Give two examples of actions that Christians might consider evil. [2] State three things that might guide Christians in their moral behaviour. [3] Explain how the suffering of Christ might help Christians to cope with suffering. [6] “Doing the right thing will never cause suffering.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

PHILOSOPHY 2: RELIGION AND SCIENCE a) What is meant by ’environmental problems’? [1] b) Give two reasons that Christians could use to support medical testing on animals. [2] c) Why might humans reject the theory that human beings evolved from apes? [3] d) Explain what Christians believe about the role of humanity in the world. [6] e) “If humanity is here by chance, then my life has no purpose.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] a) b) c) d) e)

What is meant by the term ‘stewardship’? [1] State two ways in which human beings are damaging the environment. [2] Give three reasons that Christians might use to support being eco-friendly. [3] Explain Christian attitudes towards the treatment of animals. [6] “The human race is more important than the environment.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

ETHICS 1: RELIGION AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS a) What is meant by the term ‘marriage’? [1] b) State two reasons which a Christian might give for not having sex before marriage. [2] c) Describe how some Christians might respond to a person getting married after divorce. [3] d) Explain Christian attitudes towards contraception. [6] e) “Divorce is sometimes necessary”. Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

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a) b) c) d) e)

State what is meant by the term ‘re-marriage’. [1] Give two beliefs that Christians might have about contraception. [2] Describe one Christian attitude towards divorce. [3] Explain what Christians might believe about the importance of marriage. [6] “A sexual relationship is the most importance part of a marriage.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

ETHICS 1: RELIGION AND MEDICAL ETHICS a) What is meant by the term suicide? [1] b) State two reasons why Christians might be against suicide. [2] c) Describe one reason why a Christian might oppose abortion. [3] d) Explain why Christians might have different attitudes to euthanasia. [6] e) “The use of animals in medical research is always wrong.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] a) b) c) d) e)

What word means ‘easy death’? [1] Give two reasons why Christians might be against fertility treatment. [2] Describe one Christian response to the issues raised by cloning. [3] Explain different Christian attitudes towards the use of animals in medical research. [6] “Every unborn child has the right to life.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

ETHICS 2: RELIGION, PEACE AND JUSTICE a) What is meant by the term ‘criminal’? [1] b) State two ways in which Christians might work for social justice. [2] c) Describe one attitude Christians might have towards war. [3] d) Explain why Christians might be against capital punishment. [6] e) “Christians should not want to punish people.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] a) b) c) d) e)

What is meant by the term ‘Just war’? [1] Give two examples of social injustice. [2] What do Christians believe about pacifism? [3] Explain why working towards social justice is important for some Christians. [6] “Capital punishment can never be justified.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

ETHICS 2: RELIGION AND EQUALITY a) What is meant by the term ‘equality’? [1] b) Give two examples of inequality. [2] c) Describe what Christians might believe about reconciliation. [3] d) Explain Christian beliefs about racism. [6] e) “Women have the most important role in Christian society.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12] a) b) c) d) e)

What is meant by the term ‘prejudice’? [1] Give two examples of racism. [2] State three ways in which Christians might challenge inequality. [3] Explain why Christians might have different beliefs about the role of women. [6] “Religious people have a duty to convert others.” Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of views and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Christianity in your answer. [12]

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