Idea Transcript
HAROLD PINTER AND THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD by NORAH E. A. BOBROW B.A., University of Toronto, 1962
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In the Department of English
We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA April, 1964
ABSTRACT
As d e l i n e a t e d direction purpose
in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n ,
of t h i s t h e s i s
drama and
t h e a t r e of t h e A b s u r d
in
the last
the A b s u r d , or b e t t e r , Absurd
that the concept
theatrical
scene
within
The idea
of t h e c o n c e p t
in t h e p h i l o s o p h i c ,
e x p r e s s i o n of t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d
of
not
of t h e m u l t i t u d e u n t i l it b e g a n to
through the medium
it r e m a i n e d
somewhat
Harold P i n t e r
of t h e A b s u r d
of t h e t h e a t r e .
esoteric
Even then,
in its a p p e a l and
a t o r but as a p l a y w r i g h t w i t h a n e x c e p t i o n a l
i t s e l f is a l r e a d y pression He f o r g e d
somewhat
in m e a n i n g ;
of an i n t e n s e a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d . i m a g e
express however,
the
mind.
innov-
theatre. concept
h i s , is an of t h e
ex-
absurd.
a n e w w e a p o n w i t h w h i c h to. i m p r e s s t h e A b s u r d
c o n s c i o u s n e s s of the p o p u l a r
of
did
as an
s e n s e of
its basic ideas,
diffuse
and
reception.
e n t e r s t h e s c e n e of the A b s u r d , not
He d o e s n o t a t t e m p t to r e d e f i n e
the.
s i n c e the end
These manifestations
itself
on of
literary,
t h e last c e n t u r y . reach the mind
the
of
chapter lies
of i t s d e v e l o p m e n t .
ah i n t u i t i o n
can b e ' d i s c o v e r e d
and
particular.
t h e e m p h a s i s of t h e f i r s t
the e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s
and
relation-
d r a m a t i s t s in g e n e r a l ,
suddenly burst u p o n the literary
decade,
the nature
of t r a c i n g h i s
C o n t r a r y to t h e p o p u l a r b e l i e f the Absurd
central
is that of d e t e r m i n i n g
of Harold P i n t e r ' s - d r a m a ,
ship to c o n t e m p o r a r y
the
on t h e
Pinter's variation the
continental
expression
and m a n n e r of, e x p r e s s i o n ,
of t h e A b s u r d t h u s d i f f e r s of B e c k e t t not in i d e a .
centration
is not on the h u m a n
apparition
of the i n d i v i d u a l
society.
everyday life.
condition, but
Imprisoned
of
on t h e
in e x i s t e n c e
yet r e m a i n s
Pinter probes
emphasis conabject and,
into the masked reality
'What h e e x p o s e s i s t h e p r e s e n c e
which threatens,
intimidates and destroys the
predicament,
the expression
menace
individual,
of t h i s c o n c e p t i o n
Pinter has conceived
is b e s t
described
T h u s the g r o t e s q u e
as
of a d r a m a t i c
'latent g r o t e s q u e '
form.
can n o w b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h P i n t e r ' s n a m e which progresses from the
metaphor effect.
comic
The t h e a t r e Is a drama of
g r o t e s q u e to t h e
Laughter which resolves itself
n e w i n s t r u m e n t w i t h w h i c h an a w a r e n e s s p r e s s e d u p o n the
in
of m a n ' s
d o m i n a t e s t h e idea of h i s d r a m a and
essence of h i s t h r e a t r i c a l
grotesque*
of a
of
unidentified.
Toward
the v e r y
Its area
in
U n l i k e B e c k e t t ' s h i s q u e r i e s are n o t of a m e t a -
physical nature.
which
and lonesco
from
audience.
is which anxiety
terrifying
in f e a r is t h e
of the A b s u r d i s
im-
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CHAPTER
I
.. . .Though I speak with the tongues of men and .of angels, but have not 'Pataphysi.es, I am become sounding brass, or a clanging cymbal. And if I have the gifts of prophecy and know all knowledge; and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not 'Pataphysics, I am nothing.... 'Phatphysics shall never disappear: there will be supersession of prophecies,. of tongues, of science, nay, of reality. For our knowledge and our extralucidity are but partial in both senses of the word. Only 'Pataphysics can achieve all, even that which. it cannot "achieve. It alone is perfection. The above conveys one lucid Image the meaning of which is . that there is no meaning.
It speaks with the irrational, con-
tradictory, paradoxical, absurd—precisely the elements of the world which It parodies*
In a 'pataphysically conceived uni-
verse everything is of equal value because there is no value, neither scientific, nor moral, nor aesthetic.
The conscious
exaggeration of the science of 'Pataphysics is designed to caricature wthose who view the world in purely idealistic or phenomenological terms. Despite the extremity of the 'pataphysical doctrine, It is an off-shoot of a major intellectual revolution in
:
western thought; a revolution which has finally manifested itself in the most popular of art forms, the drama.
Its iden-
tity is the Theatre of the Absurd. The principle which defines the conception and growth of the Absurd is very simple, and in the temper of the time almost self-evident. Life is, of course, absurd, and it is ludicrous o to take it seriously. Only the comic is serious.'
3
The tragic and the comic, the two faces of life and of the drama, have discovered one identity in the Absurd.-
The pro-
cess. of this transformation, however, is not as 'of course' as it here seems.
Until this level of awareness was reached,
many paths had led art to. by-ways of expression and ideas. The Theatre of the Absurd can hardly be accused of staging an unexpected coup de. theatre;nor can it yet enthrone itself on the theatre world.
The phenomenon of its:development, what is
more, of its acceptance, took place amid various and contradictory theatrical movements and philosophical speculations. Many of these reflected, perhaps subconsciously, some aspects of what was later formulated in the Absurd. Art, has' always been a witness to the era in. which it was rooted, whether in a direct "reflection of or -in reaction to it.
Of greatest value is the testimony which the dramatic
art gives, of its parent century; for drama by its very, nature is not merely the product of an isolated, private moment of creation.
This is only its conception.
Maturity is
reached when the audience accepts it. as part of. their experience.
To pass beyond the surface reality of momentary enter-
tainment, it must achieve further depth by reverberating as^ an echo in the consciousness of the spectators. moment of life in a particular age.
The theatre is a
Should it also be a moment
of humanity, it will transcend the boundaries of the time which inspired it.
4
The p u l s a t i o n t h e dynamic break-up
change
can b e d e t e c t e d
of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l and t h e
of n e w .forms of e x p r e s s i o n .
to be a;living tury.
of our o w n c e n t u r y
Drama
established
f o r m s of order w h i c h
the central problem.
especially
or at best
existence
being,
and e x i s t e n c e
existence
cause there
contradictions and paradoxes,
sys-
was rejected
could be no greater
Science
is
omnipotent,
itself began
by
'end'
i t s e l f w a s felt to b e p o i n t l e s s .
p r i v e d m a n of c e r t a i n t i e s .
of
In
for
But
w a s n o t o n l y t h e , d e c l i n e of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s w h i c h had
ical in its
cen-
ephemeral.
o f one
cause, responsible for humanity,
Without the
of our
A l l r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l
the r e a l m of m e t a p h y s i c s t h e
most.:
proved
the dissolution
directed human
t e m s of v a l u e had p r o v e n i n v a l i d ,
omniscient
continuous
organism g e n e r a t e d by t h e p r o b l e m s
For t h e t w e n t i e t h century, d r a m a t i s t ,
in
de-
t o speak
becoming for the layman
it
in
illog-
logicality.
Microphysics suggested that certain forms of energy shared simultaneously the contradictory properties 'of waves and of particles; quantum physics gave it to be understood that the "logically" impossible could and did happen; atomic physics produced evidence which implied that effects need have no necessary cause, and that phenomena might create themselves out of nothing; while Einstein at one blow appeared to invalidate both Euclid and the rational conceptions of time and space.3 T h e a r t i s t i c r e a c t i o n to t h e d e p o s i t i o n of r a t i o n a l i s m ' w a s an o u t b u r s t fine the n a t u r e of r e a l i t y old.
of
'the
tyranny
of f o r m s w h i c h tried to
rede-
and f i n d n e w o r d e r s to r e p l a c e
T h e f i g u r e w h i c h w i e l d e d the w i d e s t
Influence
in a
the variety
5
of c o n t r a d i c t o r y
dramatic
forms is Pirandello.
h i s art, a b o v e all, h i s r e n u n c i a t i o n
of n a i v e r e a l i s m are
n o t a b l e as t h o s e ;of S t r i n d b e r g in p s y c h o l o g i c a l prepared
the way f o r t h e b i t t e r ,
and B e c k e t t as w e l l a s t h e p o e t i c
The effects
drama.
grotesque theatre
Of
Ionesco
W h a t b i n d s t h e s e o p p o s i t e s to him is t h e i r d e s i r e and
at t h e t i m e .
The result
w a s at f i r s t a s o m e w h a t
chaotic 'picture of m o d e r n d r a m a .
Anarchy,
c o m p o u n d e d of
ideals,
the
ing f o r m s of r e a l i s m
realism.
The n a t u r e of s u r r e a l i s m ,
ized by a b s o l u t e
rebellion,
a n d cult of t h e a b s u r d . tent a s the i n c e s s a n t
It d e f i n e d
examination
a l l d i r e c t i o n and p r e s c r i b e d
expressionism
revolt
and hamper-
and
for e x a m p l e , w a s
sur-
character-
the
humour
i t s e l f in i t s p r i m a r y
of a l l values.
and
resulted/in
s a b o t a g e on p r i n c i p l e ,
t h e a b s e n c e of r e a l d i r e c t i o n t h e r e
drama of t h e
against
a n d n a t u r a l i s m in. t h e .drama,
the e m e r g e n c e of s y m b o l i s m , d a d a i s m ,
effort
confusing
life
rebellion
Genet.
prevailed
a g a i n s t t h e c o n f o r m i t y and b a n a l i t y of b o u r g e o i s of a p u r e l y t h e a t r i c a l
as
He
c r e a t i o n s of L o r c a a n d
to o p p o s e t h e n a r r o w s c h e m e of t h e r a t i o n a l i s m t h a t
of
In-
F i n a l l y out
of
emerged the renunciation
of
conventions manifested
in
the
Absurd.
Today's theatre, d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s .
a s a n a l y s e d by D u r r e n m a t t , ^ can t h u s On t h e one h a n d
it is a m u s e u m
which
h o l d s on to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s of old f o r m s a n d
precepts;
on the o t h e r h a n d it is a f i e l d of g r e a t e x p e r i m e n t
in
almost
the
every p l a y p r e s e n t s n e w p r o b l e m s of style to
dramatist,
l o r e than at a n y o t h e r t i m e , c o n t e m p o r a r y
which,
art.
be
6
is composed of experiments.
There is no longer the single
entity of 'form1, but only forms.
Drama is the medium best
provided to catch emergent social realities, since it is a visual and multi-dimensional complex which ties meanings more clearly to what is being enacted in society itself.
A quick
survey of the dramatic scene of the twentieth century will reveal the diverse efforts of dramatists to contend with the problems of the particular time—social, political or dramatic.
Out of these efforts arises the emergent reality of the
Absurd, and the drama which reflects it. G.B. Shaw was an illusionist who believed in the drama as an active force or vehicle of reform.
The stage
was for him a podium for the conflict of ideas in the fight for social justice.
To combat ..stale conventions, prejudices ,
and obsolete traditions, he created a drama of relentless satire and derision.
Particularly characteristic is his manner
of destroying accepted realities with a logic carried ad absurdum, and replacing these with a socialist dogma as tenacious as the conventions destroyed.
It followed almost natur-
ally from this that he should with the same gesture undermine the traditional belief in the illusionlstlc quality of drama —for example, the Don Juan intermezzo in Man and Superman and the Epilogue of St. Joan.
In fact, in the theatre world of
today, he stands more as an innovator in stage technique and master of English satiric comedy than as the propagandist and reformist he had appointed himself to be.
7
Contemporaneously, the psychological theatre turned from all external diagnosis of man's dilemma and.focused on the psyche in an attempt to discover a system by which human behaviour could be explained.
The tormented heroes of Mon-
therlant populated the stage in France.
In the U.S.A., Eugene
O'Neill passed from a period of social criticism to the critic of humanity in general. motivation of guilt.
In The Emperor Jones,he:probed for the
The general metaphysics and treatment of
the guilt problem were reminiscent of classical renditions of the theme, evident also in his attempt to redefine classical tragedy in a modern setting--Mourning.Becomes Electra.
The
tone of his work is marked by a deep pessimism in the power of man to combat the forces which compel! him towards his fate. Man is portrayed as the victim of his. environment subject to the forces of blood and race within him, or to uncontrollable elements in his subconscious. A return to a religious orientation to the chaos of the world was made by Paul Glaudel in France and T.S. Eliot in England.
Initially strindbergiari in his pessimism, Claudel
proclaimed the order of an orthodox Catholicity with the dedication of a: mystic.
In'a deeply symbolic dramaturgy, he insisted
that without God no social order can satisfy man.
The appeal was
made1 universal in Le Soulier de Satin. With flashbacks, a mixture of dream, realistic, grotesque., and intensely serious scenes, he dramatized the unity of the Immanent and the Transcendent in a cosmos of Christian life.
'
In E n g l a n d ,
T.S. Eliot's development
of a
s o l u t i o n w a s c l o s e l y a l l i e d to t h e r e s u r g e n c e of v e r s e and choric
drama.
of t h e o l d
M u r d e r in t h e C a t h e d r a l ,
d r a m a , as w e l l a s h i s l a t e r d r a m a s Family Reunion,
religious
of social
The Cocktail P a r t y — a l l
a martyr
criticism,
set o u t to
The
dramatize
a religious mystery which reunites the contemporary man r e l i g i o u s p r o b l e m s and a C h r i s t i a n
The f u t i l i t y painfully
conscious
f o r the h u m a n whose
of all t h e s e
with
life.
efforts, however,
to t h e d r a m a t i s t s
In t h e i r
condition. Even the idealism
sophisticated
forms
poetic fantasies had
became
anxiety
of a
Giraudoux,
substituted
of i l l u s i o n f o r r e a l i t y w i t h g r a c e f u l irony, w a s
the
world
defeated.
A d a r k e r and m o r e d e s p a i r i n g n o t e b e g a n t o i n s i n u a t e i t s e l f t h e e f f o r t s to r e d e f i n e t h e h u m a n of o r d e r or a d j u s t m e n t
to r e a l i t y .
classical; the idsillusionment, Aegisthus.
The
'great
perception dramatic
into
condition by creating some In E l e c t r a — t h e
setting
sort is
contemporary.
I do b e l i e v e in t h e g o d s . Or r a t h e r , I b e l i e v e I b e l i e v e in t h e g o d s . But I b e l i e v e i n , t h e m not as great c a r e t a k e r s and great w a t c h m e n , b u t a s g r e a t a b s t r a c t ions. B e t w e e n s p a c e and t i m e , a l w a y s o s c i l l a t i n g b e t w e e n g r a v i t a t i o n and e m p t i n e s s , t h e r e a r e the great i n d i f f e r e n c e s . T h o s e a r e the g o d s . . . . 5
indifferences' — i n of a m e t a p h y s i c a l
concept at l e a s t , absence which
it Is t h e
engenders
same
Beckett's
vision.
In The M a d w o m a n
of C h a i l l o t
the b i l i o u s ,
bitter
cannot o v e r s h a d o w an e s s e n t i a l l y tragic u n d e r t o n e . it is m u c h c l o s e r r e l a t e d to t h e t r a g i - c o m l c
where
In
irony this
9
s e r v e s only to emphasize deep scepticism.
Man is not in har-
mony with the universe, and the distance which lies between a world paralysed ln?a state of cold materialism and the realm of ideas and ''humanism, is insurmountable.
It is a bizarre world
--a motif which is common to Giraudoux and the new dramatists. But, here, it. is expressed with a mellifluous flow of poetry sentiment, not -with all the grotesque force which language, form, and dramatic method' can yield, nor with the precise logicality of a Camus or a Sartre. Countess.
Good (she.puts the bones in the basket and , .starts for the;stairs). Well, let's go on to more important things* Four o'clock. My poor cats must be starved. What a bore for them if humanity had to be saved every afternoon. They don't think much of it as • • it is.6'. ;
- The philosophic and dramatic thinkers of the Absurd acknowledge the work of Kafka and Dostoievsky to be basic i n their thought.
These novelists' artistic interpretation of the
emotional and external experience of man was the point of departure for the Existentialists and Absurdists alike. evsky gave a large impulse to the drama of fear.
.Dostoi-
The inner
furies which drive his characters forged the image of the persecuted man which reverberates In. modern literature.
L'.homme
traque emerged as a phenomenon peculiar to and characteristic of our age.
He is possessed by demons, tortured by fears and
frustrations in a search for an absolute value and for God. :
These inner demonic forces were projected by Kafka to.
a demonic, reality outside man which threatens, confines and
10
overpowers M m .
In Kafka,, e s t r a n g e m e n t
does n o t
occur
within
t h e i n d i v i d u a l self, b u t is due to t h e n a t u r e of t h e w o r l d t h e a b s e n c e of a s a t i s f a c t o r y c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e The I n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y
of any r e a l i t y o u t s i d e m a n ' s
c o n s c i o u s n e s s w e i g h s upon h i s ' c h a r a c t e r s , a f e a r w h i c h a r i s e s out of t h e i r
two.
inner
possessing them
insecurity..
Kafka's
in the f o r m
impersonality
of latent g r o t e s q u e n a r r a t i v e s .
P i n t e r can b e
expressed
idea,
that
identified.
C o m m o n to t h e i r t h o u g h t
is the p e r s e c u t e d
individual
f e e l s u n a b l e to r i s e a g a i n s t h i s i n n e r f e a r s a s w e l l a s threats from
existence is
the
c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o a f e e l i n g of
in o r g a n i z i n g h i s e x p e r i e n c e .
to m a s t e r e x i s t e n c e , h i s constant
who
o u t s i d e . ' T h i s f e a r of m a n w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h
reality of his inadequacy
witness
It is w i t h t h i s .
K a f k a e s q u e a s p e c t .of the A b s u r d , b o t h in form a n d Harold
with
contrib-
u t i o n to t h e A b s u r d l i e s in h i s q u a l i t y of an i n i m i t a b l e to h u m a n h e l p l e s s n e s s b e f o r e b u r e a u c r a t i c
and
the a n x i e t y and c o n c e r n w h i c h
e f f o r t s to cope w i t h
find some sort
It is m a n ' s
of o r i e n t a t i o n
experience
the
his
inability
accompany
a n d h i s failure, to
to e x i s t e n c e w h i c h f o r m s the
core
of P i n t e r ' s v a r i a t i o n of t h e A b s u r d . P i n t e r e x p r e s s e s t h i s in a d r a m a t i c f o r m w h i c h a d a p t s the and
drama w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t
'latent g r o t e s q u e ' t o t h e
effectiveness.
a d a p t a t i o n of the K a f k a e s q u e a b s u r d existentialist peared
thought,
In K i e r k e g a a r d .
criticism
has little
Pinter's
in c o m m o n
although the term'itself first The d i f f e r e n c e in u s a g e
of t h e v e r y f r e e u s e of the t e r m t h o u g h t and in
However,
is
'absurd', b o t h in
of l i t e r a t u r e .
It b e c o m e s
stage
with
ap-
indicative philosophic necessary,
11
then,
to e x a m i n e t h e r o o t s
of t h e A b s u r d i n
to suggest h o w t h e u s e of t h e t e r m philosophic
existentialism,
embraces a variety
concepts which are almost
contradictory
of
in
parts;
and to i n d i c a t e how, in- s p i t e o f t h i s , t h e r e h a s e m e r g e d 'dramatic m o v e m e n t w h i c h h a s f o u n d
a
a common identity under
the
Absurd.
.Man e n t a n g l e d
in t h e s p i d e r w e b of e x i s t e n c e is
i m a g e on w h i c h e x i s t e n t i a l i s t the t h o u g h t awareness
of K i e r k e g a a r d
i s built ... , T h e A b s u r d
and C h e s t o v w a s p r o m p t e d b y
of the u n g r a s p a b l e a n d i r r a t i o n a l
m a n and God. thinkers,
thought
clea.vage
the absurdity
of t h i s e x i s t e n c e
cry of h o p e .
b y t h e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s and h a v e b e e n
Among these attitudes
and
ofSartre
of
the cer-
prevail
are: of m a n ' s
M a n in h i s m o m e n t s of h o n e s t y
exist-
and .lucidity
is a w a r e t h a t h i s l i f e h a s n o a b s o l u t e m e a n i n g , he m u s t l i v e a s in a v o i d . threatens
of
codified
sums u p
in c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s to
A b s u r d i t y is t h e u n d e r l y i n g f a b r i c ence.
these
Awareness
embraced by most
d r a m a t i s t s t o d a y . The s c h o o l
tain a t t i t u d e s that c o n t i n u e
1)
in
•
T h r e e or f o u r a t t i t u d e s w e r e p o p u l a r i z e d
today.
the
a s s u r e d t h e m a l l t h e m o r e of a
supernatural reality?
avant-garde
in
between
This awareness had positive consequences
f o r it led to a t r e m e n d o u s
the
Non-existence
that
constantly
him.
il) M a n m a y b e c o m e b o g g e d down in h i s p h y s i c a l a t t a c h e d to a p a t t e r n ,
a fixed
ception of h i m s e l f w h i c h
being,
idea of good, a
denies his humanity.
conHe
12
c e a s e s to c h a n g e , to b e c o m e , The over-abundance limits.his
is t u r n e d
into a
of t h i n g s is n a u s e a t i n g ,
thing.
f o r it
freedom,
i i l ) Just a s m a n and h i s v a l u e s m a y c o n g e a l t h r o u g h
habit,
t h u s m a y l a n g u a g e b e c o m e d e a d and i n o p e r a t i v e , lysing
our t h o u g h t s . W i t h such a n i n s t r u m e n t ,
c o m m u n i c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e . iv)
T h e r e i s no h u m a n n a t u r e . of himselfj
Each man Is a
no
solitude,
M a n is o n l y w h a t h e
therefore there is n o
makes
such t h i n g a s a
f i x e d c h a r a c t e r in t h e u s u a l ; s e n s e . M a n is an ent in a
para-
exist-
situation.
II.y a entre l e s a s p i r a t i o n s de 1 ' h o m m e et la r e a l i t e t a n g i b l e u n ecart e n o r m e , t e r r i f i a n t . L'absurde n'est que le r e s u l t a t de c e t t e c o n f r o n t a t i o n entre l ' a p p e l h u m a i n et le s i l e n c e deraisonnable: du m o n d e . Within literature discovery value.
the e x i s t e n t i a l i s t
is that - t h e w o r l d
comes from himself alone.
the Dostoievskian
The i n n e r t o r m e n t
c h a r a c t e r is r e s o l v e d as t h e
gesture attains a heretofore non-existent
Sartre,
although
existentialist and w i t h
this
early identified w i t h the school
Camus t h e a b s u r d lies i n t h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n m a n ' s of t h e
world.
of
political,
i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s p h i l o s o p h y .
d e m a n d s and the i r r a t i o n a l i t y
of
freedom.
departs from their preoccupation with
s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s
only
of g i v i n g the w o r l d
h e r o t a k e s u p o n h i m s e l f b o t h t h e g o o d and bad,
Camus,
hopeless
i s a b s u r d a n d m a n t h e one and
He m u s t a c c e p t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
a m e a n i n g that
hero's
For rational
13
M a n ' s a b s u r d p l i g h t is f o r : C a m u s n e i t h e r tragi-comic, tragic
but w o r t h y of t h e m o s t p o i g n a n t
e l e m e n t s of the a b s u r d
comic
nor
tragedy.
are symbolized
in t h e
These
figure
of S i s y p h u s as h e t u r n s t o w a r d t h e l o w e r w o r l d f r o m w h i c h w i l l p u s h a g a i n to t h e
he
summit.
I see that m a n g o i n g b a c k down w i t h a, h e a v y yet m e a s u r e d step t o w a r d t h e t o r m e n t of w h i c h h e w i l l never know the end. That hour, l i k e a b r e a t h i n g s p a c e , w h i c h ' r e t u r n s as, s u r e l y a s h i s s u f f e r i n g , : t h a t I s , t h e h o u r of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . . I f t h i s m y t h is tragic, t h a t is b e c a u s e i t s h e r o is c o n s c i o u s , W h e r e w o u l d h i s t o r t u r e b e , i n d e e d , if at e v e r y step the h o p e of s u c c e e d i n g u p h e l d h i m ? The workm a n of t o d a y w o r k s every day of h i s l i f e at t h e same tasks, and t h i s f a t e is no less a b s u r d . But it is t r a g i c only at t h e r a r e m o m e n t s w h e n i t b e v comes conscious.9 T h i s s y m b o l is t r a n s f e r r e d to, t h e
s t a g e in C a l i g u l a .
a w a r e n e s s of t h e h u m a n 1 p r e d i c a m e n t the l i m i t a t i o n s ment
of h i s
of h u m a n
in t h e f a c e of d e a t h , initiates the tragic
of move-
fate.
Caligula. -
Je m e suis s e n t ! t o u t d ' u n coup u n b e s o l n d'impossibie. Les choses telles qu'elles sont, n e m e semblent p a s s a t i s f a i s a n t e s . J ' a i done b e s o i n de l a lUne, ou du b o n h e u r , o u de l ' i m m o r t a l i t e , de q u e l q u e c h o s e qui soit d e m e n t p e u t - e t r e , m a i s qui n e soit p a s d e ce m o n d e . 1 0
The ultimate truth, heureux",
existence,
His
"les h o m m e s m e u r e n t ,
et i l s n e s o n t
signifies his final understanding
Having d i s c o v e r e d t h e i r r a t i o n a l i t y
of the
of t h i s w o r l d ,
Absurd. Caligula
p r o c e e d s to
c r e a t e the only p o s s i b l e r a t i o n a l
tematically
c a r r y i n g t h i s i r r a t i o n a l i t y to t h e u t m o s t
order by
syslimits.
An i c o n o c l a s t , h e p r o c e e d s t o lay b a r e t h e lies, f a l s e itions, a n d h y p o c r i t i c a l
c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e w o r l d ,
pas
in a
tradseries
14 of grotesques,
pantomime and
clownesque scenes.
M u r d e r is .
j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h e i n n o c e n c e a n d s i n c e r i t y of h i s
purpose,
and i n c o n g r u o u s a s t h i s i s , t r u t h a r i s e s out of t h e His j u s t i f i c a t i o n — " Q u i
o s e r a i t m e c o n d a m n e r d a n s ce
sans juge ou p e r s o n n e n ' e s t
innocent."
e x p o s i t i o n of t h e A b s u r d , h o w e v e r , p h a s i s f r o m the p h i l o s o p h i c dramatically presented, he h a s n o t
tract.
Camus'
monde
theatrical
in n o w a y v a r i e s in It
not the essence
em-
is t h e i d e a s w h i c h
are
of t h e A b s u r d .
That
c o n s i d e r e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n w h i c h the A b s u r d
could
have for dramatic tional
conflict.
expression and form.
classical' f o r m for
He ado.pts t h e
is,
conven-
tragedy.
Caligula est probablement, de toutes les pieces modernes., celle qui repond le plus exactement au canon de la tragedie tels qu'on les trouve definis dans 'Les Origines': cult.es, dyoriisiens du vouloirvivre et de la liberte, passion d'etre, puret Jusqu'a 1'obsession totalitaire par la decouverte du mal.ll The dramatic action follows a logical progression of the argument. The figures are there to illustrate and test certain principles upon whose opposition and conflict the play isb built.
He employs the classical technique in dialogue, and
in this overlooks how very little the construction of debate, or speech and contra-speech in the style of Ibsen complies with the dialectic of paradox of the Absurd.
Since about
1935, theatre in France and England had thus been turning more and more to the problems of man's condition without rejecting traditional attitudes towards plot, character, theme
15
and l a n g u a g e .
The m a j o r p l a y w r i g h t s ,
Sartre, "Camus, E l i o t ,
O'Gasey,
O'neill,
dealt w i t h
Claudel,
serious and
m e t a p h y s i c a l p r o b l e m s b u t did n o t w a n d e r too f a r from t h e r e a l i s t i c , c o n c e p t i o n s . o f and t h e n ,
symbol and thought
theatre,
even
afield
although
now
overshadow character and
plot.
E l e m e n t s of the a b s u r d w e r e found in m u c h d r a m a philosophic thought
throughout
actually manifested
i t s e l f in a d r a m a t i c
reflective identity
this
in the t h e a t r e .
v e r y l o o s e l y and i n c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d ture
Kafka,
it
f o r m u n i q u e to
and
or
The "absurd",,
in p h i l o s o p h y a n d
( e m b r a c i n g such d i v e r s e t h i n k e r s a s
Dostoievsky,
although litera-
Kierkegaard,;
Sartre, and Gamus), acquired a precise
well-defined Identity which
century, but until
of its content, t h e a b s u r d had n o m e a n i n g
as a m o v e m e n t
and
only in i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a t h e a t r e ..
embodied the essence
of i t s t h o u g h t .
thus shared by Beckett, T o n e s c o , ideas but t h e i r a t t e m p t and t h e a b s u r d in d r a m a t i c
The.common
and P i n t e r is n o t
experiments toward
f o r m as w e l l a s c o n t e n t .
Sartre and Camus' message
can b e a b s t r a c t e d
identity
their
expressing Thus,
from t h e i r
while plays,
t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e in t h e D r a m a of t h e A b s u r d , s i n c e It not w o r d s a l o n e , but t h e w h o l e f o r m of a p l a y w h i c h t o w a r d s :an a w a r e n e s s and e x p r e s s i o n
of the
grotesque forms and
c h a r a c t e r s , and
is
strives
Absurd.
The n e w d r a m a a b o u n d s in a b s u r d i t i e s , m a n n e r e d ations,
and
situ-
anti-theatrical
16
mechanisms-.
Through these strange means each of
six " p a r t s " of s e r i o u s . d r a m a plot,
character, thought,
or s p e c t a c l e ,
about m o t i v e ,
O ' N e i l l or M o n t h e r l a n t ,
reformed.
effects
Psycho-
as. in the d r a m a
of
u n d e r c u t any s t a g e y claim to
heroic
T h e r e is a r e d r a f t i n g of o u r u s e of c h a r a c t e r
is d e v o t e d to u n d e r m i n i n g
or d e c l a s s i f y i n g
because humanity has declassified n e w dramatic terms that the Absurd of
definition:
l a n g u a g e , m u s i c , and v i s u a l
each h a s b e e n r a d i c a l l y
logical perceptivity
grandeur.
is r e c e i v i n g n e w
Aristotle's
itself.
which
the hero, but It is t h u s
only
in
s e e k s to d e f i n e t h e
essence
reality.
Having rejected the psychology, discovery
conventional theatre
of
ideas,
or p h i l o s o p h y , t h e n e w d r a m a c o n s t i t u t e s a r e -
of the f u n d a m e n t a l m o d e l s of theatre., a r e t u r n
in some r e s p e c t s to p r i m i t i v e t h e a t r e , and a r e t u r n to m a n , r a t h e r t h a n s o c i e t y as the c e n t r e The e s s e n c e of t h e a t r e , To go b e y o n d theatre,
that
of the d r a m a t i c
Ionesco theorizes,
'twilight
enlargement.
l a n d ' that is n e i t h e r life
the d r a m a t i s t m u s t e x a g g e r a t e ,
and s t o r i e s
is
universe.
(and i n h i s own drama,
the
push the
nor
characters
settings), b e y o n d
t h e b o u n d s o f t h e true or t h e l i k e l y in o r d e r t o a r r i v e s o m e t h i n g that I s t r u e r than l i f e i t s e l f - t h e and t h e a t r i c a l reality.
image w h i c h
amplified
s t r i k e s deep b e l o w t h e surface
It is a n e w w a y of d e p i c t i n g the n e w selves,
n e w animating
at
conflicts which the drastic
social
the
upheavals
of
17
of our time sponsor. In a world, where the only Cause is nothingness; the only End, the void; where existence is meaningless; the only order, chaos; and the overwhelming-emotion, futility and fear of life; the only form which can express this directly is one in which every dramatic moment transcends mere representational, reality.
Every word, gesture, setting, movement, in short,
the whole dramatic action must symbolize the new reality4 In its form, the new drama becomes a direct parody of this world; thus the.state of suspension and timelessness in our drama today.
The new theatre proposes to communicate th