Idea Transcript
"Dli. Bob" Owens Koomi Kim, Ph.D. State Univenity ofNew York at Geneseo New Mexico State University, La Cruces
Cross-modal literacy-language connection • Children with Language Impairment (LI) are at a high risk for literacy disabilities • Possibly as high as 60% • Preschool and kindergarten deficits
• Best indicator of school success is
oral language
According to
AS(Language)HA (2001)… • SLPs play a role in literacy • Involvement in early preventative • With older children, skills improvement
• Specific areas – Phonological awareness, language base, narrative discourse, language demands of curriculum • Children with Language Impairment (LI) lack pre-literacy skills.
According to ASHA -
SLP’s Responsibilities: • Within preschool or kindergarten • Alert parents, identify children, refer, and recommend
• Within the school-aged • Help school-aged child develop strong language base • Address difficulties • Bridge instruction and child
Reading • MUCH more than just “breaking the code” • In English, almost a separate language from speech • 2-3X more lexically dense than speech
• Language and world knowledge both used to derive understanding • When something goes wrong, process becomes less automatic and less fluent
Einguistic Knowledge
Syntax
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Reading Development Basics occur within social interactions By age 3, rudiments of PRINT awareness Words stored by visual features (word shapes) Word memory is unsystematic
Within a year, beginnings of PHONOLOGICAL awareness
Reading Development (Cont) If kindergarten curriculum literacy rich, begin to decode alphabetic system Five variables predict reading success by second grade Attempt to read using memorized word shapes, letter names, or guessing
With first grade introduced to sound-letter correspondence called PHONICS
Reading Development (Cont) As other language skills improve, reading becomes more automatic Practice is extremely important Use graphophonemic connections to memory, decode unfamiliar words, and begin to read by analogy
By third grade, shift from learning to read to reading to learn Comprehension & oral language relationship
Skilled Readers... • Process printed words only briefly both orthographically and phonologically • Automatic and below level of consciousness • Less that ¼ of a second while confirming • Conscious when try to interpret an unfamiliar word
• Read with PURPOSE Let’s see how it works in a READING TEST (Ugh!)
Raednig Tset Aoccdrnig to a rseearechr at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a tatol mses and you can sitll read it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by litetr, but the wrod as a wlohe. Remember, you have the language base.
Levels of Literacy • Basic – Decode • Critical – Interpret, analyze, synthesize, explain, read between the lines • Able to see the WHOLE Enchilada
• Dynamic – Interrelate content into other knowledge, read across and beyond the lines • Inductive & deductive thought
Most Frequent Methods of Determining Word Meaning • Look it up in the dictionary • May not have one handy • Definition may be so complex that it sets up a new problem
• Ask someone else (who may be as confused as you) • Try to figure it out on your own • Use context as clue • Not always easy
Reading Comprehension and Inferencing • Constructing Mental Models • Representation of situation described in text • Inferences based on text plus world knowledge or on
• Language functions in literacy may be very different from those child uses
While poor readers act as if reading is simply sounding out words rapidly and fluently, good readers expect text to make sense and to be a source for learning information (Weaver, 1994). As a result, good readers read actively
and with purpose, constructing mental models and organizing information as they go.
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Perception & EMMA • It may seem that we only know what we see, but in fact, we only see what we know. • Eye Movement & Miscue Analysis (EMMA) • Track eye movements of readers while recording their oral reading • Compile database of readers’ construction of meaning. • Form both a continuous record of eye fixations and movements over an entire text and a continuous record of the oral reading of that text and reader-produced miscues.
History of Eye Movement, Miscue Analysis and EMMA • Eye movement research has for a century been used to understand how perception in reading provides the brain with sensory input. • Miscue analysis, with over 40 years of history, provides a “window on the reading process” and reveals the knowledge and strategies readers use as they comprehend written texts. • The merged research methodology Eye Movement and Miscue Analysis (EMMA) was brought together to study how perception is related to comprehension in reading.
What’s happening?
What Ali read One evening when he came home from work, On every one every one one ever evering evering one evening when he came home home from work, he said to his wife, “What do you do all day he said to his wife, “What does do you do all day while I am away cutting wood?” while I’m while I am away cut cutting wood?”
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I did the last time Bill was away overnight! The did last time last time Bill was away was overnight
Paulson, E.J. & Freeman, A.E. (2003). Insight from the eyes: The science of effective reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Socio-Psycholinguistic Reading Strategic Steps Initiate - Sample - Select Predict - Infer Confirm/Disconfirm - Correct Integrate Readers sample, select, predict, infer, confirm or disconfirm and integrate information, making use of their knowledge in a cyclical way, each strategy transacting with the others. Goodman Y., Watson, D., Burke, C. (2005).
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What does eye movement tell us about the reading process? • Young readers fixate on pictures (36%), print (55%), and other areas • But more time on print (73%) vs pictures (21%)
• Young readers do not fixate on all individual words and only rarely on letters • They do not fixate on words for same amount of time • They look at words to CONFIRM
• Young readers do not serially fixate left to right 100% of the time
How do readers read? Readers… • Gain information by looking ahead as they read • Seek information other than at the point of difficulty • Seek to expand their familiarity with the text beyond what their voice indicates when the text is predictable • Use cognitive psycholinguistic strategies • Strategies of substitutions, omissions, insertions and corrections indicate processes and strategies used • Strategies are evidenced by corrections, unsuccessful attempts to correct, and abandonment of correct responses
Important for Intervention • Readers are active constructors of meaning • The meaning a reader brings to a written text, whether intuitive or learned, is facilitated by the knowledge the reader has acquired • Context influences the meaning, genre, and fluency of the reading • Words frequently are predictable from the context of a story. • When the text is predictable • Distance between eye fixations and words orally produced increases • Readers actively advance their sampling of text and/or illustrations
Causes of Inferencing & Comprehension Difficulties • Lack of world knowledge • Difficulty accessing stored knowledge & integrating it with text • Inferencing not attempted • Language difficulties
Does it seem plausible that a child who has difficulty interpreting spoken language would have difficulty interpreting written language too?
How serious is the problem? • Over 70% of students identified with reading problems in 3rd grade still have them in 9th • Approximately 3 million children in the U.S. • Children who cannot crack the code... • • • •
Read less and at a slower rate Have poorer vocabularies Are less motivated to read Enjoy reading less & are less successful in school
Guidelines for Assessment • Choose assessment tasks of different levels of processing based on age- and developmental-appropriateness • Use several measures including wordprediction tasks with varying cues • Consider a student’s cultural-linguistic background • REMEMBER, Comprehension is more than answering questions about the text
Reading Comprehension Data Analysis • Photocopy passages and record discrepancies noted on recorded reading samples • Note attempts, repetitions, self-corrections, omissions, and extended pauses • Calculate percentage of incorrect but linguistically acceptable words
• Analyze miscues by type at the word level • Reversals, semantic & syntactic substitutions, insertions, and deletions
Assessment of Text Comprehension • Oral language • Narrative schemes: Story-telling from pictures or answering questions about the pictures that relate to story organization • Story grammar: Spontaneous narratives or story retelling • Self-appraisal aspect of metacognition: Ask child questions demonstrating knowledge of know, remember, forget, and guess
Assessment of Executive Function • Interview questions about different strategies used for different reading tasks • Think-Alouds or verbalizing thoughts accompanying reading • Error or inconsistency detection as reading
Holistic Reading Intervention • Within a two-stage intervention model for pre- and early readers • Word meaning • Sentence meaning
• Focus on metalinguistics and literate language in later reading intervention • Identifying main ideas and inferencing
Word meaning foundation At Word Level: Vocabulall traction Words that afe· portan~ utilitariu, I eonceptuall)' "&frequendy used WOld Recol -tiOn At Text Level: Providing scafl : g
Sentence fonn foundation underlying
van Kleeek, 1995
Meaning Foundation Intervention • At Word Level: Vocabulary Instruction • Target words that are... • Important, utilitarian, conceptually easy • Frequently used across texts • Related to other words in use in class
• At Text Level: Providing scaffolding
Meaning Foundation: Print contains meaning • Vocabulary Tiers • Tier 1: Basic self-taught words Shoe, nose, tree, run, never • Tier 2: High frequency, important to have, school words
FOCUS HERE Animated, similar, contrast, devious • Tier 3: Low frequency, academic discipline-specific words Genetic, chromosome, mutation
Vocabulary Method • Select words frequently occurring and useful in many contexts • Use student-friendly definitions that explain the typical meaning in everyday situations • Plan multiple exposures in many contexts: Have you ever…, Segmentation and Word Associations (What word goes with…), Metalinguistic Activities (Which one is correct…)
Literacy- and Language-based Vocabulary Instruction • Indirect: Vocabulary growth promoted incidentally through language/literacy activities • Pre-reading • During reading (Teacher- or self-reading) • Immediate tasks • Non-immediate tasks
• Post reading: Text Talk
• Direct: Explicit teaching strategies • Language-based instruction Justice & Kaderavek (2004)
Language-based Instruction for older children & adolescents • Teach productive word-learning strategies: Morphology • Goal: Using word parts to determine meaning and increase usable vocabulary
• Foster word consciousness: Semantics • Word play
• Foster independence • What can I do when I don’t know a word? • Focus on dictionary skills to discover entomology of words
Form Foundation: Literary Syntax • Understanding underlying structure • Clausal connectors • Subordination vs. conjoining
• Relational terms • • • • •
Modal auxiliaries: Modify action of verb Cohesive devices Comparative & superlative Adverbs of manner, place, & time Aspect
Intervention for Background Knowledge • World knowledge • Before but also during reading (What you’ve read becomes prior knowledge as you read) • Predicting
• Vocabulary • Instructional language • Prior knowledge or words to be encountered • Independent strategies
• Concepts • Organization from which to interpret
Understanding Text Structure • Organizational patterns • Headings, subheadings, openings, conclusions, signal words • Through instruction, guided practice, & independent practice
• Text structure • Author’s purpose, organization, topics • Additional teacher structure & self-questioning
Strategies for Identifying Content • • • •
Self-questioning Visual imaging Paraphrasing Summarizing both during and after reading • Monitoring & Repair
Narrative Comprehension Intervention • Oral narratives and story retelling • Following explicit (text-like) directions • Before reading familiarization with vocabulary and grammar • During reading questions • After reading summarization and graphic story organizers • Discussions of author’s purpose and characters motivations and feelings • Prediction
Identifying the Main Idea in Expository Writing • Fundamental to academic success • Text features signal important information: Graphic, syntactic, semantic, and schematic features • Good readers text organization as they read
Main Idea Identification – Semantic Networks • Organizing information • Teach through guided study approach • Types • Clusters • Episodic types
• Drawings or writing
Inferencing Intervention • Book selection: Easy to difficult • Cues • Orienting: Invite child to respond • Reporting, Projecting, Reasoning, Predicting
• Enabling: Assist child with particular use • Follow-through, Focusing, Checking
• Feedback • Informing: Give info., summarize, explain • Sustaining: “I’m listening!” • Revoicing: Rephrase child’s comment Silliman, 1998
Semantic Investigation: Focus on Words • Count on what you know (Prior knowledge) • Background knowledge: AGLET Does the child have shoelaces?
• Ask the right questions • Reason and use prior knowledge
• $ummarize comprehension to this point • Hypothesize on the meaning
In the Classroom… • • • • •
Teacher activates prior knowledge Students read and highlight unknown words Teacher models using a few of the words Teacher and students collaborate on words: Think Alouds Students engage in guided practice in small groups with one word/group Count on, Ask, Summarize, Hypothesize • Collaborative reading • Independent application • Use of new words in conversation and writing
CASH
Decoding Unknown Words • Count on what you know (Prior knowledge) • Reread and focus on the word
• Ask the right questions • Reasoning & use prior knowledge • Identify part of speech • Focus on other aspects of text
• Summarize comprehension so far • Activate prior knowledge • Think and reason about what you know
• Hypothesize the meaning • Confirm your hypothesis
What are the clues?
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References Berninger, V.W., Vermeulen, K., et al. (2003). Comparison of three approaches to suplementary reading instruction for low-achieving second-grade readers. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 34, 101-116. Ehren, B.J. (2006). Partnerships to support reading comprehension for students with language impairment. Topics in Language Disorders, 26, 42-54. Goodman Y., Watson, D., & Burke, C. (2005). Reading Miscue Inventory. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen Publishers, Inc. Justice, L.M., & Kaderavek, J. (2004). Embedding explicit emergent literacy I: Background and descrition of approach. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 35, 201-211. Kouri, T.A., Selle, C.A., & Riley, S.A. (2006). Comparison of meaning and graphophonemic feedback strategies for guided reading instruction of children with language delays. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15, 236-246. Nation, K., & Frazier Norbury, C. (2005). Why reading comprehension fails. Topics in Language Disorders, 25, 21-32. Paulson, E.J. & Freeman, A.E. (2003). Insight from the eyes: The science of effective reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Snyder, L., Caccamise, D., & Wise, B. (2005). The assessment of reading comprehension. Topics in Language Disorders, 25, 33-50. van Kleeck, A., Vander Woude, J. & Hammett, L. (2006). Fostering literal and inferential language skills in Head Start preschoolers with language impairment using scripted-sharing discussions. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15, 89-95