International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational [PDF]

Volume 6, Issue 1(3), January 2017

International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco

Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai

Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru

Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University

Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan

Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam

Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria

Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia

Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia

Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A

Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram

Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi

I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia

Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA

Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.B.S.N.Murthy

Dr.Ton Quang Cuong

Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam

Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam

Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science University of Pune,Pune

Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic

Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India

Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia

Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur

Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar

Dr.E. Ashok Kumar

Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad

Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Prof.Francesco Massoni

Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China

Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam

Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome

Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq

Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado

Dr. Bipasha Sinha

Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines

S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta

Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V

Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

CONTENTS Volume 6 S. No 1.

2.

Issue 1(3)

January 2017 Pg. No

Enriched Biogas for Transportation Use: Review Paper on Methods of Production Firew Tarekegn Gemeda

1

Tribal Movements Perspective

29

in

India:

A

Sociological

Thirumalesha Babu.T.R 3.

Standards of Administration and Governance in Scheduled areas in India Jagatrai Tahangula

50

4.

Study on the Vulnerability of Agricultural Productivity to Meteorological Parameters in East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh Gangaraju.M and Anitha.P

59

5.

Local Good Governance Challenges And Opportunities: In Lumame Town, Amhara Regional State Gizachew Asrat

76

6.

An Analytical Review on Banks crisis with NPAs K.Chandrasekhara Rao

107

7.

The Philosophy of General Management and Impacts and Role B.Nagaprasad

114

8.

Banking and Financial Inclusion in India G.Syamala Rao

122

9.

A Study on Training and Development of Employees with Special Reference to State Bank of India, Visakhapatnam S.Srinivasa Rao

128

10.

Electoral Trends in India: An Analysis K.Swarnalatha

141

11.

A Study on Green Banking Emerging Trends in India V.Kaleeswari

158

12.

Decline and Restoration of the Oromo Gada System: In Case of Ilu Aba Bor, South Western Ethiopia Dula Kefena and Wondachew Mitiku

167

13.

The Implementation of Cooperative Learning in EFL Classroom: Hossana College of Teachers Education in Focus Ermias Molito Telore

183

14.

Transesterification of Castor Biodiesel and Performance Study on 4-Stroke CI Engine S.Channabasava,M. Chennashetty, M.Rajashekhar and K.Vijaykumar

216

15.

The Uniqueness Kumarasambhava

231

of

Psychological

Bliss

in

M.Ramachandra Rao 16.

238

A Sociological Study on Senescence Shashikumar

17.

Role and Relevance all Arunachal Pradesh Students ’ Union:Peoples’ Perception Kuku Panyang

248

18.

An Overview of Islamic Banking and Its Scope in India Lutfun Nesha and Sk. Raju Ali

257

19.

Work-Life Balance Programs Drivers and Consequences

278

in

Organizations S.Rajani

20.

Gandhi and Non-Violent Management N.Ravichandran

290

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit)

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :4.527(2016) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16

Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

Editorial…… It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute

Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

ENRICHED BIOGAS FOR TRANSPORTATION USE: REVIEW PAPER ON METHODS OF PRODUCTION Firew Tarekegn Gemeda Mettu University Ethiopia Abstract In the present era of ever-increasing energy consumption and dwindling fossil fuel reserves, the importance of biomass based, decentralized fuel such as Biogas and Biomass based power generation has greatly increased. It is a well established renewable and environment friendly fuel for rural energy needs. Biogas is ideally suited for energy applications where required animal or human excreta and agricultural waste are available in plenty. Harnessing such a resource promotes industries, agriculture, dairy and animal farming in a sustainable way. Biogas is an environment friendly, clean, cheap and versatile fuel. It is produced by anaerobic digestion of degradable wastes such as cattle dung, vegetable wastes, sheep and poultry droppings, municipal solid waste, sewage water, land fill etc. Presently it is mainly used for cooking and lighting purposes in the rural areas. The use of biogas in stationary engines used for different agricultural operations is going on. Its utilization is also feasible in automobiles, used for transportation purposes by enriching and compressing it in cylinders. Biogas can be mixed with butane and propane in compressed natural gas (CNG) form after enrichment and bottling and then it becomes just like CNG. This review paper presents detail methods of production and enriching biogas for transportation use. Key Words: Biogas, CNG, anaerobic Digestion, Biomass, Bio-fertilizer

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

1. Introduction 1.1.

Potential of biogas technology

So far, biogas has mostly been used as fuel for cooking and running stationary engines. However, its potential has not fully utilized, yet. There is a great enhancement in its utilization potential particularly where bigger plants are in operation. Enrichment and bottling of biogas will help to improve it. In different countries like USA, India, Pakistan, Latin America, UK, Sweden and Germany the use of biogas as fuel for transportation is greatly increasing after enrichment process. Due to rising cost of petroleum products and environmental concerns it has become imperative to make use of local resources as an alternate to petroleum fuels. Therefore, worldwide efforts to explore and make use of biogas as an alternate fuel in vehicles should be made. 1.2 Advantages of Biogas technology Biogas plant has the following advantages: Energy security, organic fertilizer (The anaerobic process of the digester will supply the farm with a Nitrogen rich bio-slurry ideal for use on the farms grazing pastures. This bio-slurry will replace as much as 25% of the chemical fertilizer currently being used by the farm), improvement in animal and other waste treatment (The positive impact to the surrounding environment will benefit the entire adjacent community and ground water system), improving hygienic and sanitation conditions by eliminating indoor air pollution and better management of animal dung and other waste materials, reduce deforestation by reducing the destructive harvesting and non-renewable polluting consumption of wood fuel, reducing harmful emissions to the atmosphere: Burning biogas is much cleaner than burning woody biomass, energy and fertilizer substitution, reducing the need to buy or collect increasingly scarce wood fuel and increasingly expensive chemical fertilizers, and

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

increasing yields in animal husbandry and agriculture by using the full potential of digester effluent as organic fertilizer. Other benefits are cost efficiency, flexible process for wide range of substrates, new value creation chain for the waste management sector and agricultural sector, generate jobs and revenues, reduce dependency from external energy supply. 1.3 Significance of Biogas technology The following are major significances: 1. Technology transfer 

Transferring the technology that is already in use in different countries to Ethiopia. (i.e promoting a transfer of technology for 98% enriched methane production by capturing through anaerobic digestion)

2. Teaching purpose 

Introduces students to technology transfer



Opens different research opportunities for students/researchers which leads to better establishment of biogas plant and further purifications



Introducing

students/researchers

toward

production

and

utilization of green energy and motivating the students 3. Energy generation centre 

The biogas from the bio-digesters used as a sustainable renewable fuel source to operate a gas generator displacing conventional electrical grid fossil fuel energy sources.



Reducing the cost and workload by providing alternate source of energy instead of collecting and transporting firewood in some local areas.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017



Bottled and enriched biogas can replace different energy sources that an organization is using (example different science laboratories, vehicles, etc).

4. Environmental Protection 

Better air quality. The bio-digester captures and utilizes methane gas that would have otherwise entered the atmosphere from manure. Uncontrolled methane is a toxic greenhouse gas, 20 times more harmful to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide.



Improving hygienic conditions, especially for the peoples in the town, by eliminating indoor air pollution and by stimulating better management of animal dung, solid wastes from kitchen that otherwise be dumped every where.



Reduce deforestation by reducing the destructive harvesting and non-renewable and polluting consumption of fuel wood.

5. Fertilizer 

The effluent from a bio digester, which is almost entirely liquid in content, is very rich in the nitrates, phosphorus and potassium for use on farm pastures or for sale as organic fertilizer.



The produced fertilizer (Agricultural Colleges)

can used

for teaching

purpose

6. Job Creation 

Job creation: Many new jobs would be generated when the programme become active for the labour required for production of appliances and building materials and through the unskilled labour used during the construction of the plants. Many new livelihood opportunities will also be created for the surrounding unemployed peoples.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

2. Literature Review 2.1Biogas experience so far Different countries are widely producing and using biogas for different purposes the following discussions show the case indifferent countries. Europe

Fig 1: Biogas production across Europe India India has a vast potential of 6.38 X 1010 cubic meter of biogas per annum from 980 million tonnes of cattle dung produced. A National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) was launched by Government of India in 1981. A total of about 36.5 lakh family biogas plants have been installed under this programme all over the country till Dec. 2004. This is about 30 % of the total 120 lakh family type biogas plants potential. More than 3380 Community Biogas Plants (CBP), Institutional Biogas Plants (IBP) and Night-soil based Biogas Plants (NBP) have been installed all over the country with most reported satisfactory performance levels. The family biogas plants in the country are estimated to be saving 39.6 lakh tonnes of fuel-wood per year. Besides, about 9.2 lakh tonnes of enriched organic manure are being produced every year from these plants. www.ijmer.in

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

There are a number of dairies, village communities having large number of cattle which have potential of installing biogas enrichment and bottling system. In urban areas, large quantity of biogas can be produced in sewage treatment plants using anaerobic digestion. Okhala Sewage Treatment Plant, New Delhi, is an example where more than 10,000 cubic meter of biogas is produced every day. Sweden

Fig 2: Biogas as vehicle fuel in Sweden Germany and Austria set goals to convert 20 % biogas to CNG in 2020. In Switzerland greater than 35 % biogas is already in use as CNG. 2.2 Biogas composition, properties and utilisation as CNG Bio gas comprises of 60-75% methane, 35- 40 % carbon dioxide, 0.5-1.0 % hydrogen sulphide and water vapour. It is almost 20% lighter than air. Like Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) it cannot be converted to liquid state under normal temperature. Removing carbon dioxide and compressing it into cylinders makes it easily usable for transport applications, say three wheelers (Bajaj), cars, pick up vans etc and also for stationary applications at various long distances. Already, CNG

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

technology has become easily available and therefore, bio-methane (enriched biogas) which is nearly same as CNG, can be used for all applications for which CNG are used. 2.3 Concept of alternative Bio-CNG Biogas contains a large proportion (about 40% by volume) of carbon dioxide, a heavier and non combustible gas and some fraction of hydrogen sulphide. Hence it is needed to enrich biogas by removing these undesirable gases to save compression energy and space in bottle and corroding effect, which can be done by scrubbing. The scrubbing system is found to enrich methane about 95 % or more depending upon biogas inlet and water injection pressure. Biogas can be used for all applications designed for natural gas, assuming sufficient purification. 2.4 Scope of the technology Enriched biogas is made moisture free by passing it through filters, after which it is compressed up to 200 bar pressure using a three stage gas compressor. Compressed gas is stored in high pressure steel cylinders as used for CNG. There is large potential of this technology in buses, tractors, cars, auto rickshaws, irrigation pump sets and in rural industries. This will help to meet our energy demand for rural masses thus reducing burden of petroleum demand, moving towards energy security and will improve economic status by creating employment opportunity. 2.5Raw materials used Biogas can be produced by the anaerobic digestion of a range of organic wastes, with the key wastes being: 

Sewage sludge;



Wet manure slurries;



Dry manures from animal beddings,

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017



Waste from food processing;



Food and organic waste from restaurants and other commercial operations;



Household kitchen and garden waste.



Fruit waste

Fig 3: Biogas route map 3. Methodology 3.1 Pre-digestion treatments The main aim of pre-treatments is to get the material being digested into a suitable form. The necessary pre-treatments will depend on the feedstock being used but can include: 

Sorting and removal of inorganic materials such as stones, grit and glass;



Shredding or maceration to reduce the size of the material being digested;

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017



Mixing different feed stocks together if more than one is being used;



Adding water or other liquids;



Pasteurisation or sterilisation of some feeds tocks such as animal by-products to reduce pathogens.

The pre-treat elements can be a significant part of the process and when the plant is used for municipal waste the pre-treat is often part of a wider municipal waste sorting facility. 3.2 Anaerobic Digestion This is the main part of the process where the material is naturally degraded (digested) by bacteria in sealed airtight vessels. 3.2.1 Process and mechanism of bio-meth nation In anaerobic digestion, different groups of micro-organisms work in sequence at four different stages. These are hydrolysis, Acid genesis, Cytogenesis and Methano genesis. Stage 1-Hydrolysis The hydrolysis is considered to be the key step in the biodegradation of complex wastes. Fundamentally, this process involves the breaking down of complex organics into monomers or simple compounds by the action of hydrolytic microorganisms. This step involves the enzymemediated alteration of insoluble organic compounds with high molecular mass, i.e. proteins, fats, lipids, and carbohydrate etc, into soluble organic components such as amino acids, fatty acids, monosaccharide, and other simple organic compounds. The insoluble large molecules consist of many small molecules joined together by chemical bonds and thus need to be hydrolyzed before entering the bacterial cell. The hydrolysis step is carried out by several different anaerobic and facultative bacteria. Hydrolytic enzymes include www.ijmer.in

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

cellulose, cellobiase, xylanase and amylase for degrading carbohydrates into sugars, protease for degrading protein into amino acids, and lipase for degrading lipid into glycerol and long-chain fatty acids. The microorganisms producing these enzymes can be obligate or facultative anaerobes. It is commonly found that hydrolysis is the rate-limiting step in degradation when the substrate is in the particulate form. Stage 2-Acidogenesis In this stage, soluble compounds produced in the first stage are further degraded by a diversity of different facultative anaerobes through different fermentation processes by a second group of microorganisms called the fermentative acidogenic bacteria, e.g., Clostridium spp. The fermentation results in the production of carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas, organic acids, alcohols, some organic-nitrogen compounds and some organic-sulphur compounds etc. The most important acid here is acetic acid as it is the principal organic acid used as a substrate material for the methane-forming organisms. The acidogenic microorganisms prefer a slightly acidic environment (pH 4.5-5.5) and are less sensitive to changes in incoming feed stream. Stage 3 - Acetogenesis In this stage, the other intermediate products and acids than acetate that were formed in the fermentation are further converted to acetic acid as well as carbon-dioxide and hydrogen by different anaerobic oxidation reaction involving so called acetogenic bacteria. In a stable anaerobic digestion, the acetate and H2-producing bacteria called acetogenic bacteria transform the products of acidogenesis into acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide which are substrate for the methanogens. Stage 4-Methanogenesis Finally, the last group of microorganisms, the methanogenic, produces methane from acetic acid, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide as well as

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017

directly from other substrates of which formic acid methanol are the most important. Methanogenic micro-organisms convert acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane and carbon dioxide i.e. biogas. The remaining compounds like alcohols, organic-nitrogen compounds which methanogens cannot degrade will be accumulated in the digestate. The methane is produced from a number of simple substances: acetic acid, methanol or carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Among these, acetic acid and the closely related acetate are the most important, since around 75% of the methane produced is derived from acetate. Methane production is higher from reduction of carbon dioxide but limited hydrogen concentration in digesters results in that the acetate reaction is the primary producer of methane. The methanogenic bacteria include methanobacterium, methanobacillus, methanococcus and methanosarcina. Methanogens can also be divided into two groups: acetate and H2/CO2 consumers. Methanosarcina spp. and methanothrix spp. (also, methanosaeta) are considered to be important in AD both as acetate and H2/CO2 consumers. 3.2.2 Operational Parameters for Biogas Production The rate-limiting reaction in anaerobic digestion is usually the conversion of volatile acids to methane. Methane-forming bacteria obtain very little energy from the degradation of volatile acids. Most of the energy released from the volatile acids is transferred to the methane. Because of the low energy yield obtained from volatile acids by methane-forming bacteria, their growth rate is restricted, that is, the amount of substrate utilization per unit of organisms is high. Therefore, bacterial growth or sludge production is low and optimum operational conditions must be maintained for satisfactory rates of solids destruction and methane production. These factors are responsible for the rate-limiting reaction of the conversion of volatile acids to methane. However, if the substrates fed to the anaerobic

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digester were mostly slowly degrading particulate materials, then the rate-limiting reaction would be the hydrolysis of the particulate material. The operating parameters of the digester must be controlled so as to enhance the microbial activity and thus increase the anaerobic degradation efficiency of the system. The production of biogas is factored by many operational parameters. Some parameters that affect the production of biogas include temperature, pH, pre-treatment, particle size, agitation, rate of organic load, retention time etc. Any rapid change in these parameters can adversely affect the production of biogas. Some of these parameters are discussed in the following section. i.

Temperature Due to the strong dependence of temperature on digestion rate, temperature is the most critical parameter to maintain in a desired range. Methane production has been documented under a wide range of temperatures, but bacteria are most productive in either mesophilic conditions 25-400C, or in the thermophilic conditions, at 50-650C. A thermophilic temperature reduces the required retention time. The microbial growth, digestion capacity and biogas production could be enhanced by thermophilic digestion, since the specific growth rate of thermophilic bacteria is higher than that of mesophilic bacteria. There are generally three temperature ranges under which the bacteria exhibit peak activity and they are: Psychrophilic (200

Cow dung

24

Water hyacinth

25

Municipal waste

sold 40

Elephant dung

Source AT,1998

:RISE-

43

Table 2. Typical C/N ratios of different materials v.

Organic loading rate

The rate at which substrate is supplied to the digester is referred to as organic loading rate and is usually expressed in terms of Kg volatile solids per m3 and day. The gas production rate in the digester is highly dependent on the organic loading rate.

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The organic loading rate (OLR) determines the volatile solids input to the digester. This parameter has a significant influence on the process performance. It is expressed as the amount of organic matter (as COD or Volatile solids) per reactor volume. A higher OLR will demand more of the bacteria, which may cause the system to crash if it is not prepared. Under feeding the reactor could also lead to reduction in the digester performance due to insufficient nutrients for microbial growth. Organic loading rate (OLR) is ca measure of the biological conversion capacity of the AD system. Feeding the system above its sustainable OLR, results in low biogas yield due to accumulation of inhibiting substances such as fatty acids in the digester slurry. In such a case, the feeding rate to the system must be reduced. OLR is a particularly important control parameter in continuous systems. vi.

Mixing

The close contact between micro-organisms and the substrate material is important for an efficient digestion process. This can be achieved in a number of ways. For example, daily feeding of the substrate instead of long interval provides the desired mixing effect. Installation of certain mixing devices such as propeller, scraper, or piston is also a mechanism for stirring. The purpose of mixing inside the digester is to homogenize the material. Furthermore, mixing prevents scum formation and avoids temperature gradients within the digester. However excessive mixing can disrupt the microbes so slow mixing is preferred. The kind of mixing equipment and amount of mixing varies with the type of reactor and the solids content in the digester. Toxicity In anaerobic degradation methanogens are most sensitive to the toxicity of NH, HS and VFA’s. The process is pH dependent and

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ammonia is toxic at pH higher than 7, a free ammonia level of 150 mg/L can cause grows inhibition. HS and VFA’s are toxic at PH bellow 7. Long-chain fatty acids are toxic to anaerobic cultures and give inhibitory effects on methane formation. Anaerobic bacteria also are sensitive to heavy metals but the concentration rate of those is normally low. Methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive to oxygen but facultative anaerobic bacteria present in the digester can consume any oxygen inside the digester. Co- digestion A combination of two or more substrates in anaerobic digestion is an attractive technique by which the substrates digestion process improvement is reported; the anaerobic co-digestion of various agricultural residues, various municipal solid wastes and various other specific organic wastes, is becoming attractive for producing energy in the form of biogas. The use of a co-substrate in most cases improves the biogas yields due to positive synergisms established in the digestion medium and the supply of missing nutrients by the co-substrates. In addition, economic advantages derived from the fact of sharing equipment are quite significant. Sometimes the use of a co-substrate can also help to establish the required moisture contents of the digester feed. Other advantages are the easier handling of mixed wastes and the use of common access facilities. The organic fraction of the MSW is mixed with animal manure and the two fractions are co-digested. This improves the carbon/nitrogen ratio and improves gas production. It also produces a sludge that is rich in nutrients and which is often usable as a fertilizer after composting or other treatment.

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Seeding To start up a new anaerobic process, it is critical to use an inoculum of micro organisms to commence the fermentation process. The common seeding materials include digested sludge from a running biogas plant or material from well-rotted manure pit or cow manure slurry. 3.3. Post-Treatment 3.3.1. Biogas enrichment process There are many methods for carbon dioxide (CO2) removal i.e. absorption in water, absorption using chemicals, pressure swing adsorption and membrane separation. However, absorption of CO2 in water is simple, cost effective, eco-friendly and practical method for CO2 removal from biogas. It is a continuous process and simultaneously removes H2S also. In this method, biogas is pressurized and fed to the bottom of a scrubber column where water is sprayed from the top. In counter-currently operated absorption process, the carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide present in the biogas is absorbed in down going water and methane goes up and is collected in vessel. However, water requirement in this process is high but it is the simplest method of removing impurities from biogas. 3.3.1.1Water scrubbing Water scrubbing involves the physical absorption of CO2 and H2S in water at high pressures and regeneration takes place by release in pressure with very little Change in temperature. It is simple method involving use of pressurized water as an absorbent. The raw Biogas is compressed and fed into a packed bed absorption column from bottom and pressurized water is sprayed from top. The absorption process is, thus a counter current one.

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This dissolves CO2 as well as H2S in water, which are collected at the bottom of the tower. The design of water scrubbing system depends on the solubility of carbon dioxide in water as solubility is governed by pressure and temperature. It is clear from table that as the pressure increases solubility of CO2 in water increases but decreases as temperature increases. System Design and Fabrications A packed bed scrubber was designed for 95 % removal of carbon dioxide from Biogas. Thus, initially 40 % carbon dioxide present in raw biogas would be reduced to 2 % by volume in enriched biogas. To increase solubility of carbon dioxide in water, raw biogas was compressed and pressurized water was used as an absorbent liquid. A packed bed scrubbing column Packed bed height was designed for absorption of CO2. Ceramic Reaching rings were used as packing material. The details of various components involved in the system are described below: Biogas enrichment unit

Fig 4: Biogas enrichment schematic layout

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The unit comprise of a scrubber, a water supply system, a gas supply system, a low Capacity compressor, a pressure vessel, pipe fittings and various accessories. Schematic diagram of complete biogas enrichment, and its bottling is shown in Figure above. 1. Scrubbing column The diameter of the scrubber and packed bed height determined by the needed purification level per hours. The scrubber consists of a packed bed absorption column and a supporting frame as described in following sub-sections: A 10 mm thick Mild Steel (MS) pipe was selected for the column fabrication. The column was fabricated in three sections. Top section - It has provision for water inlet pipe, water spraying system, gas Outlet pipe and a safety valve. Water spraying system was connected with water Inlet pipe to provide fine atomized spray of pressurized water inside the absorption column. A safety valve is provided at the upper portion to release the excess pressure as it is a pressurized column. Middle section - In this section Reaching rings of 16 mm diameter have been filled as packing material. Two sieves are fitted at the top and bottom of the section to hold the packing height of column. A view glass, to see the water level inside the column and a dry type pressure gauge, to check column pressure; are also mounted at the upper portion of the middle section. Bottom section - This section has provision for inlet gas feeding pipe and a view glass at upper side. Lower side has been transformed into truncated cone shape with 50 mm diameter outlet opening. It is fitted with a ball valve to control the outlet water flow. Outlet water is stored in a water collection tank. All the three sections are joined together with flanges, bolts and nuts. 2. Supporting frame

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Supporting frame comprises of three legs, which is fabricated from MS angle size 55 x55 x 5 mm. The legs are grouted firmly in ground with cement, sand and stone gravel mixture and fitted with the absorption column in the middle. A staircase, made of MS angle and flats, has also been attached with the absorption column to climb up to the top of the column to check water level and column pressure. 3. Water supply system Screw pump is used to pump water from water storage tank into the scrubber. Screw pump is selected to provide pressurize water at low discharge. The water flow rate is controlled through a flow regulating valve. A rota meter and a dry type pressure gauge are mounted to measure the water flow rate and pressure of water respectively. 4. Gas supply system The gas supply system consists of a biogas plant, a single stage compressor, a pressure vessel, pipe fittings and accessories. 5. Biogas plant Raw biogas is fed to the scrubber from a cattle dung based floating drum type biogas plant. The raw gas is supplied from the biogas plant, through PVC pipeline to a single stage compressor, after removing water condensed in pipeline using a water remover. 6. Single stage compressor A single stage compressor make is utilized for initial compression of raw biogas before sending it to the scrubber. 7. Pressure vessel sure vessel To ensure steady supply of compressed raw biogas to the scrubber, it is first stored in a pressure vessel. It is made from MS sheet. 8. Pipe fettlings and accessories G I pipe line is used to supply gas from compressor to the pressure Vessel and then to the scrubber. Between the pressure vessel and the scrubber, a rota meter and a dry type pressure gauge are installed to www.ijmer.in

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measure the rate of discharge and pressure of the raw biogas respectively. The gas flow rate is controlled through a valve provided near inlet point of the scrubber. 9. Enriched biogas compression unit It comprises of a three stage compressor for compression of enriched biogas. A set of filters for removal of water vapour, storage cylinders for Storing highly pressurized biogas and pipe fittings. 10. Three stage high pressure compressor A low suction capacity and high pressure developing compressor is utilized in the present investigation. A three stage compressor is used for bottling. 11. Ultra filters A set of three filters (Pre filter, Micro filter and Sub Micro filter) are employed in the G I pipeline connected with storage pressure vessel (containing enriched biogas) and three stage compressors. They are designed to remove almost all water vapour from the enriched biogas. 12. Storage cylinders High pressure steel cylinders (available in the market for CNG storage) are used for final storage of enriched and compressed biogas. These cylinders are shorter in length larger in diameter than most gas cylinders and had been specifically built for high pressure gas storage. 13. Pipe fettlings and accessories G I pipeline is employed to deliver enriched biogas from the Scrubber to the storage vessel. From vessel, it is sent to the three stage compressor via ultra filters and rota meter. From compressor, compressed & enriched biogas is finally filled in a cylinder. A Pressure gauge is mounted in the pipeline near cylinder to check the gas pressure inside the cylinder and provision is made to release the back pressure from the pipeline after cylinder filling.

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Fig 5: Description of the components 1- Biogas plant; 2- Ball valve; 3- Water remover; 4- Receiver mounted compressor; 5- Pressure gauge; 6- Gas Storage Vessel; 7- Rota meter; 8- Supporting stand; 9- Retching rings; 10- Scrubber; 11- Safety valve; 12- Water sprayer; 13- Flange; 14- View glass; 15- Water outlet; 16- Water pump; 17- Gas filter;

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Conclusion Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste. Though we can use this type of biogas for varies purposes, it could not be used for transportation purposes. As a result it needs enrichment to be used for transportation purposes and the like. Enrichment of biogas is achieved by carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide removal which then enhances the energy value of the gas to give longer, driving distances with a fixed gas storage volume. Removal of these gases also provides a consistent gas quality with respect to energy value. The latter is regarded to be of great importance from the vehicle manufacturers in order to reach low emissions of nitrogen oxide. And this review paper presents detail methods for enriching biogas for transportation use. Reference: 1. Biogas as a road transport fuel, An assessment of the potential role of biogas as renewable transport fuel, 2006, National Society for clean air and Environmental Protection 2. V. K. Vijay, Science Tech Entrepreneur, Biogas Enrichment and Bottling Technology for vehicle use, November 2006. 3. M. Persson, Biogas upgrading and utilization as vehicle fuel, 2007. 4. Shyam S. Kapdi, Virendra K. Vijay, Shivanahalli K. Rajesh and Rajendra Prasad, Upgrading biogas for utilization as a vehicle fuel, As. J. Energy Env. 2006, 7(04), 387-393

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5. Berglund, M. and Bo¨rjesson, P. (2006) Assessment of energy performance in the life-cycle of biogas production. Biomass and Bioenergy 30, 254–266. 6. Bo¨rjesson, P. and Berglund, M. (2006) Environmental systems analysis of biogas systems – part I: Fuel-cycle emissions. Biomass and Bioenergy 30, 469–485 7. Jönsson, Owe (2003). Biogas upgrading and use as transport fuel. Malmö, Svenskt gastekniskt centrum. 8. Jönsson, Owe and Margareta Persson (2003). Transportation Fuel." Fachtagung 2003:99-111.

"Biogas

as

9. Jönsson, Owe (2006). "Market development for biogas as vehicle fuel in Europe – status 2006." 10. Virendra K. Vijay ; Ram Chandra, Parchuri M. V. Subbarao and Shyam S. Kapdi, Biogas Purification and Bottling into CNG Cylinders: Producing Bio-CNG from Biomass for Rural Automotive Applications.

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TRIBAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA: A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Mr. Thirumalesha Babu.T.R Assistant Professor and Head Department of Sociology Government First Grade College Koratagere,Tumkur District,Karnataka State

Tribal revolts in India before the independence from the British rule in the year 1947. The list covers those tribal uprisings that occurred during the period of British rule in India.The Scheduled Tribes (STs) constitute 8 per cent of the total population of the country. In 2001 their number was around 820 lakh persons. They can be divided into two categories: (1) frontier tribes; and (2) non-frontier tribes. The former are inhabitants of the northeast frontier states— Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Except Assam, all the other states are landlocked between Assam and India’s neighbours—Burma, China and Bangladesh. They, therefore, occupy a special position in the sphere of national politics. They constitute 11 per cent of the tribal population. The non-frontier tribes, constituting 89 per cent of the total tribal population, are distributed among most of the states, though they are concentrated in large numbers in Madhya Pradesh (23 per cent), Orissa (22 per cent), Rajasthan (12 per cent), Bihar (8 per cent), Gujarat (14 per cent), Dadra Nagar Haveli (79 per cent) and the Lakshadweep Islands (94 per cent). The STs are known as tribes, adivasis, and aboriginals or as autochthonous. Social scientists have not examined the term ‘tribe1 in the Indian context rigorously. They have largely followed government categorisation (Shah 1984; Sengupta 1988). Article 366(25) of the constitution has defined ‘Scheduled Tribes’ as ‘such tribes or tribal communities or parts or groups within www.ijmer.in

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such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purpose of this constitution’. By the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950, issued by the president in exercise of the powers conferred by Clause (1) of the Article 342 of the constitution of India, 212 tribes have been declared to be Scheduled Tribes. ‘Isolation, backwardness and cultural distinctiveness’, of a social group, though undefined in legal and sociological terms, have guided the state for inclusion to a community in the ‘schedule’. Later, by anact of Parliament, some other groups were also included in the ‘schedule’. Tribals are ethnic groups. Different tribes have their own cultures— dialects, life styles, social structures, rituals; values, etc.— differing somewhat from those of the dominant nom tribal peasant social groups. At the same time, most of them are settled agriculturistsand social differentiations have developed among them. Their agrarian problems were and are, to some extent, the same as those of other nontribal peasants. Studies are now available to show how the tribals have, in course of time, become peasants (Upadhyay 1980; Shah 1984; Pathy 1984). Many scholars treat tribal movements as peasant movements (Gough 1974; Desai 1979; Guha 1983). Peasant leaders like Ranga and Sahajanand Saraswati described tribals as aboriginal kisans. K, S. Singh joins issue with these scholars and political activists. He argues, ‘such an approach tends to gloss over the diversities of tribal social formations of which tribal movements are a part, both being structurally related’ (1985: 119). Because of the concentration of the tribals in certain areas, their social and political organisation and relative isolation from the ‘mainstream’, their leadership pattern and modus operandi of political mobilisation may differ from those of other peasants. Some of the champions of Hindutva ideology consider tribals as vanvasis or forest-dweller caste-Hindus. There seem to be less socio-

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economic differentiations within a tribe than are seen among casteHindu peasants; and their ‘community consciousness’ is strong. Singh argues, while the peasant movements tend to remain purely agrarian as peasants lived off land, the tribal movements were both agrarian and forest based, because the tribals1 dependence on forests was as crucial as their dependence on land. There was also the ethnic factor. The tribal revolts were directed against zamindars, moneylenders and petty government officials not because they exploited them but also because they were aliens (1986: 166). John MacDougall, in two studies (1977, 1978) on the Sardar and Kherwar movements in Bihar between 1858 and 1898, shows that the nature of movements varies ‘as the consequence of variations in the peasantisation of adivasi society’. When and how have the movements of the tribals taken the form of peasant movements? What are the striking features of tribal movements which differentiate them from the peasants’? In what manner, if any, were tribal movements linked with peasant movements during the colonial and post-colonial period? K. S. Singh and MacDougall attempt to explore these questions, but more rigorous efforts are needed to answer them. Raghavaiah (1971) lists seventy tribal revolts’ from 1778 to 1971. He also gives the chronology of these revolts. A survey of tribal movements conducted by the Anthropological Survey of India identified thirty-six ongoing tribal movements in India in 1976. As early as 1945, Man in India brought out ‘A Rebellion Number’, presenting four papers on various tribal revolts. The editorial of the number remarks: ‘These revolts have been neither numerous nor gravely frequent, yet there is scarcely any major tribe in middle or eastern India which at some time in the last one hundred and fifty years has not resorted to this gesture of despair.’ The publication did not cover tribal revolts in the northeast frontier region. Three volumes on Tribal Movements in India, edited by K.S. Singh

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(1982, 1983a, 1998) are an important contribution to the relatively scant literature on the subject. The first volume (1982) deals with the northeast frontier tribes, the second volume (1983a) focuses on central and south India and the third volume confines itself to a survey of literature on tribal movements in different parts of the country. The first two volumes deal with tribal movements which primarily took place in the postindependence period. The major part of the second volume is confined to the movements of central India and Andhra. There is only one paper on the tribal movements of south India—Tamil Nadu and Kerala—and the Nicobar Islands. The third volume also has one chapter focusing on tribal movements in Lakshadweep and southern India. This is evident in the survey of literature by P.R.G. Mathur (1998). The reason is that there were an insignificant number of movements or none at all among the tribals of the southern states. K.S. Singh states, The tribes down south are too primitive, too small in numbers, and too isolated in their habitat to organise movements, in spite of their exploitation and the resultant discontent’ (1983a: XVI). L.K. Mahapatra also offers a similar observation: ‘We do not find any significant social movement, religious, status mobility or political, among the numerically small, migratory tribes, like the Birhor, Korwa, Pahira, the hill Kharia, or the shifting cultivators like the Hill Maria, the Hill Saora or the more primitive Kond’ (1972: 408). Surajit Sinha makes similar observations regarding the small tribes in Bihar (1972). This may be true, but it is based on limited data as very few studies have been undertaken regarding the tribals of south India. One has to study these tribes before arriving at any conclusion regarding the capabilities of small tribes for revolt. There are quite a few studies dealing with tribal movements in central and eastern India during the pre-independence period. These studies include K.K. Datta’s The Santal Insurrection of 1855-57 (1940), Kumar Suresh Singh’s www.ijmer.in

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study on the Birsa Munda movement in Chhota Nagpur during 18741901 (1966), J.C. Jha’s study on the Kol insurrection of Chhota Nagpur during 1831-32 (1964) and the Bhumij revolt in 1832-33 (1967), Haimendorfs (1945) and David Arnold’s (1982) studies on the Gudem Rampa risings in Andhra Pradesh (the former covers the Rampa rebellion of 1879-80 and the latter covers the series of tribal uprisings between 1839 and 1924), and L.P. Mathur’s study (1988) on the ‘resistance movement’ of the Bhil of Rajasthan in the nineteenth century. There are only a few studies on tribal movements involving northeast frontier tribes during the pre-independence era. They include Stephen Fuchs’s (1967) sketchy study on Kabul and D. Mukherjee’s and others’ studies on the Zeliangrong movement in 1925, messianic movements among the KachaNaga during 18811930 (1982) andGautam Bhadra’s (1975) study on the Kuki uprising in Manipur during 1917-19. This however, should not lead us to conclude that there were very few uprisings in the northeast during the British period. Raghavaiah has noted a number of revolts by the tribals of the northeast frontier since the occupation by the British. Some of them need detailed study. K.S. Singh (1985) gives an overview of the tribal movements in the country. However, except for the Kuki uprising in Manipur, he mainly focuses on eastern and central India. Different scholars have evolved different typologies of tribal movements. Mahapatra (1972) applies the typologies widely used for social movements to tribal movements: (1) reactionary; (2) conservative; (3) revisionary or revolutionary. The reactionary movement tries to launch a movement to bring back ‘the good old days’, whereas the conservative movement tries to maintain the status quo. The revisionary or revolutionary

movements

are

those

which

are

organised

for

‘improvement’ or ‘purification’ of the cultural or social order by eliminating ‘evil’ or ‘low’ customs, beliefs or institutions. Surajit Sinha (1968) classifies the movements into: (1) ethnic rebellion; (2) reform www.ijmer.in

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movements; (3) political autonomy movements within the Indian Union; (4) secessionist movements; and (5) agrarian unrest. K.S. Singh (1983a) makes more or less the same classification except that he uses the terms Sanskritisation instead of reform movement and cultural movements instead of ethnic movements. S.M. Dubey (1982) divides the tribal movements in northeast India into four categories: (1) religious and social reform movements; (2) movements for separate statehood; (3) insurgent movements; (4) cultural rights movements. In fact, there is a very thin line dividing the (2), (3) and (4) types. D. Doley follows more or less the same categories of the tribal movements in the northeastern region (1998). There is no substantial difference among the scholars who use different typologies. Mahapatra excludes political movements whereas others do not. These typologies do not include the recent movements around the issues of forest rights and environment, and displacement of the tribals due to ‘development’ programmes of the state and the market. By the turn of the twentieth century, K.S. Singh observes. In recent years, with the rise of the international movement of indigenous people in the post-modernist phase, the focus has shifted to self-determination or self-management of the resources, identity, and ethnicity. The environmental movement has focused on communities in situ, their relationship to resources, their rapport with nature, their worldview. Therefore with the growing concern for environment, particularly biodiversity, pluralism, ethnicity, and identity—all are now interrelated— the tribal movements are assuming a new character. They are all now becoming more and more identity-based movements, with various issues concerning control over resources etc. being considered as ramifications of this central issue (1998: 9-10). For brevity we might reformulate the typologies as follows: (I) ethnic movements which include culture/religion identity; (2) agrarian and forest rights movements; (3) environmental movements (4) involuntary www.ijmer.in

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displacement and rehabilitation movements; and (5) political movements around the nationality question for a separate state. Not only is there a great deal of overlapping among all five types, but they are also interconnected, and one leads to the other. ISSUES Tribal society has undergone changes and so have the issues that agitated the tribals and led to their struggles. K.S. Singh (1985) divides the tribal movements into three phases. The first phase was between 1795 and 1860. It coincided with the rise, expansion and establishment of the British Empire. The second phase covers the period between 1860 and 1920. It coincided with the intensive phase of colonialism, ‘during which merchant capital penetrated into tribal economy affecting their relationship with the land and forest1 . The third phase covers the period from 1920 till the achievement of independence in 1947. During this phase the tribals not only began to launch the socalled ‘separatist’ movements, but at the same time participated in nationalist and agrarian movements. During the nineteenth century, the British came in conflict with various tribes in different parts of the country when they annexed tribal kingdoms and introduced British administration in the tribal areas. The tribals in general and the chieftains in particular felt the loss of power and resources in the new administration. They revolted against the British (Mathur 1988). Various messianic movements in different parts of the country were launched by ‘rebellious prophets’ who promised their followers that they would drive out the outsiders and bring back the golden age of the past (Orans 1965; Fuchs 1967; Singh 1966; Troisi 1976). Their aim was to re-establish their Raj and maintain the tribal organisation and culture. The Birsa Munda movement in Chhota Nagpur aimed at the ‘liquidation of the racial enemies, the Dikus, European missionaries and officials and native Christians. The Mundas would recover their “lost kingdom”. There will be enough to eat, no famine; the people will live together in love’ (Singh www.ijmer.in

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1966:193). These were not fanciful dreams about the past. Religion provided them with courage and hope for a better future and vigour to fight against the oppression by alien rulers (Arnold 1982). Most of these movements took place during the early British period. K.S. Singh (1985) calls them ‘the millenarian movements’. They were not confined to major tribes alone. The Konda Dora of Salur in the Vishakhapatnam area and the Naikda in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat who were relatively small in number, also launched movements against the British officers and caste-Hindus with religious fervour. Some tribes had an apprehension that after independence they would lose their identity. The Naga, for example, expressed the fear in 1947 that their culture—their ancient laws and customs and village organisations which they had retained—would be destroyed by the Hindu rulers of India. They argued that ‘a constitution drawn by the people who have no knowledge of Nagaland and Naga people will be quite unsuitable and unacceptable to the Naga people. Thrown upon forty crores of Indians, the one million Naga with their unique system of life will be wiped out of existence’ (Yonuo 1974: 167). They, therefore, demanded a separate independent state outside the Indian Union. Similarly, ‘the fear of domination by the Assamese and the consequent threat of disintegration and destabilisation haunted the minds of most of the Khasis. This was the underlying factor which influenced all Khasi political movements’ (Mathurl983: 192). Some tribal groups launched Sanskritisation movements to assert their status as casteHindus. These movements are also known as Bhagat movements. A

large

number

of

studies

by

sociologists

and

social

anthropologists and historians are available on such socio-religious movements (Bodding 1921; Kalia, 1962; Orans 1965; Fuchs 1967; Ekka 1972; Ekka 1983; Bhatt 1983; Lal 1983; Mann 1983; Hardiman 1984, 1987). Religiosity and religious idioms were used by the oppressed www.ijmer.in

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groups against dominance and exploitation. David Hardiman (1987) argues that religiosity had ‘a profound bearing’ on the state of consciousness of the adivasis. It provided them with a practical code of ‘political ethics’ to resist and struggle against their exploitation. Persons of low social status were pleased when they were treated with respect by the people of higher status. This was a new experience for them (Fuchs 1967). Recently, some tribes have evolved their script with a view to revive their culture (A. R. Das 1982). Such cultural or revivalist movements are conscious efforts of tribal leaders ‘to construct a more satisfying culture’ (Singh 1985). These movements raised their aspirations and provided a sense of solidarity which enabled them, in some cases, to fight against their exploiters. In some areas like Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, social reform movements led tribals to participate in the nationalist movement against British rule (Hardiman 1984). In Rajasthan, the Bhagat movement was also aimed at raising the political objective of creating an independent kingdom of the Bhil (Mann 1983). During the late 1990s tribals were mobilised in some parts, particularly in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, by Hindutva forces, against Muslims and Christians (Shah 2002b, Hardiman 2002; Joshi 1999) which divided the tribals along religious grounds and converted them to militant Hindus. This aspect of mobilisation and its impact on tribal-non-tribal relationships has so far not drawn the attention of many scholars. Economic issues involved in the tribal movements were often somewhat similar to those affecting non-tribal peasant movements. The main difference between the two in the last century was that the tribals had their own communal agrarian structure which was different from that of the non-tribal peasants. The non-tribals started penetrating the forest and hill areas to exploit economic resources, thereby undermining the traditional economy and society of the tribals (Arnold www.ijmer.in

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1982). The newly imposed British land system was radically different from that prevailing among many tribals. K.S. Singh observes, ‘the transformation of the Mundari agrarian system into non-communal, feudal, Zamindari or individual tenures was the key to agrarian disorders that climaxed in religious-political movements of Birsa’ (1966: 1). In many villages in different tribal areas in Bihar, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra, tribals slowly lost their land to the non-tribal moneylenders and landlords, reducing their status to that of tenants or labourers. In some places, tribal chiefs were converted to Hinduism and invited the nontribal peasants to settle in tribal areas. The latter being experienced fanners seized the land from the tribals and employed the natives as labourers. J.C. Jha observes: The Kol insurrection of 1831-1832 was born out of frustration and anger—frustration with the new system of Government and laws, and anger at the people who either enforced them or took undue advantage of them. The real tragedy of the tribal people of this area was that their chiefs, alienated by their conversion to Hinduism, and the English administrators, horn and bred in the tradition of tribal ownership of land or idea of peasant proprietorship. That was why the former brought in non-tribal settlers and the latter a complex administrative machinery run by an unsympathetic society. Against these the tribal people found no remedy except unrest and violence. It becomes clear that from two sides their traditional society was being undermined: custom was being undermined by contract, a barter economy by a money economy they had not yet learned to handle, divisions of the land determined by tribal custom were replaced by a landlord-tenant relationship, and tribal solidarity was being destroyed from within by the pressures of the British raj (1962: 240). The landlords frequently imposed and enhanced rents on tribals. Moneylenders unscrupulously charged heavy interests. The tribals www.ijmer.in

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were unable to pay enhanced rent or interests on money that they borrowed and their land was usurped by non-tribal moneylenders and landlords. The tribals became tenants on their own land or even bonded labourers. The government officers—particularly police and revenue officers— used their authority to enslave the tribals. They used their labour for personal and government work without any payment. Furthermore, the courts were indifferent to the plight of tribals as they were ignorant of tribal agrarian systems and customs. These factors were common to the Munda, Santhal, Kol and Bhil revolts in the last century. Tribais refused to pay rent for cultivating their land (Datta 1940; Archer 1945; Jha 1964; Orans Besides these factors, the Kuki of Manipur revolted against the British government when the government tried to recruit them into the army as coolies during World War I. They were unwilling to go to far-off places. Moreover, the recruitment of able-bodied youths adversely affected their own agriculture (Bhadra 1975; Chaube 1982). Land alienation, usury, forced labour, minimum wages, land grabbing, etc. continued to be the main issues of tribal movements on the eve of independence and thereafter. The tribals of Andhra Pradesh participated in the Telengana movement and fought against the landlords and the forced labour which they imposed (Pavier 1981; Dhanagare 1983). The Warli of Maharashtra struck work in 1944 during the harvest season, demanding higher wages. They fought against a system of bonded labour and exploitative landlords. They launched a strike in 1946 demanding higher wages for forest work (Parulekar 1975; Parulekar 1979). Some tribals of western India launched movements against moneylenders and landlords and liquor sellers in the 1920s (Hardiman 1987). They launched no-revenue and land grab movements in Gujarat in the 1950s (Shah 1975; Desai 1977), declaring that they were the

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natives and original owners of the land. Adivasis of Pardi taluka of south Gujarat launched a movement for the implementation of land reform acts and distribution of land to the tillers (Desai and Desai 1997, Desai 2002). The struggle was led by the Socialist Party in the 1950s. In the late 1960s, the main constituents of the Naxalbari movement in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh were the tribals who fought against exploitation (Mukherji 1979; S. Banerjee 1980; T. Banerjee 1980; Adhikari et al. 1983). Struggles for minimum wages, repudiation of debts and exploitation, against landlords, were resorted to by the tribals of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar (Balagopal 1988), Maharashtra and Gujarat (Breman 1974; Augustine 1984, Pinto 2002). So also the tribes in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra joined the land grab movement of 1969-70. The main participants in the Shahada and Bhoomi Sena movements in the 1970s, in Maharashtra, were the tribals (Mies 1976; De Silva et al. 1979; Kulkarni 1983). The tribals of the Chhota Nagpur region launched a movement against the diku, the exploiters who were moneylenders and landlords during the British period. The same issue has continued to be the main factor in post-independence political mobilisation (Sharma 1976; Pardesi 1980; Singh 1983b). Most of the tribes live in forests on which they are dependent in more ways than one. It is one of the main sources of their livelihood- In order to get the forest products the British government introduced certain regulations and permitted timber merchants and contractors to cut the forests. These regulations not only curtailed the rights of tribals over forest products, but also made them victims of harassment by the forest bureaucracy. Tribals resented this. Verrier Elwin (1945) observes that the tribals firmly ‘believe that the forest belongs to them and that they have a right to do what they will with it. They have been there, they say, for centuries; it is their life and they consider themselves justified in resisting any www.ijmer.in

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attempt to deprive them of it’ (ibid.: 257). The Saora of Andhra revolted violently against the forest department. Opposition to the toddy tax was an important issue in the Rampa rebellion in Andhra Pradesh. The Kharwar of Palamau, Bihar, participated in the forest Satyagraha in the 1930s demanding restoration of their customary rights to extract timber and collect forest produce for consumption (Singh 1983d). The problem continued to persist in the post-independence period. The Kharwar again launched a Satyagraha movement in the 1950s (ibid.). The tribals of Garhwal region launched a movement against forest contractors in the 1930s and 1970s (Dogra 1980; DasandNegi 1983). Adivasis of the Dangs, Gujarat struggled without success over a decade in the late 1980s till the mid-1990s against the Forest Act and Forest Department which deprived them of land and the right to collect forest products (Engineer 2002; Joshi 2002; Shah 2002a). Some scholars classify the struggles around the issues of forest rights and control over land as environmental movements (see Chapter 10). Adivasis of eastern Gujarat struggled to get minimum wages for forest work, the right to-collect forest produce and cultivate forest land. The movement was led by voluntary groups (Jani 2002). Several adivasi groups have demanded more and more welfare programmes including reservation of jobs in government offices. They submitted memoranda and issued press statements, but there has been no mobilisation of tribals on a large scale. These issues attain prominence in elections (Mathur 1982, 1983). However, we have to examine the reasons why such efforts have not succeeded in sustaining political movements. Before and since independence several tribes launched movements demanding ‘autonomous’ states or districts in which they could manage their own affairs. They strongly felt that alien administration and outsiders ruined their culture and economy. The Kol insurrection and the Santhal rebellion of the last century were, in a sense, direct political www.ijmer.in

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movements, as their objective was to establish their own Raj, expelling the outsiders— Indians as well as the British. Orans argues. At least those who led the rebellion foresaw in victory not only economic relief but increased political power and an opportunity to improve the rank of the Santal. The goal of rank improvement is suggested by a number of ritual practices emulative of Hindu customs which accompanied the rebellion, such as putting on the sacred thread, ritual use of sun-dried rice and oil and vermilion, and purification with cow dung (1965: 33). Similar demands for a separate political entity as a state or a district, within or outside the Indian Union, have been made by various tribes of eastern and central India, and those of the northeast frontier. The tribals of Dang launched a struggle demanding a separate district within the former bilingual Bombay state (Shah 1972). Some tribal leaders of Gujarat demanded an autonomous tribal state, though they failed to seek mass support and remained nothing more than a slogan (Desai 1971). Though this movement faded away, mobilisation around adivasi identity or adivasivad, assertion against domination of the ruling classes, continues to appeal to tribals of south Gujarat. Pinto observes, The Adivasi Ekta Parishad (AEP), which formally came into existence and became active after the Rio Summit in 1993, was led by Adivasi intellectuals from the four western states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. AEP seeks to assert Adivasi identity through a cultural revival movement for ‘selfrespect’ and ‘selfesteem’ (Pinto 2002: 222). The Gond tribe of Chhattisgarh demanded the formation of a separate state for the tribals in the 1950s (Singh 1983c). The tribals of Chhota Nagpur have been demanding separate statehood to protect them against the exploitative tactics of the diku since 1938. Their demand for a separate state has continued in one form or another to this day. By now, a number of studies dealing with the Jharkhand movement are available (Sharma 1976, 1993; Dhar www.ijmer.in

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1980; Singh 1983b; Iyer and Maharaj 1986; and Das 1990; Devalle 1992; Mullick 1993; Basu 1994; Prakash 2001; Tirkey 2002). The Nagas submitted a memorandum to the Simon Commission in 1929 demanding that they should be excluded from the scope of proposed constitutional changes and be kept under the direct administration of the British. They expressed their apprehension that the Indians would introduce their laws and customs ‘to supersede our own customary laws’. Their demand for a separate state outside the Indian Union has continued after independence. They received statehood within the Indian Union. The same is the case with the Mizo tribe who demanded a separate state outside the Indian Union after 1960 (Misra 1974, 1982; Anand 1980; N.K. Das 1982; Goswami and Mukherjee 1982; Shah 1984; Misra 2000' Vashum 2000; Kumar 1995). These political demands are accompanied by ethnic and economic demands. N. K. Bose (1967) characterises these movements as the growth of sub-nationalism’ among the tribals on the basis of their religion and language. Roy Burman (1969), on the other hand, calls it ‘infra-nationalism’. According to him the tribes are involved in a progressive movement, in a phase of expansion from a primitive state of ‘tribalism’ towards ‘nationalism’. At this phase of infra-nationalism agglomerates of tribes are in search of identity at a higher level of integration than tribalism. Some call it a ‘nationality’ movement (see various papers published in APRU 1982; TDSS 1987). The nature of tribal movements, in terms of their solidarity and the issues that they raise, depends upon a variety of factors. The tribals of eastern and central India have close interaction with caste-Hindus, therefore, they do not demand political status outside the Indian Union, whereas the tribals of the northeast frontier do not have close contacts with the Hindus. In fact, many of them have embraced Christianity, and are located on the international border. Therefore, they ask for secession from the Indian Union. www.ijmer.in

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Sinha argues that the nature and the degrees of involvement of tribal groups in solidarity movements, depend upon a number of factors, such as, the locale of the tribal groups vis-à-vis the core peasant matrix, the numerical strength of tribals, the degree of their exposure to, and interrelations with, the non-tribals. He further argues: the intensity of tribal solidarity/separatist movement will be positively correlated to an optimum convergence of the following factors: 1. ecological and socio-cultural isolation of the bulk of the tribal population vis-à-vis the core peasantry; 2. a certain level of numerical strength and economy to provide the striking powers of solidarity movement; 3. location near the international and inter-civilization frontier; 4. a certain level of literacy and education to provide elite leadership; 5. historical incidence and awareness of conflict with the peasantry and the political superstructure of the peasantry; 6. the opportunity for political rank path combined with limited scope for economic emolument (Sinha 1968: 420). A number of studies on tribal political movements in different parts of the country have to be carried out to examine the validity of the argument advanced by Sinha. According to one estimate, 213 lakh persons were displaced by irrigation projects, mines, thermal power plants, wildlife sanctuaries, industries, etc., between 1950 and 1990 in India. Eighty-five per cent of them are tribals (Fernandes and Paranjpe 1997). Their land and habitats are acquired by the government or private industries with negligible compensation. They often protest against the forced displacement. Their protests have taken the form of organised movements in some areas. The first recorded organised struggle against displacement was in 1921 and continued till 1924 against the Mulshi project near Poona. The majority of the affected persons under the project were nontribals. It was led by Senapati Bapat (Fernandes and Paranjpe 1997; Vora 2002). In recent years, the Narmada Bachao Andolan has struggled against www.ijmer.in

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the construction of the dam which has displaced a large number of adivasis. In some places they demanded more compensation and a better rehabilitation policy and sometimes they raised the issue of ‘development’ which deprives them from their rights over natural resources (Baviskar 1995b; Dwivedi 1998; Vora 2002; lyengar 2002). These studies describe the nature of the loss that the tribals suffer but research on the extent and nature of their mobilisation in the struggles is scantily done. Adivasi mine workers joined hands with non-adivasi workers in mines and industries for justice. Shankar Guha Niyogi formed the Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha in 1978 with the commemoration of the martyrdom of Veer Narain Singh, a tribal leader who had been hanged to death by the British in 1857 for mobilising adivasis against imperialist rule. The Morcha mobilised tribals and non-tribal workers on several issues related to the exploitation of the Chattisgarh region. In July 1992 there was police firing in Bhilai in which 18 people were officially declared dead, although unofficial estimates of the death toll went as high as 50. It was the culmination of 19 months of struggle demanding a minimum wage for unorganized workers. It was a demand supported by the unorganized workers in Bhilai, Urla, Tedesera, Kumhari and the farmers, youth, women and landless of many parts of Chhattisgarh (Roy 2002: 40). Though the struggle received coverage in the media and a dossier was compiled by a non-government organisation (NGO) (Lahiri 1998), full-fledged analytical study by researchers is yet to be undertaken. PARTICIPANTS Most social scientists, both of Marxist and non-Marxist persuasion, treat adivasis as homogeneous groups having no class differentiation. Therefore, they have not examined which strata or class of tribals actively participated in the movement. Recently, a few political sociologists and historians have started examining class differentiations among the tribals. It is argued that www.ijmer.in

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Naga, Mizo, Jharkhand and similar movements demanding political autonomy are dominated by the tribal educated middle class (Weiner 1978; Shah 1984). H.K. Sareen (1980) alleges that earlier the British government, and during the last few decades America and China have 'encouraged secessionist tendencies' among the English-educated tribals of northeast India. As mentioned earlier, some scholars have argued that small and isolated tribes have less potential for launching political movements. Regarding the various tribes in the northeast states, Rao (1976) observes that the tribals of the Khasi hills were politically more active than those of the Garo hills. On the basis of studies on some tribal movements, K.S. Singh concludes that tribal unrest assumes an organised character only among large homogeneous, landowning tribal communities who have a relatively strong economic base, such as the Munda, the Santhal, the Bhil, the Gond, etc. Very few of the primitive tribes, who rely on preagricultural technology, participate in such movements (1983b). These groups react strongly to the issues concerning land or forests on which they subsist, On the other hand, in the course of political movements, various tribes develop stronger ethnic identities and sometimes a pantribal identity. Various tribes of Nagaland or Mizoram have built up an alliance for achieving political demands. Not only that, the tribals of Chhota Nagpur have also begun to unite with the non-tribal toiling masses to fight against exploiters. They raise mainly economic and political demands. However, Rupert Moser (1978) feels that movements like the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha still have ‘revivalistic and religious tensions’. But this is not the view of others. They feel that all the producers, irrespective of caste and creed, are being united in the recent phase of the movement (Roy 1982; Maharaj and lyer 1982). It is their contention that this is a movement of the proletariat (Simeon 1982). Whether this is a reality or wishful thinking on the part of the activists needs serious consideration. www.ijmer.in

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ORGANISATION AND LEADERSHIP Most of the studies on tribal movements do not deal with their organisational aspects. It is assumed that the movements are ‘spontaneous’. But this is not correct. Even the earlier Santhal, Munda and Kol movements were organised and a good deal of preparation had gone into them. Orans observes, ‘The rebellion [Santhal] was not begun on the spur of the moment as a result of sudden passion. The Santhal had made many attempts to present their grievances to the government but were rebuffed for various reasons and by various means. Numerous meetings and communications between Santhal villages preceded armed revolt’ (1965: 32). Similarly, the recent Naga and Mizo movements are organised but we know very little regarding their organisational structure. Das and Gupta (1982) tell us something about the organisational structure of the Ahom movement which demanded a separate state for upper Assam. It is argued by some scholars that tribal, social and political structures facilitate the organisation of their political movements. Maharaj and Iyer (1982) observe that the Jharkhand movement adopted the traditional social institutions operating at the village, inter-village and community level. The tribal leadership of the Santhal, the Kol and the Munda rebellions came from religious leaders, or leaders who proclaimed themselves to be the incarnations of God. Birsa Munda is an example (Singh 1966). A similar case is that of Sido and Kanhu, the leaders of the Santhal rebellion who claimed that they received messages from supernatural powers. Such leaders gained a powerful influence over their followers. Fuchs observes, ‘All leaders of messianic movements in India have demanded great and often heroic sacrifices from their followers not only for admission into their movements but also as a condition for staying on in them’ (1967:229). K.S. Singh observes that, ‘while the leadership of the first phase (1795-1860) emerged from the

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upper crust of tribal society, that of the second rose from the lowest rung of it. The Santhal brothers were landless, Birsa Munda was a rayiat or a praja (sharecropper) and Govind Giri was a hali (bonded labourer)’ (1985: 151). Many studies show that the leadership in postindependence movements has come from educated tribals. The recent tribal solidarity movements are primarily the product of the initiative and interest of a limited coterie of the educated tribal elite, and there is a considerable communication gap between the interests and ideas of the elite leaders and the tribal masses (Weiner 1978; Shah 1984). The leadership of some of the tribal peasant movements such as those of the Telengana, the Warli, the Shahada, the Bhoomi Sena, the Naxalbari and Pardai, was provided by non-tribals coming from different political groups (Mies 1976; Parulekar 1979; De Silva et al, 1979; S. Banerjee 1980; T. Banerjee 1980; Desai 2002). At the same time, local leadership among the common tribals has also emerged. Amarsingh in Dhuliya and Kalu Ram in Thana are examples (De Silva et al. 1979; Kulkami 1983), Political parties such as the Communist Party of India (CPI), the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) (CPI [ML]) in the case of the Naxalbari movement and the Socialist Party in the case of the Pardi satyagraha played an important role in setting objectives and programmes of the tribal movements. Sumanto Banerjee’s study of the Naxalbari movement and Hakumat Desai and Kiran Desai’s study on the Pardi Satyagraha examine the parties’ role in the movements. More analytical studies on this aspect are needed. In the last two decades non-party organisations like the Chhatisgarh Mukti Morcha in Madhya Pradesh, Deesha in Gujarat and several others have played a proactive role in the mobilisation of adivasis. They need to be studied. OVERVIEW Various studies on tribal movements highlight the militancy of adivasis in various struggles during the pre- and post-independence period. They also point out that www.ijmer.in

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the line between the changing nature of issues that the tribals raised in the past and the present movement is thin and getting blurred as tribals become peasants. Few scholars believe that adivasis because of their locale and dependence on natural resources are closer to nature. They respect nature. Hence their struggles are considered as a part of environmental struggles. In the past, studies on tribal movements, particularly of the nineteenth century largely focused on their land and forest rights. However, during the last three decades, issues of identity and ethnicity are increasingly emphasised. Though the number of studies on tribal movements is large, only a few are intensive and welldocumented. Many of the studies are sketchy. Moreover, the studies on tribal movements in south, central and northeast India are very few. Many of the tribal struggles have so far remained unexplored. Political scientists and social historians have almost neglected this field. References 1. Khan, Ismail. 1986. Indian tribe through the ages. Vikas publishing

house, New Delhi. 2. S. Gajrani. 2004. History, Religion and Culture of India: History,

religion and culture of Central India Gyan Publishing House, India 3. Gautam Bhadra. 1975. “The Kuki (?) Uprising (1917-1919): Its

causes and Nature,” Man in India, vol.55,1, pp.10-56

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STANDARDS OF ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNANCE IN SCHEDULED AREAS IN INDIA Jagatrai Tahangula Research Scholar Department of Politics and Public Administration Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Local self-governance, interpreted as devolution of powers and functions of the government departments by the creation of Panchayatiraj Institutions (PRIs) as a national framework of governance commenced with the passage of 73rd Amendment to the Constitution. The States made suitable amendments to existing Panchayati laws where they existed or enacted legislations in accordance with the 73rd Amendment where they did not exist. The devolution of the powers and responsibilities to the PRIs were neither uniform nor at the same pace, but progressed steadily. The Scheduled Areas were exempted from the application of the 73rd Amendment for which the Parliament enacted a separate law, Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA). PESA provisions were incorporated through amendments to the State Panchayat laws and amendments to the subject laws. A decade and a half of PESA in the 9 States with Scheduled Areas has been dismal and failed to usher in the expected far-reaching turn around in what was seen as governance deficit and misgovernance in the Scheduled Areas.1 PESA continued to be hailed as a fundamental departure to local self-governance that would usher in participatory democracy and genuine empowerment of the people. The reasons why PESA failed to deliver has been a result of lack of clarity, legal infirmity, bureaucratic apathy, lack of political will, resistance to change in power hierarchy and non-realisation of its real long term worth.

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The Mungekar Committee (2009) Mainly nine recommendations in this committee completely supported to PESA and Scheduled areas in Andhra Pradesh. The Standing Committee on Inter-sectoral Issues Relating to Tribal Development as constituted by the Prime Minister's Office on 30/1 0/2004 with Dr. B.L. Mungekar, Member, Planning Commission, as its Chairman and members. The Standing Committee already submitted two Reports, Interim Report on "Inter Sectoral Issues Relating to Tribal Development" on 27.10.2005 and the 2nd on "Displacement, Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Scheduled Tribes'.' on 16.4.2007 to the Prime Minister. On the basis mainly on the recommendations of these two Reports, the Government has (i) enacted the Scheduled Tribes .and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 .(No.2 of 2007) ('Forest Rights Act ') (published in the Gazette of India on 2.1.2007), and has (ii) later notified the new National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy 2007 on 31.10.2007. Tribal people though not a homogeneous group, have their own system of governance and dispute redressal mechanism. Harassed by the repeated Tribal rebellions and uprisings. The British chose to leave them alone and decided not to interfere with their day-to-day administrative affairs. As a result, the general laws of the Centre or the Provinces were not extended in routine to these areas known under different nomenclatures as 'agency areas', 'excluded areas ' and 'partially excluded areas '.2 However, the Governor was empowered to extend any law with necessary exceptions and modifications to these areas in his discretion. The framers of Constitution were conscious of the distinct needs of the Tribal people and their areas, and thus, provided a comprehensive framework for the protection and advancement of this disadvantaged sections of the society to enable them to catch up with the rest as early

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as possible. While providing a number of specific provisions for protection and welfare of Tribal people in the Constitution of India, Part X of the Constitution deals exclusively with the Scheduled Areas (SAs) and Tribal Areas (TAs). According to sub-clause (I) of Article 244 of the Constitution, the provisions of the Fifth Schedule (FS) apply to the administration and control of the SAs and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. Sub clause (2) envisages application of the provisions of the Sixth Schedule (SS) to the administration of the TAs in these States. The President of India has, under Article 244(1) of the Constitution, declared 'Scheduled Areas' (SAs) in nine States of the country under Para 6 of FS on the basis of the preponderance of Tribal population, compactness and reasonable size of the areas, a viable administrative enmity such as a district, block or taluka and economic backwardness of the area as compared to the neighboring areas. This report "Standards of Administration and governance in scheduled areas” is the third Report of the Standing Committee that critically examines the efficacy of the Constitutional safeguards' vis-avis the current status of the SAs and the level of development level of tribal people focusing on the efficacious means: to address the dissatisfaction in the Tribal areas. There is an urgent need for distinct policy prescriptions for Scheduled Areas and accordingly separate strategies 'under each sector viz health, education, housing, drinking water, Roads, rural development, etc., and programmes there under based on the specific needs of the Tribal’s and their milieu. The approach of 'One solution fits all" cannot work. The main recommendations of the committee are summarised below.

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Recommendations of the Mungekar Committee 1. Scheduled Areas I. All laws now cover Scheduled Areas in routine. There is a need to stop the practice of routinely extending ali laws to the Scheduled Areas without adaptation to the Tribal milieu and to consciously adapt the laws to the Scheduled Areas. There is no realisation that a great damage had been done when general laws first flooded Tribal areas in 1950 with no mechanism for their review. There is an urgent need for the Central Government and the State Governments to review these Acts. ii. There is a need for an in depth situational analysis of the problem of unrest in the SAs covering all its facets along with the response strategy. A knee-jerk sort of a response with police action cannot be the right approach to tackle a complex problem arising out of socio economic exclusion and the control of outsiders over natural resources. iii. The Office of the Governors in Scheduled Areas should have a separate; well staffed and well equipped set up to take care of the STrelated matters. iv. It is necessary for the Government to take, the following action in a time-bound manner with respect to the Scheduling of Left-over Areas: (a) In all areas, already identified as Tribal majority areas should be brought under the Fifth Schedule within a period of one year in pursuance of the commitment made in 1976. (b) All Tribal majority areas that have been left out for any reason whatsoever or that may have newly qualified by virtue of new communities being classified as STs as in Uttar Pradesh should be identified within a year and brought under the Fifth Schedule within two years.

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v. Administrative reorganisation of these areas within the concerned States should be taken up and completed within two years so that compact tribal areas are brought under the same administrative units at an appropriate level. Governor's Report 1.The Governor's Report should present an overall assessment of the Tribal conditions/situation in the State with special reference to weak spots and corrective actions, and discontinue the present practice of being a routine exercise that to not every year. The annual report should contain specific protective measures, developmental activities. clearly bringing out a comparison between the non-Tribal areas of the same State. It must also contain the Action Taken Report on the Governor's Report of the earlier year/s. II. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs must critically examine these reports and submit action points to the President. The President may consider allotting specific time in the Annual Conference of Governors for discussion on governance in the Scheduled Areas. Reviving institutions of self-governance: A. The effectiveness of the Gram Sabhas (GS) as the institutions of selfGovernance as envisaged in PESA holds the key to peace and good government in the Scheduled Areas. The Gram Sabhas, therefore, mllst be given a top priority by all concerned irrespective of the position they may hold in the System. B. Immediate action in the current year should be taken to erase the dissonance in keeping with the spirit of the Constitution, especially PESA read with the Fifth Schedule through: (a) Adaptation of laws through Governor's Notifications coverings all items of PESA, (b) Conferring ownership of minor forest produce on the Tribals www.ijmer.in

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(c) Issue of 'Guidelines' about the role, responsibilities and functioning of the Gram Sabhas (GSs) honoring their 'competence', and (d) Framing of model regulations in relation to all facets of administration not covered by (a), (b) and (c) above C. Devolution of powers to the nearest level in the field should be the rule. Instances of misuse should be met with a stringent action against the culprits and institutionalizing effective correctives. It should not be, however allowed to be used as a ploy for its reversal. Devolution of powers to the Gram Sabhas under PESA should be treated as sacrosanct. Any attempt to mislead or influence the Gram Sabhas and misuse the aura of their authority of any description - administrative, institutional or political - should be treated as an offence against democracy. D. The Gram Sabha should become fully functional in the image of Village Republic within this year. The concerned States should immediately take the following steps in this regard: (a) . Prepare Guidelines in the form of a Regulation for the functioning of the Gram sabhas with the comprehensive frame as envisaged PESA so as to enable the people to deal with the System with confidence and authority: and (b) Frame a Regulation to the effect that 'notwithstanding anything in any law for the time being in force, all formal or informal transaction of any description whatsoever between a tribal and any other person, including a juridical entity shall be in the open assembly of the Gram sabha and shall have no effect unless the GS authenticates the same . v. Participatory Approach of Programme Implementation should be a compulsory pre-requisite for programme implementation. The community should be explained the programme, and its likely impact and taken into confidence in this regard. This would inter-alia involve www.ijmer.in

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capacity building for the Gram Sabha. Expert institutions in the field of local self Government and Tribal Affairs could be utilized for this purpose. The Gram Sabhas should be legally and operationally empowered to conduct social audit of Tribal development programmes to enforce people's participation, transparency and accountability of the implementing agencies and officials. Governance 1. Governance should cover, among other things, the following issues: (i) Ending the confrontation between the Tribal people and the State that has accentuated after Independence because of:(a) Incongruous laws,(b) disputed command over livelihood resources,(c) Unbridled functionaries of the State and other agencies aid ,(d) Flooding of these areas with funds through ubiquitous contractors as these areas got opened up in the name of development, (ii) Single line administration that is responsive to the people, (iii) .State Tribal evelopment Department as a nodal agency with all other Departments and other agencies responsible for their respective areas of responsibilities and (iv) A nodal tribal welfare unit in the Government of India with all Ministries assuming leadership in their respective areas of responsibility. The nodal unit must ensure that a comprehensive frame develops cutting across all format boundaries with a clear mandate to step in and supplement the effort of other 'institutions so that the Tribal cause does not suffer on any count whatsoever The Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP): Shift from notional to reality There should be a separate Budget Head for each Ministry/Department for TSP. A minimum quantum of 8% (which shall not be the upper limit) of the Budgeted funds of Ministry/ Department concerned with social sector programmes shall be allocated towards www.ijmer.in

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TSP. Serious and specific directions need to issue to all line Ministries in this regard from the highest levels in the Government. The TSP funds of each Ministry/Department should be made no lapsable and non-divertible. As in the case the North East Fund, the unutilized and non-lapsed TSP funds of each Ministry/Department, should be made eligible for pooling at the end of the year. Every Ministry/Department shall prepare its ST-specific Annual Tribal Sub-Plan. A better and targeted implementation of TSP funds could be achieved by a concerted planning of resources flowing to Tribal areas through well thought out visible interventions. In other words, instead of every Ministry spending resources in a disjointed and uncoordinated manner, it would be beneficial if the TSP funds of all Ministries/ Departments are managed on the advice to a single nodal agency. The TSP funds should be spent in a judicious and concerted manner under the ST-specific Annual TSP in consultation with the nodal agency, namely, Ministry of Tribal Affairs. Employment Policy Instead of a ‘low-cost, low-caliber’ employee policy it is necessary to engage competent people and pay them accordingly. Increased annual financial outgo should not be considered as cost to the country. but investment in human resource as it would be more economical to build up the Tribal people as human resource than to allow them to be deprived and underdeveloped and pay the same costs later. There need not be any doubt whether they would come to a remote Tribal village. If the attraction of good salaries takes competent personnel to the Gulf and Africa, it could certainly attract them to the Tribal areas. Selected personnel with empathy for the Tribal people should be posted in Tribal areas with an extendable tenure of not less than five years and provision for in to promotion. They should not be entitled to seek transfer to urban areas.

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Social sector schemes included in the 69 schemes identified by Ministry of Rural Development for improvement of rural livelihoods and house-hold incomes, expansion of quality basic social services, up gradation of infrastructure, management of risk, enhancement of agricultural productivity, direct intervention of wages etc. should be given priority attention in underdeveloped tribal areas. Tribal Administrative Service is a need to examine the necessity for constituting a Tribal Administrative Service cadre for tribal areas, with the Ministry of Tribal Affairs acting as the Cadre Controlling Authority for selection of suitable officers from various Departments, who are enthusiastic and committed to work in the tribal areas. In larger States sub-cadres: may be established with a provision for choice to join the main stream after ten years service. There is a strong need to provide continuous reorientation of employees at all levels appropriately with: sensitivities of the Tribal people. They should be sensitized to respect of the customs, culture, dignity, traditions, etc. of the Tribal’s.' Their capacity building program could include adopting 'participatory approaches in implementing schemes, developing methods that avoid conflict with the value system of Tribal’s. A code of conduct prescribing dos and don'ts could also be considered in this respect. References 1. C.R Bijoy ,Policy brief on Panchayat Raj (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act of 1996, UNDP, New Delhi,2012, p.14,Issues of basic nature are identified along with certain concrete propositions to address the gaps in the governance frame along with the available instruments. 2. Mathew, George (Ed.). Status of Panchayat Raj in the States of India, 1994, Institute of Social Sciences,New Delhi, 1995, p.3.

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STUDY ON THE VULNERABILITY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY TO METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN EAST GODAVARI DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH Gangaraju.M Department of Geopgraphy Andhra Universtiy, Visakhapatnam

Anitha.P Dr.Lankapalli Bullayya Collage(UG) Visakhapatnam

Abstract Agriculture is one of the most sensitive sectors toclimate change, and any degree of change will bring potentialor significant impact to agricultural productivity. It is one of the agriculturally potential districts in Andhra Pradesh, contributing about 10% of the total food production of the State Agriculturally it is divided into 18 subdivisions.Comparedto other sectors like water resources, forests and other naturalecosystems, agriculture is the most vulnerable to climatechange. In this paper the present study is undertaken toanalyze the changes in rainfall and temperature over a periodof 11 decades and its possible impacts on agriculturalproductivity at district level inEast Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. The analysisincluded statistical evaluation of annual and seasonal rainfall, temperature. SPSS 16was used to perform regression deviation and calculate the R2 values which varied from 0to 0.6 in the 13Mandals selected for the study. Based on these analyses anassessment of the agricultural productivity of the area wasmade of the East Godavari. In this we used the modern technologies like Geographical Information System for generating spatial maps of rainfall of East Godavari District. Key Words: Agricultural, Regression, Deviation, Agro-climatic regions, SPSS, Arc GIS 10.1.

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INTRODUCTION Climate is a weather phenomenon;it is a sensitive system consists of five interacting subsystems, namelythe atmosphere, oceans, Cryosphere, biomass and land. Changes in one subsystem lead to changes in the other (Jager, 1983). Over exploitation of fossil fuels due to increasedanthropogenic activities has led to increase in atmosphericconcentration of carbon dioxide, a Green House Gas (GHG)largely responsible for global warming. As per the IPCC report 2012, increasing concentration of atmospheric carbondioxide (CO2), concurrent changes in temperature andprecipitation patterns are expected to affect many aspects ofhuman activities(IPCC Report.,2007.)Researchers and administrators areconcerned with the potential damages that may arise infuture from climate change impacts on agriculture, sincethose are expected to affect domestic and internationalpolicies, trading pattern, resource use, and food security.The higher temperature could have adverse impacts oncrop yields. At the same time, higher rainfall could enhancegrowing period duration(Sushil Kaul,2007.).All such conflicting factorsshould be taken into consideration while assessing theclimate sensitivity of agriculture. Climate change isexpected to influence the agricultural yield in differentagriculture is fundamentally dependent on weather for higher productivity and most of the states in the country are largely dependent on rainfall for irrigation which is also truefor the district of East Godavari. Any change in rainfall patterns poses a serious threat to agriculture, and therefore to the country’s economy and food security. Agriculture will be adversely affected not only by an increase or decrease in the overall amounts of rainfall, but also by shiftsin the timing of the rainfall (Envis Newsletter, Envis centre,2010). In this paper the present study of the impact of meteorological parameters onagricultural productivity and its vulnerability to changes in the climatic conditions was undertaken. www.ijmer.in

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Fig. 1. Location Map Mandals (Study area) of East GodavariDistrict STUDY AREA: The East Godavari district is one of the coastal districtsin Andhra Pradesh state. The district is situated in between 16o.57’ N Latitudes 82o15’ E Longitudes, (Fig.1). East Godavari stands in first place in Andhra Pradesh in terms of population, accordingto 2011 (5151549), the district has a population density of 477 inhabitants per square km (1,240/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 www.ijmer.in

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was 5.1% East Godavari has a sex ratio of 1005 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 71.35%.Literacy rate of 71.35%.. East Godavari is the 19 th Largest Districts in the Country By Population.The elevation of the study area from the mean sea level between 7 – 10 m.The district is sharing borders with Visakhapatnam District to the East and Orissa in the north of the North West by Telangana. West Godavari district on the west respectively. East Godavari district occupies an area of approximately 10807 km2. The mandals of Bhadrachalam (with the exception of Bhadrachalam Temple), Nellipaka, Chinturu, Kunavaram and Vararamchandrapuram were re-added back to East Godavari District. The district occupies the forest an area of 3.23 Lakh hectors, the main Rivers flowing in the District of EastGodavari and Yeleru. The Thandava and Pampa riverchannels, supply water to a limited area in the District. East Godavari has divided in to seven revenue divisions namely Amalapuram, Etipaka, Kakinada, Peddapuram, Rajahmundry, Ramachandrapuram and Rampachodavaram with 59 mandals, These 59 mandals consists of 1,374 villages, 2 municipal corporation, 7 municipalitiesand . Kakinada town is the district head quarterThe climate is comparatively equitable and although it is very warm in May with a maximum temperature of 39.60c

and

with a minimum

temperature of 28.20c.The annual Rainfall received is 1295 mm,in 2013. 60 % of the Annual rainfall 781mm,received during the North East Monsoon period, i.e. (October to December). While the large portion of the rest, i.e. 509 mm in the South west monsoon period (June to September) in 2013.The climate of the East Godavari districtis semiarid of climate except during the south-west monsoon season (East Godavari Hand Book of Statistics, 2010). The average temperature of the district is 25.5°C.The mean monthly temperature of the hottest month is 29.8°C and the coldest month is 21.2°C. During summer, the mean daily maximum temperature reaches up to 39.6°C and the

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minimum about 20.9°C. December is the coldest month (APSRAC, 2009). Methodology: The study of the meteorological structures and its impact on agricultural productivity in the district of East Godavari is carried out both at district and at Mandal. The study includes analysis of district level meteorological data during the period 1901-2013, agricultural data for a period of two decades for Coefficient Variance between Rainfall and Yield of 13 Mandals in East Godavari District. The statistical analysis pertaining to average monthly, seasonal (June to October) and the annual rainfall of the district has been computed. The linear regression test was done to identify the existence of any trend or persistence in the rainfall series. After a preliminary analysis of the data,the 13 mandalasare analyzed and studied in detail. Arc GIS 10.1 software is used for mappingand carrying out the spatial data analysis at the district and Mandal level to understand the spatial distribution of the rainfall and its impact on agricultural productivity. I.

Resultsand Discussions

The district is divided distinctly into four zones i) Central delta agro climatic zone(16 Mandals)ii) Eastern delta agro climatic zone (15 Mandals) iii) Upland area agro climatic zone (19 Mandals) iv) Agency agro climatic zone (8 Mandals) Urban agro climatic zone, which consists of 2Mandals, which has an annual rainfall between 700-900 mm and the 28 Mandals are covered with an annualrainfall between 500-700 mm. The meteorological parameters of temperature and rainfall are taken into consideration for this study analysis in these Mandals of the district(Fig. 2). In the case of temperature entiredistrict is collecting data from(IMG) 1901 – 2013. The rainfall data are collected on a 24hour basis in each Mandal is analyzed during the period 19563 to 2013. Trends for temperature in the www.ijmer.in

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region show no significant change in the maximum and minimum temperature. However, detailed analysis of the temperature data shows erratic variations of the data on the maximum average temperature and the minimum average temperature during the first half of the decade, and moving towards increasing trends the significance trend shows from 2001 onwards (Fig. 3). Earlier studies carried out have also shown that there is a definite relationship between temperature and agricultural productivity.

Fig. 2. Agro-climatic zones of East Godavari District In India an increase of 2°C in temperature could decrease the rice yield by about 0.75 tons/ha (hectares) in the high yield areas; and 0.5°C increase in winter temperature would reduce wheat yield by 0.45 tons/ha (S.K.Sinha et al. (1991). Many parts of northern India show an increase in minimum temperature by about 1°C in Rabi www.ijmer.in

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cropping season. However, mean temperatures are misleading as some of the individual regions could exhibit a larger variation with a larger impact on Rabi crop production (S. K. Sinha et al. (1998). A study in Kerala has shown that for every one degree rise in temperature coupled with the decline in rice yield about 6% (S. A. Seaseendram et al. (2000). This clearly indicates that temperature related studies are important to predict the agricultural productivity of crops in the region. An analysis of the district level rainfall data for the period 1962to 2013 was carried out. Fig. 2 shows the percentage deviation between the normal and the annual rainfall of the East Godavaridistrict(13Selective mandals) from 1952to 2013. There is a large deviation in the amount of rainfall recorded in the years 1953. Where it exceeds the normal rainfallof 2056mm to 1061 mm showing 93.8% deviation. In the year2002 the actual rainfall recorded is 809mm which is lower than the normal rainfall showing -34.6% deviations. The linear trend shows a decrease in the percentage deviation. From the above findings, it is clear that there is a change in the rainfall patterns. Percentage Deviation

100

y = -0.3947x + 19.37 R² = 0.0773

80 60 40 20 0

-20

Years

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

-40

Fig. 3. Percentage deviation from Normal for the period of 1952-2013 in East Godavari district www.ijmer.in

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The Mandal level analysis of the rainfall data was carried out for the 13Mandals in the district for a period 1962 to 2013. It has been seen that there is significant deviations in the quantity of rainfall in the various Mandals of the district(zonal wise).Fig. 3 shows the There is a large deviation in the amount of rainfall recorded in the year 1963 in Kothapeta. Where it exceeds the normal rainfallof 963 mm to 2193 mm showing 130% deviation of Kothapeta.In the year 2009 the actual rainfall recorded is 574 mm which is lower than the normal rainfall showing

-56%

deviation

of

Amalapuram

in

the

study

area

In Salem district of Tamil Nadu (B. Guruganam, et al,. 2010),the annual average rainfall distribution fluctuatesin the study area and changes in rainfall patterns have occurred in the study period between 1962 – 2013, The most of the southern part of the delta region ranges between 1100 mm to 1250 mm rainfall, therefore the central part of the Mandals range between 1000 mm to 1100 mm, RampachodavaramMandal range is above 1250 mm rainfall because the dense forest area(Fig. 3a). The annual rainfall distribution pattern of Umiam, Meghalaya, India for theperiod of 27 years (1983-2009) in the region was erratic and has changed significantly during the last few years (P. K. Anup Das, et al, 2009). In the present study, the data showed considerable changes in rainfall patterns and further understand the trends in therainfall during various seasons a season wise break up analysis was carried out at the Mandal level (13 models). The season wise analysis helped to correlate with the agricultural patterns observed in the particular Mandal of the district and thereby its impact on productivity. The analysis of the season wise break up has shown that the rainfall has predominantly occurred in the southwest monsoon season. This season is contributing maximum water to the crops grown in the region. The nature of the climate of any region experiences is determined by its latitudinal location, elevation above sea level, relief in terms of orientation of hills and mountains and other www.ijmer.in

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topographical variations, the presence of water bodies and direction of the prevailing windsof all the climatic elements, temperature and rainfall are very significant for agriculture productivity of any region. Climatic extremities of these parameters cause weather hazards namely floods and droughts, which disrupts the socioeconomic conditions of the nation. Knowledge of annual as well as seasonal distributions of both these elements is helpful for assessing the agricultural prosperity of any region. Similar studies have been carried out by researchers which show that southwest monsoon (June to September) alone contributed 75% of annual rainfall and July was the rainiest month (1117 mm) with 27 rainy days throughout Kerala (K. Kandiannan et al, 2008). Across nine sites of Western Australia (Fluco Ludwig et al, 2008),The climate of the East Godavari district is characterized by a hot and dry climate except during the south-west monsoonseason (East Godavari Hand Book of Statistics, 2012). The rainfall increases from the central part towards the southern directionand the north direction study area. The mean annual rainfall of the district is 1035 mm. About 69% of annual rainfall is received during the south-west monsoon season (JuneSeptember)(13 Mandals)(Fig. 3 b). During this season the district receives an average rainfall of about 720 mmNortheast monsoon (October-November)initiates in the second week of October and ends in the first week of December. In this NE monsoon season, the district receives about 25.7 mm of rainfall(Fig. 3c). During the cold weather season (December –February) the average rainfall is about 3 mm(Fig. 3d). This is the driest season of all the seasons of the district. In the hot weather season (March- May) (Fig. 3e), the district receives about 8.6 mm of rainfall and generate the spatial seasonal maps of East Godavari District, which are shown in the Study area map(Fig. 3a – e).

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Fig. 4 (a-e). Seasonal Spatial Rainfall Maps of East Godavari District in Andhra Pradesh

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The Coefficients ofVariation (CoV) for all the 13medals of the district werecalculated and the maximum was observed in Rampachodavaram, Alamuru and PrathipaduMandals (North coastal Zone) while the minimum inTuni and KothapetaMandal (North coastal Zone)The 13Mandals having different coefficients of variance in north coast a climatic zone is selected for detailed analysis. R2 values and thecoefficient of variation for these Mandals are given in TableI. The range of R2 values for the 13Mandals of the valuesfor Prathipadu and Razole is the highest recorded at 0.06 while all othervalues are ranging from 0.0 to 0.06. Similar studies have been carried out at district and Mandal / block by various experts in the country. On the all India scenario the time series ofcontribution of rainfall for each month towards the annual total rainfall for each year was prepared and observed the major shift in the rainfall pattern spatially and temporally during the recent years (P. Guhathakurta et al, 2007). The Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu shows an increase in annual rainfall variability from 21.16% to 52.28%. The south, southwest andnorthwestern parts of the district experiences the heavyrainfall, whereas the least rainfall was observed in east, northeast and southeastern parts of the district(I. M. Rathod et al, 2010).

S.N O

1

Mandalas

Actual Normal Deviati Rainfall(m rainfall(m on m) m) RAMPACHODAVARAM DIVISION

Addatigala 1295

2

1204

7.5

Rampachodavar am 1336 1278 4.5 RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM DIVISION

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Co V

25. 5 26. 1

R2 Valu es

0.03 0.01

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3

Rajamundry 1086

4

1151

Alamuru 1038 1162 PEDDAPURAM DIVISION

5

Peddapuram

6

Tuni

7

Prathipadu

8

9

10 11 12 13

-5.6 -10.67

1102

1188

-7.23

1118

1123

-0.44

1054 1164 KAKINADA DIVISION

-9.45

Pitapuram 1086 1137 -4.48 RAMACHANDRAPURAM DIVISION Ramachandrapu ram 1077 1222 -11.86 AMALAPURAM DIVISION Kothapeta 1140 1117 2.05 Mummidivaram 1239 1380 -10.21 Amalapuram 1400 1250 12 Razole 1145 1314 -12.9

26. 0 25. 6 28. 6 27. 6 33. 5

0.05 0

0.01 0.02 0.06

27. 3

0.04

26. 1

0.02

32. 1 29. 7 30. 1 27. 0

0.01 0.01 0.04 0.06

Table 1: Mandals chosen from each divisionfor detailed analysis inEast Godavari District In order to understand the correlation betweenagricultural productivity and rainfall patterns in the district three crops viz., paddy, groundnut and Jowar which are the major crops in the district, they are selected for analysis in the present study. The data were collected with reference to variation in yields for the period of 1998-2012. The correlation between the annual rainfall and the crop yield data are

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shown for the three crops in Fig. 3(a-c). For paddy as it can be seen in Fig. 3(a) there is no direct correlation between quantity of rainfall and the yield of the crop. From that we can imply that other sources of water may be used or the yield of the crop may be correlated by including other parameters like fertilizer inputs, other sources of water, pesticides and the acreage of crops being sown each year. The climate change is likely to be affected the agricultural yield per decade varied with geography and crop. There are negative yield responses to increased precipitation in many parts of the Norway. This negative yield effect could be caused by excess of soil moisture, which can be harmful to the plant growth or be related to reduce incoming sunlight, (M. Twine et al, 2004). The rainfall data for seasonal periods, yield prediction models using rainfall and productivity for the period 1998 – 2013 was analyzed the significant moderate positive correlation observed between yield and rainfall for groundnut during the period of 1998-2013 (R2= 0.428) therefore a little positive correlation between yield and rainfall was observed for Paddy and Jowar (Fig. 5 .b-c) The predictability of productivity of crops using seasonal rainfall is low at theCentre for all the crops except groundnut which explained56 % variation in productivity (B. S. Kulakarni et al, 2004).

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Similarly from Fig. 3(b) it can be seen that a directrelation exists between the annual rainfall and theagricultural productivity, a decrease in rainfall has led to adecrease in the crop yield. An example of direct relation canbe shown for the year 2008 in which an increase inrainfall has produced a higher yield. From Fig. 3 (c) it canbe seen that little correlation exists between the rainfallpatterns and the crop yield for jowar. Irrespective of thequantity of annual rainfall the groundnuthas almost remainedwithin the range of 1410 to 2280 kg/ha. It can be seen thatcrops like paddy and jowar have a mixed response torainfall and needs further correlated with other parameterslike micro nutrients, fertilizers etc., however for cotton therelationship seems to be direct. Based on the results for thecrop yields and rainfall patterns a cluster analysis wascarried out for the three crops. (B.S.Kulkarni et al, 2004)shows a multivariate approach that identifies the pattern ofrainfall during the entire crop growth periods of the cropseason. The Average linkage method of clustering wascarried out for identifying the distinct clusters of rainfall aswell as crop yields. In this method, the www.ijmer.in

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objects (i.e., the Nyears of rainfall - crop yield data in the present case) areclassified into distinct clusters on the basis of the relativedistance between the objects, which measure the degree ofcloseness between them. Dendogram and hierarchicalclustering between south west monsoon data, annual rainfalland yield of three crops (paddy, groundnut and Jowar) weredone. The cluster analysis provides useful information aboutthe yield response range corresponding to the differentrainfall patterns that are likely to occur during the cropgrowth season. The results from the cluster analysisconfirm that the direct correlation between rainfall and cropyields is possible in the case of groundnut. In the case ofpaddy andjowar, little correlation exists between the rainfallpatterns and the crop yield. From this we can entail thatother sources of water may be used or the yield of the cropmay be correlated by including other parameters likefertilizer inputs, other sources of water, insecticides/pesticides and the acreage of crops being sown each year.Based on the cluster analysis and direct impact of rainfall on agricultural productivity it is clearly established that there isa relation between the productivity and climate of the region.It can be concluded that the agricultural productivity isvulnerable to the vagaries of temperature and rainfall CONCLUSION In the present context of the impact of climate change onagricultural productivity and rainfall, the study wasundertaken in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh,which has 61Mandals. Analysis of rainfall, temperature(District level) and agricultural productivity was undertaken for a period oftwo decades at district level. Themaximum and minimum temperature data for the period1952-2013 showed no significant change. There is a lessdeviation in the amount of rainfall recorded in the year1953 where it exceeds the normal rainfall of 2007mmto 1061 mm showing 89.% deviation. In the year 1968the actual rainfall recorded is 728 mm which is lower thanthe normal www.ijmer.in

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rainfall showing -36% deviations. TheCoefficients of Variance (CoV) for all the 13Mandals of thedistrict were calculated and the maximum was observed inPrathipaduMandal(33.5)(Peddapuram division) while the minimumin AddatigalaMandal (25.5) (Rampachodavaram Division). Thestudy shows that significant changes have occurred in therainfall patterns. The R2 values varied from nil to 0.0to 0.06 in the13Mandals selected for the study. This has also had animpact on the productivity of paddy, groundnut and jowar in the region. Cluster model was run toconfirm the impact of climate change on agriculturalproductivity of Paddy, groundnut and gear, which indicatea direct impact of rainfall on agricultural productivity forgroundnut and mixed response for paddy and jowar. References 1. IPCC Report 2007, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, USA,. 2. Sushila Kaul, 2007, “Bio- economic modeling of climate change on crop production in India,” presented at Economic Modeling Conference, Moscow, September 12-14,. 3. Envis Newsletter, Envis centre, Environment Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai, June to July,2010. 4. S. K. Sinha and M. S. Swaminathan, “Deforestation, climate change and sustainable nutrition security: a case study of India,” ClimaticChange, vol. 19, pp. 201-209, September 1991. 5. S. K. Sinha, S. M. Kulshreshtha, A. N. Purohit, and A. K. Singh, “Base paper - climate change and perspective for agriculture,” National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi, India, pp. 20, 1998. 6. S. A. Saseendran, K. K. Singh, L. S. Rathore, S. V. Singh, and S. K. Sinha, “Effects of climate change on rice production in the tropical humid climate of Kerala India,” Climatic Change , vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 495-514, March 2000. 7. B. Gurugnanam, M. Suresh, M. Vinoth, and S. Kumaravel, “High/low rainfall domain mapping using GIS at Salem district,

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Tamilnadu, India,” Indian Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 542-545, May 2010. 8. P. K.Anup Das, B. U. Ghosh, D. P. Choudhury, G. C. Patel, S. V. Munda, N. Ngacha, and Pulakabha Chowdhury, “Climate change in northeast India: recent facts and events–worry for agricultural management,” Workshop Proceedings: Impact of Climate Change onAgriculture, vol. XXXVIII-8/W3, ISPRS archives, Ahmedabad 2009. 9. K. Kandiannan, C. K. Thankamani, and P. A. Mathew, “Analysis ofrainfall of the high rainfall tract of northern agro-climatic zone ofKerala,” Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, vol. 17, no. 1, pp.16-20, March 2008. 10. Fulco Ludwig, P. Stephen, Milroy, and Senthold Asseng, “Impacts of recent climate change on wheat production systems in western Australia,” Climatic Change, vol. 92, pp. 495–517, September 2008. 11. (East Godavari Hand Book of Statistics, 2012). 12. P. Guhathakurta and M. Rajeevan, “Trends in the rainfall pattern over India,” Int. J. Climatology, vol. 28, pp. 1453-1469, November 2007. 13. M. Rathod and S. Aruchamy, “Spatial analysis of rainfall variation in Coimbatore district Tamilnadu using GIS,” International Journalof Geomatics and Geosciences, vol. 1, no. 2, 2010. 14. M. Twena, A. Torvanger and B. Romstad, “Climate change impacts on agricultural productivity in Norway,” CICERO Working Paper2004:10, October 2004. 15. B. S. Kulkarni, T. Sreenivasa Rao, and G. Krishna Kanth, “A study on association of combined effect of rainfall patterns on crop yields,” J. Ind. Soc. Agril. Statist, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 344-351, April 2004.

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LOCAL GOOD GOVERNANCE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES: IN LUMAME TOWN, AMHARA REGIONAL STATE Gizachew Asrat Research Scholar Department of Political Science Punjabi University Patiala , Punjab INTRODUCTION The term good governance was coined in1989 in the World Bank’s report on “a crisis of governance” in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 1989). The rationality for its introduction into international discourse was the World Bank’s “lack of effectiveness of aid, the feeble commitment to reform of recipient governments and the persistence of endemic corruption in developing countries” (Santiso 2001 as cited in Tessa, 2012, p.15). According to a report of the Commission of the European Communities on the European Union’s approach to governance in development it states that governance has become a priority in donors’ development policies and aid programs. The report states, “at a time of rising aid budgets, commitments to ensure the effectiveness of international aid and growing economic and financial interdependence, the emergence in the developing countries of a level of governance commensurate with the expectations of their citizens and the international community is now high on the agenda”(European Commission, 2006 cited in Tessa, 2012). Due to this intuitive appeal, good governance has grown rapidly to become a major ingredient in analyses of what’s missing in countries struggling for economic and political development The idea of good governance has got attention in Africa at the end of the 1980s, the time that coincided with the end of Cold War. Consequently, regional institutions as well as the respective countries have acknowledged its significance. In Africa, where there has been historical record of bad governance and poverty, improvement the governance environment and achieving sustainable development is the aim of different institutions. www.ijmer.in

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The historical condition of good governance in Ethiopia is not an exception to what was prevail in other African countries. In the long history of the country, the monarchial type of administration was the dominant governance system in which the subjects have no role and the monarchs simply sensitive for the “Devine power”. Even though, the monarchial system came an end by the military junta in 1974 it did not bring any change on the good governance and poverty reduction. After the fall of Dergue regime Ethiopia is now experiencing good governance. The 1995 FDRE constitution pointed out that the conduct of government affairs to be transparent and public officials to be held accountable for any failure in official duties (FDRE constitution, 1995). Ethiopia’s move toward good governance is not yet well advanced. In adequate administrative capability of the government is also manifested in poor human resource planning, weak plan implementation, in effective recording and supervision, widespread corruption incidence, poor financial management, and poor coordination and perpetual reorganization of institutions. On the above background, the study object is problematized as follows. People around the world are demanding good governance for the advancement of their life. Because it is the result of interactions, relationships and networks between or among the different sectors (public sector, private sector and civil society) and involves decisions, negotiation, and different power relations between stakeholders to determine who gets what, when and how (Alexandra, et al., 2009). For Abdalla (2010), recently there is an agreement that good governance is important to secure countries long term development and progress even though it is not sufficient in its own. In relation to these the idea of good governance became a way not only to assess the role of the state in development and invade safely the minefield of domestic politics; it became a defining quality for development and a necessary condition for it. Ethiopia has faced a number of governance challenges and those institutions strength were not so strong. Among these the democratic process is fragile and barely institutionalized, transparency and accountability of institutions is hindered by the culture and practice of government secrecy there by generating corruption and nepotism; www.ijmer.in

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inefficiency and ineffective institutions are the main obstacle in service delivery. On the contrary, some people argue that good governance is in the right track in the country. They mention some of the constitutional provisions such as those legal existences of political party, separation of power along the three branch of the government, decentralization process and all Ethiopian has access to education, health and to produce his own properties as their evidence. The Administration claimed that, good governance is its central agenda to promote growth and transformation plan and make maximum effort to promote it. It also argued that it tries to engage residents on different public issues, to make an effort to be accountable and transparent in the conduct of its business, works on building efficient institutions which enables to deliver services easily. However, residents of the town seemed to be unsatisfied on the efforts of the Woreda Administration and municipality. They alleged that they are not empowered and fully participated; services are not adequately delivered; accountability and transparency are not ensured; rule of law is not adhered. Therefore, what logically follows from these arguments was the need to study on good governance in the Town. Therefore studying certain elements of good governance such as rule of law, participation, accountability and transparency of certain selected institutions like the Woreda Municipal office, Woreda Administrative office and the Woreda Court were an imperative.Despite the fact that this significance studyon good governance in Lumame Town there has been no comprehensive and systematic study of the issue. However, there are some studies (Kindey, 2012,Dessalegn, Akalewold,Yoseph, 2008 and Meskerem, 2007) most of them are focused on either at the country level or other parts of the country. Kindey in his paper Challenges and Opportunities of Good Governance: The Case of Addis Ababa City Administration try to see the main challenges for sound good governance in the city were because the government control of all maters and lack of space for others results governance to be weak, fragile and slight. Most of this studies emphasized on single attribute of good governance (for instance on decentralization, in service delivery, role of CSOs in democratization etc.) there by lacks comprehensiveness by and large.This studies, therefore, tries to deal with the central issues of good governance and its challenge, status within the existing

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institutional role, both from the theoretical and practical viewpoints in comprehensive manner. The objective of this study was to assess the overall level of local good governance in Lumame Town focusing on the practices, the challenges and the opportunities in the Lumame town administration, Municipallity and the Courts. The indicators observed were accountability, rule of law, transparency, and participation in line with local institutional capacity in service delivery. The focus on the objectives above is empirically significant as well as for policy practice. Good governance serves as a tool for development of a nation at large and for a specific destination in particular. For achieving sustainable development in one nation practicing of good governance and including the public participation in any a fairies play a pivotal role for a given nation in general and locality in particular. Therefore, the need for this study is due to the fact that practicing good governance at the local level is the main thing for state to bring development and identifying those challenges and opportunities is necessary. Methods and Methodology Methodologically the study mainly used mixed type of research. The qualitative data was collected after survey which explore attitude, behaviors and experience by using methods or data collection instruments as key informant, and focus group discussion.. The quantitative data was mainly depend on the opinions of civil servants and resident community through questionnaire. The research design used in this research is descriptive since the research were mainly depend on experience, opinion and what and how questions. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data are questionnaires for sample survey, key informants’ in-depth interview, focus group discussion and direct personal observation were used. Secondary sources like data and factual information from various published materials, official documents such as the constitution and legal instruments, newspapers, etc. were referred. Books, working papers, articles, journals, reports, and statistical documents were also employed. Data collected through the above-motioned tools were organized and analyzed by using statistical tools such as percentages, tables, figures and multiple response analysis. Qualitative analysis is www.ijmer.in

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also applied to elaborate the data collected through interview and document reviews. Hence, both quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed in the research. Attempt was made to triangulate some works on governance in the country with the data and information that came from the sample households and key informants. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The analysis of results and discussion on findings focused on indicators of capacity and inclusion, perceptions on practices of transparency and accountability, community participation and rule of law in selected public institutions, access to information by the local people and the challenges and opportunities for building local institutional capacity on responsiveness, transparency, accountability, public participation and respect on the rule of law. The discussion and interpretation was made from the descriptive data results. TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY OF SELECTED PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS WOREDA ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE Transparency according to the literature means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement (http://www.unescap.org). By making full and accurate information about its mission, activities, finance, and making them publicly available to the government encourage transparency and accountability. Transparency and accountability are the core principles of good governance. Transparency can be important decision making to be open and clear for stakeholders and it encourages stake holder’s involvement in decision making. Generally, transparency here is important to assess openness and clarity of information’s, processes, institutional rules and decisions to community members and the general public in woreda administration, municipal and woreda court. Regarding transparency in Awable Woreda Administration it is not practice well and not exists in some office like municipal. Almost all members of focus group discussion argued that those rules and regulations are not respected by administrator and employees. Access www.ijmer.in

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to information in the town is not adequate. The employees are not discharging their duties (see table 1. below). They reveal that access to information through print and electronic media are far from being adequate. Due to this lack of transparency, one of the elements of good governance is impaired in woreda administration. The following table shows the perception of respondents on the openness of the service provider employee’s in performing their job and discharging their duties. Table 1: THE SERVICE PROVIDER EMPLOYEE‘S RESPONSIBLE IN PERFORMING THEIR JOB AND DISCHARGING THEIR DUTIES IN WOREDA ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE Response

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Total

Respondent categories

Tot al

Percent age

Mal e 7 42 59 29

Percent age 5.1 30.65 43.06 21.16

Femal e 8 15 14 11

Percenta ge 16.66 31.25 29.16 22.91

15 57 73 40

8.10 30.82 39.45 21.63

137

100

48

100

185

100

Source: survey result 2014 About 7 (5.10%) of male respondents strongly agree the view that the service provider in the administration were responsible for their job and they discharge their duty. In relation to this around 8 (16.66%) of female respondents support the ideas. Similarly around 57 (30.82%) of both male and female respondents were agreed on the service provider employees in administration. But 59 (43.06%) of male respondents disagree on the service provider employees in the woreda administration. Concurrently, about 14 (29.16%) of female respondents disagree the service provider employees responsibility in performing their job and discharging their duties. So the data shows that in the woreda administration service providers were not transparent and hardly responsible for their office and there should be following up by the administrator and responsible body to discharge their duties. www.ijmer.in

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In addition to the above point about 40 (21.63%) of male and female respondent were strongly disagree on the service provider employee’s responsibility in their job and discharging their duties. POLITICAL ORGANS AND WOREDA ADMINISTRATION

THEIR

APPOINTMENT

IN

Within the democratic system, local officials may be either popularly elected or appointed by higher-level elected officials (Treisman, 2006). On this issue, data from the field study show that, the governance and administrative structure of Awabel Woreda Administrative consists of a council, an executive committee, sector offices, judiciary and large group of permanent employees. The woreda council members are elected directly by the people from among the woreda residents. They are accountable to the people by whom they are elected, and to the executive committee of the Zonal Administration, and through it to the executive committee of the region. The Administrative Council whose members are also called cabinet, they are executive committee elected among the members of the Woreda Council and heading the department of woreda administration such as Education, Health, and Capacity Building, Agriculture and Rural Development, Finance and Economic Development etc. They work on full time basis, and they have duties to ensure laws enacted by woreda council, regional council and federal state organs. Concerning their appointment, an interview held with Dawite political representative of Amhara National Party of EPRDF in Awabel woreda said that once the chairman of the cabinet or the chief administrator of Awabel Woreda Administrative were elected among members of the Woreda Council, the rest of the cabinet members are elected and appointed via their submission of the chief administrator’s proposal by looking the performance and comment which got from 1 to 5 arrangement in their respective sector office. However, the members of focus group discussion argue that they are not comfortable with the appointment of cabinet or head of departments and sector offices. They disclose that in case of appointment of the cabinet and sector officers they did not make any kind of discussion with the public. The following table shows results which got from questionnaires on transparency and accountability of appointment of cabinet.

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Table 2. APPOINTMENT OF CABINET IS TRANSPARENT AND BASED ON ACCOUNTABILITY Response

Respondent categories

Total

Percentag e

5

2.70

Percentag e 2.18

Female

Strongly agree

Mal e 3

2

Percentag e 4.16

Agree

15

10.94

6

12.5

21

11.35

Disagree

60

43.79

20

41.66

80

43.24

Strongly disagree Total

59

43.06

20

41.66

79

42.70

137

100

48

100

185

100

Source: survey 2014 Table 2 above presents the level of agreement or disagreement to the statement appointment of cabinet or head of departments or sector offices is transparent 80 (43.24%) and 79 (42.70%) of the respondents were replying as disagree and strongly disagree on transparency and accountability of the appointment of the cabinet respectively, and 5 (2.70%), and 21 (11.35%) of the respondents replied as strongly agree and agree respectively. When the responses of the respondents were combined in such way that strongly agree and agree shows positive opinion on the question and strongly disagree and disagree shows negative impression, it is also observed that, 159 (86%) of the respondents have negative impression on the issue, and 26 (14%) of them had positive opinion. This shows that, when we combine strongly disagree and disagree, to reflects negative comment, and strongly agree and agree for positive comment, the negative comment, outweighs the positive one. In addition, for open ended questions sample household respondents are required to state about the factors that hinder the administration’s good governance practice, the majority of respondents’ state that appointment of head of departments at woreda level and sector level is not fair and transparent. Rather, it is based on relationship than merit. Therefore, both survey data and focus group discussions show that the appointment of cabinet is not free from relationship; it is based on nepotism and corruption though it is procedurally true.

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As mentioned earlier, in the woreda, there is no transparency or open discussion on issues affecting the communities. It is observed that there are no information flows between different communities due to fear and suspicion. As it is also indicated above, the communities are not participating in identification of problems, prioritizing and planning. Lack of transparency therefore, prohibits the people from demanding their rights and working on activities that they are accountable for. This blocks the society from making the representatives responsible for their deeds and actions as well. This also has a negative implication on monitoring and evaluation of the society’s resources which might give way for corruption and misappropriation of scarce resources. TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY OF MUNICIPAL OFFICE This focuses on the speediness of the municipal office in giving service for service users. Table 3: WOREDA MUNICIPAL ARE GIVING QUICK SERVICE FOR SERVICE USERS Response

Respondent categories

Tota l

Percentag e

Strongly agree

Mal e 5

Percentag e 3.64

Femal e 3

Percentag e 6.25

8

4.32

Agree

15

10.94

6

12.5

21

11.35

Disagree

60

43.79

22

45.83

82

44.32

Strongly disagree Total

57

41.60

17

35.41

74

38.37

137

100

48

100

185

100

Source: survey result 2014 From the above table we can see that the agreement and disagreement opinions of both male and female on this question are weighted, 60 (43.79%) of male and with equal proportion 22 (45.83%) of female reflected their disagreement. In relation to this 57 (41.60%) of male respondents and 17 (35.41%) of female respondent strongly disagree on the speediness of the municipal office in giving service for service user, whereas 5 (3.64%) of male, 3 (6.25%) of female and 15 (10.94%) of male and 6 (12.5%) of female respondents strongly agree and agree on the www.ijmer.in

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speediness of the service provider in giving quick service for customers respectively. When the responses of the respondents were combined in such way that strongly agree and agree will show positive opinion on the question and strongly disagree and disagree will show negative impression, it is also observed that , 156 (84.32%) of the respondents have negative impression on the issue, and 29 (15.67%) of them had positive opinion. This shows that, when we combine strongly disagree and disagree, to reflects negative comment, and strongly agree and agree for positive comment, the negative comment, outweighs highly the positive one. This shows that the municipal office is one of the institution by which the employees were not willing to give service to the public transparently. In addition, for open ended questions that respondents are required to state about the problem that hinder the municipal office good governance practice, the majority of respondents state that appointment of head of the municipal are not for a long period of time i.e. the management body of the municipal office were stay in his/her position at maximum for one year and it is a big problem for continuity of issues. In relation to this an interview with Dessie (the current manager of municipal office) argued that officials not stay for a long period of time due to the complicity of the office and he added it is one of the worst office in the woreda which corruption spread and risky for social and personal life of the manager. In supporting this idea data get from focus group discussion strengthen that it is the institution for some official and rich section of the society. This office did nothing for the town and for the woreda rather it is the means for official as a source of wealth. Generally some of the problems in municipal office were, there is no information flow and transparency in what is going on and the absence of complaint mechanisms, inefficient utilization of resources and it is observed that there is deviation from what is planned and what is being implemented. Table 4: FREE FLOW INFORMATION BY ADMNISTRATION OR DIRECTLY ACCESSIBLE TO THOSE WHO WILL BE AFFECTED BY SUCH DECISIONS OR ENFORCEMENT

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Response

Respondent categories

Tota l

Percentag e

Mal e

Percenta ge

Femal e

Percentag e

Strongly agree

3

2.18

4

8.33

7

3.78

Agree

27

19.70

13

27.08

40

21.62

Disagree

63

45.98

19

39.58

82

44.32

Strongly disagree Total

44

32.11

12

25

56

30.27

137

100

48

100

185

100

Source Survey data 2014 As we can see from the above table the favorable and unfavorable opinions of both male and female on this question are weighed, 30 (21.88%) of male and 17 (35.41%) of female reflected favorable opinions, whereas 107 (78.09%) of male respondents and 31 (64.58%) of female respondent said that they have negative attitude towards the flow of information freely or directly accessibility to the public. Based on the combined responses of male and female, 138 (74.59%) of total respondents do not have an agreement on the issue, whereas 47(25.40%) of the total respondents expressed their agreement on the question. This implies that, the woreda administrations are not transparent in reaching the information to the public which play a vital role to have access information about the woreda administration activities and accountability. Furthermore, displaying their budgets publicly is one of the activities expected in enhancing transparency. In this regard, survey data also confirm public office’s ability to post their budget. Table 5 below shows that both categories of respondents agree on the statement that woreda administrations budget is posted in public office. On this statement, the combined 43 (23.24%) of the respondents stated their agreement with the statement while, the combined majority 142 (76.75%) of the respondents stated their disagreement, and hence, posting budget in public office is found to be weak which also affirms financial transparency of the administrative is not open to the public. Table 5: THE BUDGET ADMINISTRATION

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IS

PUBLICLY

POSTED

BY

THE

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Response

Respondent categories

Tota l

percent age

Mal e

Percenta ge

Femal e

Percenta ge

Strongly agree

3

2.18

2

4.16

5

2.70

Agree

31

22.62

7

14.58

38

20.54

Disagree

57

41.60

25

52.08

82

44.32

Strongly disagree

46

33.57

14

29.16

60

32.43

Total

137

100

48

100

185

100

Source: survey 2014 Interview conducted with Shegaw administrative office head argue that woreda administration takes inputs from the community for planning and budget. When we see the reality on the ground kebele leaders in woreda work out the kebeles plans and send them to the woreda. The plans are consolidated by the woreda administration and are then sent to regions. It should be noted here that the communities don’t participate in setting priorities. Hence, transparency and accountability were lacking. Most of the households want to have an understanding of administration activities, policies and budgets. In a system of governance that is characterized by transparency, information is expected to be freely available and directly accessible to those affected by such decisions. The administrations decisions are not enforced in a manner that follows specified rules and regulations. The decisions are not vividly observable for the residents of the town. The tradition of sharing public information in a systematic or formal manner is not well developed. However, there are some positive developments on access to information for the public. The researcher observed a quarterly financial statement of woreda that are posted within their premises. And starting from 11 AM– 12:30 PM local time the woreda communicative office announce some progress which is done in the www.ijmer.in

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woreda by microphone even if it is not hear by all residents since it is fixed in one center. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION Participation is one of the key elements of good governance. It is the extent to which actors are involved in decision making process. Participation could be direct or through legitimate representation. The voice of citizens is particularly important in all aspects of zonal administration and residents should provide inputs. Members of the community need to understand zonal administrations extensive mission, how formal authority is shared and the scope and form of their involvement in governances (Shah 1997 cited in Henok 2007:24) Shegaw, (Administrative office head of the Awabel Woreda) stated that, Participation of state and non-state actors in policy process are considered to be good and there is a mechanism in woreda administration through which farmers association, youth association, females association, private sectors representatives and civil servants can participate in the decision making. It is also found out that though the local actors participate in local government decision to a certain degree, they are involved as pressure group but they are abstaining in decision making and the final sayings or decisions are made by council members. The opinions of female and male respondents regarding participation of different actors are not similar to that of the above interviewee. Based on the data from the opinion survey (table 3.5.1), about 78 (42.16%) of total respondents express their disagreement on the participation of local actors, and equal proportion of 56 (30.27%) of the total respondents said strongly disagree, but only 6 (3.24%) and 45 (24.32%) of the total respondents have the opinion of strongly agree and agree respectively. If strongly disagree and disagree responses are combined to reflect respondents’ negative opinion, and strongly agree and agree to reflect positive opinion, the negative opinion of respondents’ offset the positive opinion. In relation to this, an interview conducted with Asrat who was leader of Michael idir and Asnake who is the chairman of Awabel woreda youth association both argued that in Awabel woreda there are meetings with administration but almost all meetings were closed by discussing what the top administrators were supposed to discuss. The communities were actively provided inputs for the www.ijmer.in

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administrators and for all concerned body and administration made promise but not practice. Generally, woreda administration did not develop a mechanism to participate CSO’s and democratic association such as trade union, youth association, female association and private sectors in woreda wide policy decision and budget approval. Table 6.: COMMUNITY PARTICIPATE IN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS OF THE ADMINISTRATION Response

Respondent categories

Total

Percentage

51

27.56

72.44

Male

Percentage

Female

Percentage

Strongly agree

3

2.18

3

6.25

Agree

35

25.54

10

20.83

Disagree

58

42.33

20

41.66

Strongly disagree

41

29.92

15

31.25

134

Total

137

100

48

100

185

100

Source: survey 2014 Another indicator of participation is the government’s ability to receive inputs from the environments (public) and incorporate in its decision. In these regard, effort made to get information on this issue through focus group discussion shows that community participation is either not adequate or completely absent. They argue that people or beneficiaries are not asked to legitimize or ratify projects identified and formulated by the government. They also said that people must be consulted from the beginning, and they should actively participate in the planning and management of the project. As result, they do not think a certain project as public ownership, rather they sense as government ownership by segregating public from the government. This is due to lack of involving the community from the scratch of planning up to implementing and monitoring the project. The real aspect of participation based on local officials understanding is community’s contribution in terms of free labor, local material and www.ijmer.in

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work done with this free labor than asking them to give input for policy making. This data show that the Woreda Administration ability to receive information from public before enacting decisions is found to be low which again reflects top down approach of planning. Due to this the decisions made by woreda administration and the Council are far from reflecting the needs of citizens. Decisions of any kind must be made based on the information at hand. Managers and administrators try to receive information from the environment and incorporate it from their decision. However, the above data shows less level in receiving information from public to make decisions which reflect top -down approach of planning and decision. Study conducted by Meskerem (2007) argues this idea the communities at Woreda level are not fully participating in the development of their own vicinity. They are not fully informed of what the Woreda Administration is planning or doing rather in some places they watch all the development endeavors of the woreda. Administrators often notify the communities regarding the plans developed in offices without consulting them during the planning process. They call upon the people to ask them to contribute in terms of labor, local materials or cash to implement the woreda’s plan. Due to this situation, even if the government calls meetings they are not ready to participate in discussions. In addition, sometimes people might not attend the meetings because of the biased idea that the government will not consider their opinions. They prefer to keep quiet particularly for issues related to politics and governance. Some of the reasons for not participating fully could be not giving quick response by the representatives for most pressing issues like construction of low volume road construction, water supply, electricity, tied bureaucracy etc. In this case, if the representatives have informed the communities that there was shortage of funding, they would have understood the situation. In relation to this focus group discussion respondent implicate that in relation to contributing their money for low volume road construction the society specifically the merchants were contribute two times within two years but up to now there is only a promise but not practice by the woreda administration and municipal office.

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An interview conducted with Shegaw (the woreda administrative office head) on the other hand, stated the idea that the main problem of under development in the area could be due to the existence of large numbers tax invader merchants, rent seeker officials and lack of awareness about the challenges of corruption on the side of the communities were some of the challenges to the development of the areas. Hence, trying to change the attitudes of the community about the disadvantage of corruption through woreda communication office and justice office will be conducted with great effort to reach in each community member. However, the communities argue that they have sufficient time for work together with the woreda administration if they have the motive and commitment to help the community. Public participation on development activities or other administrative issues either individually or in group, explicitly or implicitly is the key to maintain and promote good governance. In this regard, one informant from communication office mentioned that their participation did not proceed along the stages of planning, implementing, evaluating and assessing the results of their discussion. Focus group discussion argued that there are not any institutional mechanisms that allow the people to supervise and evaluate the concerned authorities regarding the proper implementation of plans. It is not exaggeration to say that the civil servants are not invited to generate new ideas or suggest their opinions on issues that are predetermined by woreda higher official. Rather, those who ask questions and raise different ideas or provide options were either marginalized or considered as political opponents. These shows the idea of free and competent participation left. THE PREVALENCE OF RULE OF LAW IN WOREDA COURT It is understandable that the existence of properly set rule of law is a backbone to effective functioning of a country. Good governance, democracy and protection of human rights could only be reached if and only if independent and effective judiciary system along with skilled manpower; law makers, judges and police forces are put in place. TRANSPARENCY OF THE COURT Transparency allows people (including deprived) to gather information critical to reveal abuses and defend their interests; to take advantage of opportunity, access services, exercise their rights. Decisions need www.ijmer.in

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evidence which is logical for all stake holders. Court decision should be on logical evidence to get trust from the users. Hence, respondents were providing their view in table 7 below. TABLE 7: COURT DECISIONS CONVINCING EVIDENCE Response

ARE

MADE

Respondent categories Male

Percenta ge

Fema le

Percenta ge

Strongly agree

6

4.37

5

10.41

Agree

49

35.76

15

31.25

Disagree

60

43.79

20

41.66

Strongly disagree

22

16.05

8

Total

137

100

48

BASED

ON

Tota Percenta l ge

75

40.54

16.66

110

59.46

100

185

100

Source: survey 2014 An estimate of 75 (40.54%) respondents perceived that court decisions were made based on convincing evidence. But about 110 (59.46%) of the participants of the study also reported court decisions were not made based on convincing evidence. When this question was evaluated in terms of gender mainstream about 6 (4.37%) and 49 (35.76%) of male respondents strongly agree and agree respectively which support that court decisions were made based on convincing evidence. In relation to this about 5 (10.41%) and 15 (31.25%) of female respondents support the male respondents. But around 60 (43.79%) and 22 (16.05%) of male respondents disagree and strongly disagree on it. And around 20 (41.66%) and 8 (16.66%) of female respondents were also support to the male idea i.e. strongly disagree and disagree respectively. In relation to this woreda justice office report show that in 2013/14 there were six cases which seen by the woreda court and the court decided they are free and the prosecutor of the woreda took the cases to East Gojam Zone High Court and the high court sees all of the six cases and pass

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decision on four of them based on their crime and the rest two case were free (Woreda Justice Office, 2014). When the responses of the respondents were combined in such way that strongly agree and agree will show positive opinion on the question and strongly disagree and disagree will show negative impression, it is also observed that, 82 (59.84%) of male and 28 (58.32%) of female respondents had negative ideas about the decision court based on convincing evidence whereas 55 (40.14%) of male and 20 (41.66%) of female respondents had a positive opinion on the decision of the court on convincing evidence. TABLE 7.1: BELOW FOCUSES ON SPEEDINESS OF THE COURT IN MAKING OF INVESTIGATION FOR APPROPRIATE DECISION TABLE 7.1.1: TRIAL PROCESS OF THE COURT IN TERMS OF TIME Respons e

Respondent categories Mal e

Percentag e

Femal e

Percentag e

Strongly agree

19

13.86

6

12.5

Agree

42

30.65

8

16.66

Disagree

53

38.68

22

45.83

Strongly disagree

23

16.78

12

Total

137

100

48

Tota l

Percentag e

75

40.54

25

110

59.46

100

185

100

Source: survey 2014 Relating to the trial process of the court about 19 (13.86%) male and 6 (12.5%) female strongly agree on the trial process of the court. In relation to this 42 (30.65%) of male and 8 (16.66%) of female respondents were agree on the speediness of the trial process of the court. Whereas 53 (38.68%) of male and 22 (45.83%) of female were disagree. In supporting this idea 23 (16.78%) and 12 (25%) of male and female respondents were strongly disagree on the trial process of the www.ijmer.in

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court respectively. Hence, the study result shows about 110 (59.46%) responded were not satisfied by the trial process of the court and 75 (40.54%) of respondents had a positive idea on the speediness of the trial process. However, the researchers understand from group discussion and some key informants there is good progress in the case of court in the trial process and some of them argued that in Awabel woreda justice office including police and court were show a good progress in practicing the rule of law in the town when it compared with municipal and administrative office. In table 7.1. 2 below, there are criminal and civil cases which are recorded in the court. There are civil and criminal related cases starting from 2000-2005. TABLE 7.1. 2: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL CASES FROM 2000-2005 E.C IN THE WOREDA COURT Year

Type of Pending cases cases

2000 Civil case Criminal case 2001 Civil case Criminal case 2002 Civil case Criminal case 2003 Civil case Criminal case 2004 Civil case Criminal www.ijmer.in

Total Dead cases

Pending cases

100

Newly opened cases 2334

2434

2283

151

40

697

737

724

13

151

2545

2696

2558

138

13

819

832

822

10

138

2267

2405

2319

86

10

870

880

880

-

86

2416

2502

2496

6

-

466

466

464

2

6

3283

3289

3262

27

2

567

569

565

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case 2005 Civil 27 case Criminal 4 case Source: woreda court

3443

3470

3463

7

594

598

597

1

There were hardly many pending cases as already stated in the table 7.1.2 above. In 2000 there were 164 cases from total of 3171 cases which were pending cases in that year and transferred to next year. Therefore speedy service delivery of the court accounts for about of 94.82% in 2000 Ethiopian year. When it compared with recent happenings i.e. 2005 E.C about 4068 criminal and civil cases were recorded and only 8 cases were pending and transferred to 2006 E.C. Therefore, prompt response reaches around 99.8%. This indicates that there is a progressive change in speedy service delivery of the court when one goes from 2000 to 2005 E.C. But within a year there were many cases which were delayed for many months. Consequently it is impossible to boldly conclude that the court service delivery reaches 99.8%. “Justice delayed is justice denied” is a good proverb that directly reflects responsiveness. Therefore, no one can feel comfort when decisions are not on the given time frame. Table 8. COURT DECISIONS ARE FREE FROM BIAS Response

Respondent categories Male

Percentage

Female

Percentage

Strongly agree

6

4.37

4

8.33

Agree

54

39.41

17

35.41

Disagree

48

35.03

20

41.66

Strongly disagree

29

21.16

7

14.58

Total

137

100

48

100

Total

Percentage

81

43. 8

104

56.2

185

100

Source: survey 2014 From the above table we can see that the court decision were free from bias in the level of agreement or disagreement. Based on this 6 (4.37%), www.ijmer.in

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54 (39.41%) of male and 4 (8.33%) and 17(35.41%) of female respondents were replying as strongly agree and agree on the decision of court free from bias respectively. Whereas, 48 (35.03%), 29 (21.16%) of male and 20 (41.66%), 7 (14.58%) of female respondents were replying as disagree and strongly disagree on the openness of the court on decision making process. When the responses of sample households were combined in such way that strongly agree and agree will show positive opinion on the question and strongly disagree and disagree will show negative impression, it is also observed that, 104 (56.2%) of the respondents have negative impression on the issue, and 81 (43.8%) of them had positive opinion. This shows that, when we combine strongly disagree and disagree, to reflects negative comment, and strongly agree and agree for positive comment, the negative comment, outweighs the positive one. In relation to this an interview conducted with Habtie (woreda court judge) said that in the past two years we made a progressive change on decision making which is free from bias. But, sometimes because of discretionary power of judges and lied witness some decision may be biased. He explains that in the woreda there is excessive lied witness were seen and it had a negative impact on the trial process. This must be overcome by giving public legal education for the society and aware about how it is bad and leads to unjust decision and it is also crime by itself giving false information when they were came in court as witness to benefit offenders.

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Table9: NUMBER AND QUALIFICATION OF STAFFS IN JUSTICE ADMINISTRATION, JUSTICE, POLICE, AND COURT SECTORS Educational level

Sex police

1 up to 4

5 up 9 up certifi to 8 to 12 cate

Diplom a

Degree and above

Male

1

3

38

5

8

-

55

Femal e

-

-

4

2

4

-

10

1

3

42

7

12

-

65

4

1

5

4

-

4

8

1

9

Total Court

Sex

Total

Male Femal e

Total

-

Source: Woreda Capacity Documen

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Hence, concerning the number of staffs and their qualification around (1.35%) degree holders. From both sectors, around 20 (27%) are diploma holders and around 7 (9.45%) are certificate and around 42(56.75%) are at 9-12 educational level. The largest percentage of staffs therefore lies in between diploma and grade 9-12. Only 1(1.35%) degree holders is in the court. Vibhute (2009), in his study of justice system in Ethiopia reported that there were insufficient number of qualified judges and public prosecutors, outdated and inefficient methods and procedures of the justice delivery system, lack of clarity and coherence in the existing laws, lack of access to justice information, and lack of sufficient number of institutions of legal education and their inability to produce the required number of professionals So from the above five table and from open-ended questions major challenges that hinder the practice of good governance in Awabelworeda we can argued that rule of law at the Woreda level were not well practiced. In relation to this Meskerem (2007) in his article entitled status of local good governance in Ethiopia argue that there are courts though which is not fully equipped with sufficient number of skilled manpower to serve the population to the required quality compared to the number of cases received. Regarding the police force in the Woredas and Kebeles, they are few in number and the necessary equipment to work with is not in place. This hinders them from carrying out their responsibilities fully. Due to lack of budget for transporting those hurt the police are facing problems and cannot particularly help those that need the help most (the poorest of the poor) in kebeles. On the other hand, those that are better-off financially however, cover their own costs (Meskerem, 2007). There are also local militias assigned to assist the police that are elected by communities. Their main duty is preventing people living in communities from committing crimes though they have no mandate to arrest or detain individuals. Due to the shortage of the required and skilled manpower in the judiciary system, dependency on each other; kebele social court on Woreda court and Woreda courts on regional courts seems inevitable negating the devolution of power.

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CHALLENGES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE IN SELECTED INSTITUTION IN AWABELWOREDA (DISTRICT) Good governance also requires that institutions and process try to serve all stakeholders within reasonable time frame. It is the ability of public management to give due concern to the needs and interests of its constituent. WOREDA ADMINISTRATION PROBLEMS The Awabel woreda administrative office head also confirms that there are a number of questions that the public raised. For example, a question of water supply, electric city and road are the main issues. He said we are trying our best and sometimes some issues are beyond woreda administration capacity cannot make a decision on this kind of questions and such questions are handled over to regional government. Open ended question on good governance challenge in woreda administration office respondents argued that a discussion on good governance issue had been held one up to two times per year. But the major public problems such as road, water supply, electricity and giving of quick response from civil servants which were discussed in the meeting were not solved. According to the service providers idea there was an interesting discussion with the people in approving of semiannual and annual plan of their Kebele, in selecting of patriots of development and in developing awareness on growth and transformation plan and business processing reengineering. Service users had not negated the service provider’s idea. But the discussions were not in line with service user’s expectations and crucial problems raised in the discussion were also handled for formality only. Furthermore, those that are active and engaged do so mostly through meetings and tend to have a more favorable and ‘empowered’ view of citizens’ ability to effect change. Focus group respondents also agreed that in the woreda administrative there is a wide range of prevalence of rent seekers and disagreement among the woreda cabinet themselves. The leaders are self-interested. They strengthen their idea with the local proverb (SESHOM YALEBELA SESHARE YEKOCHEWAL) which means most of the Kebele administrator and different officer in the woreda were rent seekers when they were in position. In supporting this idea there were around 18 hector land were taken by Kebele administration from this only 8 hector were turned back by the woreda www.ijmer.in

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administration (Awabelworeda administration, 2014). The solution of the focus group participants were formulating a smart policy cannot be an end in itself and serves for a shot run only. The only thing is practicing it in the ground. For this to happen an intensive and extensive effort should make to find out the rent seekers. Lines of transparency and accountability should be also strong. Furthermore, the result that was obtained from the open ended questions shows a direction in evaluating the condition of governance in the woreda. They had been elaborating their view regarding to any exemplary effort that was made by the woreda administration to enhance sound governance. Generally, most of the respondents had negative response to the effort of the woreda towards good governance. When they explain their view they said that: 

Weak interaction between people and leaders.



Discrimination between rich and poor- whenever you want to get something, you have to commit an illegal action that is corruption. Therefore, the rich can afford to pay it not the poor. Therefore, justice is unable to reach at the door of the poor. Only the affluent or the well to do individuals have been getting their need by giving money was their idea.



Absence of checking and controlling mechanisms.



Lack of speedy response- many young people of the woreda had organized themselves to participate cooperatively in alleviating their poverty in particular and to improve their country’s economic status in general. However, they could not get adequate support from the concerned woreda administrators to pursue their plan. According to the grouped youngsters view on the side of them everything had been completed to start. But the concerned woreda administrators were not encouraging us to practice it. These cooperatives had been getting training in the region pertaining of their project. But they viewed the encouragement that was made by the region was so satisfactory but it becomes a hopeless in the woreda and Kebele level. According to them the woreda and Kebele wrongly interpreted the instruction disseminated from above.



Policy implementers do not understand what they are going to implement. Administrators and development agents have not been

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consonant among each other. The development agents have been served as messengers of the administrators without knowing the message of their task. 

Lack of participatory planning due to the exclusion of the communities right from the design stage of planning up to implementation which otherwise could have inculcated ownership of the programs and projects.

MUNICIPAL OFFICE PROBLEMS In relation to the above idea open ended question results shows the level of corruption in municipal office is high, they justify their reason as follows. 

Lack of strong system of administration i.e. the link between woreda administration and communities were very weak



Municipal staff and leader lack knowledge, competence and skill policies and strategies that flows from above are good but change can never exist in the absence of knowledgeable and skilled individuals.



Since they are under paid worker they can try to get some benefit through committing corruption.



There is no strong controlling mechanism by the woreda leaders. Even if the Kebele administrators are entrusted to Prepare detailed implementation programs for social and economic programs issued by higher-level authorities and Carry out plans and directives issued by the Woreda council and its executive committee but weak controlling mechanism from the woreda.



They consume so many times to complete a single case. So this leads to unnecessary cost and wastage of time.



Kebele leader and political party member. The level of corruption can be petty and grand corruption. In supporting this idea the woreda good governance command post report shows that there are around 788 hector of rural and urban land among this 78 hector were taken by 314 political party member people and 18 hector were taken by 88 kebele administrator (Awabelworeda administration, 2014).

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

A government also supports them. Because when a leader of a woreda distrusted of corruption and lose an acceptance from the people he/she can only change to the other woreda or other office. But he/she cannot penalized what he committed.

COURT PROBLEM The focus group discussion and open ended question results shows the problems of the court were mostly in creating awareness for the society. Key informant from justice office and court both argued that in woreda court human power were not well educated almost all of them diploma and only one judge were degree holder and it creates gape on the decision making of the judge. However, there are some positive developments in relation to controlling peace in the town. Key informants from youth association, idir and justice office argued that the woreda justice office and police office were achieved a good progress in prevailing of stability in the town which is a humble for the town in the previous period specifically in relation to thief and fight. Finally the respondents were also discriminating the main areas of corruption in woreda administration. These were: o

Woreda administration

o

Municipality and trade and industry

o

Land administration

Generally there is a symmetrical relationship between good governance and corruption; good governance curbs corruption in the same way that the disappearance of corruption in a polity enhances good governance (ECA, 2002). Good governance must be effective and equitable in order to promote the rule of law. Indeed, transparency and accountability are two key elements to combat corruption (UNDP, 1997). So to avoid corruption there must be transparency and accountability of public official. Good governance is not a new thing it is being white paper. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION CONCLUSIONS The daunting challenges that undermine transparency of these selected institutions. The respondents had brought their perception on the www.ijmer.in

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responsiveness and transparency of the processes, decisions, information flow, timeliness and actions and performances of the woreda administration, municipal office and court. As majority of the respondent’s point of view the legal court actions and their decisions have been a little bet open to the public and the rules and regulations of court are also relatively clear and precise as compared with woreda administration and municipal office. In line with openness, providing solutions to the public complaints in a clear way is the most important. The decision of the court lacks transparency in time of passing decision. The office is incapable and incapacitated to disseminate information concerning effective land administration. In line to this what respondents strongly condemned was the discrimination and corruption made by the court. Justice is on the side of the rich and the poor are very vulnerable to lack of justice. Consequently; Crime committed and the punishments for a crime are unbalanced. More to the point, discrimination and corruption had also compared in the three institutions. Hence, the finding indicates that corruption is more frequent and difficult in municipal office because of municipal office yet has not well organized in its structure and officials are not well paid and consequently encouraged to conduct corruption. Moreover, lack of knowledge and confidence, low awareness of law and intervention beyond their jurisdiction and delay in taking of action has been the major problems in municipal office that causes corruption. A discussion pertaining good governance issue had been held in the woreda. But it was made sometimes and issues or complaints raised in the conference were left without effect and they had been handled for formality only. An important issue that needs a speedy response is not addressed from the part of the woreda administrators. This can lead service users to give a lesser value for any woreda or kebele initiated discussion. The main challenges of responsiveness and transparency and accountability have been capacity or competence, skill and knowledge, corruption, and discrimination. Respondents at the highest educational level had lack a confidence on the capacity, knowledge and skill of both the woreda and kebele leaders than the illiterate and those at the lower educational level. Marito and Andrew (2008), in their study argued that many woredas lack skilled personnel since administrative and technical posts created to handle administrative responsibilities have not been fully filled or www.ijmer.in

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have been filled by untrained personnel with limited capacity. Similar to this, Zemelak (2009) asserted that the most difficult challenge for Ethiopian local government is capacity since the local government institutions of the country have acute shortage of qualified man power. The other factors that impede good governance in the woreda that commonly shared among the selected institutions were: Lack of speedy response to the society articulated problems Leaders have political competence but not have administrative skill and knowledge. Weredas are not fully implementing policies directed from the regional government Absence of strong controlling mechanism to the actions and decisions of the kebele leaders. High level of corruption and discrimination. discrimination between rich and poor

Particularly

Weak interaction and relationship between people and leaders. lack of strong system of administration RECOMMENDATION The selected public institutions (woreda court, municipal and woreda administration office) have challenges that precludes from becoming transparent, accountable and responsive to their stake holders were most of the challenges commonly shared by these institutions Finally, the researcher has provided a general recommendation. That is: limited research had been done on the area of good governance at the national level more specifically on the dimensions of good governance such as transparency, accountability, participation and rule of law. The researcher had made a little progress in assessing of local governance challenges in selected offices such as Woreda Court, Municipal Office and Woreda Administration. The researcher therefore, advices for other researchers who have an interest to conduct their research in lower level administration to give an attention on municipal office and Woreda administration. Because in these offices a great number of service users had observed and at the same time major challenges for service provision had comparatively explored by the www.ijmer.in

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researcher. But it needs a further investigation to clearly identify and minimize the challenges of these offices. Hence, this paper can be used for other researchers as a spring board to conduct a further research on a similar field of study. REFERENCE      













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Abdalla (2010). Governance for the Future: Democracy and Development in the Least Developed Countries.Retrieved from http://www.un .org/pe ci alre p/ohrlls/ldc/governancereport.pdf. Accessed: 15 December2013 Awabele Woreda Admnistration, (2014). Good Governance Quarterly Report 2013-2014. AwabelWoreda. Awabele Woreda Justice Office.(2014). Mezagibten Mermero Yemasewosen File. Awabel Woreda Justice Office Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia.(CSA).The 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia: Analytical report at national level. Addis Ababa: CSA Dessalegn R, Akalewold, Yoseph E. (2008). CSOs/NGOs in ETHIOPIA Partners in Development and Good Governance. A Report Prepared for the Ad Hoc CSO/NGO Task Force Addis Ababa. FDRE (1995).The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (Unofficial English Translation). Chapter 5 Article 50, sub-article 4. Kendey Fanta. (2012). Challenges and Opportunities of Good Governance: In Addis Ababa City Administration. Laplambert Academic Publishing. MeskeremShiferaw.(2007). ‘Status of Local Gevernance at Woreda/District Level in Ethiopia’. The 4th International Conference on Ethiopian studies. Western Michigan University. Tessa Maryze. (2012). Good Governance and Development in Sri Lanka: Peace, Growth and Equity. Erasmus University: Rotterdam: Netherland. Treisman, D. (2002). Defining and Measure of Decentralization. Department of Political Science University of California. Los Angeles United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.What is Good Governance?Retrieved from http://w ww .u

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  



nescap.ord/pdd/prs/project Activitie s/Ongoin g/gg/ governan ce e.asp.accessed on December 3, 2013, 9:25:28 AM Vibhute (2009), Comprehensive justice system in Ethiopia: The baseline study report a review,Volume 6, No.6: 27-35 World Bank.(1999/2000).‘World Development Report’. Entering the 21st century Washington: OxforUniversity press. ZemelakAyele (2009), Decentralization and Local Governance in Ethiopia, paper presented at Local Government Bulletin Conference, 23 July 2009. Retrived from http://www.community law centre.org.pdf.accessed on Novem ber 27, 2013, 4:07:58 AM

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AN ANALYTICAL REVIEW ON BANKS CRISIS WITH NPAs K.Chandrasekhara Rao Research Scholar PG Dept of Legal Studies and Research Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Introduction: ‘NPAs’ (Non-performing Assts) is any asset of a bank which is not producing any income. In other words, a loan or lease that is not meeting its Stated principal and interest payments. The biggest risk to a bank is when the customers who take out loans stop making their payments, causing value of the loan assets to decline. Banks usually classify as NPAs any commercial loans which are more than 90 days overdue any customer which are more than 180 days overdue. These are 3 categories. First one is sub-standard, when the NPAs have aged > 12 months and the third one is Loss Assets, when the bank or its auditors have indentified the loss, but it has not been written off. According to the report of the RBI, the gross NPAs of Domestic Banks jumped to 4.2% of the total lending by the end of Sept, 2013 from 3.6%. as per the recent warning by the RBI, bad loans (NPAs) could climb to 7% of the total advance by 2015. It was extrapolated that the gross NPAs would touch Rs.2.50 lakhs crores by the end of March this year. This is equal to the size of the budget of W.B., 80% of the NPAs accrued from PSBs. On the other hand, private sector and foreign lenders are better placed and their NPAs in proportion of their lending is better than that of the PSBs. The higher is the amount of NPAs, the weaken will be the Bank’s revenue stream. Impact of NPAs on the Indian Economy: As the NPAs of the bank will rise, it will bring a scarcity of funds in the Indian security markets. Consequently, the share holders www.ijmer.in

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of the bank will lose a lot of money as banks themselves will find it tough to survive in the market. The interest rates will short up badly. It will also impact the retail consumers. All these factors lead to a situation of low off take of funds from the security market. Thus eventually lead to lower growth rates and of cause higher inflation cause of the higher Government of capital. This trend may continue in a vicious circle and deeper the crisis. Reasons for NPAs: These are two types-External and Internal factors. A) External Factors: Apart from the slowdown in India, the global economy has also slowed down. This has adversely impacted the corporate sector in India. It can be noted that imports and exports combined equal to around 40% of India’s GDP. Thus it became difficult to the corporate sector to pay the loans. The ban in mining projects, delay in environmental related permits affecting power, Iron and Steel sector, volatility in prices of raw material and the shortage in availability of power have all impacted the performance of the corporate sector which lead to weaken their ability of pay back loans. Recently the Standing Committee on Finance Bill has examined the reasons for high NPAs in PSBs and Stated that NPAs in the Corporate. Sector are for higher than those in the priority or Agriculture Sector. Within the priority sector, incremental NPAs were more in respect to micro small and medium enterprises followed by agriculture. As per the estimates of the SBI, education loans constitute 20% of its NPAs. Furthermore, the sluggish legal system, lack of systematic and constant exertions by the banks make it difficult to recover these loans from both corporate and non-corporate. B) Internal factors: Indiscriminate lending by some State-owned banks during 20-04-08’ is one of the main reason for deterioration

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in asset quality. There is a dearth of rigour in loan appraisal system and monitoring of warning signals at State run banks. There is a poor recovery and use of coercive techniques by bank in recovering loans added fuel to the fire. The wait and watch approach of banks has also one of the cause for NPAs. A parliamentary panel, which examined the issue has opined that “the State-owned banks should stop ‘ever-greening’ and so as to avoid 1 not renewing loans, particularly of corporate”. The severity of NPAs in certain State-run Banks:

The

following statistical diagrams showcases the severity of NPAs in certain State-run Banks.

Source: The Hindu 20-03-2016 P.15 Fig:1 The Rise and Rise of’ stressed’ Loans.

Source: The Hindu 28-03-2016 P.16 www.ijmer.in

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Fig: 2 Poor performance of TOP six PSBs:

Source: Eenadu 15-02-2016 P.4 Fig : 3 NPAs of 39 Banks from Sept 2008 to Sept, 2015 Suggestions and conclusion: In order to cut down the NPAs to a lesser extent is to recover bad debts. Besides the guide lines bestowed by the RBI, the GOI promulgated certain reforms as cited beneath. 1. The Recovery of Debts due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993. 2. Securitization Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest (SARFAESI) Act, 2002. After notice also, if the borrowers fails to pay then i) take possession of the security and / or ii) take over the management of the borrowing concern iii) appoint a person to manage the concern. iv) Recovery of Debts due to Banks and financial institutions (DRT) Act: The Act provides setting up of lDRTs and DRATs for www.ijmer.in

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expeditious and exclusive disposal of suits filed by banks/F.I s. The Govt has so far set up 33 DRTs and 5 DRATs through out the country. 3. Establishment of Lok Adalaths: By way of Arbitration, Conciliation and Mediation, Lok Adalaths will settle the NPA disputes. 4. The recent controversy surrounding loan recovery in Indiaview of the SC: Liquidity of finances and flow of money is essential for any healthy and growth oriented economy. But certainly, what must kept in mind is that the law should not be in derogation of the rights which are guaranteed the people under the constitution.

The procedure should also be fair, reasonable and

valid, though it may vary looking to the different situations needed to be tackled and object sought to be achieved”. 5. ‘A stitch in time saves nine’ & prevention is better than cure: i) Conservatism: Banks need to be more conservative in granting the loans to the sectors with utmost assiduous and meticulous. ii) Improving the processes: The credit sanctioning process of Banks needs to go much more beyond the traditional analysis of financial Statements and analysing the history of promoters. iii) Relying less on restricting the loan: instead of sitting and waiting for a loan to turn to a bad load, and then restructure it, the banks may officially start to work to recover such a loan. iv) Expanding and diversifying consumer base by innovative business models. Conclusion: Thus the above cited analysis of the prevent situation bring us to the point that the problem is multi-faceted and has roots in economic www.ijmer.in

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slow down; deteriorating business climate in India, shortage in the legal system; and the operational short coming of the banks. The Govt has to improve the quality and quantity of the exports on par with the international standards. The redtapism shall be curbed. The licensing system shall be modified according to the LPG scenario with simplified and lucid way. The Acts such as COFEPOSA, FERA and the Vigilance and Enforcement wings such as CVC, RAW and I.Bs etc. Shall be modified and strengthened according to the present situations. The guidelines of the RBI and the GOI shall be implemented with true letter and spirit and if anybody violates the same, draconical action shall be initiated sans delay. Transparency accountability and responsibility shall be maintained in all sectors with periodical reviews and feedbacks and rectifications. The Debt Recovery Mechanisms shall be strengthened with an adequate founds and powers. If the GOI will implement all these reforms in a planned and systematic manner, I am sure, we can reduce the NPAs to a greater extent which ultimately leads to improve our GDP, per capita income and standard of living of the people besides to tap the share in the global market. References: S.No.

Name of the News paper

Date

P.No.

1 2 3

The Hindu- Business colmn The Hindu The Hindu

20.3.16 28.3.16 29.5.16

15 16 16

4 5

The Hindu Business colmn The Hindu Editorial

20.7.16 18.4.16

17 10

6 7

The Hindu The Hindu

15.2.16 04.03.16

4 4

8

The Hindu

18.12.15

4

9

The Hindu

01.04.16

4

10

The Hindu

07.07.16

4

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S.No.

Name of the News paper

Date

P.No.

11

The Hindu

28.5.16

4

12

The Hindu

12.6.16

8

13

The Hindu

26.4.16

4

14 15

The Hindu The Hindu

14.3.16 15.5.16

4 8

16 17

Andhra Jyothi- Business colmn Andhra Jyothi

7.8.16 29.3.16

6 4

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND IMPACTS AND ROLE Dr.B.Nagaprasad General Manager – H R DQ Entertainment International Hyderabad Abstract: The industry and organizations could play a pivotal position in social uplift and triggering the entrepreneurial spirit in a society. The industry faculties face a few challenges in terms of imparting best education. Outside environmental forces and stakeholders continually put pressure on the business schools to adapt the changes taking place in the trade world. The fast trend of globalization and technological alterations have made complex for corporations to survive within the aggressive world . Therefore the value of management education has extended many folds. Business executives need to update their advantage education to unexpected changes within the outside environment. With a purpose to meet the challenges of the long run, the reform of the bigger education might be unavoidable. The institutions have to attempt to obtain stability between the education fee and the exceptional. Probably the most principal criticisms of GM is the hole between concept and apply. Key Words: GM, Organizations, Theory Managing is among the essential human activities. From the time human beings started forming social businesses to achieve objectives and goals they could not accomplish as members, managing has been major to make certain the coordination of man or woman efforts. As society constantly relied on group effort, and as many equipped corporations have come to be enormous, the undertaking of managers has been increasing in value and complexity. Henceforth, managerial

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concept has come to be primary in the way in which managers manage elaborate organizations.1 The primary thesis of this paper is that although some managers in distinctive components of the arena would have performed managerial success while not having normal theoretical expertise in administration, it needs to be unequivocally emphasized that those managers who have blended administration conception of their daily apply, have had better probabilities of managing their companies more successfully and without problems to gain each individual and organizational pursuits. Accordingly, managers of cutting-edge companies need to recognize the predominant function they play in their respective organizations if they are to reap set objectives. Secondly, there's ought to promote excellence among all individuals in companies, especially amongst managers themselves.2 To deal with these concerns, the paper will proceed along the following spectrum: management will probably be defined for purposes of conceptual readability; management targets, features, ambitions, and essentiality, will likely be highlighted; the significance of managerial potential and the organizational hierarchy will probably be sketched; the significance of ladies within the organizational hierarchy shall be emphasized; factors for learning management concept will likely be enumerated; the exclusive management theories, the core of the paper, will be discussed at size; the significance of administration as a convention can be contextualized; and ‘the way forward’ in type of a conclusion will likely be supplied.

1

Stoner James A. F., Freeman R. Edward, and Gilbert, Jr. Daniel R. (2003) Management (New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India), Sixth Edition.p.26 2 http:/www.oppapers.com/essays/…/205245…3.1.17 www.ijmer.in

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Definition of management Management is the art, or science, of achieving ambitions by means of people. For the reason that managers also supervise, administration may also be interpreted to mean actually “looking over” – i.E., making certain men and women do what they are speculated to do. Managers are, as a consequence, expected to ensure bigger productivity or, utilising the present jargon, ‘continuous development’. Extra widely, management is the approach of designing and preserving an atmosphere wherein contributors, working together in corporations, effectually accomplish chosen ambitions (Koontz and Iihrich 1990, p. Four).In its elevated type, this common definition method a number of things. First, as managers, individuals perform the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling. 2d, administration applies to any form of group. 0.33, management applies to managers at all organizational phases. Fourth, the aim of all managers is the same – to create surplus. Subsequently, managing is involved with productiveness – this implies effectiveness and effectivity. As a result, administration refers back to the development of forms that derives its significance from the need for strategic planning, coordination, directing and controlling of huge and tricky selectionmaking process. Essentially, accordingly, management entails the acquisition of managerial competence, and effectiveness within the following key areas: difficulty solving, administration, human useful resource administration, and organizational management.3 First and important, administration is set fixing problems that maintain rising at all times in the path of an organization struggling to acquire its pursuits and ambitions. Concern fixing will have to be accompanied with the aid of main issue identification, evaluation and 3

Koontz Harold and Weihrich Heinz (1990) Essentials of Management, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill.p.198 www.ijmer.in

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the implementation of treatments to managerial issues. 2nd, administration entails following laid down systems (even though techniques or principles will have to no longer be visible as ends in themselves) for the execution, manipulate, conversation, delegation and difficulty administration. 0.33, human useful resource administration must be headquartered on strategic integration of human resource, comparison of staff, and exchange of suggestions betIen shareholders and workers. Sooner or later, organizational leadership must be developed along lines of interpersonal relationship, teamwork, selfmotivation to perform, emotional strength and maturity to manage instances, personal integrity, and basic management expertise. Personnel management may also be defined as obtaining, utilizing and preserving a convinced group of workers. It is a significant a part of management worried with workers at work and with their relationship within the institution. Consistent with Flippo, “Personnel administration is the planning, organizing, compensation, integration and maintainance of folks for the intent of contributing to organizational, individual and societal pursuits.”4 In step with Brech, “Personnel administration is that section which is particularly involved with human resource of group.” Nature of Personnel management Personnel administration involves the operate of employment, progress and compensation- These features are performed mainly by using the personnel administration in consultation with other departments. Personnel administration is an extension to basic management. It is worried with selling and stimulating ready work drive to make their fullest contribution to the predicament. 4

research journals of international studies-issue 3.1.17

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Personnel administration exist to advice and guide the road managers in personnel issues. As a consequence, personnel division is a staff department of an institution. Personnel administration lays emphasize on action alternatively than making lengthy schedules, plans, work approaches. The problems and grievances of persons at work can also be solved more without difficulty by way of motive personnel insurance policies. It is headquartered on human orientation. It tries to support the workers to strengthen their abilities fully to the trouble.5 It additionally motivates the staff through it’s potent incentive plans so that the employees provide fullest co-operation. Personnel administration deals with human assets of a predicament. In context to human resources, it manages both man or woman as Ill as blue- collar staff. Role of Personnel manager Personnel supervisor is the pinnacle of personnel department. He performs both managerial and operative services of administration. His position will also be summarized as : Personnel supervisor provides help to prime management- the highest management are the persons who come to a decision and body the fundamental policies of the obstacle. All types of insurance policies involving personnel or team of workers can also be framed out without difficulty by using the personnel supervisor.6

5

. http:/iamee.edu.in/…/management-education…3.1.17 Koontz Harold (1980) “The Management Theory Revisited”, in Academy of Management Review, April.p.276 6

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He advices the road manager as a staff specialist- Personnel supervisor acts like a employees consultant and assists the line managers in dealing with quite a lot of personnel concerns. As a counsellor,- As a counsellor, personnel supervisor attends issues and grievances of staff and courses them. He tries to remedy them in first-class of his capability. Personnel supervisor acts as a mediator- he is a linking pin betIen management and employees. He acts as a spokesman- due to the fact that he's in direct contact with the workers, he is required to act as representative of institution in committees appointed through executive. He represents organization in training programmes.      

Services of Personnel administration Following are the four services of Personnel administration: Manpower Planning Recruitment Decision Coaching and progress

I as a rule hear the term Human useful resource administration, employee relations and Personnel management used within the general press as good as with the aid of enterprise specialists. Each time I hear these phrases, I conjure snap shots of efficient managers busily going about their work in glitzy workplaces. In this article, I look on the query “what is GM ?” by means of giving a huge overview of the subject and introducing the readers to the apply of GM in brand new businesses. Although as with every widespread perceptions, the above imagery has some validity, the very fact remains that there's rather more to the discipline of GM and despite preferred depictions of the equal, the “artwork and science” of GM is indeed tricky. I have chosen the time period “art and science” as GM is both www.ijmer.in

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the art of managing people by way of recourse to ingenious and progressive methods; it is a science as Ill due to the fact of the precision and rigorous application of conception that is required.7 As outlined above, the method of defining GM leads us to 2 unique definitions. The first definition of GM is that it is the system of managing individuals in organizations in a structured and thorough manner. This covers the fields of staffing (hiring individuals), retention of individuals, pay and perks surroundings and management, efficiency management, trade administration and taking good care of exits from the corporation to round off the pursuits. That is the normal definition of GM which leads some gurus to define it as a cutting-edge variant of the Personnel management perform that was once used earlier8. The 2d definition of GM encompasses the management of folks in corporations from a macro perspective i.E.Managing humans within the form of a collective relationship betIen management and staff. This strategy specializes in the targets and results of the GM operate. What this implies is that the HR operate in today's firms is worried with the notions of individuals enabling, people progress and a focal point on making the “employment relationship” pleasant for both the administration and employees. These

definitions

emphasize

the

difference

betIen

Personnel

administration as outlined in the 2nd paragraph and human resource management as described in the 0.33 paragraph. To place it in a single sentence, personnel administration is pretty much “body of workers” established whereas human useful resource management is “resource” situated. The key change is GM in up to date times is ready pleasant

7

Koontz Harold (1962) “Making Sense of Management Theory”, in Harvard Business Review, July-August.p.187 8 . http:/www.academicjournals.org/ERR 3.1.17 www.ijmer.in

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management ambitions of offering and deploying folks and a bigger emphasis on planning, monitoring and manipulate.9 Something the definition I use the ansIr to the query as to “what's GM?” is that it is all about humans in corporations. No marvel that some MNC’s (Multinationals) call the HR managers as people Managers, people Enablers and the follow as folks management. In the 21st century businesses, the HR manager or the people supervisor is now not seen as any individual who takes care of the pursuits described within the common approach. Correctly, most firms have different departments coping with Staffing, Payroll, and Retention and so forth. As a substitute, the HR supervisor is liable for managing worker expectations vis-à-vis the management objectives and reconciling both to make certain employee fulfillment and attention of administration targets.10 In conclusion, this article has in short touched upon the subject of GM and served as an introduction to GM. I shall touch upon the opposite topics that this subject covers in different articles.11

9

http:/www.blogspot.in/…/how-to-improve-management…3.1.17 . http:/oppapers.com/essays/…/394570…3.1.17 11 Homans G. C. (1958) The Human Group (New York: Harcout, Brace and World).p.287 10

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BANKING AND FINANCIAL INCLUSION IN INDIA Dr.G.Syamala Rao Associate Professor Gayatri Vidya Parishad College for Degree & P.G.Courses (A) Rushikonda,Visakhapatnam

Abstract Financial inclusion denotes delivery of financial services at an affordable cost to the vast sections of the disadvantaged and low-income groups. The various financial services include credit, savings, insurance and payments and remittance facilities. The objective of financial inclusion is to extend the scope of activities of the organized financial system to include within its ambit people with low incomes. As the majority of the rural population is still not included in the inclusive growth, the concept of financial inclusion becomes a challenge for the Indian economy. Since 2005, many concerted measures are initiated by the Reserve Bank of India and Government of India in favor of financial inclusion but the impact of these did not yield satisfactory results. Recently Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) has seen more than 218 million new bank accounts opened and over 180 million debit cards activated as of May 2016, making it a massive exercise in financial inclusion. However, the potential of these accounts to drive regular and consistent banking habits. The main objective of this paper is to study the financial inclusion and role of banks in financial inclusion. Introduction: Financial inclusion is the delivery of financial services at affordable costs to vast sections of disadvantaged and low income groups. There is a long history of financial inclusion in India. It has www.ijmer.in

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traditionally been understood to mean opening new bank branches in rural and unbanked areas. Nowadays, however, financial inclusion is seen to be something more than opening bank branches in unbanked areas to take formal financial services across the length and breadth of the country. In the context of the various shortcomings in delivering subsidies, direct transfers using technology have been thought of. The beneficiary needs to have at least one bank account. The policy makers have been focusing on financial inclusion of Indian rural and semi-rural areas primarily for three most important pressing needs: 1.

Creating a platform for inculcating the habit to save

money: The lower income category has been living under the constant shadow of financial duress mainly because of the absence of savings. The absence of savings makes them a vulnerable lot. Presence of banking services and products aims to provide a critical tool to inculcate the habit to save. Capital formation in the country is also expected to be boosted once financial inclusion measures materialize, as people move away from traditional modes of parking their savings in land, buildings, bullion, etc. 2.

Providing formal credit avenues:

So far the unbanked

population has been vulnerably dependent of informal channels of credit like family, friends and moneylenders. Availability of adequate and transparent credit from formal banking channels shall allow the entrepreneurial spirit of the masses to increase outputs and prosperity in the countryside. A classic example of what easy and affordable availability of credit can do for the poor is the micro-finance sector. 3.

Plug gaps and leaks in public subsidies and welfare

programmes: A considerable sum of money that is meant for the poorest of poor does not actually reach them. While this money www.ijmer.in

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meanders through large system of government bureaucracy much of it is widely believed to leak and is unable to reach the intended parties. Government is therefore, pushing for direct cash transfers to beneficiaries through their bank accounts rather than subsidizing products and making cash payments. This laudable effort is expected to reduce government’s subsidy bill (as it shall save that part of the subsidy that is leaked) and provide relief only to the real beneficiaries. All these efforts require an efficient and affordable banking system that can reach out to all. Therefore, there has been a push for financial inclusion. Need of Financial Inclusion

Steps Taken by RBI to support financial inclusion: Reserve Bank of India set up the Khan Commission in 2004 to look into financial inclusion and the recommendations of the commission were incorporated into the mid-term review of the policy (2005–06) and urged banks to review their existing practices to align them with the objective of financial inclusion. RBI also exhorted the banks and stressed the need to make available a basic banking 'no www.ijmer.in

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frills' account either with 'NIL' or very minimum balances as well as charges that would make such accounts accessible to vast sections of the population of the many schemes and programmes pushed forward by RBI the following need special mention: 1.

Initiation Of No-Frills Account – These accounts provide basic

facilities of deposit and withdrawal to accountholders makes banking affordable by cutting down on extra frills that are no use for the lower section of the society. These accounts are expected to provide a low-cost mode to access bank accounts. RBI also eased KYC (Know Your customer) norms for opening of such accounts. 2.

Banking

Service

Reaches

Homes

Through

Business

Correspondents : The banking systems have started to adopt the business correspondent mechanism to facilitate banking services in those areas where banks are unable to open brick and mortar branches for cost considerations. Business Correspondents provide affordability and easy accessibility to this unbanked population. Armed with suitable technology, the business correspondents help in taking the banks to the doorsteps of rural households. 3. EBT – Electronic Benefits Transfer: To plug the leakages that are present in transfer of payments through the various levels of bureaucracy, government has begun the procedure of transferring payment directly to accounts of the beneficiaries. This “human-less” transfer of payment is expected to provide better benefits and relief to the beneficiaries while reducing government’s cost of transfer and monitoring. Once the benefits starts to accrue to the masses, those who remain unbanked shall start looking to enter the formal financial sector. The latest inclusion plan will have as its focus households rather than geographical areas. After satisfactory conduct of accounts it is proposed to offer reasonable need-based credit facilities for which overdraft www.ijmer.in

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facilities will be sanctioned. A smart card (RuPay card) will be issued to enable customers to operate their accounts even without BCs. Simultaneously suitable awareness will be created among the financially excluded. In the second phase, there is a proposal to make available a pension scheme for identified individuals in the unorganised sector and offer microfinance products through government-owned insurance companies. Recently Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) has seen more than 218 million new bank accounts opened and over 180 million debit cards activated as of May 2016, making it a massive exercise in financial inclusion. However, the potential of these accounts to drive regular and consistent banking habits. Financial inclusion enables improved and better sustainable economic and social development of the country. It helps in the empowerment of the underprivileged, poor and women of the society with the mission of making them self-sufficient and well informed to take better financial decisions. Financial inclusion takes into account the participation of vulnerable groups such as weaker sections of the society and low income groups, based on the extent of their access to financial services such as savings and payment account, credit insurance, pensions etc. Also the objective of financial inclusion exercise is easy availability of financial services which allows maximum investment in business opportunities, education, save for retirement, insurance against risks, etc. by the rural individuals and firms. References: 1) Srivats K.R.,Education Insutitutions must help to create mass awareness on financial inclusion, Business Line, 17-10-2016. 2)

Pawan Bakhshi, and Anand Parameswaran, Does financial inclusion really include?, Business Line, 31-05-2016.

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3)

Narasimhan. C.R.L, The Challenge of financial inclusion, The Hindu, 25-08-2014.

4) www.iimb.ernet.in/research/sites/default/files/WP%20No.%20474.pd f 5) www.allbankingsolutions.com/Articles/Articles-AB-FinancialInclusion.htm 6)

www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialinclusion/overview#1

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A STUDY ON TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF EMPLOYEES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO STATE BANK OF INDIA, VISAKHAPATNAM Dr.S.Srinivasa Rao Post-Doctoral Fellow (ICSSR) Department of Human Resource Management Andhra University Visakhapatnam Abstract The process of financial development in India has hinged effectively on the development of banking system. The Indian banking industry is continuously going through a process of transformation since nineties, due to the introduction of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG), Information and Communication Technology (ICT). In the modern world of technological changes the need for training is increasingly recognized so as to keep the employees in touch with new development. Every concern has a systematic training programme. Training is the process of providing employees with specific skills or helping them to correct deficiencies in their performances. It involves systematic procedures for transferring technical know-how to the employees so as to increase their knowledge and skills for doing specific jobs with proficiency. Development is an effort to provide employees with the abilities the organization needed in the future. It involves knowledge and skills acquisition to maximize the employees desire to perform job well. Keywords: Training; Development; Performance; Efficiency

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INTRODUCTION: Training: The aim of any training programme is to provide instruction and experience to new employees to help them reach the required level of performance in their jobs quickly and economically. For the existing staff, training will help develop capabilities to improve their performance in their present jobs, to learn new technologies or procedures, and to prepare them to take on increased and higher responsibilities in the future. Development: Employee Development Programs are designed to meet specific

objectives,

which

contribute

to

both

employee

and

organizational effectiveness. There are several steps in the process of management development. These includes reviewing organizational objectives, evaluating the organization’s current management resources, determining individual needs, designing and implementing development programs and evaluating the effectiveness of these programs and measuring the impact of training on participants quality of work life. Definitions of Training and Development According to the Michel Armstrong, “Training is systematic development of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by an individual to perform adequately a given task or job”. According to the Edwin B Flippo, “Training is the act of increasing knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job.” Dale S Beach defined “Training is usually considered as the organized procedure by which people gain knowledge and increase skill for a definite purpose” Training and Development in banks The training needs are assessed through task analysis and performance analysis, which can be conducted through surveys, or from the www.ijmer.in

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information furnished by the heads of the departments, customer complaints, even from the reports on 360 degree feedback systems. In case of a large banks, there are two ways of conducting training programmes – through an established department having a full time HRD functionary who oversees all the training and development functions of the Banks or through an external trainers coordinated by the HRD department These days Banks have recognized the need for training and re-training their staff, in order to develop a competitive edge over their competitors in delivering high quality services to the customers. Traditionally, banks have recruited young school leavers, and their initial training was either long apprenticeship or on-the-job or formal training in basic routine operations. Aspirants to management position were encouraged to qualify professionally by reading for associate-ship of the Institute of Bankers or an equivalent qualification. It was argued that banking requires exercise of sound training and development programmes for their employees. Training is concerned with imparting and developing specific skills for a particular purpose. Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behavior. This behavior is relevant to a specific phenomenon that is a job. Training programmes helps in improving the performance of the employees which in turn lead to better output. The term development refers to the nature and direction of change induced in employees, particularly managerial personnel, through the process of training and educative process. Thus training and development plays an important role in organization and it is unavoidable. The study focus on To what extend training and development helpful in improving employee’s performance in the SBI.

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LITERATURE REVIEW In every study a good literature review does not only provide knowledge about what has been done in the research area but also strengths and weaknesses upon which one can also build an insightful and purposeful study. JadhavAjit(2013) studied the training and development programmes undertaken by banks for their employees. The main objectives of the present study were to analyze effectiveness of training and development programmes for employees to discharge their duties and to study how training and development programmes helps to achieve customer satisfaction. For this study primary data was collected through questionnaire filled by the bank employees. A sample of 40 employees is selected by the use of random sampling from different banks like HDFC, ICICI, Vijaya bank, Bank of Baroda, and Dena Bank located in suburban area of Mumbai. It is concluded that private and public Indian banks undertake training and development programmes for their employees to increase their efficiency. Banks provide training programmes to enhance their knowledge and skills to satisfy the customers. Growth of banking sector in India is the result of skilled manpower which is the outcome of training and development. Ramakrishna et al. (2012) have studied that Human Resource Development department has to play a more proactive role in shaping the employees to fight out the challenges. The banks not only have to make plans and policies and devise strategies, the actual functionaries have to show competence and effectiveness in executing the said policies and strategies. A sample of 85 employees covering all Canara bank branches in Kurnool District has been considered for the study at random. The study revealed that the employees have attended more training and development programmes, employees strongly agreed about the necessity of training and development programmes, majority www.ijmer.in

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of the employees rated trainer’s preparation as good, employees rated trainers creating learning atmosphere and employees given overall rating for training and development programmes. PurohitManisha(2012) studied the existing policies practiced in cooperative banks to appraise the level of HRD practices, to assess the satisfaction level of employees about HRD practices particularly Training and development & Reward and recognition of employees. In the present study structured questionnaire via in-depth personal interviews is used to collect primary data. From large number of banks in Pune region 16 are selected for the study. Information was collected from 30 employees of different level. The study adopted random sampling with regard to the selection of cooperative banks. The study revealed that training helps employees to gain better understanding in the area of Job and this will enhance their stock of knowledge. Extensive training providing the continuous development, such as onthe-job training, training programmes and workshops can be a driving factor for the activities in the firm. The present paper also suggests the ways & means by which the selected co-operative banks can improve their high performances of work practices. Srimannarayana M. (2011) in his study found that Training and Development is very important component in the modern Human Resource Management and the scope of training and development vary from one organization to another. The present study is based on primary data. Data is collected from 105 HR/Training professionals working in manufacturing, IT/ITES and service sector with a minimum experience of three year in their respective organization in the functional area of training and development. The study revealed that more than 75% of respondents have believed that performance improvements made because of training is an extremely valuable measure and 70.48% have believed that transfer of learning is extremely important. Almost (95.24%) respondents have mentioned www.ijmer.in

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that they collect feedback of the participants after completion of the training programme routinely. There is a gap between the measures that that are used actually in assessing training and development and HR/Training professionals do not have control over data that is required for measuring training and development. Mohanty(2011) explained how Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization have changed the scenario of corporate world and holds for us many challenges. In this connection, the development of human resources is putting newer challenges in business world. New skills and abilities are needed to face these challenges and it is possible by providing “Training”. Training is the strong foundation of highly skilled and motivated human resource. So, training is one of the most important tools in Human Resource Development effort to improve overall performance of an organization. Effective and suitable training interventions can bring improvements and impact in the working of organization significantly which help employees to adopt new work practices for the success of business. Through training an organization go green by making employees more effective and productive. Nagar Vaishali(2009) study the effectiveness of training programmes being conducted by the commercial banks in public as well as in the private sector. The area of study is limited to the staff training centers of State Bank of Bikaner & Jaipur and The Bank of Rajasthan Ltd. The data is collected through a structured questionnaire containing several questions relating to various aspects of training programme. The focus of the study is mainly the opinions of the trainees regarding various aspects of training like course duration, library facilities, trainer, teaching & computer aided programme and other infrastructural facilities and the calculated t values are less than table value of t, hence null hypothesis is accepted or hence there is no significant difference in the opinion of respondent at the two staff training centers.

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Onattu(2005) explored that the need for qualified and trainable employee is recognized as an important factor to compete in the global market. This study was conducted to generate information that can be used by industry, policy maker and the consultants to develop appropriate training initiatives. The present study was based on primary data which collected with help of questionnaire filled by 50 respondents. OBJECTIVES 1. To assess the training facility provided by the SBI. 2. To know whether the training programme helps in increasing the quality of service. 3. To give recommendation to improve the training effectiveness RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study is evaluative diagnostic in nature. This study follows survey method. The study aims to discover the effectiveness of training. Present research paper is of descriptive type and based on primary data collected through questionnaire filled by the bank employees. The secondary data includes reference books, journal, research papers and relevant websites. The sampling technique used in the research is simple random sampling. Sampling unit is the employees in SBI. The sample size was selected based upon simple random sampling. For the purpose of study 50 samples are taken among the employees .The study has been carried out in SBI. Percentage method, tables are used to present the data.

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1. The Most Effective Training Methods Used in Your Organization RESPONSES

NO. OF PERCENTAGE RESPONDENTS Class room 22 44% Coaching 9 18% Conference 11 22% Under study 8 16% Total 50 100% Interpretation: 44% of employees support that class room training is the most effective training, 22% support to conference training, 18% support to coaching, 16% support to understudy. 2. Opportunities for Career Development RESPONSES

NO. OF RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE

Strongly agree

26

52%

Agree

18

36%

Neutral

6

12%

Disagree

0

0%

Total

50

100%

Interpretation: 52% strongly agreed that there is career development opportunities in the organization, 36% agreed to it and 12% showed neutral response. 3.Development Needs are Discussed with Employees RESPONSES

NO. OF

PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS Strongly agree

13

26%

Agree

26

52%

Neutral

11

22%

Disagree

0

0%

Total

50

100%

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Interpretation: 52% of employees ‘agreed’ that development needs are discussed with employees, 22% showed a ‘neutral’ response, only 26% were strongly agreed to it. 4.Acquire Technical Knowledge and Skills through Training RESPONSES

NO. OF

PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS Strongly agree

8

16%

Agree

27

54%

Neutral

15

30%

Disagree

0

0%

Total

50

100%

Interpretation: Only 16% strongly agreed that they are acquiring technical knowledge through training, 54% agreed to it and 30% showed neutral response 5.The Training Programs are of Relevant and Good Quality RESPONSES

NO. OF

PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS Strongly agree

16

32%

Agree

15

30%

Neutral

19

38%

Disagree

0

0%

Total

50

100%

Interpretation: 30% of employees ‘agreed’ that training programs are of good and relevant quality, 38% showed a ‘neutral’ response, 32% were strongly agreed to it.

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6.Knowledge and Skills Acquired can be Practically Implemented RESPONSES

NO. OF

PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS Strongly agree

12

24%

Agree

23

46%

Neutral

0

0%

Disagree

15

30%

Total

50

100%

Interpretation: 46% of employees ‘agreed’ that knowledge and skill are practically implemented, 30% disagreed and only 24% were strongly agreed to it 7.The Training Program Helps in Better Customer Service RESPONSES

NO. OF

PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS Strongly agree

14

28%

Agree

29

58%

Neutral

7

14%

Disagree

0

0%

Total

50

100%

Interpretation: 58% of employees ‘agreed’ that training programs helps in better customer service , 14% showed a ‘neutral’ response, only 28% were strongly agreed to it 8.Satisfaction of Training Environment in the Organization RESPONSES

NO. OF

PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS Excellent

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Good

33

66%

Medium

17

34%

Poor

0

0%

Total

50

100%

Interpretation: 66% of employees says that training environment is good, 34% says that it is medium. CONCLUSION There is enough evidence to show that employees who were trained on a regular basis are the ones who provide a higher quality services to the customers. To develop an integrated and proactive training and development strategy there is requirement of coherent corporate culture rather than ad-hoc programs. In a service oriented industry such as banking, people are among the most important assets and a bank must efficiently manage its employees during every phase of employment in this competitive arena. SBI provide training programmes to enhance their knowledge and skills to satisfy the customers. The study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of training programmes of employees in SBI. A questionnaire was distributed to the employees for collecting their opinions regarding the training programs undergone by them. From the study it was found out that training programs has satisfaction to large extend. However certain improvement should be made in the training program for better output in future. The study on training and development of employees in SBI has given an in –depth knowledge on the importance of training and development in organizations. In a rapidly changing society, employee training and development not only an activity that is desirable but also an activity that an organization must commit resources to, if it is to maintain a viable and knowledgeable work force. Training is a practical and vital necessity because, it enables employee to develop and rise www.ijmer.in

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within the organization and increase their market value, earning power and job security. References 1. Aswathappa.K, ‘Human Resource and Personnel Management’, New Delhi, Tata McGraw hill publishing company ltd, 1999. 2. Prasad L M,`Human Resource Management’,2nd Edition(2005),Sultan Chand & Sons - New Delhi 3. Chhabra T N, Human Resource Management,5th Edition(2005),GaganKapoor for DhanpatRai and Delhi

Company-New

4. Dessler and Garry ‘Human resource management, prentice hall of India private ltd’, 7th edition 2002. 5. Kothari, ‘Research Methodology’, WishwaPrakashan Publishers, 2nd edition 2002. 6. www.SBI.com 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_and_development 8. Jankiraman B. (2009),“Training and Development” Biztantra. 9. RajAparna (2011),“Training and Development” Kalyani Publisher. 10. Jadhav Ajit (2013),“A Study on Training and Development in Indian Banks”, ABHINAV National Monthly Refereed Journal of Research in Commerce & Management, Vol.1, No.1, pp34-39. 11. Ramakrishna G., Kamleshwari, Kumar, M. Girdhar, Krishnudu CH. (2012),“Effectiveness of Training and Development Programmes- A Case Study of Canara Bank Employees in Kurnool District”, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol.2 No 4. Pp 150-162.

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12. PurohitManisha (2012), “An Evaluation of HRD Practices Followed in Co-operative Banks in Pune Region”, ACADEMICIA: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal, Volume 2, Issue 8, pp 186-195. 13. Srimannarayana M. (2011), “Measuring Training and Development”, The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol.47, No.1, pp. 117-125. 14. NagarVaishali (2009),“Measuring Training Effectiveness”, The Indian Journal of Commerce, Vol.62, No.4, pp.86-90. 15. Gopal (2008),“Effectiveness of Executive Training Programs”, The Indian Journal of Commerce, Vol.6, No.3, pp143-150.

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ELECTORAL TRENDS IN INDIA: AN ANALYSIS Dr.K.Swarnalatha Post Doctoral Fellow Department of Politics and Public Administration Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh

INTRODUCTION India is the second most popular and seventh major country in the world. India is a Union of States, according to the Constitution, with state power distributed between a (federal) government at the Centre and the governments of the constituent States. Some of the major States of India are as big as some of the large independent countries of the world. The importance of the States lies not merely in their vast territory or population, but in their distinct social structure, well-developed languages, culture and history. This tremendous diversity is mainly responsible for giving rise to different patterns of politics in different States1. India’s parliamentary system is based on the Westminster model of constitutional democracy, a legacy of British colonial rule. The Parliament is comprised of a bicameral legislature : the Rajya Sabha, the 250 member upper house, where members are elected by state legislative assemblies (12 members are nominated by the President), and the Lok Sabha, the 543-member lower house directly elected by the people (with two additional seats reserved for Anglo Indians nominated by the President). In the Lok Sabha, voters elect candidates based on the electoral system where the person securing the largest number of votes in each district wins2.

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Elections have assumed significance as hundreds of millions of voters, living under conditions of illiteracy, poverty, backwardness, premodern social relations, religious distinctions, and inequalities based on caste built over hundreds of years, were repeatedly called upon to exercise their political right to choose their representatives at the Central, State and local levels. Fears that elections in India would either fail because of the awesome structural limitations and unpreparedness of the country to institutionalize parliamentary democracy or that they would have destabilizing consequences, which the political elites cannot control, proved to be wrong. There may be several limitations, deficiencies and failures in the functioning of India’s democracy, which need to be overcome, but there are also commendable achievements. The purpose of this article is to study the electoral process and electoral trends in India. The study examines the pattern of winning of various political parties in general elections in India and observed the selection patter. The study is based on secondary information also focuses on nature and measurement of elections patter in India. METHODOLOGY The study is based on both primary and secondary sources of the data. The data on the number of parties contested in the elections and the voters participated in the election process and the other statistics on electoral politics are collected from Revenue offices, Assembly office, various political party offices and daily newspapers. The main source of data on electoral trends in India are the various reports from Election Commission of India. REVIEW OF LITERATURE There are several studies which deal with the issues of elections including voters behaviour in the west as well as non-west including

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India. The approach of these studies is mostly confined to the factors relating to those influencing the voting behaviour. Suseela Kaushik3 (1982) examined the social basis of elections in India asserted that the electoral process in this country should be examined from the perspective of the Country’s existing political system. In her opinion the elections has become an inseparable part of the on going politics, which are deeply rooted, in the social fabric of the humanity. Chopra4 (1989) work on Politics of Election Reforms in India examines a vote range of issues relating to the General Elections right form the first General Elections held in 1951 till the Lok Sabha Elections held in 1998.

Adopting analytical and comparative

approaches he analyses the various Parliamentary Elections from different angles. The study also attempts an in-depth analysis of the structural and functional aspects of the Election Commission of India, the various direct and indirect elections so far held, and also the electoral reforms implemented by the Government of India. Andrsin Walter5 (1990) study on the 1989 Parliamentary Elections revealed that these Elections are different as no single party secured majority in the Parliament and resulted in the formation of a coalition Government for the first time. Further, the popular triggered by national issues, which have characterized the national elections since 1971 were not apparent this time. There was no clear mandate for a person or a party. Siwach6 (1990) examined the factors which influenced the voting behaviour of the Indian voters in several past General Elections stated that the large chunk of voters in India do not understand the significance of the election manifestoes and also the value of their voting right. On the basis of his study of the voting behaviour of electorate in the Ninth Lok Sabha elections he pinpointed that factors www.ijmer.in

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such as castism, communalism, linguism etc., strongly influenced the behaviour of voters. Mahendra Prasad Singh’s7 (1992) analysis on the Indian party system and elections brings out the fact that the Parliamentary and Party systems in India do not always overlap an old story. The overwhelming Parliamentary predominance of the Congress Party under Nehru and Indira Gandhi had based on only a plurality (around 40%) of votes. He asserted that the Tenth Lok Sabha in comparison with the Ninth Lok Sabha Elections had resulted in a “hung” Parliament which ended the era of one – party government. Aditya Nigam8 (1996) study on the 1996 Lok Sabha Elections explores the fact that the results of these Elections represent a major departure from the earlier Elections, including the previous one held in 1991. He highlights the fact that Lok Sabha Elections held in 1996 and also in 1991 resulted in a hung Parliament in the absence of a clear-cut majority for any single party. However, the results of 1996 Elections for the same trends as projected by the 1991 Lok Sabha Election. Agarwal and Chowdry9 (2000) studied the 1999 Lok Sabha Elections which were marked by several unique features. The study has dealt with the circumstances necessitating elections to the 13th Lok Sabha, emergence of the National Democratic Alliances (NDA) and the near-rout of the Congress Party in these elections under the leadership of Sonia Gandhi who was Projected as the Prime Ministerial candidate and pitched against A.B. Vajpayee whose popularity had achieved new heights in the wake of Kargil War. Jayesh Kumar10 (2003) study on Parliamentary Elections and Political Parties discussed the probability of incumbent party’s winning the election from the same constituency. He estimates the probability of winning by the ruling party, irrespective of whether that party and formed a coalition and, had been a member of the previous government www.ijmer.in

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in the centre. He estimated the average probability of winning in India’s General Elections from 1971-1999, under the existing electoral system, using a panel data and binary choice model. In Delhi John Harris11 (2005) elicited information from 140 citizens and finds some interesting results. Persons who have good educational level though their income is in low level, their political participation is very much satisfactory. It is observed that the uneducated poor, women and minorities are preferring to solve their problems through political parties, by participating in public meetings, or with the help of big men in the society. But the rich and educated persons are solving their problem through Government organizations, courts or by using their status. The study concludes that educated persons political awareness is also very good. The study by Suri12 explains the economy and voting in the 15th Lok Sabha Elections. The study argues that the examination of the effect of both “national” and “personal” conditions in the economy on voting decisions in the 2009 Lok Sabha elections demonstrates the perceptions of people on economic issues do matter in deciding whom they vote for. Kailash13 (2009) analyzed the peculiar nature of alliances in the April-May 2009 Lok Sabha elections and points out that a major change was brought by the Congress opting to abandon its national alliance in favour of state-level agreements. ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCESS IN INDIA Democracy means a form of government, a form of the state and also a way of life. Democracy in India has grown with the history for sharing the ideas for the governance of a state. The earlier Indian Political unit was that of the class. All members of a tribe were equal. The village community had its own assembly, only the king was above this democratic body. www.ijmer.in

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The new constitution came into force on 26th January, 1950 shapes the destiny of democracy in India. By enacting of people’s representation Act in 1951 the constitution introduced universal adult franchisee, simple majority and single constituency election system in India. Since 1952, 15 general elections have been conducted for Lok Sabha. Electoral recruitment and participation has been mainly from the elite groups and the middle strata of the society considerations of income, education, property and religion have been distorting and scuttling the popular contest of democracy. Meaning of Elections Elections connote many meanings. According to one opinion election is a chain of process filling nominations to the declaration of results14.

Election is a method by which a citizen of a country

participates in public affairs, clothing the government with legitimacy and thereby helping in the peaceful transfer of power to a new government. Martin Harrop and William L. Miller defined election as a formal expression of preferences by the governed, which are then aggregated and transformed into a collective decision about who will govern who should stay in office, who should be thrown out, who should replace those who have thrown out. Elections are mechanisms which parties use to maintain their support bases and to establish links between the society, mainly non political, and the political system, in which parties function and of which they are a part15. Types of Elections Broadly speaking, there are three types of elections: i) General Election, ii) Bye-Election, and iii) Mid-Term Election.

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(i) General Election: First General Election in India on the basis of adult franchise was held in 1952. Yet, elections to the Lok Sabha continued to be called ‘General Elections’. (ii) Bye-Election : Bye-election is held to choose a member of the Lok Sabha or that of State Legislature “to replace a previous member who has resigned suddenly or died.” (iii) Mid-Term Election: The Lok Sabha or the State Assembly may be dissolved before its term is over. As a result, a mid-term poll is required to constitute a new House. Electoral Process Elections are the process through which the nation will form the next Government. Electoral process and electoral system form an essential part of the design of a democratic constitution, which moulds the instruments of power on the anvil of popular approval. By keeping the sanctity of elections in view, the makers of the constitution of India inserted Part-XV of the Constitution, providing for an indigent. Election Commission is conducting the elections in the country. The chief feature of this part is that the subject ‘Elections’ has been accorded a constitutional recognition in our political system and necessary arrangements have been made through the representation of the people Acts of 1951, as amended from time to time to ensure free and fair polls in the country. An independent judiciary is also created to examine the disputes between the political parties and the individuals. India has a plural polity with parliamentary system.

For conducting elections to the Lok Sabha and State

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Legislature elections we are following the simple majority system of elections on the basis of universal adult suffrage. There are four important aspects of the electoral process: i) Preparation for the Elections, ii) The selection of candidates by the political parties and the nomination process, iii) The Campaign and the iv) Actual Voting. (i)

Preparation for Elections Article 326 of the constitution of Independent India provides

elections to the legislative Assembly and for Lok Sabha on the basis of Universal adult suffrage (previously it was 21 years of age and now 18 years of age has been fixed by the Constitution). This provision determines the basic character of the electoral system. For the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha and in the State Legislatures, registration of voters and the preparation of electoral roles, representation of the people Act 1950; was passed; and for the qualifications and disqualifications of the candidates and other matters, the representation of the people Act 1951, was enacted. Article 81 lays down the provision of the size of the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies and Union Territories. For the determination of the boundaries of the States and the formation of the Constituencies, the States Reorganization Act, 1956 and the two delimitation Acts of 1952 and 1962 were passed. (ii) Election Commission As per the Article 324 of the Indian Constitution, the Election Commission of India is responsible for supervision, direction and control and conduct of elections to the Parliament, State Legislatures and Offices of President and Vice-President of India. The Commission has also powers to: i) www.ijmer.in

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ii)

Determine constituencies and to prepare electoral rolls.

iii)

Give recognition to the political parties.

iv)

Allot election symbols to political parties and individuals contesting the election and

v)

Advise the Government whether elections can be held in a state under President’s rule in order to extend the duration of emergency there after a year.

vi)

Appoint election tribunals to decide dispute and doubts arising as a result of election parliament and state legislatures.

The Election Commission is headed by a Chief Election Commissioner, who is appointed by the President of India subject to the provision of law made by Parliament. status of an autonomous body. (iii)

The Commission enjoys the

Scheduling the Elections

When the five year limit is coming to an end, or the Legislature has been dissolved and the new elections have become due, the Election Commission puts into top gear the machinery for holding elections. Holding of elections is the exclusive domain of the Election Commission under Article 324 of the constitution. In a country as huge and diverse as India, finding a suitable period when elections can be held throughout the country is not simple. The Election Commission, which decides the schedule for elections, has to take account of the weather – during winter constituencies may be snow-bound, and during the monsoon access to remote areas is restricted - the agricultural cycle, so that the planting or harvesting of crops is not disrupted, - exam schedules, as schools are used as polling stations and teachers employed as election officials, and religious

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festivals and public holidays. On top of this, there are the logistical difficulties that go with the holding of an election – mobilization and movement of civil and para-military police forces, printing and distribution of hundreds of millions of ballot papers, sending out ballot boxes, setting up polling booths, appointing millions of officials to conduct poll and counting and oversee the elections. Any Indian citizen, who is registered as a voter and is over 25 years of age, is allowed to contest elections to the Lok Sabha or Vidhan Sabhas. For the Rajya Sabha and Vidhan parishads, the age limit is 30 years. Every candidate has to make a deposit of Rs.10,000/- for Lok Sabha election and Rs.5,000/- for Rajya Sabha or Vidhan Sabha or Vidhan Parishad election, except for candidates from the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, who pay half of these amounts. Under the Indian electoral laws, eight days, including the date on which the election notification is issued, are provided for filing nominations in each constituency. Scrutiny of nominations normally takes place on the day following the last date for making nominations. Thereafter, two days are provided for withdrawal of candidatures. After the completion of withdrawals time, a list of competing candidates is prepared by the returning officer, and ballot papers are printed accordingly. Ballot papers are printed with the names of the candidates and the election symbols allotted to each of them. Candidates of recognized national and state political parties are allotted party symbols. For the 2004 general election, the total number of contestants in the field for 543 parliamentary constituencies was over 5000. Selection of candidates and issuing of party tickets to the candidates is an important function of political parties. The success and failure of the political parties depends upon the selection of the candidates because it determines the quality of the electoral input into www.ijmer.in

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the political system makes the parties the filtering mechanism in the polity. Therefore candidates selection is considered as litmus test of electoral politics in India16. An electoral campaign is a part of the broader strategies of political mobilization, economic development and governance. It becomes intense and condensed around election time and zeros in on the most salient issues personalities and parties in the period of formal campaigning in the legally defined election schedule. The campaign is the medium through which the political parties put forward their candidates and arguments with which they could convince people to vote for their candidates and parties. Campaigning brings to the surface many aspects of the political process, it provides insights into the inner workings of the political system and into the basic motivating forces in politics of the society. It involves larger number of people in the political process than any other event, spreads information, identifies issues and debates. By using different campaigning techniques such as party symbols, posters and play cards try to influence as many potential supporters as possible. Campaigns help voters make a choice about how the future Government is to be run. (iv)

Election Manifestos and Slogans

Political parties prepare a manifesto before the elections to seek mandate in its favour. Manifestoes spell out the professed aims and objectives of political parties. Manifestoes are very important documents, for they put the parties and candidates on record an various issues and they provide a check list which voters can use comparing the positions of different parties and candidates.

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ELECTORAL PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS POLITICAL PARTIES IN INDIA In India so far Fifteen General Elections were conducted since independence. These are the major events in the political history of independent India. They were impressive because of their massive scale, the relative peaceful and efficient way in which they were conducted. Elections are contributing enormously to India’s growing political maturity and development. The party-wise electoral trends of general elections in India during 1952 to 2009 is presented in Table-1. So far 15 general elections took place for Indian Union. The first general election was conducted in 1952, while the latest took place in 2009. The next general elections for Indian Union is due in 2014. The data reveals that during the last 15 general elections 60 political parties had contested in the election during the above period throughout the country.

It includes both national parties as well regional specific

parties along with Independents. Indian National Congress party won in general elections conducted in 1952, 1957, 1962, 1967 and in 1971and ruled the country up to 1977. In 1977 6th general elections were conducted, in which no single party secured simple majority to form Government at centre. But with the combination of Indian Jan Sangh, Lokdal and other parties formed the Government in the name of Janata Party as the first coalition Government under the leadership of Morarji Desai as Prime Minister. However, this Janatha Government could not continue in power after two and half years because of division in the coalition. Sri Chowdary Charan Singh who came out from Janatha Party formed the Government with the support of Congress Party. But he resigned to the Prime Ministership without moving the confidence motion in Loksabha.

In 1989 after the 9th

general elections, as a result of emergence of no single largest party, the National Front Alliance had formed the Government under the leadership of V.P. Singh as Prime Minister. The Political Parties such www.ijmer.in

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as CPI, CPM, BJP had extended their support to the Government from outside. BJP withdrawn its support consequent on the demolition of Babri Masjid, which caused to the downfall of V.P. Singh Government. Later the Government formed under the leadership of Chandra Sekhar as Prime Minister with the support of Congress Party also could not continue for more than four months. In 11th Loksabha elections held in 1996 no party secured the required seats to form Government. The BJP which secured relatively more number of seats formed the Government and Vajpayee as Prime Minister. But as a result of the failure of the BJP Party to attain the support of other parties, this Government had stepped down after 13 days.

The United Front

Alliance emerged with 13 parties formed the Government under the leadership of Deva Gowda. In view of political developments after some time Sri I.K. Gujral is elected as Prime Minister in place of Deva Gowda. The Congress Party which had not continued its support for more than two and half years lead to the downfall of the Government. Again in 1998, 12th Lok Sabha elections, since no party bagged the sufficient seats, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) formed the Government with the support of many parties. However, consequent on the withdrawal of support of AIDMK the Government collapsed after 13 months. Under the leadership of Vajpayee the NDA contested in 13th Lok Sabha elections held in 1996 could form the coalition Government and successfully ruled for entire tenure. Though the coalition era started in 1997, the effect of complete coalition was started in 1990 decade. The mid-term polls were inivitable for India because of collapse of the Governments formed after 1989, 1996 and 1998.

During this period the Indian Political System faced many

fluctuations.

With this experience both BJP, Congress parties

fabricated politics to form Coalition Governments in the name of United Progressive Alliance and National Democratic Alliance. This is how the UPA and NDA are emerged. The UPA which secured the

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majority seats in 2004 and 2009 held 14th and 15th general elections could form the stable government and continued the administration for full terms. Consequent the failure of Congress and BJP in solving the problems of public, voters are supporting the regional parties which caused to the emergence of coalition culture. Voters are casting their votes to the regional parties which give priority to local problems/issues, that lead to the development of regionalism. Hence the National parties are supported to give priority to solve the local problems, postponing and delaying in national problems/issues. However

the

coalition

governments

are

fluctuations to carry out the concept of coalitions.

facing

many

This type of

environment could not bring out basic reforms in the Indian Society. The maturity thinking of political parties and voters can alone help the coalition governments to give successful administration. 5. CONCLUSION The Parliamentary democracy in its true spirit was introduced by the Britishers gradually through the Acts of Parliament viz., 1892, 1909, 1919 and 1935. After Independence the constituent assembly prepared a fresh constitution for India, which came into force from 1950. The Constitution system was designed after west Minister Model. The new constitution established a full pledged democratic system based on multi party system, periodic elections, an independent election commission to conduct elections, an independent judiciary to examine the constitutional and electoral disputes etc. The first general elections established and confirmed the dominance of opposition parties. In the Lok Sabha and in the State Assemblies, the Congress won more than 70 per cent of all the seats, even though it secured only about 45 per cent of the popular vote. Most of the ills of electoral politics in India have sprouted out of the curse called illiteracy. Illiteracy has been the biggest obstacle on www.ijmer.in

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the way to rational voting. In the early days of independent India, the literacy rate was very low. The illiterate and less informed electorate was obviously misled by a handful of politically motivated minds. Total literacy alone can substantiate rationality into the voting behaviour of our electorate. The educational and other pre-requisites are to be fixed for aspirant MLAs and MPs. Half of the present strength of politicians will be compelled to stay away from politics. Since population explosion is the root cause of all our miseries, we should not allow such people to contest elections who do not identify with the needs of the nation. Similarly the criminals can be debarred from seeking mandate. After having framed pre-requisites for aspirant MLAs and MPs we must also chalk out conditions that determine their exit from active politics. Similarly fixing retirement age for politicians and the rational way by fixing a number of innings in Legislative Assembly and the Parliament are also essential. Though late, good sense has prevailed for raising the limit of expenses by a candidate. However, the financial ledgers of political parties and the candidates must also be made available for audit by an autonomous body. Whereas the candidate should spend on printing of poll literature and publicity material, the rest of the expenses should be borne by the state. The election meetings must be organized by civil authorities in consultation with all the political parties in the fray. Audio-visual media of the Government must chalk out an elaborate programme to provide broadcast/telecast opportunity to the leaders of major political parties. The rallies must be held but not by an exclusive party, they should be in fact a common endeavour. All the candidates in a constituency must be available in such a rally to address the common gathering.

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Hence all the contestants in a constituency should have the heart and the courage to spell out their policy alternatives and be in a position to circulate the copies of their manifestos among the crowd. This type of common platform meetings will not only reduce the misuse of money but will also go a long way reducing the difficulties of civil administration that come across for arranging election meetings. REFERENCE 1. Suri K.C. (2002), ‘Democratic Process and Electoral Politics in Andhra Pradesh’, Overseas Development Institute, London, UK., p.1. 2. Jayshree Bajoria (2009), ‘India’s Electoral Politics’, April,15, http://www.cfr.org/india/indias-electoral-politics/p19105 3. Kaushik Susheela (1982), ‘Elections in India its Social Basis’, New Delhi : K.P. Bagchi 4. Chopra J.K. (1989), ‘Politics of Election Reforms in India’, Delhi : Mittal. 5. Andrsin Walter K. (1990), “Elections 1989 in India”, Asian Survey, Vol.XXX, No.6, June. 6. Siwach J.R. (1990), ‘Dynamics of Indian Government and Politics’, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. 7. Mahendra Prasad Singh (1992), “The Dilemma of the New Indian Party System”, Asian Survey, Vol.XXXIII, No.4, April. 8. Nigam Aditya, “India after the 1996 Elections”, Asian Survey, Vol.XXXVI, No.12, December. 9. Aggrwal J.C. and N.K. Chowdhry (2000), ‘Lok Sabha Elections 1999:Last of the Millennium’, Shilpa, Delhi.

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10.

Kumar, Jayesh (2003), “Parliamentary Elections and Political Parties”, Journal of Indian School of Political Economy, Vol.XV, No.3, July-September.

11.

John Harris (2005), “Political Participation, Representation and the Urban Poor, Finding from Research in Delhi”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XL, No.11, March 12, 2005.

12.

Suri K.C. (2009), “The Economy and Voting in the 15th Lok Sabha Elections”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XLIV No.39, September 26, 2009.

13.

Kailash K.K. (2009), “Alliances and Lessons of Election 2009”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XLIV No.39, September 26, 2009.

14.

V.O. Key, Jr. (1955) “A Theory of Critical Elections”, Journal of Politics, Vol. XVII, Feb., p.3.

15.

Martin H. rrop and Willian L. Miller (1987), ‘Elections and Voters’, Macmillan Education Ltd., London, p.2.

16.

Rajini Kothari (1995), ‘India today’, 30th April.

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A STUDY ON GREEN BANKING EMERGING TRENDS IN INDIA Dr.V.Kaleeswari Assistant Professor Department of Economics Nehru Memorial College (Autonomous) Puthanampatti, Tiruchirappalli

ABSTRACT Today’s business is all about being green. From Wal-Mart to Apple, everyone is talking about how green their approach, packaging, or methods. But green business is really in its infancy, and the future of being green will no doubt distill down to some very real and definable goals and practices. Indian banking sector provides for the creation of jobs, generation of wealth and eradication of poverty, entrepreneurial activity and overall prosperity of the country. The growth of technology has changed banking system all over the world. As Indian banking sector moves to the next stage of technology adoption, it is essential that “green banking” is adopted by every responsible professional institutions. Green banking needed demand each of its activities and functional units to be friendly green environment. A favourable circumstances are available for banks to green their activities. Keywords: Green banking-Finance-Technology INTRODUCTION Green Banking is comparatively a new development in the financial world. It is a form of banking taking into account the social and environmental impacts and its main motive is to protect and preserve environment. Green banking can increase sustainability by reducing overall external carbon emission and for this purpose, banks should finance green projects as well as pollution reducing projects. The www.ijmer.in

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rate of interest for lending for the environment-friendly projects should be less than other projects. So that business houses shall be encouraged to go more and more for green projects. Some banks are also committed to specifically putting your money to good use. Indian banking sector provides for the creation of jobs, generation of wealth and eradication of poverty, entrepreneurial activity and overall prosperity of the country. The growth of technology has changed banking system all over the world. As Indian banking sector moves to the next stage of technology adoption , it is essential that “green banking” is adopted by every responsible professional institutions. Green banking needed demand each of its activities and functional units to be friendly green environment. A favourable circumstances are available for banks to green their activities. GREEN BANKING Green banking can benefit the environment either by reducing the carbon footprint of consumers or banks. Either a bank or a consumer can conserve paper and benefit the environment. Ideally, a green banking initiative will involve both. Online banking is an example of this. When a bank’s customer goes online, the environmental benefits work both ways. Green banking means combining operational improvements and technology, and changing client habits. To aid the reduction of external carbon emission, banks should finance green technology and pollution reducing projects. Until a few years ago, most traditional banks did not practice green banking or actively seek investment opportunities in environmentally- friendly sectors or businesses. This concept of “Green banking” will be mutually beneficial to the banks, industries but it will also facilitate but it will also facilitate in improving the asset quality of the banks in future. This paper has made an attempt to highlight the major benefits, www.ijmer.in

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confronting challenges, strategic aspects of Green Banking financial products and services offered by the banks in India. METHODS ADOPTING IN GREEN BANKING Online savings account Online savings account and mobile banking is the easiest way that you can do your part to bank green and help the environment. Green banking includes setting up direct deposit to receive your paychecks, receiving electronic statements from your bank and by paying bills online. Paperless statements Sending out bank statements by mails is a big waste of paper. Signing up for online banking at most banks include an option for customers to receive their statements electronically through a secure log-in. Use direct deposit Most employer will give employees the option to receive their paycheck electronically. On-line bill payments Paying bills online is something of a lifestyle change, but it can be done. Telephone bills, cable bills, utility bills, credit card payments and mortgage payments can all be paid electronically. Reward debit and credit cards Some banks have joined up with environment-friendly groups like the sierra club or defenders of wildlife to create reward debit cards and reward credit cards.

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Net banking Online banking is when customers perform most of their banking related functions without visiting the bank, personally REVIEW OF LITERATURE Yadav and Pathak (2013) study the Green Banking approaches opted by private and public bank for environment sustainability. Using case study approach they find that Indian banks have understood the relevance of taking positive steps towards the environment. Moreover results of the study conducted reveals that public sector banks have taken more initiatives as compared private sector with exception of ICICI bank. In private sector only ICICI bank’s approach is a sustainable approach. Vikas Nath et al.,(2014) had an international experience ,review about Green Banking Practices and concluded that the banks should change their routine operations through the adoption of paperless banking, online banking, mobile banking, mass transportation system, green cards made up of recycled plastic and efficient use of resources. Banks should start investigate in low carbon technologies and develop new sustainable products and services that will mitigate the risk of climate change. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY • To understand the evolution of green banking in India. • To know and realize the importance of green banking in India. • To know the emerging trends in green banking in India. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research methodology used in this study is descriptive in nature. For this study data and information has been collected with the help of books, magazines, newspapers, research articles, and e-journals. www.ijmer.in

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EVOLUTION OF GREEN BANKING IN INDIA Every Country gets environmental benefits through Green Banking. An orthodox bank becomes a green bank by directing its core operations toward the betterment of environment. The banking sector can play an intermediary role between economic development and environment protection by promoting environmentally sustainable and socially responsible investment. The concept of green banking was developed in the western countries. It was formally started in 2003 with a view to protecting the environment. Then the Equator principles were launched and were initially adopted by some leading global banks, such as Citigroup Inc, The Royal Bank of Scotland, Westpac Banking Corporation. In March 2009 Congressman Chris Van Hollen of USA introduced a Green bank Act with the aim of establishing a green bank under the ownership of the US government. Green Banking undertakes proactive measures to protect environment and to address climate change challenges while financing along with efficient use of renewable, non-renewable, human and natural resources. The concept of Green Banking took concrete shape in the early 1990’s, but the practicing concept of Green banking existed a long while before, back in 1940’s. It was not based on the extensive use of digital technology. The Green Banking concept resembled more the approaches and principles of Islamic Banking. There was a serious global concern that gave the push to the emergence of Green Banking concept in the 1990’s. This was the discovery by environmental scientists and climatologists of the hole in the protective Ozone layer in the earth’s stratosphere. The hole in the Ozone layer allowed dangerous wavelengths of the sun’s UV rays to enter to the increase in green-house gases, which was an unrelated phenomenon, but which became the main topic of study by environmentalists soon.

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The green marketing has evolved over a period of time. First phase was termed as "Ecological" green marketing, and during this period all marketing activities were concerned to help environment problems and provide remedies for environmental problems. Second phase was "Environmental" green marketing and the focus shifted on clean technology that involved designing of innovative new products, which take care of pollution and waste issues. Third phase was "Sustainable" green marketing. It came into prominence in the late 1990s and early 2000. As resources are limited and human wants are unlimited, it is important for the marketers to utilize the resources efficiently without waste as well as to achieve the organization's objective. So green marketing is inevitable. There is growing interest among the consumers all over the world regarding protection of environment. Worldwide evidence indicates people are concerned about the environment and are changing their behavior. As a result of this, green marketing has emerged which speaks for growing market for sustainable and socially responsible products and services. IMPORTANCE OF GREEN BANKING Initially, a bank checking their client’s environmental worthiness would have been considered as prying into a private business. However, now the perception looks towards how this brings risks to their business. Although the banking and financial institutions are not directly affected by the environmental degradation, there are indirect costs to banks. Banks have reputation risk been haunting these banks unless such initiative are taken. Avoids paper work Paperless banking almost all banks in India are computerized or operate on a core banking solution (CBS). Thus there is ample scope for the banks to adopt paperless or less paper for office correspondence,

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audit, reporting etc. These banks can switch over to electronic correspondence and reporting thereby controlling deforestation. Creating awareness to business people about environment Many

NGOs

and

environmentalists

are

propagating

environment consciousness among the public in general by arranging awareness programs and organizing seminars etc. Banks may associate themselves by sponsoring such programs. Besides, many corporate bodies are organizing similar program in their own line of business such as “free pollution check program” organized by a car manufacturer. Banks may tie with such corporate. These will help to brighten the image of the bank. Loans at comparatively lesser rates Banks can also introduce green bank loans with financial concessions for environment friendly products and projects such as fuel efficient vehicles, green building projects, housing and house furnishing loans to install solar energy system etc. Environmental standards for lending Banks follow environmental standards for lending, is really a good idea and it will make business owners to change their business to environmental friendly which is good for our future generations. EMERGING TRENDS IN GREEN BANKING There has been a growing interest in the development of sustainable and green financial regulation globally. The interest is based on the increasing climate change risk for the financial sector on the one hand and on the other, a need to integrate the financial sector into a transition to a green economy. A regulative approach would be a significant departure from banks’ approach to rely on purely voluntary codes of conduct as it concerns the integration of sustainability issues into their business. Interstingly most of these regulatory approaches www.ijmer.in

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exist in developing and emerging countries such as china, brazil, bangladesh and Nigeria. Industrialised countries can learn from emerging countries than have conducted this step successfully. However, more research is needed to explore why emerging countries follow a regulative approach, what the effect of the financial sustainability regulation are on the industry and sustainable development in the respective countries and what is the barriers and opportunities are for implementing sustainable financial regulation in industrialised countries. Recently, the governor of the bank of England,mark carney, asked the financial sector to examine their financial risks rising from standards assets in the oil and coal sector. That can be allowed a request by the bank of England to analyze climate change-related risks for the insurance sector sector in particular, with regard to their risk profile, and was a response to the findings of the intergovernmental panel on climate change(IPCC) that stated only a small part of the remaining fossil fuel reserves can be burned in order to mitigate climate change ( field et al.2014). this is a rare example of central banks’ and other financial regulators’ intervention in accessing financial risks caused by environmental or sustainability issues. Banks can reduce carbon footprints by adopting the following measures a. Paper-less banking b. Energy consciousness c. Using mass transportation system d. Green buildings CONCLUSION Banks are responsible corporate citizen. Banks believe that every small “GREEN” step taken today would go a long way in building a greener future that each one of them care work towards better global www.ijmer.in

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environment. “Go Green” is an organisation wide initiative that is moving to words banks, the processes and their customers. Banks and financial institutions play a major role to make our planet a better place to live in. Green bank and environmentally responsible banks do not only improve their own standards but also affect socially responsible behaviour of other business. Green Banking is an emerging concept. It is not taking off at very high speed in the developing countries. India is one of the important countries in the world who can contribute much in creating mass awareness about green banking initiatives. In order to contribute better towards sustainable banking, financial institutions and the government will have to make severe changes in their policies and strict steps are needed, if we actually want to practice Green Banking. This concept of “Green Banking” will be mutually beneficial to the banks, industries and the economy. Not only “Green Banking” will ensure the greening of the industries but it will also facilitate in improving the asset quality of the banks in future. References 1.Verma, M.K.2012, Green Banking: A Unique Corporate Social Responsibility of Indian Banks 2.Rajesh &Dileep (2014), “Role of banks in sustainable economic development through green banking” International Journal of Current Research and Academic Review, Vol. 2(12). Rajput, 3.Kaura&Khanna (2013),

“ Indian Banking Sector towards a

Sustainable Growth: A Paradigm Shift” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, Vol. 3(1). 4.www.greenbank.com 5.www.rbi.org.in

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DECLINE AND RESTORATION OF THE OROMO GADA SYSTEM: IN CASE OF ILU ABA BOR, SOUTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA Dula Kefena Faculty of Social Science and Humanities Mettu University, Ethiopia

Wondachew Mitiku Faculty of Social Science and Humanities Mettu University, Ethiopia

Abstract This study conducted entitled “An assessment of the decline and restoration of the Gada system focusing on Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor.” The main objective of this study was to explore the process of the decline and the ways of restoration of the Oromo Gada system and assessing the problem it faces in case of Ilu Aba Bor. To achieve the objective of this study researchers were employed the purposive sampling technique. From districts’ of Ilu Aba Bor zone five of them were selected using purposive sampling technique. The informants were the elders and members of gada assembly from five districts selected by purposive and snowball sampling technique. And the data were collected using in depth interview, open ended questionnaire and document analysis. The data were analyzed using descriptive analysis. Key Terms: Gada system, Ilu Aba Bor, Oromo, Decline, restoration Introduction

1.1.

Background of the study

The Oromo are Cushitic-speaking people living in the horn of Africa and the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia. Despite their geographical desperation in a relatively wider area the Oromo share common cultural heritages and speak the same language, Afaan Oromoo (Melba, 1988). According to Melba the Oromo are divided in to two major groups or Moti Borena and Barentu. Borena was angafa (senior) and www.ijmer.in

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Barentu was Quxusu (junior). These two major groups form major Oromo clan and sub clans. Several sources suggest that the Oromo had common assembly Caffee at Madda Walabu before and after the 16th century (Mohammed; 1990). The Maccaa-Tuulamaa segment of the Oromo is said to have founded Oda Nabee as their new assembly Caffee seat. Oda Nabee, is situated at the place known as Haro Walab. This site became a socio-political and religious center for MaccaaTuulamaa, where the gada rituals were performed preparations for attacks dictated (Mohammed;1990). The Maccaa of present western cluster of the Oromo claim Oda Bisili as their politico-religious center in their Oral traditions (Yasin; 2009). After the period of 16th century the Maccaa segments of the Oromo were regulated by the tuma (community convention which encompasses rules and regulations legislate by Caffee Assembly) made at Oda Bisil. By receiving rules and principles from Oda Bisil assembly, they also applied it to their respective local communities, and where they newly settled. Majority of the present day Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor are sub cluster of Maccaa Oromo. There are also some sub clans of Tulamaa and Karayyuu who are residents in the Zone (CTOIAB, 2006).The Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor are the suns of Tummee. The Oromo people in general and the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor were ruled/administered by the Gada system. According to Muhammad (2004) Gada system is a rule of political, rule of economy, rule of coexistence and rule of culture. “The Gada system has been mentioned as a key to the unique heritage of Oromo political, social and cultural life and its describe cherished by all Oromos. Indeed there is no single institution that focuses on every aspect of Oromo life than the gada system. Obviously, gada is such www.ijmer.in

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a complex and dynamic institution that presenting the whole system is by far beyond the scope of this material though a general picture could be presented to give an overview of this unique traditional African democracy.” Mohammed (2013:12) In another way, Warknehe(2001) describe the gada system as a system in encompasses democracy and equality which has its own leader of administration, politics, social, ritual and issue of peace and security. Likewise, Asmarom (1973) stated “Gada is the concept standing for the whole way of life.” “The Overall Oromo Society was administered through the gada system. Under the system, a group of men forming “classes”, “age sets” or “parties” move through five grades each with eight years long periods which make gada an age grade system. Gada as institution has five cycles. According to Asmarom (1973) “In the institution of the gada cycle, as it is conceptualized here, all the intergenerational rules still apply. The position of a man on the cycle is always five grades ahead of the grade affiliation of his sons.” The system encompasses the entire life of the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor was declined gradually due to external and internal factors. However, the system was restored recently. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to explore the source of the process of decline and the ways of restoration of the Oromo Gada system and assessing the problem it faces in case of Ilu Aba Bor.

1.2. Statement of the problem The wide culture of the Oromo people in general and the culture of Ilu Aba Bor were not well studied. It was not studied and well communicated to the other people of the world so as to learn from an indigenous African democratic system of the Oromo People.

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Though, some scholarly and scientific studies were conducted in other parties of the Oromo people, the culture and history of the people of Ilu Aba Bor, which is the sub-clan of the Maccaa Oromo in particular, was studied in scientific ways. The Oromo gada ruling system which is embedded from their culture was similarly practiced in all entire life of all Oromos. However, due to the large population and large geographical territory some changes may observe. This is mainly because of the diffusion created between the Oromo and other ethnic groups of the country. One of the changes observed in the gada rules and system was the establishment of the administration lead by king which resembles the monarchy (Mohammad 1990 & Warkinehe, 2001). The newly change which observed in the administration of the Oromo gada system believed to have been gradually weakened the system since the territorial expansion of emperor Minilik-II. The study based on the Oromo gada system which was conducted by different scholars such as Mohammad (1990), Warkinehe (2001), and others’ was limited to describe the process of gradual declining of the gada system in relation to the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor differences and similarities in general and in particular. Therefore, this study answered the following basic questions.  What are the major changes occurred in the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor?  What are the causes for the gradual decline of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor?  What is the current status of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor?

1.3.

Objective of the study 1.3.1 General objective

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The main objective of this study was to explore the source of the process of the decline and the ways of restoration of the Oromo Gada system and assessing the problem it faces in case of Ilu Aba Bor. 1.3.2 Specific objectives The specific objectives of the study were:  To assess the major changes occurred in the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor.  To identify the causes of the gradual decline of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor.  To point out the current status of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor. 1.4 The scope of the study The study delimited to the cause of gradual decline of the Oromo gada system and its process of restoration in case of Ilu Aba Bor. 2.

Research Methods

Research design This study was employed descriptive research design to provide a frame work for the collection and analysis of data. Hence, the data collected from the field work using in depth interview, and documentary sources were analyzed by using descriptive analyses. The key informants interviewed were knowledgeable elders. 2.1. Sampling Techniques In this study two methods of sampling were employed. These are purposive sampling and snow ball sampling technique. Using purposive sampling the districts from Ilu Aba Bor such as Mettu, Yayo, Bedelle, Darimu and Bure were selected.

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2.2. Instrument of Data Collection In this study, from primary and secondary sources, data were collected using the instruments such as in-depth interview and document analysis. The elders having deep knowledge were interviewed. Historical and cultural written documents related with the title were organized and analyzed. 2.3. Data analysis After collecting data by using field work, the data were organized, and interpreted in a sound manner. In the study descriptive analysis was employed 3.

Data Presentation and Discussion

The data collected from five districts of Ilu Aba Bor zone through indepth interview and document analysis are presented and discussed in the following manner.

3.1. The Territory of the Nine Ilu (Ilu Aba Bor) The land of the Oromo of Ilu AbaBor was demarcated by the river Yaccii of Jimma, Dhidhessa, in the direction of Wallagga, River Birbir Gallee and found between Gambella and Sothern nations and nationalities. Majority of the territory of Ilu Aba Bor is endowed with natural resources resulted from the cultural knowledge of the Oromo of the area. These natural resources are such as the Indigenous Yayo forests which is registered recently by the UNESCO as 34th world forest spot biosphere reserves part of eastern Afromontane biodiversity hot spot. Furthermore, watersheds such as Sor, Gaba, Birbir, Dhidhessa and others. Waterfalls such as Sor, Aba Bakalle, Guracha, Ilke, Dangwaji, Wabeko and many others.

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3.2.

Structure and organization of Gada of Salgan Iluu (the nine Ilu)

The Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor who is the sub clan of Maccaa Oromo are the sons of Tumme. Tummee had be gotten nine sons. These were Ilu (the elder), Chora, Buno, Nonno, Hurumu, Mettu, Dorani, Supe and Bure. Hence, the term Nine Ilu referred to these nine sons which later referred as the leader of their sub clan. The name “Ilu” was derived from the name of the son of Tumme Ilu and the term Aba Bor was derived from the honorable name given to one of the famous leader of Ilu, Chali Shono. According to the Oromo tradition of the study area, the name Chali has the common respecting name “Aba Bor”. Hence, the name Ilu Aba bor is the derivative of those terms. The Gada system of the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor had the administrative structure Bokku, Tulla Tute, Bata and Shane. The gada practices took place at that of Oda each clan, at the Arada (village) and at the Oda of Ilu Oromo (Oda Dogi). The earlier center for religious, political and social affairs for the Maccaa Oromo including the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor was Oda Bisil. However, as the Oromo people become wider in their number and territory, the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor (the Nine Ilu) established their center around the Sena river, later renamed the river Dogi. The center for Caffee (traditional Oromo assembly) was conducted annually at Oda Dogi or Bakkee Aba Alangaa (the field for traditional gada court).

3.3.

Participants of the Gada Assembly at Oda Dogi

The Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor (the nine Ilu) like the other Oromo living in different parts of Ethiopia ruled by the gada system. The Oromo of the nine Ilu discussed the issues like politics, social, economy and celebrate ritual ceremonies at the Oda Dogi until its interruption due to different www.ijmer.in

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factors. According to the tradition of the Oromo, Oda (the sycamore tree) is sacred. The Oda is more than a generalized symbol of democratic discussion. It has long been sacred meeting ground for the enactment of many Oromo ceremonies which ye- enforce the political philosophy (Aseffa, 1993). Likewise, the Caffee assembly gather at Oda Dogi was fully democratic. The Oda Dogi was found near by the river Dogi. The sons of Ilu (the elder son of Tumme) were Hadhesso (angafa), Saphera quxusuu (junior), Igu, Bacho, Lago, Bibirso, Magela, Bondao and Yayya their territory was in between rivers Gabba and Sakki. The place where the nine sons of Ilu assembled to discuss on issues they needed was known as HaroJame/Birbirsa Jame, later the name changed to bakkee Abbaa Alangaa (the field for gada court). The participants of the Nine Ilu were the representatives’ of the clan leaders/elders. The representatives were nine from Ilu, eight from Chora, seven from Bunno, six from Nonno, five from Hurum, four from Mettu, three from Dorani, two from Supe, One from Bure.The representative from the nine Ilu clan was formerly, forty-five. Hence, the Caffee assembly of the nine Ilu was known as Warra Sagalee Salganii mataa afurtamii shani (the nine votes and forty-five heads). Later, after the third gada since its center was established at Oda Dogi, the number of the participants increased from forty-five to fifty-six. The three representatives from Darimu at the third Caffee assembly, three from Guma at the fourth, and five representatives from Didu Lalo at the fifith assemlbly were participated at Caffee Assembly at Oda Dogi.

3.4. Power transfer in the gada system According to the Oromo gada system the power (Baallii) is transferred democratically and peacefully from one Aba gada (leader of gada) to the next aba gada within in the interval of eight years. This shows that the www.ijmer.in

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modern concept of “periodic election”. The Oromo gada system has five cycles. Each cycle has eight years. All of the five gada cycle has their own Bokku (a wooden or metal scepter).The power transfer in the gada system is based on ability of the elected individuals and the free will of the people. The Abba gadas are elected directly by the people. This shows that system is democratic. According to the key informants, only the power transfer of Qallu (the leader and advisor of traditional belief) is hereditary. The power transfer has ritual celebration conducted after Buta (slaughter of bull) ceremony.

3.5. The role of Aba Gada( gada leader) The aba gadas elected at the age of forty based on ability has the role of leading legislation, responsible for security, executive, solving social problems, Guma reconciliation, charity, accepting and hosting other non-oromos.

3.6. Election Criteria of Aba gada (gada leader) The aba gada elected at the age of forty after developing experiences in the preceding five gada cycles. The criteria that should be fulfilled to be aba gada are patience and having good conduct, free from committing crime, optimistic, hero, healthy, self-reliant, faithful and respected by the people.

3.7. The causes of the decline of the gada system in Ilu Aba Bor According to the explanation of

Warkinehe (2001) and Mohammad

(1990) the major causes and process for gradual declining of the Oromo gada system were the competition among the Oromo’s, and the struggle of the Oromo against the encroachment of the Abyssinians, the introduction of new belief systems and the changes in the mode of lively hood of several Oromo community.

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Like that of the Oromo living in other parts of Ethiopia, the gada system of Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor faces similar problems. According to the key informants the major causes for the decline of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor were; the power conflict among the gada officials and the conquest of emperor Menelik II of the Ethiopian state. Consequently, to the lessor amount the introduction of new faith and religion contributed to the decline of the gada system. Starting from long centuries up to the early period of the conquest of emperor Menelik II, the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor ruled by democratic and egalitarian gada system, however, because of the contact that the Oromo officials made with the Absyinian rulers forced them to share the experiences to establish monarchical states. Hence, in the history of the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor the king ship system emerged as a new changes. Immediately, after the territorial expansion of Menelik II, the power conflict arose between the son of Chali Shono, Wachila Chali and Fatansa Ilu. Fatansa Ilu, the former gada official at Oda Dogi killed Wachila Chali who claimed the power of his father and seize the power of Aba Gada. This system of power transfer is the new situation in the tradition of the Oromo of the study area, because, power transfer was neither by force nor by hereditary. This situation forced his son Bungul Wachilaa aligned with Tasama Nadew who was the war lord of emperor Menelik-II, who established his center at Gore. This political disorder created among the Oromo officials paved the way for the overcoming of the non-Oromo political system which is autocratic ruling system that gradually weakened the democratic governance of the Oromo. The second and the big cause for the decline of the Oromo gada system was the territorial expansion of Emperor Menelik-II. The Oromo of Ilu Aba Bordid not submitted to the armed forces of Menelik peacefully. The Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor who were not equipped with the modern

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armament fought in different six fronts through Tobba, Bunno, Dega, Supe and Bure. Especially, the war in Bure front was brutal. The war thought the conquers to be systematic so as to design strategy to distract the Oromo ruling system and substituting their own autocratic ruling system that gradually destroy and distort the culture of the Oromo. The ruling system of emperor Menelik designed the strategy that resembles “self-governance” and creating big relationship with Ethiopian Orthodox church. In his systematic governance the used the moto “Yehagerun Serdo Bahageru Bare” which means digging the root of the grass of the nation using the oxen of the country. They understood that it is easy to avoid the ruling system of the local people temporarily using the former ruling structure of the Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor such as Shanee, Abbaa Alagaa, Tuullaa, Qaroo and others. They had not immediately abolished their political, social and system of their resource management. This was systematically halting the apprise from the former local gada officials. Using the structure they collect taxes from the people. The former gada officials ignoring their ruling system, they involved in the newly arrived ruling system and gave their children to the Menelik officials to be baptized as their son of faith. They teach those children the new values and norms.

3.8. Fatansa Ilu and the Gada of the Nine Ilu (1875-1889) According to the key informants, before being a leader of the nine Ilu, Fatansa, was one of the member of the gada officials of the nine Ilu. Though, Fantansa had not accept recognition as it broken rules of the gada administration while he became the leader The cause for conflict between Bungul Wachila and Fatansa was to hold political position. To revenge against Fatansa,BungulWachilaafter taking cavalry training together with the army of www.ijmer.in

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establishing their base for six months on Arjo marched on the force of Fatansa and meet him on the battle field of Qarsa Gawo Gilla (Gogilla). The force of Tasama and BungulWachila supported by gun get the upper hand over Fatansa Ilu. Then Fatansa escape to Baroyi at a local village Alga Guracha andfinaly, died because of disease. The military force lead by Dajjazmach Beshii Aboye based on Jimma crossing Bedelle to support the force of Tasamma Nadew against Fatansa Ilu. The victory at Qarsa Gogilla that Tasamma Nadew got over the forces of Fatansa Ilu secures to establish permanent base at Gore and design the administrative structure of his regime. RasTasamma provided twenty guns for Fatansa Ilu and sixteen gun for Dima Tambo. RasTasamma told to Fatansa Ilu, that he had more gun than his deputy and convinced himhe had superior power than Dima Tambo. Then, ras Tasamma succeeded in creating conflict ideas between the two leaders of Ilu Oromo’s. The advice of Tasamma targeted systematically weakening the power of the Oromos so as not to allied against the ruling system of emperor Menilk. Finally, Tasamma Nadew, to avoid the last oppose, poisoned and killed Dimma Tambo. However, Bungul Wachila who claimed the power of his father sent to Adowa to fight against Italian colonial aggression in 1896. After the victory of Adowa, Bungul Wachila rewarded the position of Qegnazemach. Since then, neither Fatansa Ilu nor BungulWachila regain the opportunity of leading their Oromo relatives. This time was the turning point in the history of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor. Tasamma Nadew Moved his forces from Jiren (Jimma) to Bunnno Bedelle. The then Aba Gada of Bunno Oromo clan, Shuramu Abba Wogga, defended his land and community from the forces of neftegna (rulers holding gun). However, the forces of Menilik led by Tasamma Nadew got the upper hand because of the European weapons. Shuramu

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rebelled against the forces of his enemy, escape from the area to Gura Farda. The neftegna rulers tried to systematically seize their land and avoiding their ruling gada system by baptizing and changing his name to Hayilemariam and rewarded the high position of neftegnaFitawurari (the leader of conquest) Shuramu Aba woga, never accept the imperial ruling system, because, his interest was self-governance. He continued his fighting against the imperial ruling system. Lastly, the forces of neftegna hang down Shuramu Aba Woga in Bedelle. The assassination of Shuramu Aba Woga also facilitates the victory of the imperial regime over Fatansa Ilu not to be allied collaboratively over their common enemy.

3.9. Restoration of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor The democratic and egalitarian gada ruling and system of Ilu Aba Borbgan to decline since the conquest of the Abyssinian. However, the system continued until the beginning of emperor Haile Sellassie (1933).Even though, weakened because of different factors, the values, principles and rules of the gada system was not diaper from the minds of the elders of the Oromo people. The process of restoring the practices of Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor started in the year 2007 in Mettu district of Kodo hiri village where the intangible heritage of the Oromo people found. The intangible heritage is referred as Irrecha. Irrecha is a traditional thanks giving ceremony annually celebrate during the months of November and March. The ritual practice conducted on River and on mountain by holding green flowering parts of plants. Irrecha is one of the trait and practice of the gada system. In the Oromo gada system every Caffee assembly concluded by the ritual ceremony of Irrecha. The restoration of The Gada system of Ilu Aba Bor officially celebrated in November, 2015 in the historical and cultural center of Oda Dogi which is currently found in the center of the UNESCO registered forest www.ijmer.in

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of Yayo. This indigenous natural forest is preserved for centuries mainly due to the rules and indigenous knowledge of the people which is directly related with rules of Oromo gada system. The objectives of the restoration of the gada system and foundation of the assembly of the nine Ilu Oromo are to sustain the rules, values and knowledge of the gada system. Currently the members of the assembly are 140 from elders, youth, scholars, women and children. This organization is according to the principle of the gada classes. According to rules of gada, all generation of the Oromo should be organized in the gada system. The challenges of the restoration of the Oromo gada system of Ilu Aba Bor are; the diffusion of the traits of culture of the Oromo with others’ culture make the application of the values and rules of gada difficult, lack of source of income for the assembly and absence of working offices, and lac of sustainable support from the concerned body. 4. Conclusion It is hoped that this paper will result in an increased understanding of how the Ilu Oromo gada system declined. The Oromo society has Gada system in which they organized and lead their political, social, economical, cultural and religious issues in general. The Ilu Oromo- one of the clan also shared the system to their community and they were ruling themselves. But gradually the gada system of Ilu Oromo had been declined and this indigenous administrative system became forgotten. So this paper emphasized on analyzing how Ilu Abba Bor Oromo gada system become declined and its restoration. The general objective of this research is exploring the process of gada system declination and the way of its restoration in case of Ilu Aba Bor.

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As data collected from the respondent and analyzed indicates, Ilu Aba Bor Oromo gada system was established due to the expansion of Oromo administrative system to different Caffee (their center of Assembly). Ilu Aba Bor Oromo (the clan who is living in Ilu Aba Bor zone of Oromia) had been expanded from Oda Bisil center and made their center Oda Dogi which is situated at Yayo district locally known as Dire Aba Alanga. Oromo of Ilu Aba Bor established their gada system which was institutional and has structure composed of Ilu sub-clans. Ilu Subclans are nine in number and known as salgan Ilu. And their gada system leaders had been assigned by representing these nine sub-clans and were leading the community. As data indicated, after a time the system declined because of two main causes. The first cause had been the conflict created among the gada leaders, whereas the second cause was conquest of Empire Minilik-II. References 

Alamayehu Hayilee (2007). Sirna Gadaa: Siyaasa Oromoo Tuulama. Biiroo Aadaa fi Turizimii Finfinnee.



Oromiyaa.

.

1992).

Lyane,

Rienner,

Asmerom Legesse(1973). Gadaa: Three approaches to the study of African Society, New



Duraa

Asafaa Jalata (1993). Oromia and Ethiopia State Formation and Ethino-national Conflict, (1868publisher Bolder& London.



Maxxannsa

York.

Diribii Damise Bokkuu (2012). Ilaalcha Oromoo, Biirroo Aadaa, Seenaafi Amantaa Oromoo. Finfinnee.



Geda Melba (1988). An Introduction to the History of the Oromo People. Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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

Lambert, B. (1983). Oromo Religion; Myths and Rites of the Western Oromo of Ethiopia an attempt to understand, Berline, Dietrich Remier Verlag.



Mohammed Ali (2013). Oromo Politics: Reflections & Statements. Addis Ababa: United printers publication.



Mohammed Hassen.(1990).The Oromo of Ethiopia; 1570-1860. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

A History,



Muhammad Sayid (2004). Seenaafi Qabsoo Oromootaa. HY International Printer.



Warqineh Kalbessa (2001).Traditional Oromo Attitude towards the environment; An argument for development. OSSREA, Addis Ababa.



Envronmentally

Sound

Wondachew Mitiku (2013). The Knowledge on forest resource Management practice, Darimu District Oromo Community. Addis Ababa University, Lambert Publishing.



Yasin Mohammed. (2009). A history of Ilu Abba Bora, Ethiopia, Ca, 1889-1991. Addis Dissertation.

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Ababa

University.

Unpublished

Ph.D.

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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN EFL CLASSROOM: HOSSANA COLLEGE OF TEACHERS EDUCATION IN FOCUS Ermias Molito Telore Wachemo University, Hossana, Ethiopia & PhD Research Scholar in English Andhra University,Visakhapatnam Abstract The main purpose of this study was to investigate the practice of cooperative learning in EFL classroom in Hosana college of Teachers Education. To deal with the problem, three research questions were formulated. These questions focused on EFL teachers and trainees’ awareness of practicing CL techniques, implementation of various CL techniques in EFL classroom, and factors inhibiting the application of CL. To conduct the study, descriptive method was employed. It was carried out in Southern Nation Nationalities People Region (SNNPR) and the only Hosana college of Teachers Education. Accordingly the data collected from all sixty third year trainee teachers of English and from all six EFL trainer teachers in the college. In the selection of this sample population, purposive sampling was used. Observation and questionnaire were the main data gathering instruments. Interview was also conducted. Interview and open-ended questionnaire were analyzed qualitatively. The data collected by close-ended questionnaire, and classroom observation were analyzed by using frequency counts and percentages. The findings of the study reveal that trainer teachers were found to have not adequate awareness to practice various CL activities particularly, in preparing students to CL, assigning students in appropriate groups, designing relevant tasks, monitoring and evaluating CL activities. The magnitude of practicing a variety of CL techniques in EFL classroom of the college was low. Because, the most commonly used CL technique was group discussion. The other CL techniques were practiced less frequently. Among the factors hindering the effective practice of CL, trainee teachers reluctance, inadequacy of instructional materials, lack of continuous training were the major ones. Finally, in order to minimize the hindering factors, based on the major findings some recommendations such as the awareness of teachers and students in practicing CL need to be improved and in www.ijmer.in

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order to apply CL techniques effectively, EFL teachers need to get continuous training on how to practice them were forwarded by the researcher of this study. Key Terms: Cooperative learning, Implementation, Trainer Teachers, Trainee Teachers 1. Background of the study The ultimate goal of language teaching and learning is to enable learners to use the language in real- communication. To achieve this, a number of scholars have tried to investigate appropriate approaches and methods in language pedagogy. Among these, grammartranslation, direct method, and audio-lingual method are good examples of structural (traditional) approaches. The traditional approach was concerned with selecting lists of linguistic features such as grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary as well as experiential contents such as topics and themes. In this approach, the focus tended to be on the product or results on the teaching and learning process (Wilkins, 1972 cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001). However, when the drawbacks of the traditional language teaching revealed clearly, linguists and scholars have forced to investigate the alternative approach which is communicative language teaching approach. With the change of people’s views on language teaching methodology, and learner contributions, communicative language teaching approach is to be the new focus (Littlewood, 1981; Widdowson , 1978 & Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Cooperative learning is a version of communicative language learning. Because it is an instructional method in which students are grouped in small learning teams and work in cooperation with each other to solve a common problem or to perform task (Johnson and Johnson, 1990). They further stated that students learn more through group work activities when they interact with each other, exchange information and knowledge, and work as a team to achieve the learning goals. This learning approach is learnercentered which encourages students to cooperate and collaborate with each other in achieving their learning outcomes. Cohn, (1994) stated that students working together in small group helps every one to participate on a collective task. Currently, there are a number of colleges that carryout Teachers Education in Ethiopia. As indicated in the Ethiopian education and www.ijmer.in

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training policy document, the previous curriculum design and instructional process of teacher education colleges suffered from traditional approach. In this approach the teacher was the center of teaching learning process. To this effect, teacher education institutions have a central position to make changes and to spread new ideas or to change some of the harmful models within the institution as well as communities (MOE, 2003). In second language learning, theories propose several advantages for cooperative learning: increased student talk, more varied talk, more relaxed atmosphere, greater motivation, more negotiation of meaning, and increased amounts of comprehensible input (kagan,1992). Recently, cooperative learning seems to become one of the active learning strategies and is an increasingly used component of students learning in Hosana College of Teachers Education. However, although most research findings point out the positive influence of cooperative learning on academic achievements, social behavior, and affective development, many English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers still find difficulty incorporating this system of instructional method in their classroom. Thus, the implementation of cooperative learning depends upon the knowledge and feeling of trainees and trainer teachers. According to Johnson & Johnson, (1990) many teachers believe that they are implementing cooperative learning when in fact they are missing the essence. From the above discussion, one can easily understand that cooperative learning is one aspects of active learning that plays a significant role so as to develop trainees’ communication (interaction) through target language in the teaching-learning process. Therefore, this study aims to try to investigate the implementation of cooperative learning in EFL classroom at Hosana College of Teachers’ Education. Teacher education is based on the assumption the students will eventually teach in the way that they were taught (Johnson, 1995). Since these students are studying to become teachers, it is important early in their careers to immerse the notion of learner-centered education because group-based cooperative learning gives more opportunities for interaction among students in the teaching-learning process. However, the teaching experience of the researcher of this study at one College in Southern Region confirmed the low practice of cooperative learning. This low implementation of cooperative learning in EFL www.ijmer.in

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classes may be the result of various factors. Effective practice of cooperative learning requires the teachers’ know-how towards it, learners’ involvement in practice of it, appropriately designed EFL teaching materials, the prevalence of conducive environment to implement it. With regard to the above mentioned assumptions, the studies which have been conducted on high schools are not comprehensive. For instance, the studies by Berhanu G/Michael (2000) tried to see cooperative learning on group organization in grade 11, and Seifu W/yohannes (2005) cooperative learning promoting speaking skill in grade 9 were limited to secondary schools. 1.2. The Objective of the Study The objective of this study is to investigate the implementation of cooperative learning in EFL classrooms of the college. To this effect, answers are sought to the following questions: 

Are EFL teachers and trainees aware of the practicing cooperative learning?



Do EFL trainer teachers and trainee teachers practice various cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom?



What are the hindrances to the implementation of cooperative learning?

1.3. Scope of the Study Among the four governmental Teachers Education Colleges found in Southern Nation Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR) namely: Awassa, Arbaminch, Bonga and Hosana Colleges of Teachers Education, this study is delimited to Hosana College of Teachers’ Education. The researcher has preferred this College on the basis of convenience to the researcher with respect of the accessibility to gather data. Moreover, the focus of this study is confined on implementation of cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom at third year EFL trainees.

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2. Research Methodology and procedures 2.1. Sample Population and Sampling Procedures 2.1.1 Participants of the study According to the information obtained from the language department, in the college there were six EFL teachers and sixty third year English majoring trainee teachers. Hence, for the purpose of the study all EFL teachers and all third year EFL trainee teachers were selected. The third year trainee teachers were selected based on the fact that they have more experience than first and second year trainees who have stayed only for a semester and three semesters. 2.1.2 Sampling Procedures Purposive sampling technique was employed in the study. There are four Colleges of Teachers Education in Southern Nation Nationalities People Region (SNNPR). Among these Colleges, Hosana College of Teachers’ Education was purposely selected. Similarly, the sample year of the study and sample department were selected by using purposive sampling. Moreover, the sample trainer teachers and trainee teachers for interview were selected by using purposive sampling. Two trainer teachers were selected and interviewed for they were teaching major courses of EFL at third year level. In the same way, four trainee teachers were purposely selected in order to get relevant information on the practice of cooperative learning. 2..2 Data Gathering Instruments The main data gathering instrument in this study were classroom observation and questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed for both trainer teachers and trainee teachers. Moreover, interview was used to obtain information on the implementation of cooperative learning in EFL classes. 2.2.1. Classroom Observation To obtain first hand information during classroom instruction on the practice of cooperative learning techniques structured observation was used. Observation is useful to indicate how the lesson is divided into various activities such as: group work, individual work, role playing, discussion and pair works (Koul,1996). Based on Johnsons' stages of implementing cooperative learning and review of the related literature, www.ijmer.in

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a structured observation check-list was designed to gather information from trainer teachers’ activities and trainee teachers’ activities at different stages (preparation for CL, monitoring and evaluating group work activities) of the lessons. For the observation purpose, two trainer teachers who were giving EFL courses for third year trainees were purposely selected. After that three different lessons of each trainer teacher were observed by using a check-list each time and marking tick ( ) a certain trainer teachers or trainee teachers activity. Thus, a total of six lesson periods were observed and the frequency of each activity in different stages of the lessons was indicated out of six. Since the classes were two the observation was made by the researcher of the study. 2.2.2 Questionnaire The other main data gathering instrument, questionnaire was adapted from Berhanu G/Micheal (2000) and review of the related literature. The rationale behind adapting from the aforementioned researcher’s work was for there is similarity between the areas of study. Accordingly, the questionnaire prepared for trainer teachers had three parts. The first part was on awareness of cooperative learning, the second part was on the practice of various cooperative learning techniques, and in the final section, they were asked to reflect on factors affecting the implementation of cooperative learning. Similarly, the trainee teachers’ questionnaire had three parts on the following themes: the awareness of cooperative learning, the practice of various cooperative learning techniques and factors affecting the implementation of cooperative learning. With respect to this, the questionnaires were completed by all EFL trainer teachers and by all third year trainee teachers of EFL. The questionnaire for the trainee teachers was not translated into Amharic on the assumption that they could understand the English version. Moreover, the questionnaires were administered by the researcher of this study from the very start to the completion. 2.2.3. Interview In this study, interview was also conducted to collect information about the implementation of cooperative language learning in EFL classroom. According to Koul (1996), interviewing is necessary to get deep feelings and values or how people interpret the world around them, and past events that are impossible to replicate. Hence, interview was conducted www.ijmer.in

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with two purposely selected teachers who gave EFL courses for 3rd year EFL trainees and four 3rd year English trainees by using semistructured interview questions. The interview was conducted in English for both teachers and students and supported by audioequipment (tape-recorder) in order to avoid loses of information. 2.3. Procedures of Data Gathering Continuous classroom observation was conducted in purposively selected EFL course periods. The date and the period with the trainer teachers for observation was arranged .Two purposively selected EFL course trainer teachers were observed. Questionnaires which were designed for both trainer teachers and trainee teachers were distributed to get relevant information. All third year trainees who were majoring in English and all the trainer teachers were taken for distributing questionnaire. The other data gathering instrument, interview, was used to get some live information about implementation of cooperative learning in EFL classroom. The audio-recording was used during the interview. Among the EFL teachers two of them who gave English courses for selected EFL trainees and four trainees were interviewed. The researcher of this study was the interviewer and he was expected to explain and clarify the purpose of the research and each question. Both trainer teachers and trainee teachers were interviewed in English. Because, the trainers and trainees were EFL teachers and prospective EFL teachers respectively, using English for interviewing was appropriate. Finally, two EFL teaching materials were overviewed to see their contribution in implementing cooperative learning. 2.4. Methods of Data Analysis After the collection of data, different statistical tools were used to analyze them. Data collected by close-ended questionnaire and structured classroom observation were analyzed using frequency counts and percentages. On the other hand, the data gathered by open-ended questionnaire, interview and overview of two EFL modules were analyzed qualitatively. 3. Results and Discussions

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3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the following three areas of focus in implementing cooperative learning in EFL classes. These are: 

The awareness of teachers and students about practicing cooperative learning.



Practicing the classrooms.



Factors inhibiting the application of CL in EFL classrooms.

cooperative

learning

techniques

in

EFL

Under these headings, the data gathered by the four instruments (questionnaire, classroom observation, and interview) were presented and discussed after collecting them according to their relationships and relevance to the point of discussion. 3.1 Data from Trainer Teachers Questionnaire 3.1.1. Trainer Teachers Awareness of Practicing CL in EFL Classroom. The following data was gathered from trainer teachers though questionnaire which focuses on their understanding of cooperative learning, familiarity with cooperative learning, experience in preparing students for cooperative learning, experience on group formation, experiences in designing cooperative learning activities and awareness on monitoring cooperative group work. According to the data, all of the respondents replied that cooperative learning is an instructional method in which students at various performance levels work together towards a common goal. This shows that the majority of teachers have awareness about the concept of cooperative learning. With regard to the method of assign students in groups to implement cooperative learning, half of the trainer teachers reported that they employed teacher-selected group. On the other hand, half of them also replied that they assigned students in groups randomly. This shows that trainer teachers did not allow students self-selection groups. [However, Jacobs, and Hall (1994) stated that most experts on cooperative learning suggest that teacher-selected groups is advisable, at least until students become proficient at collaboration. Because www.ijmer.in

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teacher-selected groups usually aim to achieve heterogeneous. Such a mix promotes peer tutoring, helps to break down barriers among different types of students, and encourages on-task behaviors. Moreover, in creating teacher-assigned teams, factors to consider include language proficiency, first language, sex, race, and diligence. Moreover, research on cooperative learning states that mixed groups promote student learning. Larson and Keiper (2007:192) explained “research studies consistently find that high- and low- ability students learn and benefit from working in mixed-ability groups. How you mix depend on how well you know your students, and on the task you are assigning.” Regarding designing cooperative learning activities two of the respondents frequently design cooperative group activities to ensure all group members involvement during cooperative group work. On the other hand, two of them also responded that they sometimes designcooperative group activities while the others reported that they rarely prepare cooperative group activities. However, during the classroom observation the researcher realized that majority of the trainer teachers did not design cooperative learning activities. Moreover, the data revealed that majority of trainer teachers admitted that the methods of evaluation of cooperative group work were mainly focused on the product of the group work. In other words, the way of evaluating cooperative group work focuses on what the students do rather than how they do their group tasks. 3.1.2. The Practice of Cooperative Learning Techniques in EFL Classrooms

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Table .1. The Extent to which CL Techniques have been practiced in EFL Classroom (as rated by Trainer Teachers). Instructional techniques No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Always Freq Jigsaw Group investigation Learning together/learning circles Think-pair-share Drama Simulations Role playing Debates Lecture Question and answer 1

Usually Freq 2 4 1 2 1

Responses Sometimes Freq 4 1 2 5 2 2 4 5

Rarely Freq 1 3

Not at all Freq 1

2 1 1 1

2 1

6 5

In Table 1, ten different instructional techniques were provided as representatives of either active, cooperative learning or traditional teacher-centered techniques. Accordingly, the responses of trainer teachers toward these techniques of teaching were presented as follows. The active or cooperative learning techniques provided for the respondents to provide information on the extent to which they are practicing cooperative learning techniques in their teaching. As indicated in the Table 4.9., four of the respondents widely used technique of cooperative learning was learning together (learning circles). www.ijmer.in

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According to the trainer teachers’ responses, the techniques that were sometimes employed in EFL classrooms were think-pair-share, debate, Jigsaw, and role playing respectively. The other instructional techniques that were provided as cooperative learning techniques such as drama, group investigation, and simulations were rarely employed as indicated in the above table. This shows that these techniques were used infrequently by trainer teachers in EFL classrooms. In the same table, the teacher-centered techniques were also provided for the respondents such as lecture, and question and answer. Accordingly, all of the respondents reported that they were usually employing both lecture and question and answer techniques. From the above discussion we could deduce that the only learning together was frequently practiced techniques. However, the other techniques like think-pair-share, debate, and jigsaw were sometimes practiced. This shows that learners might not get various opportunities to enhance their communicative competence. In order to facilitate language acquisition, students need much practice. So, teachers must ensure classroom interactions through these techniques to facilitate English language acquisition. With this respect, Previdi (1999) stated that several techniques from cooperative learning facilitate interactions among students in the course. Two examples of these are “think-pair-share and Jigsaw reading. Think-pair-share is a technique in which students are given a question or problem to solve. Fist, students are given time to think individually about the solution. Then they work in Pairs and compare solutions. Finally, each pair shares its solution with the class. However, the classroom observations revealed that trainer teacher did not practice frequently various techniques to encourage learners’ authority in EFL classroom. In general, based on this result it may be inferred that majority of trainer teachers are practicing few techniques to enhance trainee teachers interaction. 3.1.3. Factors Inhibiting the Implementation of Cooperative Learning in EFL Classroom The following table shows factors that inhabit the implementation of CL in EFL classroom.

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Table .2: Factors inhibit the practice of cooperative learning as viewed by trainer teachers Key: SA: Strongly Agree

A: Agree

D: Disagree SD: Strongly disagree

No

Items

1

My tendency towards the traditional lecture method has affected the implementation of CL in teaching. There are too many students in my class so that it is impossible to implement cooperative group learning. It is difficult to implement CL effectively due to the lack of welldeveloped training modules. It is difficult to evaluate students fairly when using cooperative group work . Cooperative group activities take too much time. The physical set up of the class is an obstacle to practice CL. In cooperative group work, bright learners are doing all the work and slow learners leave group work to bright learners. I do not effectively implement CL due to lack of adequate training. Students are competitive and prefer individual work than CL. Students care about one another. Students are teacher dependent. Students are able to overcome problems and difficulties without recourse to the teacher. Students are open-minded, flexible and receptive to new ideas. Students are resistant to work in cooperative group. Students listen to each other .

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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SA Freq

A Freq 4

D Freq 2

SD Freq

5

1

4

2

3

3

2 2 4

3 3 2

1

2 2 3 3 1

2 3 3 3 5

2 1

3 3 4

3 3 2

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As presented in Table 2, majority of the respondents agree on the assumption that the tendency of trainer teachers to the traditional lecture method has affected the implementation of cooperative learning. Gregory and Thorley (1994) stated that students also feel much more conformable hearing the teacher presents the important facts instead of having to sort out what is important. A common fear among students is that all the group members will be wrong leading to failure. Hence, in such situation instructors should explain the rational for using CL, describes its benefits, and the results typically found from using this method before beginning their lesson. In relation to the problem of large class size, all of the trainer teachers claimed that large class size was not the serious problems to inhibit the implementation of cooperative learning in EFL classrooms. This shows that the accommodation capacity of classroom at Hosana college of Teachers education is not obstacle to practice CL techniques. The researcher also confirmed this during his classroom observations that the average numbers of trainee teacher in each class were 29-30. [The other problem that is raised as an inhabiting factor for the implementation of CL was lack of well-developed training modules for EFL courses. While four of trainer teachers agreed on the assumption of lack of well-developed EFL courses modules were the serious problems to implement cooperative learning in their EFL classrooms, two of them refused to accept this assumption. From the above data, it can be said that lack of well-developed EFL training modules in EFL courses was one of the major problems. Therefore, it is clear that different curriculum materials in the teachers’ Education colleges should be developed in such a way that trainee teachers could actively involved in the lessons and practice various CL techniques. In relation to this, IrWin,(1985) cited in Richards and Rodgers(2001) noted that the practices of cooperative learning techniques require teachers to prepare a set of handouts, which create independence among students and provide a basis and reason for their working together. The problem of evaluating the progress of each trainee while implementing cooperative learning was the other factor reported in the questionnaire by half of the trainer teachers agree as a factor inhibits www.ijmer.in

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the practice of cooperative learning. Whereas half of them refused this assumption as a inhibiting factor in the practice of cooperative learning. This shows that half of the trainer teachers believe as evaluating learners learning process during cooperative learning is very difficult. Reece and walker (2003) stated that getting assessment right is critical in cooperative learning. They suggested that the problem, which arises as a result of assessing cooperative group work, could be resolved by developing criteria for doing assessment tasks and the criteria of marking as explicit as possible. The other problem that provided as a factor which inhibits the practice of cooperative learning was cooperative group activities take too much time, two of the respondents agree as a problem, whereas four of the respondents refused this assumption. With this respect, Gregory and Thorley (1994) stated that students need time to work together to reach a consensus and give opportunity for minority to be actively involved in the class. However, teachers fear a loss other topics when they practice cooperative learning. Because when they utilize cooperative learning techniques, group interactions often take longer time than simple lectures. Also, the availability of suitable classroom arrangement is the other possible factor that may facilitate or inhibit the application of CL. With this respect, four of the respondents (trainer teachers) did not consider the classroom environment as the major factor that hinders the implementation of CL in EFL classroom at Hosana College of Teachers Education While, two of trainer teachers consider the classroom physical set up was an obstacle for the implementation of cooperative learning techniques. Hence, according to the majority of respondents the classroom setting was not an obstacle for implementing cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom. Because the chairs of the classrooms were moveable; as a result, the teacher was able to put his/her students in different groups and could move around in the room to assist or monitor the groups. The other argument for not effectively using cooperative learning techniques was the dependency of slow students on the bright students, which was agreed by two trainer teachers. Many trainer teachers and www.ijmer.in

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trainee teachers in the interview indicated that due to students lack of motivation and less commitment, many trainee teachers wanted their group assignments to be carried out by one or a few of competent and responsible students. They further explained that most trainee teachers were likely to remain silent when the teacher put them for group discussions and prefer to listen to few group members who have believed to have necessary knowledge and courage to perform the group task. Moreover, as the researcher observed the EFL classrooms, active students took all responsibility of the group discussion. The researcher did not see any action from teachers’ side to encourage slow students to be active participant in group discussion. Hence, it can be said that the dependency of slow students on bright student is one of the inhibiting factor in the implementation of cooperative learning in EFL classroom. According to Aggarwal (1998), while many trainer teachers would like to include cooperative group work in their teaching learning process, there is often hesitation because of unfavorable experiences when groups quarrel and have failed to complete the tasks, left the task to one or a few students. Furthermore, lack of adequate training as one of the possible factors that may hinder the effective implementation of CL was raised. Accordingly, the majority of trainer teachers refused to accept the lack of training on CL as problem to the practice of CL techniques in EFL classroom while two of the respondents claimed that they did not get adequate training on the issue. Palmer, Peter and Streetman (2003), claimed that in order for CL to be utilized in the classroom, instructors must receive training to be proficient in implementing the techniques. The researcher classroom observations also confirmed that the teachers should get training to practice cooperative learning in EFL classroom effectively. From an open ended question in teachers’ questionnaire regarding factors inhibiting the implementation of cooperative learning, their direct responses are presented as follows:  The problems are basically emanated from the students’ lack of such active-learning experience/background at their high schools.  The most common challenges during the implementation of cooperative learning techniques are lack of taking equal responsibility towards their task, lack of language www.ijmer.in

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skills/communicative competence to express their ideas, and lack of experience regarding cooperative work.  Some learners’ resistance/reluctance to form groups quickly and having little interest to take part in the cooperative learning is also the other challenge.  Lack of awareness regarding the benefits and students who have come from different socio-cultural areas do not work cooperatively. 3.2. Data from Trainee Teachers Questionnaire 3.2.1 Trainee Teachers Awareness of practicing CL Table 3. Trainee Teachers Understanding of Cooperative Learning No

Item and alternatives

1

How do learning?

you

understand

Frequency

%

cooperative

a, It is having students sit side by side at 6 the same table to talk to each other

10

b, It is assigning a task to a group in which 12 one or two group members do the work and others get equal credit

20

c, It is an instructional method in which 42 students at various performance level work together towards a common goal.

70

As indicated in the above Table 3, 70% of the respondents reported that they understood cooperative learning as an instructional method in which students at various performance levels work together to achieve a common goal. Whereas 20% of respondents replied that cooperative learning is assigning a task to a group in which one or two group member do the work and the others get equal credit, and 10% of them reported that cooperative learning is having students sit side by side at the same table to talk each other.

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Table 4. Trainee Teachers Familiarity with Cooperative Learning No 2

3

Item and alternatives Did you get any training in the college on how to learn cooperatively instead of passively listening instructor lecture? a, Yes b, No If your response to question ‘2’ is ‘yes’, the contribution of training to practice cooperative learning is a, High b, Moderate c, Low

Frequency

%

28 32

46.7% 53.3%

12 9 7

42.9% 32.1% 25%

The above Table indicates that the majority of the respondents, majority of the respondant reported that they did not get any orientation about cooperative learning. On the other hand, 46.7% of them replied that they got orientation on how to learn actively in EFL classroom. This shows that the majority of the trainee teachers have to get orientation on how they could be involved in cooperative group activities. Similarly, 42.9% of those who said they had taken training reported it has high importance in their cooperative group activities while 32.1% of them replied that its importance is moderate and 25% of them reported that it has low importance. With this respect, literatures stress that learner’s orientation before introducing cooperative learning activity is very important. Table 5: Trainee Teachers Experience in Preparing for CL by Their Teachers Alternatives No Item Yes No

4

Do your instructors inform you why they are made to participate in cooperative group works before starting the lesson?

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Frequen cy 41

% 68.3

Frequen cy 19

% 31 .7

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As indicated in the above Table, 68.3% of trainee teachers reported that students have been informed about the rationale of using cooperative group work before they were involved in group work by their instructors. However, 31.7% of trainee teachers refused this assumption. With this respect, Johnson and Johnson (2002) explained that when teachers decide to implement cooperative learning, the first thing will be planning and making ready the classroom and students for groupbased cooperative learning. Hence, the information from trainer teaches and trainee teachers revealed that before starting a cooperative learning activity, learners were informed about the rationale of practicing cooperative learning techniques by their instructors. However, as the researcher observed EFL classrooms, instructors only informed their students to be in groups and gave exercise for discussion without explaining the rationale of cooperative learning. Jacobs and Hall (1994) claimed that cooperative learning is more than just putting students into groups and giving them something to do. Table 6: Trainee Teachers Experience on Group Formation Alternative/respondents Teachers Random Student No Items selected select Freque % Frequ % Freque % ncy ency ncy 4 The method of 25 41.7 32 53. 3 5 assigning 3 student in groups to implement CL is As presented in the above table item 4, the method of assigning students in groups to practice cooperative learning, majority of the respondents reported randomly-selected while 41.7% replied teacherselected. Few of the respondents 5% reported that student-self selection was employed. As Table 7. Types of CL Groups (rated by Students)

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No Item 5

Informal group

Formal group

Base groups

Which Frequency % Frequency type of CL 27 45 28 group is familiar in your classroom?

%

Frequency %

46.7 5

8.33

Trainee teachers were also asked to provide information about the type of cooperative learning group which was familiar in their class 48.7% of the respondents reported formal groups while 45% of them answered informal groups. Only 8.5% of the respondents reported base-group. As we discussed in the above (page__) the combination of informal, formal and base-group is advisable. Table 7,Trainee Teachers Experience in Designing CL Activities No

6

Item

Responses Always

Sometim es

Rarely

Never

Fr eq

%

Fr eq

%

Fre q

%

Fre q

%

18. 3

29

81. 7

-

-

-

-

How often do your 11 instructors design cooperative group activities to ensure that all your group members actively work together?

With regard to designing cooperative group activities to ensure all group members active involvement during group work, 81.7% of trainee teachers reported that their instructors sometimes did while 18.3% reported that their instructors designed cooperative group work frequently. 3.2.2 Practice of various CL Techniques rated by Trainee Teachers

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Table 8. The Extent to which Cooperative Learning Techniques have been Practiced in EFL Classroom (rated by Trainee Teachers) No

Instructional techniques

1 2

Jigsaw Group investigation Learning together Think-pairshare Drama Simulations Role playing Debates Lecture/explana tion Question and answer

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Never

Rarely

Responses Sometimes

Usually

Always

Freq 5 5

% 8.3 8.3

Freq 10 25

% 16.7 41.7

Freq 28 24

% 46.7 40

Freq 15 6

% 25 10

Freq 2

% 3.3

1

1.7

3

5

10

16.7

23

38.3

23

38.3

-

-

4

6.7

28

46.7

20

33.3

8

13.3

11 2 3 4 -

18.3 3.3 5 6.7 -

20 7 9 15 -

33.3 11.7 15 25 -

25 27 30 34 8

41.7 45 50 56.7 13.3

4 20 11 5 20

6.7 33.3 18.3 8.3 33.3

4 7 2 32

6.7 11.7 3.3 53.3

-

-

-

-

7

11.7

28

46.7

25

41.7

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Like trainer teachers, trainee teachers were also asked to give information on the extent to which their EFL course instructors have employed different cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom. According to table 8, ten various instructional techniques that represent either student-focused (i.e. cooperative learning techniques) or teacher focused (i.e. lecture, and question and answer) were given for the respondents. With this respect, the respondents’ responses toward these techniques were presented as follows. Among the cooperative learning techniques presented in the above table, the two most frequently employed were learning together (76.6%) and think-pair-share (48.6%) respectively. [Trainee teachers also rated debate, role-playing, jigsaw, simulation, and dramas were sometimes practiced by their instructors respectively. The other cooperative learning technique group investigation was rarely practiced. Moreover, the teacher-focused techniques provided for the respondents were lecture and question and answer methods. As Table 8 above indicates both are the most frequently employed methods. Because 88.4% and 86.6% of the respondents confirm that their instructors frequently employed lecture and question and answer methods respectively. As can be seen from the above two tables (Table 2. and Table 8), ten different instructional techniques which focused on both teachercentered and student-centered (cooperative learning) techniques were raised. Accordingly, trainer teachers and trainee teachers reported that both teacher-centered techniques (lecture, and question and answer), were frequently practiced. With regard to practicing cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom, learning together was rated by trainer teachers as widely employed. Trainee teachers, on the other hand, reported that their instructors used learning together and think-pair-share frequently to deliver their lessons. This shows that both trainer teachers and trainee teachers claimed that learning together as the first choice and frequently practiced cooperative learning technique. Think-pair-share was also rated by trainee teachers as frequently employed by their instructors whereas their instructors reported as it was sometimes employed. Again, both trainer teachers and trainee teachers claimed that debate, jigsaw, and role-playing were sometimes employed cooperative learning techniques. www.ijmer.in

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% 15

SD Fre 4

% 6.7

33.3

11

18.3

35 30 10 18.3

8 3 8 9

13.3 5 13.3 15

43.3

10

16.7

26.7

8

13.3

46.7

6

10

11.7

15

25

[

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As presented in the above Table, 78.3% of trainee teachers agreed on the assumption that their instructors’ tendency towards the traditional method has affected their practice of cooperative learning. In relation to the problem of large class size item 2, 51.6% of the trainee teachers refused the assumption that class size was inhibiting factor to implement cooperative learning in EFL classroom. From item 6, 66.7% of trainee teachers reported that lack of welldeveloped EFL training modules is a problem to practice cooperative learning in their classroom. However, 33.3% of the respondents confirmed that they had well-developed EFL training modules. The problem of evaluating the progress of each trainee during the implementation of cooperative learning, 40% of respondents agreed as there was problem. In contrast, 60% of trainee teachers refused this assumption. However, as the researcher observed the two EFL classrooms, there was problem in evaluating their progress during the group discussion. Because the teachers in both classes gave group activities for the students and did not visit each group to observe their progress. As presented in Table 9., 60% of respondents agreed on the assumption as a factor that inhibits the practice of CL in EFL classroom. This shows that trainee teacher perceived implementation of cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom took too much time. In item 9, the physical set up of the classroom was raised as an obstacle for the application of CL techniques in EFL classroom. 56.7% of the respondents did not agree on this assumption. According to the majority of the respondents, classroom arrangement was not an obstacle to practice CL techniques. 3.3 Data from Classroom Observation In connection to the points such as preparing students for CL, assigning student in groups and designing group work activities, teachers and students activities during CL and evaluation techniques of CL, the classroom observation would be analyzed as follows: Concerning trainer teachers’ activities before starting cooperative learning lesson classroom observations revealed that instructors tried to inform their students about the advantages of being involved in cooperative group work before starting the lesson. However, majority of www.ijmer.in

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trainer teachers simply directed their students to be in groups. With respect of arranging the class in small groups, all instructors arrange the class in groups. However, as the researcher observed some instructors ordered their students to form group without limiting number of students in a group. With regard to this Jacobs and Hall (1994) stated that the smaller the group, the more each member talks and the less chance there is that someone will be left out. Also, smaller groups require fewer group management skills and can usually come to decisions faster. Thus, when starting with cooperative learning, groups of two or three may be best. Larson and keeper (2007:191) also state “you should usually plan on forming groups with three to five students. Groups of this size allow for the benefits of heterogeneity while still being small enough to promote interdependence and individual accountability.” As the researcher observed, students were assigned in groups randomly in all observed classroom by their instructors. This shows that teacher-selected and student-self selected groups were not commonly employed. Moreover, during group formation, each group member should get role but the classroom observations revealed that except directing students to be in groups, teachers did not assign role for each group member. The other observed activity was that instructors did not form different types of groups based on the nature of tasks, time available and experience of students. This indicates that formal cooperative base groups and cooperative groups were used rarely. In connection to this Smith (1996) suggests changing groups periodically is also advised to be used during the practice of CL. Regarding trainer teachers and trainee teachers activities during the practice of cooperative learning in EFL classroom: encouraging students in the group to contribute their share and to talk to each other classrooms activities, teachers did not do this. The other activities which were expected on the part of EFL teachers were intervening the students work when necessary and monitoring the group discussion. However, majority of the EFL teachers didn’t do this. This shows that the teachers do not work what they are expected during cooperative language learning. Moreover, the classroom observation revealed the methods of assessment used by trainer teachers was not the process of group work using different assessment techniques like self-assessment and peerassessment. This shows that trainee teachers in most cases were simply www.ijmer.in

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given certain time to perform group work tasks in their groups and asked to report back the product of group work to the whole class. Trombly,C., and Altan,Z. M.,(2001) states that the teacher is a supportive catalyst of the learning process by moving from one learning center to another rather than a source of expected answers. So, teachers should observe, monitor what is going on and if necessary, intervene. The researcher observed that teachers tried to form groups and gave activities. In contrast, the teachers assigned a group leader for each group and the only group leader seemed the responsible for all the group members as a result the other group members do not share their contribution. As a researcher observed six EFL classrooms almost all instructors during the practice of group work asked their learners to provide a final product. This shows that trainer teachers did not follow the progress of students’ group work either by asking them to provide regular reports or to intervenee the students work when necessary. From the above discussions, it can be inferred that trainer teachers have given more emphasis to the product of cooperative group work and ignoring its process. Hence, trainer teachers were found to have less experience of monitoring students’ group work activities. The following table shows that classroom observation data of evaluation processes during the practice of cooperative learning. Moreover the classroom observation addressed trainer teachers’ activities during evaluation. One possible way of getting students active participation in the course of learning is by asking them to report their practices. Concerning the trainer teachers’ activity which reads “encourage trainees to ask freely what is unclear”, only two observation sessions showed as it is practiced in EFL classroom on the other hand, majority of them did not encourage their learners to ask freely. Concerning feedback, assessment and evaluation, though there were differences of such practice between teachers, there were common activities that found during classroom observation. Not all the students but students who report the results of the discussion were given feedback. Others did not get this opportunity. As a researcher observed EFL classrooms, only active learners were active participants during the practice of group work. During CL, active learners monopolize the group activities. www.ijmer.in

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3.4 Data from Teachers Interview The semi-structured interview questions focus on the awareness of trainer teachers and about cooperative learning, designing activities and assessing students learning, assigning students in cooperative learning groups and hindrances during cooperative teaching and learning During interview session, both of the interviewees said similar concept “cooperative learning is learning situation where students learn from one another by being in groups; students care one another, share ideas, and help each other for common goal. So, it is teaching English in groups.” This shows there they have the concept of cooperative learning. With respect of establishing classroom routines and procedures before starting CL activities, both interviewee teachers said that they prefer assigning students randomly and give activities to do in groups. One of the interviewee said. “I usually assign students in groups randomly without any criteria to select students to groups…” On the other hand, the other interviewee said “I usually consider students ability to assign in their groups. I don’t consider their age and sex”. Moreover, regarding monitoring and visiting students’ activities during CL, one of the interviewee said “I usually visit each group discussion and I help some groups when they face difficulty during discussion and I give them some guidelines.” [Furthermore, the interviewed trainer teachers also confirmed that most of the time they evaluate their students during group activities presentation. One of the interviewee confirmed this by saying “most of the time I assess their performance in group presentation when they report orally what they discuss in their group and I give feedback after presentation.” From the two interviewee teachers the following points are raised as challenges in implementing cooperative teaching such as students’ reluctance to form groups, some students are not engaged in the group activities and they are not interested to share ideas and use their mother tongue rather than talking in English with their group members. This shows that the most common problems in practicing CL are reluctance to form group and lack of awareness about the benefits of it among students. www.ijmer.in

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3.5 Data from Trainee Teachers Interview Furthermore, all interviewees confirmed that shy students are dominated by active students. For example, one of the trainees said: While I am learning in cooperative group work, most of the shy learners leave the activity to the clever students. At this time slow learners cannot express themselves in the group while they are learning. There is reluctance of shy students to work cooperatively with their group members. In addition to this, the other interviewee said for the question “have you observed each group member’s responsibility in each group?” It is difficult to say anything. That means some students are dependent, so they don’t care about their learning and they don’t want to express themselves in English. Simply shy students listen to the active students and dominated by clever students. The shy students cannot express themselves, share ideas and cannot be interactive. During the interview session with students, the following problems during practice of CL have been mentioned such as most of the slow learners leave the activity to the clever students; some students unwillingness to be involved in the activity and use their mother tongue. Background of the students/lack of experience regarding cooperative work and lack of communicative competence are the major challenges when they learn English in cooperative group. Both teachers and students underline that the above situations must be changed as soon as possible if improvements are expected from teachers and students. 4. Summary and Recommendation This chapter contains discussion on summary and recommendations. Accordingly, first summary of the study and the major findings are made. Finally, some possible recommendations are forwarded based on the findings of the study. 4.1. Summary The ultimate goal of teaching English as a foreign language is enabling learners to use the language in real situations. To achieve this, scholars www.ijmer.in

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have been trying to introduce various language teaching approaches and techniques that enable language learners competent language users. Among these techniques, cooperative learning techniques are recently advisable language teaching techniques. Hence, the purpose of this research was investigating the implementation of cooperative learning techniques in EFL classroom at college level. In order to meet this purpose the following research questions were raised. 

Are EFL trainer teachers and trainee teachers aware of the practicing cooperative learning?



Do EFL trainer teachers and trainee teachers practicing various cooperative learning techniques?



What are the factors that inhibit the implementation of cooperative learning?

To conduct this study, case study method was employed. The data was collected through observation and questionnaire. Moreover, interview and two EFL course materials overview were employed as instruments. The collected data from the close-ended questionnaire and structured classroom observations were analyzed using frequency counts and percentage and data gathered through open-ended questionnaire and interview were analyzed qualitatively. Hence, based on the analysis of the data, the following findings were obtained. 1. The awareness of teachers in implementing cooperative learning was not promising. The findings of the study revealed that there were less efforts made by teachers in preparing their students to cooperative learning, assigning students in appropriate groups, designing relevant tasks, monitoring and evaluating cooperative learning activities. Hence, trainer teachers were found to have less familiarity with the necessary skills to practice various cooperative learning activities. Particularly, the following findings were found in this study: 1.1. With respect to the experience of teachers in preparing their learners for CL was not promising. 1.2. Scholars have suggested that in order to implement cooperative learning effectively, EFL teachers should use the combination of informal, formal and cooperative base groups depending on the www.ijmer.in

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objective and nature of the tasks. However, the result of the study revealed that EFL teachers’ familiarity with structuring different types of learning groups depending on the objective and nature of cooperative group tasks was not satisfactory. 1.3. Most of the time EFL teachers used both teacher-selected group and random group formation. They did not allow their students to form students self-selection groups. 1.4. With regard to the practical experience of EFL teachers in designing cooperative group work activities, the majority of EFL teachers rarely design cooperative learning activities. 1.5. There was less effort made by EFL teachers in monitoring students’ group activities. The results of the study elicited that teachers frequently asked their students to submit the final product of their group activities. 1.6. In cooperative learning classroom, both the process and product of the groups learning should be assessed. Whereas, the result of the analysis showed that the way of evaluation of cooperative group work was focused mainly on the product rather than on the process. This shows the methods of evaluation focused on what the students do rather than how they do their group activities. 2. The magnitude of practicing CL techniques was found to be low The findings of this study revealed that the degree of practicing various CL techniques in EFL classroom was not adequate as much as expected. The subjects confirmed that EFL teachers have employed limited number of cooperative learning techniques. Learning in circles/learning together/ was found frequently practiced technique in the EFL classroom. Moreover, think-pairshare, debates, jigsaw, and role-playing techniques were sometimes employed. The other cooperative learning techniques drama and simulations were rarely practiced. 3.

Various factors that inhibiting the implementation of cooperative learning were: -

The tendency of EFL teachers to the traditional approach.

-

Active learners monopolizing the group discussion.

-

Lack of adequate training.

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-

Lack of well-developed training modules.

4.2. Recommendations 1. The awareness of EFL teachers in practicing CL need to be improved. As the findings of the study revealed, there was less effort made by EFL teachers in preparing students to CL, forming appropriate groups, designing relevant task, monitoring and evaluating CL activities. These constraints attributed to teachers to have less experience in practicing various CL techniques. Hence, in order to reduce these problems: 

Teachers should make their students ready for CL using different mechanisms like by explaining why they are using CL, informing the results typically found from this method and encouraging them before starting the lesson.



EFL teachers should employ different types of group formation depending on the interest of students, the objectives and nature of the group tasks and the availability of resources.



Before asking students to submit the final product of their group work, teachers should use different mechanisms for monitoring students’ group work. This will help students to overcome problems and complains that are emanated from the process of the practicing CL. Therefore, EFL teachers have to join each group while they are working their group work, ask them to provide regular reports (either in the form of written or oral) about their progress.



Teachers should focus not only on the product of cooperative group work but also on the process of cooperative group work.

Moreover, teachers need to be properly in-serviced on CL theories and techniques. If cooperative learning is to be successful, teachers need to be aware of what research has shown to work. In addition, trainee teachers’ awareness with regard to CL needs to be enhanced by orientation and training. 2. In order to apply CL techniques effectively, EFL teachers need to get continuous training on how to use a variety of CL techniques. The most obvious implication for the use of cooperative learning in the second language classroom would seem that it would certainly www.ijmer.in

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improve student opportunities for language use. Students would be placed in situations where-by they would be required to use the language as well as hear and comprehend. To achieve this, teachers need to get continuous training on how to practice various CL techniques. 3. Factors that inhibit the effective implementation of CL need to be reduced. 

To reduce the tendency of EFL teachers to the traditional approach, continuous training should be provided.



The college as well as the Southern Nation Nationalities Region should strive to reduce lack of well-developed training modules in the department.



Teachers should prepare the criteria for doing group work assessment and communicate with students on how they are going to be assessed the groups work of the beginning of training program.



Teachers should make continuous follow up to check whether or not each group member cooperatively work with his/her teammates.

Bibliography Aggarawal, J.C (1998). Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching. (2nd ed). New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Alamirew G. Mariam (1992). The Applicability of Group Work in Learning English Unpublished MA Thesis.Addis Ababa Addis Ababa University. Amare Asegdom (2000). Communication and Media Studies in Curriculum Studies. A Study Guide Teaching Material (Unpublished). Addis Ababa University. Aronson, E.,(1978). The Jigsaw Classroom. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications. Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice. Hall. Berhanu, G/Mechael, (2000). A study of the Practice of Cooperative Learning in Grade 11. Group Work Organization in Focus. Unpublished MA Thesis. Addis Ababa University. Brainerd, C. ((1978). Piagets Theory of Intelligence. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. Brooks, J., and Brooks,M. (1999). In Search of Understanding. The Case for ConstructivistClassrooms. Alexandria,VA:AS.C D. Bruner,J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chafe, A. (2008). Cooperative Learning and the Second Language Classroom. Retrieved 10/31/2008 from http:// www. stemet. nf.cal~ achafe/ cooplang.html. Christison, M.A. (1994). Cooperative Learning in the EFL Classroom in Kral, T (ed). Selected Articles from English Teaching Forum. 1989-1993.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017 Cohn E.G. (1994). Restructuring the Classroom: conditions for productive Small Groups. Review of Educational Research. Cooper, J., and Associates (1990). Cooperative Learning and College instruction long Beach: Institute for Teaching and Learning, California State University. Corpley, J. (1992). The Integration of Teacher Education and Technology: a Constructivist Module Retrieved from Error! Hyperlink reference not valid. tam html. Eggen, D.P., and Kauchak, P.D.,( 2001). Strategies for Teachers Teaching Content and Thinking Skills (4thed.) Allyn and Bacon. Evan, T., and Nation, D. (1996). Open Education: Policies and Practices for Open and Distance Education. New York: Routedge. Fleder, R.M., and Brent, R. (1999). Active Learning Versus Covering the Syllabus; Dealing with Large Class. Retrieved from http://www.nscu.edu/flederpublic/column/faces-2html Girma, G., (2003). In-service English Language Teacher’s Perceptions of the Factors that influence the Implementation of Group work Activities in ELT classes. The Ethiopian journal of Education. Vol. 23/2 pp. 103-126. Gregory, R., and Thorely, (1994). Using Group Based Learning in Higher Education. London: Kogan Page. Jacobs, G. (1988). Cooperative Goal Structure. A Way to Improve Group Activities. ELT Journal.42/2 pp 97-100. Jacobs, G. and Hall, S.( 1994). Implementing Cooperative Learning. English Teaching Forum. pp 2-5 & 13. Jaques, D. (1985). Learning in groups: New Patterns of Learning Series, Croom. Helm Johnson, D.W., and Johnson, R.T., (1989), Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, MN: International Book Company. Johnson, D.W., and Johnson, R.T., (1990). What is Cooperative Learning? In Brubacher, M, R. Payne, and K. Rickett (eds). Perspectives on Small Group Learning: Theory and Practice. Ontario Rubicon. ________(1996). Joining Together. Group Theory and Group Skills (5th ed) Boston. Allyn and Bacon, ________ (2002). Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and Cooperative process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Kagan, S. 1992. Cooperative Learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA Kagan Cooperative Learning. Koul, L. (1996). Methods of Educational Research. New Delhi: Hinduston offset printers. Larson, E.B., and Keiper, A.T., (2007). Instructional Strategies for Middle and High School. Rutledge: Tylor and Francis Group. Lave, J., and Wenser, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, MA: University Press. Leu, E., Living Stone, G., and Woods, E. (2002). The Quality and Effectiveness of Teacher Education in Ethiopia: a Report of the Study Findings with Recommendation for Action. Unpublished. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1(3), JANUARY 2017 Mackernan, J. (1996). Curriculum Action Research: A Handbook of methods and Resources for Reflective Practitioner (2nd ed) London: Kogan page Limited. Michaelsen, K., Fink, D., and Knight, A. (1997). Designing Effective Group Activities Lessons for Classroom Teaching and MOE. (2003). A National Curriculum Guide for Pre-Service Teacher Training Education Program. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Palmer, G., Peters, K., and Streetman, R (2003). Cooperative Learning. In M. on (ed), Emerging Perspective on Learning, Teaching and Technology. http://www.coe.uqa.edu/elt/com.htm. Previdi, A.P. (1999). Interactive Teacher Training. English Teaching Forum Vol. 37/3 Putnam, J. (1997). Cooperative Learning in Diverse Classrooms. Prentic-Hall. Inc. Rodgers, T.1988. Cooperative Language Learning, what is new? PASAA; A Journal of language Teaching and Learning 18(2):12-23. Randall, V. (1999). What are Cooperative and Collaborative Learning: what are some Critical Perspectives? Retried from Error! Hyperlink reference not valid. Reece, J., and Walker, S. (2003). Teaching, Training and Learning (5thed) Great Britian: Business Education Publishers Ltd. Richards, J.C., and Rodgers, T.S. (2001) Approaches and Principles in Language Teaching (2nd ed) Delhi. Cambridge University Press. Richards, J.C., and T.S. Rodgers. (2001). Approaches and Principles in Language Teaching. (2nd ed.) Delhi: Cambridge University Press. Sharan, S., and Sharan,C.,(1988) Language and Learning in the Cooperative Learning Classroom. New York: Springer –Verlag. Slavin, R.E.(1990.) Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research and Practice. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice Hall. Slavin, R.E 1995a. Cooperative Learning Among Students: Theory, Research, and Implications for Active Learning. Retrieved from http://www.sxcove.csos.jhu.edu/sfa/cooplearn.htm. Silberman, M.,(1996) Active Learning 101 Strategies to Teach any Subject. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Trombly,C.,and Altan,Z. M.,(2001) Creating a Learner-Centered Teacher Education Program. English Teaching Forum. Vol.39/3 pp 28-35 Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1978). Teaching English as Communication. Oxford: Oxford University press. Yager, R.(1991) The Constructivist Learning Model, towards real reform in Science Education. The science of Teachers, 58/6 pp 52-57. Yu, (1995). Implementing Cooperative Learning: Process and Effect. Retrieved from http:// www.stemnet.nfcal-achafe/cooplang.html.

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TRANSESTERIFICATION OF CASTOR BIODIESEL AND PERFORMANCE STUDY ON 4-STROKE CI ENGINE S.Channabasava Associate Professor SLN College of Engineering Raichur, Karnataka M.Rajashekhar Department of Zoology Gulbarga University, Karnataka

M. Chennashetty Associate Professor Department of Zoology BVB College, Bidar, Karnataka K.Vijaykumar Department of Zoology Gulbarga University, Karnataka

Abstract The most harmful effect of our present day civilization is global warming and environment pollution Transport sector contributes significant amount of GHG emission. The vehicle population throughout the world is increasing rapidly; in India the growth rate of automotive industry is one of the largest in the world. It is quite evident that the problem cannot be solved with the conventional fossil fuels, however stringent the emission control norms may be.This demands the search for a suitable alternative to conventional fossil fuel. , research focus on vegetable oils for producing the most suitable alternate to the diesel fuels , called bio diesel, the esters of vegetable oil. A single cylinder compression ignition engine was operated successfully using methyl ester of Castor oil as the soul fuel. The following conclusions are made based on the experimental results. Introduction Castor grows well under hot and humid tropical conditions and has a growing period of 4 to 5 months. Castor oil is a colourless to very pale yellow liquid with mild or no odour or taste. Castor oil properties indicate a very low pour and cloud points which make this biofuel a good alternative in winter conditions.It is hard non-drying oil that www.ijmer.in

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neither becomes stiff with cold nor unduly thin with heat hence is used as a lubricant for jet and racing cars engines. 

Castor :

The castor oil plant, Ricinus communis, is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. Castor is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India. Castor seed is the source of castor oil, which has a wide variety of uses. The comparative advantage of Castor is that its growing period is much shorter than that of Jatropha and Pongamia, and there is considerably greater experience and awareness among farmers about its cultivation. It is a fast-growing, suckering perennial shrub which can reach the size of a small tree

Fig-1 Castor dried fruits,Broken fruits, shells, kernals.

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fig 2.castor tree Transesterification :

Transesterification also called alcoholises is

the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol in a process similar to hydrolysis, except that an alcohol is employed instead of water. This process is widely used to reduce the viscosity of triglycerides, thereby enhancing the physical properties of fuel and improve engine performance. Need of transesterification In the biodiesel production transesterifiction reaction is the most efficient process today for several reasons which including . Low temp(65oc) and pressure (20pal) of the process High conversion(98%) with minimal side reaction and reaction time. • Direct conversion to methyl ester with no intermediate steps.No need of special construction materials Why Biodiesel? • •

1. Biodiesel reduces corbon dioxide exhaust emission by upto 80% 2. Biodiesel produses 100% less Sox than petroleum.

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3. Biodiesel reduses exhaust smoke emission by up to 75% so the usual black cloud associated with a diesel engine can be eliminated. 4. The smell of the biodiesel exhaust is far more pleasant. Table 1: Calorific values, specific gravity, density & kinematic viscosity of diesel blends.

Properties

Diesel fuel

B100%

Kinematic viscosity at 0 34 C (cst)

2.54×10

Calorific value(KJ/Kg)

-6

4.7×10

-

B20% 6.93×10

B40% -

6.86×10

6

6

6

43,500

37933

45177

44779

820

865

815

810

54

160

59

57

Fire point( C)

57

170

65

63

Specific Gravity

0.82

0.865

0.81

0.81

3

Density(Kg/m ) 0

Flash point( C) 0

-

ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS Manufacturer

Ltd, India Kirloskar oil engines

Model

TV1- KIRLOSKAR

Engine

Single cylinder, DI

Bore/stroke

87.5mm/110mm

C.R. Speed Rated power Working cycle www.ijmer.in

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Injection pressure

200bar/23 def TDC

Type of sensor

Piezo electric

Response time

4 micro seconds

Crank angle sensor

1-degree crank angle

Resolution of 1 deg

360 deg with a resolution of 1deg

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE • • • • • • • • • • •

•

Performance test on single cylinder diesel engine: The procedure for conducting a performance test on the engine specified above is as follows: Calculate the full load capacity of the engine. Check up all the connections and check the fuel and water. Press the decompression lever and crank the engine, when the specific speed is reached, release the lever. Firstly on no load the following readings are taken. a) Speed of the engine (constant) b) Time taken to consume 10 cc of fuel using stop valve. c) Mass flow rate of air d) Exhaust temperature Then load the engine by applying the opposite current to the dynamometer by rotating the knob gradually. The time taken to consume l0cc of fuel and torque on the engine is noted. Repeat the experiment for different loads (5, 10, 15 & 20Nm) and note down the corresponding readings.

RESULTS 1. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY Brake thermal efficiency in % BRAKE POWER IN KW

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30 25 20

BIODIESEL B20

15

B40 10

DIESEL

5 0 1

2

3

4

2. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 25 20 bio deisel

15

B20 10

B40 Diesel

5 0 1

2

3

4

Brake power in kw 3. MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

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Brake power in kw PROPERTIES OF BLENDS 1. CALORIFIC VALUE CV = Calorific value in KJ/Kg

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DENSITY

3.KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

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4.FLASH AND FIRE POINT

5.0 Emission test Increasing concern about combustion related pollutants, such as total organic carbon, particulate matter (PM), CO, , sulphur and nitrogen oxides, metals and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), amongst others, is driving governments to put more stringent www.ijmer.in

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requirements on fuel regulations. Exhaust emissions from diesel burning in motor vehicles contain hundreds of compounds, either in the exhaust gas or particulate phases. Several of compounds are proved, such as formaldehyde, benzene, acrolein, sulphate, PAHs, etc. Amongst vehicular fuels, diesel also produces larger quantities of fine particulate matters, which consists basically of carbonaceous material, soluble organic fraction (SOF), sulphate and metals. As a consequence, the use of alternative biofuels in order to reduce the environmental impacts of diesel emissions has been extensively investigated Trends in the regional use of biomass-derived fuels, such as methanol, biodiesel and agricultural residues - as a proposed control 1 Carbon Monoxide Emission Figure shows the CO emission increases with for diesel and biodiesel. The biodiesel produces a high amount of carbon monoxide that diesel at all load condition. The highest value of CO at 25% blend of castor oil is 3.51% in respect to the value of 1.54% for diesel. Figure : BHP Vs Carbon Monoxide

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2 Unburnt Hydrocarbon Emission Figure shows the variation of unburnt hydrocarbon emissions with brake power output for castor oil and its blends with diesel in the test engine. Biodiesel showsconsiderably less HC emissions than diesel fuel. This should be than the availability of sufficient amount of oxygen in a biodiesel which enable the complete combustion when compared to diesel combustion. UHC of 25% blend of castor oil has lower emissions compared with all other blends. While, UHC of 25% and 50% blends of castor oil compared well. Figure: BHP Vs Unburned Hydrocarbon

3 Smoke Emission Figure shows the variation of smoke emissions with brake power output for castor oil and its blends with diesel in the test engine. Diesel has higher smoke emission compared with all other blends of castor oil. 75% blend of the castor oil smoke opacity is well comparable with diesel. The smoke level for biodiesel is low compared to diesel at all loads, Reason due to the high oxygen content and lower sulphur content of biodiesel. Smoke of neat castor oil has lowest values compared with all other blends and diesel. Figure : BHP Vs Smoke www.ijmer.in

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9.4

NO Emission

Figure shows the variation of nitrogen oxides emissions with brake power output for castor oil and its blends with diesel in the test engine. NOx of 25% blend of castor oil is slightly lower than that of diesel. Diesel has higher NOx emissions compared with all other blends throughout all operating loads. NOx emissions neat castor oil has maximum value at 81.95% of rated loads and exhibited lower emission

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Conclusion A single cylinder compression ignition engine was operated successfully using methyl ester of Castor oil as the soul fuel. The following conclusions are made based on the experimental results. 1. SOME satisfies the important fuel properties as per ASTM specification of Biodiesel. 2. Engine works smoothly on methyl ester of Castor oil with performance comparable to 3. diesel operation. 4. Methyl ester of Castor oil (C40) results in a nearly equal in thermal efficiency as compared to that of diesel. 5. The exhaust gas temperature is decreased with the methyl ester of Castor oil as compared to diesel. 6. The specific fuel consumption of diesel is almost equal S80 at lower loads but at higher loads the SFC of all Castor blends is equal to diesel. 7. The break mean effective pressure of all the blends of Castor oil as well as diesel increases with break power. 8. The air fuel ratio of diesel is observed that higher than that of the other blends of Castor oil and air fuel ratio of diesel and other blends of Castor oil decreases as the load inceases. 9. The volumetric efficiency of all the blends of Castor oil is almost traces the path of diesel. References 1. Study of various methods of biodiesel production and properties of biodiesel prepared from castor seed oil in university of agriculture science, raichur on feb 2016 2. We have carried out the performance combustion and emission test of castor seed oil and blends using TV1 KIRLOSKAR in single cylinder diesel engine at PDA college of engineering Gulbarga with under guidance of Dr.prof. M C NAVINDGI 3. Devendra Vashist, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad, “A comparative study of Castor and Jatropha oil source and its methyl ester test on the www.ijmer.in

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Diesel engine” Research scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology 4.

Deshpande D.P, Haral S.S., Gandhi S.S., and Ganvir V.N., “Transeterification of Castor oil,”Dept, of Petrochemical Technology, LIT, Nagpur, MS, INDIA Vol. 1(1), 2-7, July 2012

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A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY ON SENESCENCE

Govt. 1st

Dr.Shashikumar Head Department of Sociology Grade College for Women Hassan, Karnataka

Abstract There’s a rapid increase in the population of elderly people in the last century specially in developed and industrialized countries. This situation can be attributed to a combination of factors such as increase in age, longevity, and decreased death rate due to advancement in the field of medicine, improvement of life expectancy at birth and enhancement in the average life span of life. India ranks 4th in terms of absolute size of elderly population.A feeling has aroused among the elderly that the attitude of the younger generation towards them is not as desired. Keywords:Elderly, Old age, longevity, Modernization, Urbanization, Globalization, expectancy.. Introduction India is witnessing the rapid aging of its population. Urbanization, Modernization and Globalization has led to change in the economic structure, weakening of social values, and social institutions such as family. The changing economic and social structure has reduced the dependence of rural families on land and also the younger generation is searching for new identities encompassing economic independence and redefined social roles. The traditional sense of duty and obligations of the younger generation towards older generation is eroded. Illness increases with age. Older population is greater In need of health care. Life satisfaction continues to be an important construct in the psycho-social study of www.ijmer.in

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aging. Old age is called “Dark” not because the light fails to shine but because people refuse to see it. The expectancy of life in India is 60 years. Most Indians consider themselves old earlier than the chronological age of 60 years and Indians consider themselves older even earlier. “Some people use their chronological age as a criterion for their own symptoms as failing eye-sight or hearing, tendency to increase fatigue, decline in sexual potency, etc. They also consider their aging in terms of their capacity to work, their output in relation to standards set in earlier years, their lack of interest in competing with others, lack of motivation to do things, etc. “ The traditional Indian family structure provides adequate mechanism for meeting the needs of elderly. Family is the main source of care giving to all its members.Aging of population is an obvious consequences of process of demographic transition. In globalizing world, meaning old age is changing across the cultures and with in countries and families. Nowadays, the role of families in case of older person has declined due to changes that have taken place in the Indian society and the disintegration of the joint family system, which results in the rejection or neglect of the aged. This holds true all over the world. The elderly need immediate attentions. They do not need our pity, but love and care of their fellow beings. Its duty to make sure they don’t spend their twilight years in their life in isolation, pain and misery. Therefore they are in need of our vital support that will keep important aspects of their life intact while improving their overall quality of life. Old age homes are termed as ‘retirement homes’ .it is aged people’s misfortune and unexpected destination despite of delivering all www.ijmer.in

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fortunes and expectations of their beloved daughter or sons. Our young generation decides for exclusion of old aged methodology of joint family and advocates of old age home. Young generation feels that old age people are a burden. It is because the traditional values and sociability have been changed drastically in today’s time. The old age group is now feeling this embarrassing blow. The aged people are spending their twilight years in isolation, pain and misery. All these are collectively responsible for old age home concept. Few records:There are 728 old age homes in India. Kerala has 124 old age homes which is maximum in any state. India ranks 4th in terms of size of elderly population. Justification:If it is discussed then majority will raise their hands in favor this system. It is because the old age homes are increasing whole around the world, which means people are getting detached from their parents. The trends are shifting from joint family to nuclear family at larger scale. Today’s system is arguing that the two age bands can not grow together. Objectives 1.To study the background profile of elderly staying in old age homes and within the family. 2.To compare the environment of elderly people residing in old age homes and within the family environment. 3.General feelings. 4.Social relationship. 5.Personal likings.

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6.To assess the attitude of elderly. Methodology Most of the individuals included in the present study were 60 years of age and above and non-working. The non-institutionalized elderly person provided information about their age, while the age of the institutionalized individuals was ascertained from old age home records. The data was collected using specially designed interview schedule and observation technique. Prior to final data collection, the interview schedule was tested on a small sub sample and subsequently finalized. The interview section was divided into 4 sections. The first section included questions regarding general information of the respondents. The second section included questions pertaining to general feelings of old age people to happiness, loneliness, depression, security insecurity, different moods. The third section included questions regarding social relations of old people with friends, relatives and family members and fourth section included questions regarding the personal interests and hobbies of old age people. Old age has never been a problem for India where a value based joint family system is supposed to prevail. Indian culture is automatically respectful and supportive of elders. Ageing is a natural phenomenon ,has all along engaged the attention of the civilized world. Provision for the aged in the society has become one of the constitutive themes of our modern welfare state . However the disintegration of the joint family system have brought into sharp focus the peculiar problems which the old people now face in our country.

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Table - 1 General Information of the respondents Living in the Family

Variables

Living in the Institution

N

%

N

%

60 to 65 Years

10

33.3

1

3.3

65 to 70 Years

14

47

5

16.6

70 to 75 Years

4

13.3

14

47

Above 75 Years

2

6.6

10

33.3

Illiterate

11

36.6

28

93.3

Primary

9

30

1

3.3

Middle

5

16.6

-

-

Metric

3

10

1

3.3

Higher Secondary

-

-

-

-

Graduation

2

6.6

-

-

Joint Family

11

36.6

10

33.3

Extended Family

19

63.3

20

66.6

2 to 5

7

23.3

18

60

6 to 9

14

46.6

12

40

Age

Education

Type of Family

Number of Family numbers

Table 1.reveals that 47% of the total respondents belonged to the age group of 65-70 years. The family sized of the respondents varied from 2-13 members in the family setup, whereas most of the aged in the www.ijmer.in

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old age home, family size varied from 2-9 members. Extended form of family seemed to be the most popular form in both the setups. Figure 1 reveals that majority(63.3%) of the elderly people living in families felt that it was period of dependency as they were dependent on their family for support,16.6% of them felt economically insecure, Whereas 20% of the respondents now perceived old age as a stage of loneliness as the reason of their negative perception and only 3.3% percent of them reported that they were humiliated by their daughter in laws and their sons did not care for them. On the other hand 63.3% of the elderly people living in the families got support from their family members. They also received financial, social and emotional support from their children. Many people think that ageing is a complete negative final segment of human life span, but it is not so. Awareness and acceptance of the fact that ageing has physiological, psychological and social determinants would make the ageing process acceptable and cheerful. Social relationship of the Respondents Children are expected to take care of their elderly parents. However, the processes of social change ,such as industrialization, urbanization, and migration, can have a negative impact on care of elderly people. It was observed that 96.6% of the elderly women in the families has social support from their sons and daughters. The elderly have been the greatest sufferers of such changes of values of family system. Many of them feel that the attitude of younger generation towards them has undergone tremendous change and become less satisfactory. There is a common belief that in old age people tend to become more and more inclined towards religion.

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Religion to some extent provides a sort of social support in the form of personal contact with other people at religious gatherings with whom they could share their thoughts. It was observed that 33.3% of those living in families reported participation in social and religious ceremonies. Table - 2 Company preferred by the elderly women Company Preferred

Living in the

Living in the

Family

Institution

N

%

N

%

Family Number

13

43.3

5

16.6

Relatives

10

33.3

-

-

Neighbors

3

10

-

-

Others (attendant, Visitor, Friends, etc…..)

-

-

5

16.6

In mates

-

-

16

53.3

Want to live alone

4

13.3

4

13.3

Life satisfaction continues to be an important construct on psychological study of ageing. Research reports that life satisfaction is strongly related to socio-demographic and psycho-social variables. It has been found that socio-demographic characteristics influence life satisfaction both directly and also indirectly through psychological factors such as activity- physical activity level, satisfaction with leisure activities and social contacts

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It was analyzed that 43.3% of the elderly people living in families had more interest towards reading religious books, magazines and newspapers for passing their time, while 33.3% of them had interest towards watching TV and others listened to music for peace of mind .33% living in social institutions stated that listening to music relaxed them and helped forget their tensions , worries and stress. Only 6.6% were religious minded. However, 87% of institutionalized people revealed that they worshiped at the institution because a temple already existed inside the institution. As a few as 3.3% were resorting to meditation to keep themselves relaxed, tension free and refreshed. Table - 3 Interest in different activities Recreational

Living in the

Living in the

activities

Family

Institution

N

%

N

%

Listening Music

7

23.3

10

33.3

Reading books, Magazine etc…

13

43.3

2

6.6

Watching T.V

10

33.3

9

30.0

Visit the temple

20

66.0

26

86.6

Go for Shopping

7

23.0

4

13.3

Recreational Activities :-

Out door Activities :-

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Go for sat sang, Kirtan, etc…

3

10.0

-

-

Talking to others

16

53.0

19

63.3

Meditation

3

10.0

1

3.3

Writing personal Dairy

-

-

-

-

Recapitulate memories

4

13.3

10

33.3

Leisure time Activities :-

Conclusion I conclude that becoming older and existence of younger one is cyclic biological process. No one can get rid of these 2 states of life. Old age people need care, love and healthy emotional family sharing for satisfaction. New one needs growth and success in this competitive world. These two objectives are to be strategically balanced. The parents is to be given high priority over everything. They should be included in the family running process so that they could feel themselves nor ignored. References 

Antonelli E, Rubini V, Fassona C 2000. The self concept in institutionalized and non- institutionalized elderly people. Journal of Environmental psychology,20: 151-164



Bergeron LR 2001.An elderly abuse case study: case gives stress or domestic violence. Journal of gerontogical social work, 34(3): 47-63

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

Bhat K 2001. Ageing in India: Drifting international relations, challenges and option. Cambridge journal Online: 21: 621-640



Dandekar K 1993. The elderly in India. New Delhi: Sage publishers



Gowri GB 2003 .Attitudes towards old age and ageing as shown by humor. Gerontologist, 17(2): 220-226



Gormal K 2003.Aged in India. Mumbai: Tiss publishers.



Ayer V 2003.Old age protection in urban agglomeration of a developing economy: An integration analysis. Ageing and Human development, 1(3):241-250



Kanwor P 1999. psychological determinants of institutionalized elderly. Indian journal of Gerontology,12(3): 27-39



Lit win H, Slivovitz E 2006. Association between activity and wellbeing in later life: What really matters? Ageing and society, 26:255242



Mayor R 2006. Significance of grandparents: Perceptions of young adult grandchildren. Gerontologist, 16(1): 137-140

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ROLE AND RELEVANCE ALL ARUNACHAL PRADESH STUDENTS ’ UNION:PEOPLES’ PERCEPTION Dr. Kuku Panyang Principal (in-charge) Government Model College Geku, Upper Siang, Arunachal Pradesh Abstract: A political party, in a democratic society, remains a mechanism through which ordinary masses have indirect say in the policies and programmes of the government. As such, even in Arunachal Pradesh political parties and leaders are expected to serve as a medium through which people indirectly participate in the workings of the government. However, in the state, parties become active only at the time of elections, and they often fail to raises issues concerning the people. Civil society organizations, which are rooted to their clans or communities without representing Pan-Arunachal identity, have not developed. Given the situation, the role of opposition political parties and civil society organizations are being played by the students’ organizations. The student’s unions apart from playing the role of opposition party very often transgress into the issues outside their domain. There are multiple factors because of which student’s bodies have emerged as the major spokesperson of the grievances and aspirations of the indigenous people. This article intends to bring out perception of the people towards the role and relevance of the apex students’ body of the state, All Arunachal Pradesh Students’ Union. Key Words: All Arunachal Pradesh Students’ Union, Civil Society, political party, refugee, Dharna and Bandh. Introduction: www.ijmer.in

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Any socio-political study takes into account a popular perception that attitude of individuals reflects to a larger extent the socioeconomic milieu from where they originate. It may be assumed that a person’s socio-economic background and training determine his range of sympathy, approach to various problems, attitude towards politics and ultimately shape his entire behavior-pattern. Different studies in India, particularly ‘the diffusion studies’ have used age, family size, caste rank, land holding, income, education, etc., as the major elements that constitute the index of socio-economic status. Myron Weiner, one of the distinguished scholars of studies on leadership used age, rural–urban background, religion and caste, education, occupation and interest affiliation as the major factors. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is a land of high social diversity, which is inhabited by twenty – five major tribes and around one hundred and ten sub–tribes. Social and cultural diversities also have their reflections on the political diversity of the state. Such reflections are found in the sample respondents as the study has been undertaken in such areas inhabited by people of diverse social and cultural backgrounds. Like other tribal societies, societies in Arunachal Pradesh are still dominated largely by traditional tribal culture. This article analyzes variables such as, age, education, sex, occupation and economic background. The chapter also tries to identify some of the social variables which would help us to understand the role and relevance of students’ organization in the state. Materials/Methods: The present study adopts descriptive and analytical method. Information has been collected mostly through interviews, discussions, questionnaires etc. Necessary references have been reflected from booklets, pamphlets, leaflets, petitions and memoranda of AAPSU to the state and central governments. Newspapers, Magazines and www.ijmer.in

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archives also were used as per requirement. However, secondary sources have been relied upon in accordance with the demand of the descriptive chapters. The area of interview and discussion covers past and present leaders of AAPSU (40), student activists (40), Government officials (40), public leaders (40), retired and working administrators (40), School, college and university teachers (40). Interview Schedule has been administered to a total of 240 respondents in a random basis with a view to draw conclusive ideas on all relevant questions. However, responses were received only from 200 respondents. Hence, our analysis is for 200 respondents. The study covered four districts, namely West Kakeng (Bombdila) from Western Arunachal Pradesh; Papum Pare (Itanagar) and West Siang (Along) from Central Arunachal Pradesh; and Tirap (Khonsa) from Eastern Arunachal Pradesh. Results/Findings: An interesting finding is that an overwhelming majority, i.e., 150 respondents (75%) of the total samples thinks that the “AAPSU has lost its past glory”. Only 20 per cent of the respondents did not agree and maintains that AAPSU is as good as before. The reasons they cited for decline of AAPSU vary from “Political interference” (46.6%), “Weak leadership” (33.3%) and “No sympathy from the public” (20%). On a question, “if you are asked to rate the present leadership of AAPSU, how would you rate them?”, 80 respondents (40%) have rated them as “Too political”, 60 respondents (30%) as “Corrupt”, 12 respondents (6%) as “Lacks commitment” and only 40 respondents (20%) as “Genuine”. However, 71.5 per cent of the respondents still consider AAPSU as the apex students’ body of the state. Only 18.5 per cent of the respondents did not think so. 20 respondents (10%) did not answer the question. www.ijmer.in

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The study reveals that whopping percentage (88%) of the respondents has accepted the fact that there is monetary involvement in the election of the AAPSU Executive Members. Hence, the statistics has proved the public perception correct as only 20 per cent of the respondents say “No” to the monetary involvement in the election of the AAPSU Executive Members. On the question of indication of approximate expenditure, 100 respondents (56.8%) of the respondents who said “Yes” has accepted that expenditure of an Executive Member (President/General Secretary) would be more than one hundred lakhs. 60 respondents (34%) believes that the expenditure could be less than one hundred lakhs. 46.6 per cent of the respondents felt that the AAPSU is declining because of political interference. The total of 150 respondents (75%) agrees that there is involvement of political parties or leaders in the election of the Executive members of AAPSU. The respondents who said “Yes” and “No” to the question are 50 per cent (100 respondents) and 45 per cent (90 respondents) respectively. 5 per cent of the respondents did not give any answer. It has been revealed that 150 respondents (75%) have accepted that the AAPSU is playing the role of opposition political party in the state. A mere 15 per cent said “No” to the question. A significant per cent (44%) of the respondents did not feel that the AAPSU should restrict itself only on issues related to students’ welfare. A majority, 50 per cent still feels that it needs to restrict itself only to the issues concerning students’ interests. Around 80 per cent of the respondents think that the AAPSU remains a platform for entry into active politics, whereas only 15 per cent of the respondents think otherwise. The study further reveals that www.ijmer.in

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81.7 per cent of the respondents did not approve the practice of using AAPSU as a political ladder. However, 18 per cent of the respondents have no issue even if AAPSU is used as a political platform. A question was put to the respondents “In your opinion should there be age bar for AAPSU leadership?” A significant majority, 76 per cent of the respondents said “Yes” to this question, and only 24 per cent of the respondents said “No” to the question. Respondents were asked to respond to a question “Do you feel that the formation of community/clan based student’s unions should be discouraged to make AAPSU more powerful and relevant?” It reflects that the opinion of the respondents is almost equally divided. 50 per cent of the respondents said “Yes” to the question and 45 per cent of the respondents said “No”. When it comes to the question of relevance of AAPSU, majority of the respondents (69%) feel that it is still relevant. Only 25 per cent of the respondents felt otherwise. On a question “How much did you spend?” 50 percent of the respondents replied that they spent less than five lakhs; 25 per cent of the respondents said that they spent more than five lakhs but less than one crore. It is significant that 5 per cent of the respondents were candid in their admission, saying that they spent more than one hundred lakhs. Discussion: The study shows that 90 per cent of the respondents knew/heard about the AAPSU and its activities. This is an indication of popularity of the Union throughout the state. There have been so many instances where AAPSU leadership got themselves directly involved in the political affairs of the state. It

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cannot be ruled out that many of the leaders took the help of political leaders at the time of elections. The responses show that more than 70 per cent of the respondents are not happy with the present leadership of AAPSU. 71.5 per cent of the respondents still consider AAPSU as the apex students’ body of the state. It shows that people of Arunachal Pradesh would have faith on the AAPSU provided its leadership remains stick to the original ideology and objectives. Their involvement in the political affairs of the state is frowned upon, and they must remain apolitical and corrupt-free. There has been popular perception among the public that there is not only involvement of politics but also huge amount of financial involvement in the election of the AAPSU Executive Members. This is one of the primary reasons that the public have lost their faith on the apex students’ union. Opinion of the respondents is almost divided on the question of “Do you think that the president and general secretary of AAPSU should be regular post-graduate students?” There are allegations that many of the Executive Members of AAPSU are actually over-aged and register themselves as students only to fulfill the requirement of being a regular student to contest the elections. One of the reasons why the AAPSU seems to be losing its significance is that it no longer looks after the interests of the students’ community. It has become more political by diverting its energy towards non-academic and political issues. It can be summarized that the people will have no problem even if AAPSU involves itself in other activities so long as its fights serve the interest of the state. Many of the former AAPSU leaders may have used AAPSU as a platform for their entry into avtive politics. Former AAPSU presidents www.ijmer.in

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Jarbom Gamlin and Takam Sanjoy went on to become the state’s chief minister and Member of Parliament respectively. Nabam Rebia, another former AAPSU president, presently a legislator, was the speaker of Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly. Tater Kipa, a former president became a minister, while Larbin Nasi, former general secretary, went on to become an MLA. It is, therefore, understood that those agree to use of AAPSU as a political platform may mostly be the former Executive members of AAPSU. One of the reasons for the AAPSU to be in declining position is because of the fact that community/clan based students’ unions are mushrooming in the state. The opinion gives us an impression that the community/clan based students organisations are growing their strength day by day. It is possible that the strength they gained may at the cost of popularity of the AAPSU, the apex students’ body of the state, which is not a good sign for the AAPSU. It may still be relevant but the respondents seem not to be happy with the activities of the present AAPSU leadership. Therefore, a change in the style and functioning of the AAPSU leadership is a necessity to make it more relevant. In order to understand the actual monetary involvement of in the elections, a question was specifically asked to the present and past leaders of AAPSU: However, the data generated do not correspond to the public perception about the degree of financial involvement in the elections to the AAPSU Executive Members, particularly its president. It could be because many of the respondents are the past leaders and in the past elections not much of monetary involvement was visible.

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Tables: Table 1 Do you feel that the AAPSU as an organization is still relevant? Sl. No Responses No. of Respondents Percentage 1

Yes

138

69%

2

No

50

25%

3

No Response

12

6%

200

100%

Total

Source: Survey Data. Table 2 Do you think that the AAPSU remains a platform for entry into active politics? Sl. No

Responses

No. of Respondents

Percentage

1

Yes

159

79.5%

2

No

31

15.5%

3

No Response

10

6%

200

100%

Table

Source: Survey Data. Table 3 IF yes, are you happy with this role of the present AAPSU leadership? Sl. No

Responses

No. of Respondents

Percentage

1

Yes

50

33.3

2

No

100

66.6

3

No Response

0

0

150

99.9

Total

Source: Survey Data.

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Table 4 Do you think that the APSU plays the role of opposition political party in the state? Sl. No

Responses

No. of Respondents

Percentage

1

Yes

150

75%

2

No

30

15%

3

No Response

20

10%

200

100%

Table

Source: Survey Data. Table 5 Do you feel that there is monetary involvement in the election of AAPSU? Sl. No Responses No. of Respondents Percentage 1

Yes

176

88%

2

No

20

10%

3

No Response

4

2%

200

100%

Table

Source: Survey Data. Table 6 What according to you is the reason for declining of AAPSU? Sl. No

Responses

No. of Respondents

Percentage

1

Weak leadership

50

33.3%

2

Political interference

70

46.6%

3

No sympathy from the public

30

20%

4

No Response

0

0%

150

99.9%

Total

Source: Survey Data. www.ijmer.in

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AN OVERVIEW OF ISLAMIC BANKING AND ITS SCOPE IN INDIA CMA Dr. Lutfun Nesha CMA Dr. Sk. Raju Ali Associate Professor in Commerce Associate Professor in Commerce Seth SoorajmullJalan Girls’ College Bangabashi College University of Calcutta, Calcutta University of Calcutta Calcutta Abstract From a situation nearly 40 years ago when it was virtually unknown, Islamic banking has expanded to become a distinctive and fast growing segment of the international banking and capital markets. There are well over 350 Islamic banks operating in over 70 countries comprising most of the Muslim world and many Western countries. Despite its expansion, Islamic banking remains poorly understood even in many parts of the Muslim world. Our aim in this article is toexplain what Islamic banking is, what are their principles, how it differs from conventional banking, what are its strengths and weaknesses, what are their prospects and potential. Islamic banking not only covers the needs of Muslim population but it is fulfilling the need for the development of all the communities. Islamic banking can provide immense opportunities to energize the Indian economy with the participation of previously excluded Muslims in Shariah-compliant banking and at the same time could lead to substantial inward investment to boost India's further development. Key words: Interest free banking, Profit and loss sharing, Shariah, Social justice, Financial inclusion, Economic development.

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Introduction An Islamic bank is a deposit-taking banking institution whose scope of activities includes all currently known banking activities, excluding borrowing and lending on the basis of interest. Islamic Banking is interest free asset backed banking governed by the principles of Islamic Shariah. The foundation of Islamic Bank is based on the Islamic faith and must stay within the limits of Islamic shariah in all of its actions and deeds.The meaning of the Arabic word shariah refers to a legal system in keeping with the code of behaviour called for by the Holy Quran and the hadith (the authentic tradition).Islamic banking is not only to avoid interest-based transactions, but also to avoid unethical practices and participate actively in achieving the goals and objectives of an Islamic economy. Islamic Banking is one of the component of Islamic finance.Despite its name, Islamic finance is not a religious product. Even though Islamic banks emerged in response to market needs of Muslim clients, they are not religious institutions. Like other banks, they are profit-seeking institutions. It is meant not only for Muslims but it also includes Non- Muslims.The features of Islamic banking are: Elimination of the payment and receipt of interest in all forms. It is called Riba in Islam. Interest is neither paid to depositor norit ischarged from the borrower.  No financing to economic activities involving speculation or unreasonable uncertainty (gharar). Gambling (maysir) is also prohibited.  No support to economic activities involving oppression (zulm).  No financing for the production of goods and services which contradict the Islamic value (haram). Business and investment are undertaken on the basis of only halal (legal, permitted) activities.  Zakat, an Islamic tax, is to be paid by the bank to benefit society. 

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All activities should be in line with Islamic principles, with a special shariah board to supervise and advise the bank on the propriety of transactions. Principles 

At the heart of Islam is a sense of cooperation, to help one another according to principles of goodness and piety. It aims to eliminate exploitation and to establish a just society by the application of the Shariah or Islamic rulings to the operations of banks and other financial institutions.Prohibition of interest in Islam does not mean that savings will not be rewarded. It also does not mean that the cost of finance would be zero. Islam fully recognizes the useful role that financial intermediation plays in channeling resources from the surplus units in society to the deficit units. Instead of using the rate of interest to mobilize savings, Islamic banks mobilize funds on the basis of profitsharing with the depositors. These funds are then passed on to corporate and other clients using sale-based or asset-based contracts. Islam encourages the earning of profits but forbids the charging of interest because profits, determined ex post, symbolize successful entrepreneurship and the creation of additional wealth. But, interest, determined ex ante, is a cost that is accrued irrespective of the outcome of business operations and may not create wealth if there are business losses. Social justice demands that borrowers and lenders share rewards as well as losses in an equitable fashion and that the process of wealth accumulation and distribution in the economy be fair and representative of true productivity. Because interest is prohibited, pure debt security is eliminated from the system and therefore suppliers of funds become investors, rather than creditors. Sometimes, a person can invest in a specific project and profits will be calculated specifically for that project.Banking transactions are undertaken among three parties i.e. actual users of the capital or entrepreneurs, the bank as an intermediary and partial user of funds and the suppliers of funds or depositors.The relationship of the Islamic bank with the suppliers of www.ijmer.in

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funds can be of agent and principal, custodian and depositor, entrepreneur and investor as well as fellow partners in a joint investment project. Similarly, the relationship of the bank with the users of funds can comprise of vendor and purchaser, investor and entrepreneur, principal and agent, lessor and lessee, transferor and transferee, and also partners in a business venture.Islamic banking system is based on risk-sharing, owning and handling of physical goods, involvement in the process of trading, leasing and construction contracts using various Islamic modes of finance. Islamic banks deal with asset management for the purpose of income generation. Once the banks have stable stream of Halal income, depositors then also receive stable and Halal income. Profit has been recognized as ‘reward’ for (use of) capital and Islam permits gainful deployment of surplus resources for enhancement of their value. The ratio in which the total profits of the enterprise are distributed between the capital-owner and the manager of the enterprise is determined and mutually agreed at the time of entering the contract, before the beginning of the project. In the event of loss, the capital-owner bears all the loss unless caused by negligence or violence of the terms of the contract and the principal is reduced by the amount of the loss. It is the risk of loss that entitles the capital-owner to a share in the profits. The manager bears no financial loss, because he has lost his time and his work has been wasted. According to Islamic principle there should be no reward without riskbearing. This principle is applicable to both labour and capital. As no payment is allowed to labour unless it is applied to work, so no reward for capital should be allowed unless it is exposed to business risks.Again in Islamic law it is permissible to penalize a debtor who is financially sound but delays payment of debt without any genuine reason. But proceeds of such penalty are to be used for charity purposes. Functions

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Islamic banks perform two types of functions, fund based and non-fund based. Fund based activities are the primary functions of Islamic bank i.e. acceptance of deposits from savers on profit & loss basis and lend money to deficient individuals/business units on profit and loss basis. Islamic Bank accepts deposits against savings and current accounts and invests this amount into different profitable ventures as an agent and shares the consequences. Islamic banks lend money to borrowers for short-term, medium-term and long-term investment on the basis of profit and loss. In this way depositor, bank and borrower share risk of loss according to a valid sales contract. Islamic bank performs some non-fund based functions like agency services and general utility services. Islamic bank can act as an agent to provide the different types of services like collection of cheques, collection of dividends, execution of standing orders, and purchase/sale of securities. It also performs the general utility services e.g. a collection of utility bills, foreign exchange remittances, providing Hajj services, currency exchanges etc. Islamic Financial Products Listed below are some popular Islamic financial products being marketed worldwide by Islamicbanks. 

Murabaha

(sales

contract

at

a

profit

mark-up)

-

Murabaha(trade with mark-up cost) is one of the most widely used instruments for short term purpose. 75% of total banking operations are based onMurabahawhich is the sale of a commodity at a price that includes a set profit of which both the vendor (marketer) and the consumer are aware. It refers to contracts in which a financial institution purchases goods from the vendor upon the request of a client, and then sells the goods to the client who makes deferred payments either by lump sum or installments that cover costs and agreed-upon profit margin www.ijmer.in

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for the financial institution. The transaction involves an order accompanied by a promise to purchase and two sales contracts. The first contract is concluded between the Islamic bank and the supplier of the commodity and the second is concluded between the bank and the client who placed the order. 

Mudarabah (passive partnership) -:Mudarabah or trust financing is a contract conducted between two parties, a capital owner (rabb al-mal) and an investment manager (mudarib). This is a special type of partnership. The rabb al-mal (beneficial owner or sleeping partner) lends money to the mudarib (managing trustee or labour partner), who then has to return the money to the rabb al-mal in the form of principal with profits in accordance with the ratio that they agreed upon at the time of the contract. Financial loss is borne by the capital owner, the loss to the manager being the opportunity cost of his own labour which failed to generate any income. The bank retains, in favour of its shareholders, part of the profits accruing to deposits in accordance with the predetermined profit-sharing ratio.

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Musharakah (joint venture) -:Musharakah literally means sharing.Musharakah is basically a joint contract by which all the partners share the profit or loss of the joint venture. The profit of the enterprise is shared among the partners in agreed proportions while the loss is shared strictly according to capital contributions.

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Muqarada (bonds) -:Muqarada allows a bank to issue Islamic bonds to finance a specific project. Investors who buy muqarada bonds take a share of the profits generated by the project as well as take the risks of losses.

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Ijarah (Lease) -: An ijarah contract is a contract of sale of the usufruct (the right to use the object) for a specified period of

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time. It refers to the lease of tangible assets such as property and merchandise, but it is also meant to denote the hiring of personal services for a fee. Renting an asset also comes under the contract. In such cases, the asset is leased for a much shorter period than its actual useful life, which also means that the asset can be rented to multiple users over its life. The lessor must be the owner of the asset to be leased and it is the responsibility of the lessor/owner to maintain the property. 

Istisna(real estate mortgage)-:Istisna is a contract in which a party orders another to manufacture and provide a commodity, the description of which, delivery date, price and payment date are all set in the contract. Any party can cancel the contract after giving notice to the other before the manufacturing work starts. However, after the manufacturing work has started, the contract cannot be cancelled unilaterally.Suppose a family who would like to buy a $200000 house and want to finance this purchase with the help of an Islamic bank. It may make an up-front payment equaling 20 per cent ($40000), leaving the bank to invest 80 per cent, or $160000, in the house. The family’s monthly payment will comprise paying back rent to the bank plus a purchase of a certain portion of shares from the bank, until they effectively ‘buy it out’. The rent payments are legitimate because they are used to get a tangible asset that the family does not completely own, and are not paid to return borrowed money with interest.

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Salam(futures)-: A buyer pays in advance for a designated quantity and quality of a certain commodity to be delivered at a certain agreed date and price. It is limited to fungible commodities.Goods whose quality

or quantity

cannot be

determined by specification cannot be sold through the contract of salam. The bank could buy a commodity by making an advance payment to the supplier and fixing the date of delivery as the www.ijmer.in

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date desired by its client. It can then sell the commodity to a third party either on a salam or sale by installments basis. With two salam contracts, the second should entail delivery of the same quantity and description as the first contract and is concluded after the first contract. Differences between Islamic and Conventional banking Conventional banking is based upon financing profitable projects with interest lending. Islamic banks avoid interest or riba, and instead invest on a profit or loss basis.Fundamental differences between Islamic and conventional banking are: Islamic Banking 1. Interest and usury is avoided at all levels of financial transactions. 2. Depositors bear the risk, no need for deposit insurance. 3. The relationship between depositors and entrepreneurs is friendly and cooperative. 4. Avoids speculation related financial activities. 5. Socially needed investment projects are considered. 6. Islamic banking is committed to implement welfare oriented principles of financing. 7. Prepare and implement investment plans to reduce the income inequality and wealth disparity between the rich and poor. 8. Observe criteria fixed by the shariah and work under the surveillance of the Shariah www.ijmer.in

Conventional Banking 1. The basis for all financial transactions is interest and high-level usury. 2. Depositors do not bear any risk, moreover the bank is inclined to pay back principal with a guaranteed interest amount. 3. Creditor-debtor relationship exists between depositor and bank. 4. Main functions are speculation related. 5. Projects below the fixed interest level are not considered. 6. No such commitment, extend oppression and exploitation. 7. Increase the gap. 8. No such rules and regulations and no such surveillance. 9. Cannot absorb any shock 264

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Supervisory Boards. 9. Islamic bank can absorb any endogenous or exogenous shock. 10. Bank pays zakat and inspires clients to pay zakat, which ensures redistribution of income in favour of the poor. 11. The basis of business policy is socio economic uplifting of the disadvantaged groups of the society.

because of the ex-ante commitment. 10. No zakat system for the benefit of the poor. 11. Profit is the main target of the business or the prime duty is to maximize the shareholders’ value.

Opportunities Islamic banking has the potential for a lot of contributions in different dimensions. It contributes significantly to economic growth and development. 

It promises to foster greater financial inclusion, especially of large underserved Muslim populations. Islamic banks are in a privileged position to gain access to customers from large Muslim populations around the world.

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Islamic

finance

can

significantly

contribute

to

economic

development, given its direct link to physical assets and the real economy. The emphasis on tangible assets ensures that the industry supports only transactions that serve a real purpose, thus discouraging financial speculation. 

Islamic banking system results in a better distribution of risk. Business risk is spread over a larger number of people. The entrepreneur is risking only his labour and the bank is risking its capital.



It could provide support for small and medium–sized enterprises (SME), as well as investment in public infrastructure. Enhancing

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the role of financial sector in development of SME sub-sector could mitigate the serious problems of unemployment and low level of exports. 

Islamic banking model promotes innovation. Innovation is not something on which the big industrialists have a monopoly.Anybody can be enterprising, and anybody can have a good idea. In Islamic banking, if a small or middle-class entrepreneur has a better project, he has a possibility of getting it financed, and he will not be held back by the fear of tremendous risks.

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The cost of capital in an interest based system is the rate of interest which is fixed. It does not vary with the productivity of the projects. In an Islamic economy, the cost of capital varies with productivity. There is no fixed cost of capital.

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In the recessionary period, there will be greater investment in an Islamic economy or in the profit-sharing economy as compared to an interest-based economy. This is because during recessionary periods, productivity goes down but, at the same time, the cost of capital for the clients of Islamic banks also goes down.

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Islamic Banks improve the allocation of resources; they ensure justice and fairness among the contracting parties; they lead to a more stable financial system; and they have a favourable impact on economic growth.

Challenges Although the market has recognized the importance of Islamic Banking especially to the post-recession world still there are many obstacles to be overcome. The following are some of the impediments to the growth of Islamic Banking. 

No product can be launched until it is cleared by Shariah scholars. But different Shariah boards give contradictory rulings on the

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permissibility of different types of products developed within different Islamic banks. This causes confusion and misunderstanding among individual customers as to the permissibility of various products. Many people both Muslims and non-Muslims do not understand Islamic banking. The unfamiliarity with the Islamic banking system and the lack of knowledge among normal consumers is a great obstacle to Islamic banking. There is a serious shortage of scholars and qualified managers who possess working knowledge of both Islamic rules and modern economics and finance, locally and internationally.It lacks suitable trained staff. Many problems in Islamic banks arise because of insufficient formal training programmes of their employees. There is a shortage of Islamic investment instruments. The lack of adequate liquidity instruments is a major hindrance in Islamic banking. It is difficult for Islamic banks to manage liquidity risk with Islamic products where interest-free capital markets do not exist. Many individual and business consumers wish to have a guaranteed return on their investments, a factor that does not have a corresponding substitute in Islamic banks. A strict application of profit and loss sharing (PLS) principles would shift the risk of losses from shareholders to depositors. They simply have no choice but to accept fluctuating payments. Low profit ratios could hurt Islamic banks as they rely solely on the profit and loss sharing (PLS) principle to market their financial products. Islamic finance will often be more expensive than conventional finance. Islamic contract law stipulates that each transaction requires a separate contract, which makes for higher costs.The Ernst &Young Report finds that shareholder returns are 20% lower as a result of higher costs and operational inefficiencies. The social aspect of Islamic banking such as making zakat donations to charities is seen as an important aspect to maintain. In most countries there are no coherent standards of Islamic marketing regulations, and the lack of uniformity in accounting principles and shariah guidelines makes it difficult for central bankers to regulate such an industry.

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There are no such international supervisory standards and practices for Islamic Banking. The lack of prescribed global standards for Islamic Finance Law is disabling the banking community to create a truly global product line.  A major weakness is to make an environment suitable for the smooth functioning and development of Islamic banking. Building a proper institutional set-up is a serious challenge for Islamic finance.  Latest technologies as used in conventional banks are often not used by Islamic banks.  The biggest challenge to Islamic banks is that it is only four decades old and is competing with a well developed and mature conventional banking industry.  Islamic banking is operating in an environment where legal and tax rules, financial infrastructure, and access to financial safety nets are either absent or, if available, do not appropriately take into account the special characteristics of Islamic finance.  Many of the rapid growth market countries face ongoing economic and political instability.  Another important issue that the Islamic banking has so far ignored is the use of media. Even the Muslims are not very much aware of the fact that the Islamic banking is being practised in the world. The banks have not ever used an effective media to publicise their activities. Progress 

Islamic banks have expanded rapidly over the last four decades. The industry that started on a modest scale in the early 1970s has shown tremendous growth over the last 40 years. It is one of the fastest growing industries makingdouble-digit annual growth rate. The practice of Islamic banking has now spread to all corners of the globe from East to West. What started as a small rural banking experiment in the remote villages of Egypt has now reached a level where many megainternational banks are offering Islamic banking products. The rapid expansion of Islamic banking has been mainly through Islamic windows in conventional banks rather than in pure Islamic banks. This has allowed existing banks to easily enter the Islamic banking market and is likely to continue being a mechanism for growth for the future. Many www.ijmer.in

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international as well as local institutions have stepped into this multibillion dollar booming industry by establishing its Islamic wings and units. International giant banks such as HSBC, Citi Bank and Standard Chartered have already established their Islamic units and functioning in the Middle East region as well as in Europe and America. Of the estimated 363 institutions offering Islamic banking, 69% are fully Islamic (“standalone”) conventional banks

banks, while the remaining offering Islamic services

31% are through

“windows”operating in about 75 countries including Muslim and nonMuslim countries. The Islamic banking assets with commercial banks had globally reached USD1.54 trillion in 2012 with an annual growth of 17.6% over the last four years (Ernst andYoung, World Islamic Banking Competitiveness Report 2013-2014). The market share of the same can be shown below. Bahrain

Turkey 2%

Islamic banking Assets 1% (100% = $1.54 trillion, 2012) Kuwait Qatar 3% 4%

Indonesia 1%

Malaysia 8% UAE 5% KSA 16%

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Rest of the World including Iran 60%

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Ernst and Young also identified 25 "rapid growth market" countries which they predict will account for half of global GDP by 2020. Of these, 10 have a high Muslim population. In July 2015, the World Bank and the General Council for Islamic Banks and Financial Institutions (CIBAFI), the global umbrella of Islamic financial institutions, signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to help foster the development of Islamic finance globally and expand its use as an effective tool for financing development worldwide, including in non-Muslim countries. In terms of Islamic banking penetration, markets can be categorized in the following way. Islamic Banking Marketsin 2010 Established

Muslim Populatio n (Million) GDP Per Capita($) Islamic Assets($ billion) Islamic assets as % of total assets

Ku wait 3

KSA

UAE

27

6

405 17

2320 1

62

40%

Emerging

Untapped

Malaysi a 17

Pakista n 175

Turke y 73

Indones ia 209

Indi a 182

Chin a 22

5953 3

15022

2516

13150

4250

340 8

7544

142

94

86

6

28

10

-

-

38%

22%

17%

7%

5%

3%

-

-

Source: A T Kearney Analysis From the above table it is clear that emerging markets offer significant growth prospects. Large yet untapped markets such as India offer great potential for expansion. This alternative banking system has drawn the attention of Muslims as well as non-Muslims due to its unique developmental characteristics. In many majority Muslim countries, Islamic banking assets have been growing faster than www.ijmer.in

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conventional banking assets. There has also been a surge of interest in Islamic finance from non-Muslim countries such as the UK, Luxembourg, South Africa, and Hong Kong. Though Islamic banking has grown rapidly in last few decades, a complete Islamic financial system is still in its early stages of development. Scope in India Indian financial system has witnessed lot of changes in recent past. The most important of them all are deregulation of Indian banking sector and the opening of new banks. Islamic bank is a new global phenomenon, which India should recognize in developing Indian financial system. After so many years of nationalisation of banks more than 40% of Indians do not have access to formal banking system.According to the Sachar Committee a big section of the Muslim population does not have access to banking services.An estimated 180 million Muslims in India, the country's second-largest religious group, have been unable to access Islamic banking. According to World Islamic Banking Competitiveness Report 2013-14, globally Islamic banking assets are expected to grow to USD 3.4 trillion by 2018; therefore this can be a tool for enhancing economic development in India too. Islamic banking can provide immense opportunities to energize the Indian economy with the participation of previously excluded Muslims in Shariah-compliant banking. It would help the poor, vulnerable, small manufacturing retailer and agricultural enterprises to access finance as well as equity funding can be made for infrastructure projects such as irrigation, dams, roads, electricity and communication projects, which are key to the development of the Indian economy.It will attract many Middle-Eastern investors, bankers, and businessmen and thus, higher investment will boost the Indian financial backbone. There are several foreign banks operating in India, like Citibank, Standard Chartered

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Bank, HBSC which are operating interest free windows in several West Asian countries, USA and in Europe. Islamic banking has been approved by RBI in India. This welcome development was expected after Dr. RaghuramRajan took over as the governor of RBI, replacing D. Subbarao whose position on Islamic Banking was not favorable.DrRaghuramRajan, was the head of the Committee of the Financial sector Reforms-CFSR of the Planning Commission which recommended Islamic Banking to be approved in India. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed working with the government to introduce interest-free banking to tackle financial exclusion for religious reasons. India's central bank made this proposal in its annual report, as departing RBI governor RaghuramRajan hands over the reins to Urjit Patel this year(2016). The RBI said it would explore introducing interest-free banking products in consultation with the government. Separate parallel legislation or an amendment needs to be passed by Parliament for functioning of Islamic banks in India, and that can only happen with the active support of the government. Mr.Saif Ahmed, managing partner at Bangaluru-based Infinity Consultants, which specialises in Islamic finance, said "this is definitely a significant development as it is the first time that the RBI has concretely mentioned that it will now work with the government to introduce Islamic banking," (Reporting by Bernardo Vizcaino; ASIA | Mon Sep 5, 2016 | Retrieved from in.reuters.com/article/islamic-finance-india-idINKCN11B0OO) Jeddah-based Islamic Development Bank (IDB) is set to start its India operations from Gujarat. The international financial institution from Saudi Arabia has chosen Gujarat to set up its first branch in India. During the visit of Prime Minister, Mr. NarendraModi to UAE in April this year, India's EXIM Bank had signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Islamic Development Bank for a $100 million lineof-credit to facilitate exports to IDB's member countries which has 56 www.ijmer.in

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Islamic member countries. IDB had also signed a $55-million pact with Rashtriya Institute of Skill and Education (RISE) to provide medical care to rural poor in India. IDB will provide 350 fully-equipped medical vans (mobile clinics) to India, 30 of which will be received for the tribal areas of ChhotaUdepur, Narmada and Bharuch in Gujarat, in the first phase. IDB and its private sector arm, the Islamic Corporation for the Development of the Private Sector (ICD), have already met with top officials of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), EXIM Bank and other nationalized banks. They are likely to start their India operations from Gujarat with a branch in Ahmedabad, said ZafarSareshwala, chancellor, Maulana Azad National Urdu University (MANUU), who had accompanied the PM in Saudi Arabia. The bank has also shown keen interest in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) of Gujarat.There are various areas and opportunities in India where IDB is planning to work in the future. Other than IDB, the government of Saudi Arabia is planning to set up BPOs for Saudi women with the support of India. (Reporting by Kapil Dave,TNN | May 24, 2016, Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Islamic-banking-todebut-in-Gujarat/articleshow/52409350.cms) In India the scope of Islamic banking is very wide and it can grow along with other conventional banks. Setting up Islamic banking will be advantageous for India owing to its strong Muslim population. Development of Islamic finance in India has been slow but now there are signs that India is warming up to Islamic finance. Suggestions In order to operate and grow in the global market effectively, the following suggestions are desirable for the growth of Islamic banking. 

Adequate promotion of the Islamic banking industry products should take place on a regular basis through advertisement,

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awareness, road shows, speeches and othersin order to generate interest and loyalty from Muslims and non-Muslims. Islamic banks must strive to provide specific products tailored to satisfy different segments of individual and business consumers. Increasing the supply of knowledgeable scholars is crucial for the development of Islamic banking in the right direction. The Shariah boards of Islamic banks should absorb Islamic scholars based on their technical expertise rather than their popularity.The creation of a global association of Shariah boards is essential to develop new Islamic banking products. Most of the managers of Islamic banks are not very well trained in the use of Islamic modes of finance. It is extremely important to have the people with the right kind of skills and commitment to run Islamic banks.The employees and management need to be trained in modern techniques of financial management, especially risk management, as well as information technology. It is essential that the latest technological developments are incorporated into Islamic banking so that Islamic banking can also provide the convenience offered by conventional banking system. Greater professionalism and competence instituted by proper training programmes are required for successful relationships with clients. The proponents of Islamic banking must educate and negotiate withgovernment regulators to clear some of the complexity regarding the operational viability of Islamic financial instruments in an economy and create a favourable environment for the smooth functioning of the Islamic financial system. Islamic institutions need to have some kind of regulatory supervision in day-to-day operations in order to protect their depositors and clients. Because of the differences in their nature and operations, Islamic banks require more strict supervision of the firms’ operations. There is a need for increased regulatory clarity and harmonization, closer cooperation between Islamic and conventional financial standard-setters, and further enhancement of tools for effective supervision. Greater harmonization should be sought across and within countries through better implementation of existing standards for

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Shariah governance and possibly by establishing central boards at the national level.  Islamic banks have to employ modern risk management techniques, improve internal audit systems and enhance international standards of transparency, regulation and supervision.  Corporate governance is also an important area which needs serious thought.The ownership structure of Islamic banks is also an area of concern.  The research and development effort to develop innovativeislamic products necessary for the expansion of the Islamic banking industry.  It is important that the existing Islamic banks form mergers with each other and form strategic alliances with other major banks like HSBC, Citi Bank etc. to compete on the same level similar to a bank in the conventional banking system. Conclusion It is found that Islamic bank performs activities in the right direction towards human development. They improve the allocation of resources, they ensure justice and fairness among the contracting parties, they lead to a more stable financial system, and they have a favourable impact on economic growth. Islamic bank is channeling resources from the surplus units in society to the deficit units on the basis of profit-sharing. During the last 40 years the Islamic financial industry has shown remarkable progress. Islamic banks are in a privileged position to gain access to customers from large Muslim populations around the world. Of the 1.6 billion Muslims in the world, only 14% use banks. So, there are huge untapped Muslim populations around the world including India, Pakistan and Bangladesh in South Asia; Egypt, Nigeria, Morocco in Africa etc. It can help reduce the overall gap in access to finance. Even though Islamic banks emerged in response to market needs of Muslim clients, they are not religious institutions. Like other banks, they are profit-seeking institutions.It is also expected that growth will not just be limited to regions with a high Muslim population. However, the rapid development in the global www.ijmer.in

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financial markets poses various challenges to Islamic banking.These issues and challenges need to be addressed very carefully in order to sustain the rapid growth and a viable solution must be found immediately to secure the future of Islamic banking. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

M. Kabir Hassan and Mervyn K. Lewis(2007), Handbook of Islamic Banking Katherine Johnson(2013), The Role of Islamic Banking in Economic Growth Hans Visser(2009), Islamic Finance - Principles and Practice Claudio Porzio& M. GraziaStarita(2009), Risk profile of Islamic banks Muhammad Imran(2005), Islamic Banking Current Scenario & Way ahead ZamirIqbal and Abbas Mirakho(2011), An Introduction to Islamic Finance -Theory and Practice (Second Edition), MunawarIqbal and Philip Molyneux (2005), Thirty Years of Islamic Banking: History, Performance and Prospects A T Kearney(2012), The Future of Islamic Bank. Ziauddin Ahmed, MunawarIqabal, M. Fahim Khan, Money and Banking in Islam, Retrieved from https://www.islamicbanker.com/education/issues-faced-islamicbanks International Monetary Fund Islamic Finance: Opportunities, Challenges, and Policy Options Prepared by Alfred Kammer, Mohamed Norat, Marco Piñón, Ananthakrishnan Prasad, Christopher Towe, ZeineZeidane, and an IMF Staff Team(2005), Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2015/sdn1505.pdf Rajesh Goyal, Islamic Banking – Shattering the concept of Commercial Banking, Retrieved from http://www.allbankingsolutions.com/Press-Release-Views/IslamicBanking. Muhammad Faisal Ijaz, M. Z. (2007). Islamic Banking (Presentation). Retrieved from http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Islamic-Banking/174593 An introduction to Islamic finance, Retrieved from www.cimaglobal.com/if Gowhar Bashir Ahangar, MohdUmmer Jan Padder, AshaqHussainGanie, Islamic Banking and its scope in India, IRACST – InternationalJournal ofCommerce, Business and Management (IJCBM), Vol. 2, No.5, October 2013 Pamkhuila Shaiza, Advantages of introducing Islamic banking system in India, Retrieved from https://www.projectguru.in/publications/advantagesislamic-banking-system-india/ Ernst and Young, World Islamic Banking Competitiveness Report 2013–14 Ernst and Young, World Islamic Banking Competitiveness Report 2014–15 K.H.AzamAhamed, Benefits of Islamic Bank http://www.islamic-banking.com/islamic_banking_principle.aspx http://www.lawteacher.net/free-law-essays/islamic-law/significance-of-islamicbanking-law-essays.php http://www.sbp.org.pk/ibd/faqs.asp

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22. http://www.islamicline.com/islamicbanks.html 23. Reporting by Linda Yueh,Chief business correspondent, 18 July 2014 ( Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/business-28365639

24. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialsector/brief/islamic-finance

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WORK-LIFE BALANCE PROGRAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS DRIVERS AND CONSEQUENCES Dr.S.Rajani Director School of Management Studies Gayatri Vidya Parishad College for Degree & PG Courses Visakhapatnam In an increasingly competition driven global business scenario, work life balance has become a much discussed issue in Board rooms, academic institutions and any other such place where solutions are being sought for new age managerial challenges. This is a major challenge for the HR Professionals who are continuously exploring innovative practices to enhance the employee performance and retain them. In the earlier days in India this problem was not very significant since the joint family system provided support and security. However in the post liberalisation era Indian companies are also facing the heat and therefore have been adopting several strategies to establish a work environment conducive for raised levels of performance without affecting the other aspects of life. The approach is proactive and positive. It aims at replacing the earlier concept of viewing work and life to be at conflict with the concept of integrating life and work. Contemporary demographic changes such as rise in number of women in the workforce, dual career and nuclear family, have all led to an urgent need for employees to balance work and non-work life. This article is an attempt to understand the different aspects of work life balance like the reasons for imbalance, impact of imbalance and also the various WLB programmes implemented to strike a balance between the responsibilities at work and also those at home.

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Definition Work-life conflict occurs when cumulative demands of work and nonwork roles are incompatible in some aspects, such as participation in one role is made more difficult by participation in the other roles (Duxbury and Higgins, 2003) Parkes and Langford (2008) suggest that work-life balance is ‘an employee’s ability to meet work and family commitments, as well as other non-work responsibilities and activities. Greenhaus, Collins & Shaw (2003) defined work-family balance as ‘the extent to which an individual is equally engaged in and equally satisfied with his or her work role and family role’. They operationalized the concept of work-family balance as comprising three components: 

Time balance, whereby equal amounts of time are devoted to work and family;

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Involvement balance, whereby an equal level of psychological involvement in work and family roles exists;

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Satisfaction balance, whereby an equal level of satisfaction is derived from work and family roles.

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Work-life balance is about employees achieving a satisfactory equilibrium between work and non-work activities i.e. parental responsibilities and wider caring duties, as well as other activities and interests (Work Foundation, 2003).

Infact work-life balance is about creating a productive work culture where the potential for tensions between work and other parts of people's lives is minimized. Generally people refer only to the impact of work pressure on family but there are several other life domains which are equally impacted and lead to unhappiness in one’s life. This is more pronounced in the case of women since they have multiple roles to play in life and people around them have lot of expectations from them. Due to dual participation in family and work roles an individual’s life becomes stressed and exhausted (Greenhaus & Buetell, 1985). This, in www.ijmer.in

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turn, not only affects her health and well-being (Frone, 2000; Madsen, John, & Miller, 2005) but also undermines performance in the organization (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000). Work-life balance tries to bring in some sort of equilibrium where such role conflicts are minimized or eliminated. In simplest terms, work-family balance is defined as ‘satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home, with a minimum of role conflict’ (Clark, 2000). Review of Literature Kofodimos (1993) suggests that imbalance-in particular work imbalance-arouses high levels of stress, detract from quality of life, and ultimately reduces individual’s effectiveness at work. He expect that an imbalanced satisfaction between work and family roles can produce extensive stress because the imbalance is a constant reminder that one is not meeting his or her needs or values as extensively in one role as the other. Therefore, imbalance can produce sizable differences between work satisfaction and family satisfaction, a high level of stress, and therefore a low quality of life. (Greenhaus et al; 2003) define work-life balance as the extent to which an individual is equally engaged in – and equally satisfied with – his or her work role and family role. Thus, employees who experience high work-life balance are those who exhibit similar investment of time and commitment, to work and non-work domains. There has been recognition that happy employees are more productive and less likely to leave (Shalini Mahtani & Richard Welford, 2004). Vijaya Mani (2013) has revealed the major factors influencing the Work Life Balance of Women professionals in India such as role conflict, lack of recognition, organizational politics, gender discrimination, and elderly and children care issues, quality of health, problems in time management and lack of proper social support. Work Life Balance means the competence to schedule the hours of an www.ijmer.in

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individual’s professional and personal life so as to lead a healthy and peaceful life. It emphasizes the values, attitudes and beliefs of women regarding their age to work in organizing and balancing their work and personal life. (K.Santhana Lakshmi & S.Sujatha Gopinath, March 2013). The following variables influencing the experience of WLB were identified while reviewing the various literatures- Work Family Conflict and Family Work Conflict, Women Advancement, Work Stress, Child care.

in

various

roles,

Career

Women are mostly into full time services and are working 8 hours per day and 5 days in a week minimum and are confronted by increasing workload every day. So, most of them carry work and responsibilities to home but balancing between these two complex situations in the present day fast life requires talent, tact, skill and caution. Women have to cope up with high work targets, office commitments, tight meeting schedules and the duties and responsibilities of life and home. Employers should concentrate on framing various policies and schemes to facilitate Work life balance to encourage and attract women employees. (SayantiGhosh, 2010). Susi S & Jawaharrani.K (2011) agrees that a strong organizational culture increases employee’s intent to remain in the organization. Work life balance must be supported and encouraged at all levels of the organization including senior management, line managers and all staff. Employees learn different kinds of behavior from workplace life and private life. Since reciprocal interactions between both the life domains occur a Green Work Life Balance Concept is suggested to facilitate environmentally friendly behavior for them. (N.Gayathri, Dr.P.Karthikeyan, (2013)). Amita Singh (2010), suggested that flexi time, home working, child care facilities, option to work part time are facilities that need to be introduced and recommended for building a supportive work

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environment in the IT sector in India. Mathew and Pachanatham (2009) stated that the women workforce in India was mainly employed in non-managerial, subordinate or low profile positions in the past. At present, they occupy almost all categories of positions in the workplace. These changes in work culture have added to women’s duties and responsibilities to their family as well as to society. Vijaya Lakshmi et al (2013) have studied and find the issues and problems of women faculty working in educational institutions. Also found that women faculty members underwent severe stress in the process of attaining Work Life Balance. Continued work pressure resulted in poor performance. The result revealed that many female teachers have neglected their health in the process of improving the life of their family members and their students. G.Shiva (2013) studied that “Women professionals in high position in their office have return from office in correct time, cook, clean and look after their family affairs. This makes them more stress and leads to some health problems. The leading cause of stress arises because of communication with Superior” Gunavathy (2007) in the study among married women employees of BPO companies outlined the causes, consequences of work life imbalance and interventions for work life balance. The study revealed that more than two third of the respondents reported work life imbalance primarily on account of work interference with personal life. Also concluded from this study, stress and burnout, ill-health and poor work performance are the consequences of work life imbalance. Drivers of work-life balance There are several factors which often prove to lead to an imbalance in work life. They may be categorized into societal drives, organizational drives and individual drives.

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Societal drives: The society has transformed itself significantly driving the past two-three decodes and there are several factors which have triggered these changes. Some of the more prominent ones are societal values, govt. Policies, family dynamics, occupational shifts; rising focus on careers gender diversity etc. Individual drivers: Employees, especially the younger generation, are highly ambitions, aggressive result-driven, emotionally vulnerable and impatient. This makes them prone to anxiety, stress and frustration very easily. They find it difficult to draw the line between work and family life and this often results in work encroaching into personal space as well. Generally people assume women to be less ambitious but in reality they tend to be perfectionists and this often puts more stress on them to always excel at whatever they take up.

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Organizational drives: The organizational culture, the shared values and the overall climate may be one of the important factors resulting in work and work-life conflict. The extremely high levels of competition often pitch colleagues against each other; result in lowered levels of interpersonal trust. Acceptance of this development is often found in terms of special programmes designed and implemented by organisations to facilitate work life balance. Consequences of work- life balance Poor work life balance has a lot of negative consequences often prolonged and with serious implications. These consequences may be analyzed from three perspectives. Individual consequences: work-life conflict/ imbalance results in frustration, lowered self-confidence, depression, insomnia, anxiety, physical and psychological strain, marital discord, divorce, broken relations, increased susceptibility to sickness, child abuse etc. The proliferation of nuclear families has created increased responsibilities on working women, lack of support from family and increased role expectations from women have all been the reasons for increased imbalance in work-life. In earlier days, not only was the number of women employed less but they were limited to certain professions only like teachers, doctors etc. Now the scenario has changed, with the women becoming more serious about career and devoting more time and efforts to build a career. This has resulted in diversity in terms of gender at work. The government policies and regulations have also changed in time with above scenario. Many amendments have been introduced to the existing labour laws. Organizational consequences: Fall in productivity, increased risk of accidents on shop floor, absenteeism, increased labour turnover, low www.ijmer.in

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levels of employee commitment, interpersonal conflicts, lowered employee motivation and morale etc. Societal consequences: The negative consequences of work life balance at personal or organizational level ultimately spill over to the society leading to a disturbance in the social milieu. Apathy and frustration of the employees is reflected in a general disturbance in the society in the form of socially unacceptable activities and lowered levels of contribution. So how do we deal with this?? Since the problem has its root cause at the work place, organizations must adopt a proactive approach to it and implement policies and strategies to help the employees strike a healthy balance between work and life outside. At same time individuals must be made to realize the fact that they have the primary responsibility of enhancing their WLB (Singh & Awasthy, 2009) since each person is unique and the direction and degree of WLB differs from one individual to another. This is because individuals differ in their values, aspirations, ambitions, life goals, capabilities etc. Therefore a WLB Program. which is highly appropriate for an individual may not be of any use to someone else. Hence the biggest challenge for the organizations is to design and implement such interventions which can address the problems of the majority of the employees and also have a provision for customization to suit individual needs. Moreover these programmes need to be regularly modified and updated to meet the changing organizational dynamics. Work Life Balance programmes in practice in different companies Marriott International established the industry’s first formal diversity and inclusion program. Marriott India has followed closely its footsteps. The Women’s Leadership Development Initiative is focussed on www.ijmer.in

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developing a strong pipeline of women to network and build mentoring relationships and promoting work-life effectiveness. A Board level Committee for Excellence monitors progress with a “Diversity Excellence Score card” Marriott offers all associates and family members access to expert consultants who can provide information, resources and referrals for virtually any life situation such as parenting, caring for elders, adopting children, looking for summer camps, preparing budgets, dealing with financial or legal issues and much more. At some locations employees also have access to onsite child care, child and elder care discounts, new parenting coaching etc. Forbes worked with job search and company review site indeed.com to identify some of the best companies for work-life balance. Colgate, Wegmans, Coldwell Banker, Google, Nokia, and Johnson & Johnson are some of the companies which find place in this list. The twenty-five companies on this list come from a variety of industries and offer careers that range from research and development to retail, underlining the growing importance of employers' attention to work-life considerations in an increasingly competitive hiring market. Colgate-Palmolive encourages a healthy balance between work and personal responsibilities and reflects the same in a list of employer priorities shared on the company's careers page. It provides several perks like nearby childcare centers, emergency in-home care for dependents; tuition assistance; health, legal, and financial counseling services; and relocation assistance feature prominently in an outline of employee compensation and benefits. Also making the grade is Google, known for its offices stocked with complimentary snacks, company shuttles, and ergonomically-designed "huddle rooms,". The search giant describes its benefits as being completely focused on removing barriers of all kinds so that Googlers can focus on the things they love, both inside and outside of work." The

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company offers on-site healthcare, travel assurance and emergency assistance, extended time off and financial assistance following the birth of a child, tuition reimbursement for coursework associated with a job, and free or discounted legal advice and services. Intuit Technology Services, India is ranked fourth in the IT industry category and third among best companies in supporting women to remain at work category. The company has seen a 29 per cent increase in its gender diversity ratio in the last year. With a diverse workforce, the company promotes an environment where differences are valued and respected. Parents at Intuit can enjoy various benefits such as maternity & paternity leave, once they are back at work they can avail daycare discounts at their partner crèches. The Company ensures expectant mothers have dedicated parking and a vehicle at their disposal to make travel less painful. For employees who wish to adopt, Intuit offers Rs 50,000 and 84 days of adoption leave to allow new parents to bond with the child. Medical insurance of up to Rs 5 lakh for families of employees at no cost to the employee. Top-up medical insurance options wherein one can choose a higher medical cover (up to Rs 7-10 lakh) is also offered. Tech Women@Intuit – a group of women who volunteer their time and talent toward making Intuit an awesome place for technical women. Temporary Part Time Work is another benefit which allows women employees to work part–time for a maximum period of four months. One can work part time on 50, 60 or 80 percent of regular work load based on the agreement with the manager. Another impactful initiative has been an Employee Benevolent Fund called ‘Care for Life Fund’ which is a purely voluntary, employee funded and employee managed initiative, used to provide financial support to employees and their families in times of unexpected and unforeseen emergencies.

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References 1. Kofodimos, J.R (1993) Balancing act. San Francisco: Jossey – Bass. 2. Mani. V. Work life balance and Women professionals. Global Journal of Management and Business Research interdisciplinary 2013; 13(5): 2013. 3. Greenhaus J.H, Collins K.M and Shaw J.D (2003), “The relation between work – family balance and Quality of life”, Journal of Vocational Behaviour, Vol. 63, pp. 510-531. 4. Friedman, S.D and Greenhaus, J.H (2000), “Work and family – Allies or Enemies? What happens when business professional confront line choices?” Oxford University Press, New York. 5. Santhana Lakshmi K, Sujatha Gopinath S. Work Life Balance of Women Employees with reference to teaching faculties. International Monthly Refereed Journal of Research in Management and Technology 2013; II. 6. Hans, V. Basil, Health and the Urban Women in India: Issues and Challenges (September 9, 2013) 7. Oberman, Michelle, Your Work Will Be Your Most 'Faithful Mistress': Thoughts on Work-Life Balance Occasioned by the Loss of Professor Jane Larson (August 2013). Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender & Society , 2013, 8. Gayathri N, Karthikeyan P. A Review on Green Human Resource Management with Exclusive Allusion to Green Work Life Balance. International Research Journal of Business and Management 2013; 5: 40-45. 9. Shiva G. A study on Work Family Balance and Challenges faced by working women. IOSR Journal of Business and Management 2013; 14(5): 1-4. 10. Susi S, Jawaharrani K. Work life balance: The key driver of employee engagement. Asian Journal of Management Research 2011; 2(1): 474-483. 11. Vijayalakshmi, Navneetha. Work Life Balance of Women Faculty working in Educational Institutions: issues and problems.

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International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management 2013; 3(4): 73-75. 12. Mathew RV, Panchanatham N. Work life balance issues among the women entrepreneurs in South India. In K.J.Cheiran & S.P.A.Mathew(Eds.), Emerging entrepreneurial strategies for self development and skill development, India L Kuriakose Gregorios College (KGC), 2009; 46-57. 13. Gunavathy. A study of work life balance in BPO sector, University of Madras, Chennai, 2007. 14. Hakim C. Women, Career and Work Life preferences. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 2006; 34(3). 15. Singh, Kumar Anup & Awasthy, Richa. Work life balance: Causes, Consequences and Interventions, NHRD Network Journal, July 2009; 59-67 16. Yuvas, U, Karatepe, O M, Avci, T & Tenkinkus, M . Antecedents and outcomes of Service recovery performance: An empirical study of frontline employees in Turkish banks, International Journal of Bank Marketing, 21(5); 256-65 ** The author would like to express her sincere gratitude to the University Grants Commission for extending support to undertake a research project on the above theme. This article has been written on the basis of the data collected during the course of the project.

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GANDHI AND NON-VIOLENT MANAGEMENT Dr.N.Ravichandran Academician Indian Maritime University Visakhapatnam Campus Gandhigram, Visakhapatnam Abstract Mahatma Gandhi’s ideology of non-violence is more relevant in the present times. Non-violence means “lack of desire to harm or kill”. Non-violence is a key ingredient of Gandhian thought. He was opposed to war. On his point of view the two groups engaging in it may not stand on the same plane. The reason of one side may be more than the other, so that even a non-violent person might wish to extend his or her moral support to one side rather than the other. A closer look at the history of world reveals one of the exceptional men who have been involved in immense battles and have been winning amazing victories using non-violence principle. Violence is learned, it is necessary to unlearn violence by practicing love and compassion at every possible opportunity. Non-violent comprise three categories: Acts of protest, non co-operation and non-violent intervention. Apart from non-killing, nonaggression or non-injury, but also being free from prejudice, jealousy, hatred, animosity, pride and ego. Gandhi follows his own teaching and seeking to summon up greater self-discipline and self-realization from himself as a moral agent, responsible for putting non-violence into practice. He considered it as a spiritual weapon for self-purification and empowerment. Gandhi stated that just as the perfect straight line as understood by Euclid cannot be drawn. Similarly perfect non-violence cannot be attained. But limited non-violence can be attained. He says: If we can manage to apply non-violence successfully at home, it will in its pure form become an irresistible power in the service of the state. All beings are united by God and the act of unification is made possible www.ijmer.in

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through love or non-violence. It is ultimately the cementing bond of the Universe that has its origin in God or Truth. Non-violence is a power which can be wielded equally by all-children, young men and women or grown up people provided they have living faith in the God of Love and have therefore equal love for all mankind. When non-violence is accepted as the law of life it must pervade the whole being and not be applied to isolated acts. Key Words: Ideology, Non-violence, selfdiscipline, Empowerment and pervade Meaning of Non-violence: Non-violence means “lack of desire to harm or kill”. It is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. In the present times, nonviolent methods of action have been a powerful tool for social protest and revolutionary social and political change. The term “nonviolence” is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace. Gandhi and nonviolent principles: At the outset there will always be conflict, great and small in human affairs. Mahatma Gandhi said “I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills”. Gandhi was very clear about his programme of social reconstruction. His ideology of non-violence is more relevant in the present times. It is powerful weapon which cuts without wounding. Nonviolent action generally comprises three categories: (i) Acts of protest (ii) Non co-operation and (iii) Non-violent intervention. (i) Acts of Protest: It is a symbolic actions performed by a group of people to show their support or disapproval something. The main aim of the action is to create public awareness to an issue, influence a particular group of people, to facilitate future nonviolent action. (ii) Noncooperation: It implies the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness to initiate cooperation with

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an opponent. This method includes labour strike, economic boycott and sex strike (iii)Nonviolent Intervention: It is direct method of nonviolent action. It can be used in a defensive way. Intervention is often more immediate and effective way to solve the issues. Objective  Influence of nonviolent management Review of Literature: “All his life he battled against the cult of nonviolence and war against cruelty of man to man, against industrialism and domination of man by machine, against senseless multiplication of wants and the blind worship of mammon, against inequality and discrimination. He lived his message by resolute adherence to nonviolence and truth, resistance to evil, by Satyagraha and self –suffering, cutting down his wants to the minimum and pursuing his moksha by service to mankind”. The bedrock of Gandhian management is the Gandhian Philosophy, which is a monolithic structure of truth, love and non-violence. Gandhi applied his philosophy as a litmus test to confirm his principles, and as a fire-test to warrant his practices. It is the integration of this philosophy with his principles and practices that adds a new dimension to the field of management. It defines a new set of management values and hence a new school of management thought. The important element of his philosophy is non-violence which does not only mean non-killing, non-aggression or non-injury, but also being free from prejudice, jealousy, hatred, animosity, pride and ego, since these elements too implicitly cause some kind of perturbation, a sort of violence towards one’s self or others. The virtue of a truly scientific frame of mind is the readiness to reject what is false and untrue. “We know as well from our exercises in the pursuit of science that fear, fright and coercion also strongly interfere in the process of finding truth as they also create www.ijmer.in

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perturbation, distort our perception and delude our findings. What one logically deduces is that for scientific management, a manager has to manage the affairs of an organisation without ego, pride, predilection, prejudice, jealousy, hatred, and coercion, fear etc., because they all reflect violence in one form or the other. At the millennium World peace Summit held at the UN headquarters, New York, in the last week of August, 2000, about 1,500 religious and spiritual leaders from 75 faiths and 92 countries assembled and unequivocally affirmed the dire need to establish peace and harmony in the world. They condemned violence and issued vigorous statements on the subject ‘Towards a World Movement for Non-Violence’ Betty Williams, the Nobel Peace Laureate from Northern Ireland, stressed in her speech that practicing non-violence is not for the faint-hearted, as it requires exemplary courage. Ela Gandhi, granddaughter of Mahatma Gandhi and member of the South African Congress, reiterated: “Non-violence is not a passive concept but an active one-one that demands courage and love hatred”. Gandhi was profoundly influenced by the teachings of Jesus, as he explained in a speech in 1925 “Non-violence… requires greater heroism than brave soldiers… The world does not accept today, the idea of loving the enemy. Even in Christian Europe the principle of nonviolence is ridiculed… Christians do not understand the message of Jesus. It is necessary to deliver it over again in the way we can understand…. But I must say that so long as we do not accept the principle of loving the enemy, all talk of world brotherhood is an airy nothing”. According to Gandhi, to move fearlessly to the dreadful jaw of violence is called non-violence. His concept of nonviolence is preferable to cowardice. He believed that non-violence was certainly superior to violence and forgiveness was far manlier than punishment. Non-violence in its dynamic condition means conscious suffering. It does not mean meek submission to the will of the evil-doer, but it means putting of one’s whole soul against the will of the tyrant. www.ijmer.in

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Working under this law of our being, it is possible for a single individual to dfy the whole might of an unjust empire to save his honour, his religion, his soul, and lay the foundation for that empire’s fall or its regeneration. And so I am not pleading for India to practise nonviolence because she is weak. I want her to practise nonviolence being conscious of her strength and power. No training in arms is required for realization of her strength. I want India to recognize that she has a soul that cannot perish, and that can rise triumphant above every physical weakness and defy the physical combination of a whole world. The characteristic features of Gandhian non-violence  Non violence is not the same as non killing  Non-violence is a higher value than life. (Gandhi regarded nonviolence to be an ultimate value on three reasons. First, it is universally applicable, secondly, it enhances all other values without detracting from any, and thirdly, it is unlimited in its application.  Non-violence is not non-resistance born out of cowardice.  Nonviolence implies bread-labour. Which Gandhi derived from Ruskin and Tolstoy and ultimately from the Bible. Gandhi defined it as the ‘Divine Law that man must earn his bread by labouring with his own hands’  Non-violence implies several positive values. These values include love, active, resistance to injustice, courage in the face of violence, non-possession, truthfulness and brahmacharya Non-violence is the central concept of Gandhi’s philosophy. In positive sense non-violence means “Love”. It means love towards all living creatures. Gandhi teaches that the one who possess nonviolence is blessed. Blessed is the man who can perceive the law of ahimsa (non-violence) in the midst of the raging fire of himsa all around him. The more adverse www.ijmer.in

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the circumstances around him, the intense grow his longing for deliverance from the bondage of flesh which is a vehicle of himsa or violence. Gandhi objects to violence because it perpetuates hatred. A true nonviolence activist accepts violence on him without inflicting it on another. Gandhi feels that violence is not a natural tendency of humans and it is a learned experience. There is a need for a perfect weapon to combat violence and this is nonviolence. Non violence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than any weapon of mass destruction. Nonviolence is a great solution when opposing a reasonably moral and civilized foe. But if all the people of the Western Ukraine who want to live in a free country laid down their arms does anyone think that the drunken Russian separatist and Vladimir Putin's army would say, "Oh, well they're using nonviolence now so we better go back to Russia and leave Ukraine alone."? No. They would take the Ukraine in one big gulp and then start looking at Moldova, Romania, Hungary, Slovenia, Poland, and Belarus hoping they would defend themselves with non-violence too. How well did nonviolence work for the Jews and Roma People of Nazi Germany? (James Holloman). There is an important quote that “Negroes of the United States, following the people of India, have demonstrated that nonviolence is not sterile passivity, but a powerful moral force which makes for social transformation (Martin Luther King Jr Nobel acceptance Lecture 1964) Influence of nonviolent management: Gandhi fought for removal of violence at every stage and put lot of efforts to bring peace through nonviolent management. One cannot deny that the world today is overshadowed by poverty and starvation, exploitation, ecological destruction, war and violence. The standard of the people has risen for a comfortable living. In the present world no wonder, man has emerged as a violent species. Gandhi had a vision on how to make India nonviolent. If we want a better world, we must be prepared with some www.ijmer.in

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deliberate thinking. It is time we stopped being unelaborated on a matter that touches us all so closely. For in reality this matter of handling conflict constructively is of immediate concern to everyone who has ever been angry or afraid, resentful, revengeful or bitter; who has ever taken part in a fight, mob violence or war, or who has been the object of anger, hatred, exploitation or oppression. It touches all those who are troubled lest the vast economic, political and social questions that are pressing upon all nations will issue in still more appalling violence and increased insecurity for everyone, or even destruction of the human race. It is also important to those who hope that somehow the ideals of mankind can be made practical and harmonized with its conduct. (Richard B.Gregg) Gandhi had averred “Non-violence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man”. Gandhi succeeded in getting the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Indian people, to adopt his non-violent strategy of national liberation only, because of his total identification with the poverty stricken Indian people, his high moral stature, innovative communication, management and strategizing skills and the impressive results his non violent struggle produced 1920 onwards. Gandhi innovate “Satyagraha”, nonviolent strategy in South Africa and first used it out on 11th September 1906. Truth and nonviolence had never before been combined as two sides of the same strategy. When the British granted Independence to India in 1947, they left it as friends, vindicating Gandhi’s assertion that “A nonviolent revolution is not a programme for seizure of power. It is a programme for transformation of relationships ending in a peaceful transfer of power. Gandhi follows his own teaching and seeking summon up greater self-discipline and self-realization from himself as moral agent, responsible for putting nonviolence into practice.

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Gandhi’s life in search for a purpose, his eminent high managerial calibre and global management values which he applied in human resource management and organisational development for constructing a new society of higher order, where ethics and human values find respectable place in interactions and nonviolent. Ego which cuts into conscience and interferes with the knowledge and understanding of the Buddha and Jesus have been deified and Gandhi not yet. Both Buddha and Jesus lived in seclusion, either alone or with their disciples, isolated from common man, but Gandhi lived in the midst of common men. What make him essentially different from Buddha and Christ is that (a) No miraculous is assigned to him (b) he all alone synthesised truth, love and nonviolence into a juggernaut and transformed it into a corporate movement too powerful to be ignored. (c) He was determined to empower despondent society and wanted it to be independent, responsive and responsible and (d) that he imbibed and upheld reasonable and testable truth ever cherished in Hinduism, Islam and Christianity to enlighten his own conscience, thus creating a separate weltanschauung benevolently interactive with all the communities and people of all kinds. Gandhi tested his philosophy in India, and used his managerial acumen to lead masses and activate mass movements many time. The strong influence of his persona was so deep and irresistible that it changed the mindsets of the people not only of his country, but of the world at large. Gandhi often said that while nonviolence was superior to violence, violence in turn, was superior to passivity in the face of injustice. For example “I do believe that, where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence…. I would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she should, in a cowardly manner, become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonour. But I believe that non-violence is infinitely superior to violence”. Nonviolence, according to Gandhi, must www.ijmer.in

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be founded on love. Nonviolence never evades violence. On the contrary, it carries on a constant struggle against arrogance and violence. He considered non-violence would never retreat at the sight of violence. They would rather devote themselves to the task of changing the hearts of perpetrators of violence through self-torture for establishing truth. Gandhi stated that just it as a spiritual weapon for self purification and empowerment. He also stated that just as the perfect straight line as understood by Euclid cannot be drawn. Similarly perfect non-violence cannot be attained but, limited nonviolence can be attained. He says: If we can manage to apply nonviolence successfully at home, it will in its pure form become an irresistible power in the service of the state. Gandhi had an opportunity of speaking on some of the vital problems connected with non-violence. He said that mankind had all along tried to justify violence and war in terms of unavoidable selfdefence. It was a simple rule that the violence of the aggressor could only be defeated by superior violence of the defender. All over the world, men had thus been caught in a mad race for armaments, and no one yet knew at what point of time the world would be really safe enough for turning the sword into the plough. Mankind he stated had not yet mastered the true are of self-defence. Character of Nonviolence: Nonviolence is the law of the human race and is infinitely greater than and superior to brute force. In the last resort it does not avail to those who do not possess a living faith in the God of Love. Non-violence affords the fullest protection to one’s selfrespect and sense of honour, but not always to possession of land or movable property, though its habitual practice does prove a better bulwark than the possession of armed men to defend them. Nonviolence, in the very nature of things, is of no assistance in the defence of ill-gotten gains and immoral acts. Individuals or nations who would practice nonviolence must be prepared to sacrifice (nations to www.ijmer.in

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last man) their all except honour. It is, therefore, inconsistent with the possession of other people’s countries, i.e., modern imperialism, which is frankly based on force for its defence. Nonviolence is a power which can be wielded equally by all children, young men and women or grown-up people, provided they have a living faith in the God of Love and have therefore equal love for all mankind. The body food we can only take in measured quantities and at stated intervals; nonviolence, which is the spiritual food, we have to take in continually. Nonviolent actions whose intent or effect disrupts established behaviour patterns, policies, relationships or institutions are acts of intervention. They may also have the effect of creating new patterns of behaviour, relationships or even creating new institutions. Since these methods are more direct challenging the status quo, they provide more immediate visibility to the issue at hand, a more direct challenge to authority, and the possibility of a more rapid resolution. On the other hand, acts of intervention may result in more immediate and severe repression than acts that are intended as protest and non-cooperation. All beings are united by God and the act of unification is made possible through love or non-violence. It is ultimately the cementing bond of the Universe that has its origin in God or Truth. Non-violence is a power which can be wielded equally by all-children, young men and women or grown up people provided they have living faith in the God of Love and have therefore equal love for all mankind. When non-violence is accepted as the law of life it must pervade the whole being and not be applied to isolated acts. Non-violence management: It is important that Gandhian approach would need courage and freedom. In the late twentieth century he was opposed to the exploitation of the textile workers of Ahmadabad by the mill owners, but he was not found of a strike to end it. In it, and in all the matters in dispute, whether they were small or big, local or national www.ijmer.in

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level he advocated discussions, negotiations, conciliation, arbitrations and adjudication in the last resort. The same method was applied in actions taken time to time for the independence of the country. He inspired confidence and faith in his words. Even in the present circumstances, it is necessary that when we talk of non-violence, we should carry this background in our minds. To-day, many countries in the world, faces different type of internal and external crisis. Due to unprecedented changes in political, economic, social and cultural fields, awakening amongst the various groups of the people has reached to high level which could not be controlled and authorities become helpless. This was witnessed in some parts of India. In such state affairs, Can this non-violent principle by Gandhi, will tackle the situation? The authority in dealing with serious issues in the world must have the humility to understand the opponent view and they should have love for those who cry for justice and rights. In that case there would be room for discussion, negotiation and settlement. Nonviolence, humbleness and ready to understand even in the unpleasant stand of opponent. This approach can solve the problem non-violently to those in power. Present society in all over the world with lots of violence, war, domestic crimes, terrorism and murders. For those who cry for justice and in this process even clamouring for separation in many countries non-violent approach and dialogues would certainly be the permanent solution. Gandhi is more relevant than ever. In the 21st century, the abundance of terrorist movement’s means that the world is both tired of the cycle of violence and will refuse to listen to anyone with arms. That means any movement that takes up violence will be considered bad in the world’s eyes. Peaceful protests don’t work in most places. Very few leaders of moral repute and patience could utilize the tool of non-violence and truth. Non-violence means not to put others into distress. People in general are trapped by ignorance in the material www.ijmer.in

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concept of life and they perpetually suffer material pains. People should elevate to spiritual knowledge, so that they may become enlightened and leave this material world. That is to-day’s non-violence. Conclusion: Gandhi believed that without the practice of non-violence, truth cannot be realised. It is not a cover for cowardice, but it is the supreme virtue of the brave. To manage the path of true nonviolence requires much more courage than violence. Undoubtedly, it is clear that non-violence is the one of the best possible solution to solve the problem at all levels. Violence is learned, it is necessary to unlearn violence by practicing love and compassion at every possible opportunity. Non-violent may take longer time but, certainly, it cause less damage to persons and property and does not leave trace of hatred and ill-will. Ultimately Non-violence imbibed with truth. Suggestions: Training for nonviolent movements 1. Supply of literature and handbooks about the theory and practice of nonviolent struggle 2. Producing and disseminating films that document the successful application of nonviolent struggle in various contexts 3. Offering, on request by local recipient groups, general advice on how to conduct strategic planning for nonviolent action. References 

Arpana Ramchiary – Gandhian concept of truth and nonviolence

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Bharati Mazumdar –

Gandhiji’s Non-violence in theory and

practice 

M.K.Gandhi, The Gospel of Non-violence

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Gandhi on Non-violence 1920 – Strategy of our Revolution in 21st Century

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Ram Pratap,Gandhian Management

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S.K.Bhandopadhyaya,Compiled version of (My Non-violence) (Gandhi)

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S.S.Gill,Gandhi a Sublime Failure PP.232-33

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Gandhi’s philosophy on non-violence- comprehensive website by Gandhian institutions Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi research foundation Gandhi: The nonviolent revolutionary- Text of Ambassador (Retd) Alan Nazareth’s International day of nonviolence lecture at the UN, New York on October 2nd 2012

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