Introduction History, Issues, Concepts, & Theory [PDF]

Conceptions of Development. ➢ Preformationism - oldest view. – Changes during development are quantitative. – Full

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Introduction

History, Issues, Concepts, & Theory

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

1

The Bout of the Centuries Descartes (1596-1650)

Knowledge is Innate!

It’s Learned!

Locke (1632-1704)

Of course, it’s innate! Kant (1724-1804)

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

2

Conceptions of Development ¾ Preformationism - oldest view – Changes during development are quantitative – Fully formed organism simply gets bigger over time Old

Young Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

3

Conceptions of Development ¾ Preformationism did not acknowledge stages

Adult

Pupa

Larva

Egg Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

4

Conceptions of Development ¾ Predeterminism (19th Century, Rousseau) – Development is a series of pre-determined stages All knowledge

– All knowledge is given at birth – The stages are qualitatively different

¾ Associated with the idea of predeterminism – E. Haeckel: Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny – G. Stanley Hall – postembryonic development recapitulates historical course of western civilization Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

5

Historical Context ¾ Principles of evolution: – Continuity of biological structure and function across species – Process of natural selection & adaptation responsible for observed similarities & differences in structure & function

¾ Theory of evolution gave rise to: – Comparative Psychology • Study of different animals, their behavior & underlying physiology

– Developmental Psychology • Study of the emergence of new behaviors in different animals

– Functional analysis of behavior • How does a given behavior facilitate survival?

– Possibility of studying phylogenetic precursors of mind in animals • Current species display phylogenetic precursors to human mind • Theory-of-mind, basic cognitive abilities, etc.

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

6

Theoretical Roots ¾ Anthropomorphism (espoused by anectodalists) – Attribution of human characteristics to animals • Goals, planning, feelings, etc. (e.g., bees, ants, spiders)

– Incorrect because of differences in underlying mechanisms – Von Frisch’s “dance language of bees” & Wenner’s critique • Von Frisch claimed that bees use the sun as a compass & then transpose the information regarding direction & distance into gravity-based and dance-based signals • Wenner claims source-finding is based on smell maps of experienced bees & the smell of a source on dancing bee

– Web-building in spiders • Is it planned, purposeful use of architectural knowledge? • No, due to “local” factors

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

7

Theoretical Roots ¾ Adultomorphism – Assigning adult characteristics to infants • plans, goals, wishes, intentions

– Morgan’s Cannon says that you should seek simplest explanation • Are infant behaviors “simpler”? Wrong question! • The question is: can they be explained at a simpler level, but see Schneirla below?

– Schneirla’s Levels Principle suggests that organisms at different developmental levels are organized differently • Food preferences in babies are not influenced by advertising but they certainly are in adults • Visual preferences are influenced by experience but experience of babies is different from that of adults. Babies prefer faces & voices of mom and dad but not of strangers and have no preferences for particular cars; adults do prefer certain cars based on advertising Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

8

Early Scientific Roots of the Study of Infants ¾ Ancient philosophers: Plato, Aristotle – Is knowledge innate or learned?

¾ Charles Darwin’s observations of his son – Anectodal, non-systematic observations of a single infant

¾ Sigmund Freud’s theories – Arm-chair theory of development based on observations of abnormal adults

¾ Mark Baldwin’s baby biographies – Highly subjective & open to adultomorphism

¾ Watson’s Behaviorism

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

9

Early Conceptions of Development ¾ Behaviorism and radical environmentalism (early 20th century): John B. Watson: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." (1930) – Good – because it introduced experimental study of development – Bad – because qualitative change not acknowledged – Bad – because all behavior boiled down to S-R connections

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

10

Stage Theories ¾ Sigmund Freud (early 20th Century) – Different stages of development (oral, anal, etc.) – Emphasis on concept of early experience

¾ E. Erickson – Different stages in the development of trust

¾ Jean Piaget (1930’s-1970’s) – Was concerned with acquisition of knowledge in children – Development consists of 3 distinct stages (sensorimotor, concrete operations & formal operations) – Experience is critical to the acquisition of skills & knowledge – Organism-environment interaction is critical

¾ Heinz Werner (1950’s) – Differentiation of behavior from global to specific Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

11

Heinz Werner’s Concept of Differentiation

on Visi

Intersensory Unity

Audition

Tou c

h

Birth Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

? 12

Infancy Is Characterized by Developmental Transformation!

Vegetative existence

To a cogitative one

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

13

Development = Transformation

Adult

Pupa

Larva

Egg Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

14

Infancy: Initial & Most Important Part of Development ¾ Infancy is: – a time when new behaviors & skills emerge (e.g., vision, hearing, reaching, walking, speech, language, understanding) – a time when some functions are lost as well (canalization)! – a time of rapid change that is due to re-organization of functional and structural systems and the relationship between them – is not static; it is dynamic

Infant Development, Fall, 2005 (Prof. Lewkowicz)

¾ Question: – how do we explain the dynamic nature of infancy & the resulting changes (i.e., what is responsible for the changes: genes, experience, neural factors, structural factors, etc?)

¾ Answer – we need to recognize that the answer is complex because no single factor can account for the dynamic nature of infancy & development

15

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