Idea Transcript
Material Cultural Heritage, Cultural Diversity, and Sustainable Development Yasmin Jalil Moreno Walter Santagata Arif Tabassum
Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador University of Turin, Italy and Ebla Centre Institute for Development Studies and Practices Pakistan Quetta
Revised Draft 03-06-2004 ACEI, 13th International Conference on Cultural Economics, University of Illinois at Chicago Department of Economics, Chicago, Illinois USA June 3, 4 & 5 2004 Summary 1. Introduction 2. Material, Tangible, and Intangible Cultural Heritage 3. Material Cultural Heritage 3.1 The anthropological view 3.2 A sociological approach 3.3 In search for an economic definition 4. paradigmatic models of the value chain for material cultural heritage 4.1 Economic importance of selected sectors producing material-culturebased-goods: an international comparison 4.2 Two leaders, two policy options 4.3 New models are coming up: China’s and Italy’s value chains compared 5. Strategic choices for sustainable economic development 5.1 The industrial and cultural districts/clusters formula 5.1.1 Cultural districts for material culture based goods: the challenging case of Pakistan 5.1.2 Cultural districts for material culture based goods: the case of Ecuador 5.2 Collective Property Rights 5.3 Business development services 5.4 Indigenous communities 6. Conclusions on the dignity of material cultural heritage and the safeguard of the world cultural diversity References
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1.
Introduction
This paper deals with culture and economic development. This connection only a few decades ago didn’t much matter to the officials of national governments and international institutions. Material culture was just a sign of civilization and the economic development was brought forth by massive investments in the modern industrial sector (Lewis, 1954; Hirshman, 1958; Todaro and Smith, 2003). Not surprisingly, culture is today acknowledged as an economic asset (World Bank, 1999; Throsby, 2000) and the road to the economic development goes also through localized industries made up of micro and small sized firms producing goods based on material culture (Santagata, 2000). The geography of material culture shows a worldwide diffusion of handicraft products. Idiosyncrasy of culture-based goods, human creativity, technological innovation, natural habitat and “secondary environment” are the main sources of differences in the localized productions. The cultural districts or clusters are the industrial systems that host the local presence of micro enterprises. Defending material culture means consequently defending cultural diversity. This paper will consider an old phenomenon through the lens of the economic discipline: it focuses on material culture, and is divided in three parts. In the first one - sections 2 and 3 the anthropological, sociological and economic definitions of material cultural heritage are presented. In the second part - section 4 - the main issues concerning the value chain of material cultural heritage will be discussed by comparing the experience of developing countries with two paradigmatic models, i.e. Italy and China. In this part two case studies of Pakistan and Ecuador will also be discussed. The third part - section 5 - will be aimed to analyze how can material cultural heritage be used as a strategic asset for sustainable economic development, especially for local communities, with the initial support of international agencies and progressively by themselves, given that high quality goods and services based on material culture can ground a self-sustained endogenous economic development. The conclusions will focus upon the dignity of material cultural heritage and its role in safeguarding the world cultural diversity.
2.
Material, Tangible, and Intangible Cultural Heritage
This paper deals, to be more accurate, with material culture and endogenous economic development. It aims to show the economic value and the special economic organization of goods based on material cultural heritage, i.e. the special area bordering on intangible-oral and tangible-natural cultural heritages. Through the World Heritage Convention, since 1972, and the Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, since 2003, UNESCO now recognizes the worldwide value
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of both: the tangible cultural and natural heritage, as the historic centre of Florence, Galapagos Islands or the Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore, and the intangible and oral heritage, such as the dances and costumes of the Royal Ballet of Cambodia, old as the Khmer civilization; the oral epic of the “al-Sirah al-Hilaliyyah” surviving in Egypt from generations to generations; the dances, songs and drums of the “Tumba Francesa”, expression of the Afro-Haitian culture performed today in Cuba; or the Manifestations of the “Zápara People” in Ecuador and Peru. Nevertheless material cultural heritage, in which the intangible essence cannot be disentangled from the tangible essence, is not considered as a specific and autonomous notion, close to arts and crafts, and to the efforts humankind has made to improve its habitat and its living conditions. Notwithstanding the growing attention paid to the specific components of human culture, it will be claimed in this paper that material culture, the oldest expression of our civilization, is in some way underestimated. Its autonomous and tacit acknowledgment is limited, mainly because of the old stereotype about the low quality/low economic value of handicrafts, the primary products of material culture. Moreover statistical information differs among countries, and there are no worldwide legal definitions. As a result, material culture is object of too little consideration in cultural programs and economic development strategies. Also in the UNESCO program there is a clear orientation in favour of the oral and intangible cultural heritage. In the first proclamation (2001) only one out of 19 masterpieces was related to the material cultural heritage: “Cross Crafting and its Symbolism” in Lithuania. In the second proclamation (2003) just one distinction, out of 28, deals with the material culture: “Woodcrafting Knowledge of the Zafimaniry” in Madagascar. If, however, material culture got in the past a low profile, there is today a worldwide evidence that material cultural resources, namely culture-based goods show a main road to development, especially for micro and small enterprises and local communities, allowing them to develop according to their own characteristics, providing them with new economic activities and thus enabling them to become less vulnerable and less dependent on current more erosive development strategies. In fact, as it is shown by the Italian and the international experience, craftsmanship is not the realm of low quality production, but it may attain aesthetic quality and symbolic value as well as significant production value. The goods based on material culture have become a modern example of sustainable and endogenous growth based on the localized cultural industries. Indeed, when most of the economic and human resources are local, the economic process becomes endogenous. Of course, such evolution requires continual adaptation, but the strong advantages in providing technological innovation, sharing information, differentiating products, regulating the market and fostering idiosyncratic cultural links are reliable guarantees of sustainable growth (Piore and Sabel, 1984).
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Material cultural heritage, and design-based goods, can all be articulated in chains of creation of value with innovative experiences apparent at every level: aesthetic, legal, productive, distributive, technological and educational. Moreover, such activities take on new economic significance when they assume the form of, and are governed in the logic of industrial cultural districts; they create a path to economic growth by means of growth of small and mediumsized firms which are intensely integrated within the territory and in the local community. In this sense, Italian industrial cultural districts, such as those producing artistic glass in MuranoVenice or woven goods and apparel in Prato or Biella, constitute an ideal model for the production of goods based on material culture. Considering material culture, the pure distinction between tangible and intangible cultural heritage doesn’t appear to be a clear-cut dichotomy, apt to divide the field of cultural heritage in two exhaustive and opposite parts. Some goods and services supplied by local communities are made up of both tangible and intangible factors, and this co-existence and union of traditional knowledge, skills and corporeality are their very substance. So three concepts of Cultural Heritage are worth to be worked on: Tangible Cultural or Natural Heritage, that is works of art, monuments, historic centres, parks or natural sites in which the corporeity and the beauty of nature are the dominant character; Intangible or Oral Cultural Heritage, that is oral traditions and expressions, performing arts, landscape, social practices, traditional knowledge, competences, and savoir faire; Material Cultural Heritage, that is goods based on material culture (functional objects, functional artefacts) mainly supplied by industrial districts: design-based goods, textile, apparel and fashion, ceramics and furniture, eno-gastronomic products, etc. Material cultural heritage is based on tangible and intangible components associated with a local community. These three concepts of cultural heritage are a development of the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (October 2003). Defining intangible cultural heritage the UNESCO Convention (art.2) lists the domains in which intangible cultural heritage manifests itself: “(a) oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage; (b) performing arts; (c) social practices, rituals and festive events; (d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; (e) traditional craftsmanship” and makes reference to
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“... the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage.” There is something blurred in the UNESCO’s definition of intangible and oral cultural heritage. In its actual form it safeguards the intangible traditional knowledge, as well as the tangible transformation of that knowledge: ”…the instruments, objects, artefacts…” , the product itself , which is nonetheless part of material cultural heritage. The asserted definition of humankind heritage based on the three concepts called up before tangible, intangible and material cultural heritage - presents, thus, a new item with respect to the UNESCO approach: material cultural heritage, consisting of goods that are simultaneously and inextricably intangible in their intellectual nature and tangible in their substance; goods that are material in the sense that they are the result of the accumulation of material culture, that is the answer that a community has given to its needs or to the search for its style of living. The material component represents the real things to be produced, demanded and exchanged and it is the bridge towards the market and the economic development. If only the intangible part of the material cultural heritage is safeguarded, the result is limited to the transmission of the skills to the next generation. In this way we risk to miss the real effect of preserving and fostering the culture-based goods production, namely its economic value and impact on the local development.
3.
Material Cultural Heritage
3.1 The anthropological view
The anthropological point of view on material culture is based on the notion of “the secondary environment” that the man has built “from the materials of his habitat”. According to Keesing: “Material culture has the special distinction of linking the behaviour of the individual with external man-made things: artifacts” (Keesing, cap VIII, 1958). Artifacts have a function and a form. “In more valued artifacts, the form is likely to include refinements of crafts and design expressive of interests and effort beyond the narrowly utilitarian” (Keesing, cap VIII, 1958). In this sense the functional articrafts are opposed to the works of art, like paintings or sculptures, that are in-utile and conceived without an intentional functional form. According to this definition the list of goods the human kind has produced to protect, satisfy, and get better living is impressive. Table n. 1, primarily based on Keesing’s description of the artifacts of the material culture (Keesing, 1958, cap VIII), takes a first informal glimpse at the large and rich classification of the artifacts concerning material culture.
Table n. 1
Artifacts from material culture
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UNIT Natural food and beverage
Natural products
Vegetal materials Animal materials Mineral materials
Textiles Clothing
and
Fashion accessories
Personal Adornment Personal services Decorative items
Travel and Transportation
Artifacts Cultivated plants. Domesticated animals of land and sea. Beverages: palm toddy, sugar cane juice, maguey juice, kava, honey, milk, coconut milk, tea , coffee, cocoa. Cheese Fermented Beverages: wine, beer, cider, liquors, whiskeys, rum, cognac, grappa, vodka, tequila, papaya. Marmalades, Olive oil Cultivation of natural drugs Production of natural cosmetics, soap, henna Spices : pepper, coriander, cumin, etc. Tobacco, salt, incense
Uses Traditional Cuisine
Homeopathic medicine Medicinal herbs Traditional medicine
Artifacts: Cork, timber, rattan, jute, natural fibers Artifacts: plaiting baskets, wickers, vegetable fiber-works, straw covering (Panama hats) Artifacts drawn from wax, ivory, bone, horn, shell, sea shells, mother-of-pearl. Artifacts drawn from stone, glass, alabaster, marble Clothing made of linen, cotton, silk, wool, animals skin. Fabric and textiles made of wool, cotton, silk and synthetic materials by plaiting, weaving, knot making. Tatami mats, carpets Leather products Glasses, spectacles Hats, gloves Scrapers, buttons, bone needles Umbrella Watches Jewellery of silver, gold, copper, other metals. jade, diamonds Perfumes health and hygiene hotels and restaurants thermal baths ceramic, pottery, pottery for cooking, storing, brewing embroidery, glass, crystal, glazes industrial design plastic, porcelain paper statuary, tiles, tobacco pipes footgear, moccasins, sandals, shoes ski, travel articles
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Housing Furniture
Entertainment and Cultural Industries
Publishing Weapons
Metallurgy
buildings, huts Wood and furniture, designed furniture bamboo handicraft kitchenware, cutlery, crockery, utensils wooden office furniture Calligraphy, pens Cromos Etching, serigraphy Musical instruments (violins & parts, harmonium, santoor, veena, sarod, bongo, tabla sitar, tanpura, etc. ) Printed paper Toys books, printed materials clubs, axes, quarterstaffs, swords firearms shields spears, boomerangs, harpoons, throwing knives, bows and arrows, slings, catapults, bolas Objects made of copper, bronze, tin, iron , brass
Ceremonial or decorative purposes
Sources: Keesing F.F. Cultural Anthropology: The Science of Customs, Stanford, 1958 ; International Trade Center, UNCTAD/WTO Marketing Crafts and Visual Arts: The role of Intellectual Property: A practical Guide, Geneva, ITC/WIPO, 2003
3.2
A sociological approach
Culture is defined as a set of customs, values, and traditions and as a way of life from of a society. It includes the socio-cultural interactions, traditions, modes of production, economic characteristics and development trends that lead people towards a collective understanding and development of a society. A society produces its consumable goods within its own cultural context considering the market demands and needs. It is the definition in the economics point of view that concerns with the economic value of cultural goods and services. But one cannot ignore the social value that is attached with every cultural product; that value is also called the social capital in economics, which should be exploited for the economic development of the society. Sociologists are of the view that the invention and development of material means of cultural production is a remarkable chapter of human history (Williams, 1982). In material means of cultural production we can easily find the whole process that develops a product. History is evident that the indigenous skills and local expertise were transferred generation to generation without having any institutionalised grounds. Local craftsmen used their skills to earn income for their families. With emergence of industrial revolution the mode of production was institutionalised and more developments occurred in the production. To give a success to this revolution indigenous skill were coped very soon or tried to eradicate it. Here we can quote the example of nineteenth century Bengal, Sub Continent. In the colonial era, in Bengal local craftsmen were forced to work in the newly established British factories, in the reaction of their refusal to work in the factories craftsmen has lost their fingers, so that their home made silk and other local cultural products could not become in the competition with British factory made products (Barlas, Mirza Ali Azhar ,1971). But in spite of all such like brutal acts, indigenous skills could not have been uprooted from the communities and it survived.
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3.3
In search for an economic definition
There is no universally acceptable economic definition for artisanal products. According to UNCTAD "Artisanal products are those produced by artisans, either completely by hand, or with the help of hand-tools or even mechanical means, as long as the direct manual contribution of the artisan remains the most substantial component of the finished product. These are produced without restriction in terms of quantity and using raw materials from sustainable resources. The special nature of artisanal products derives from their distinctive features, which can be utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally attached, decorative, functional, traditional, religiously and socially symbolic and significant". 1 Also in the European Union craft-trades play an important role, but while there is a definition for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises, there is no European definition for craft enterprises (European Commission, 2001). The number of workers involved in these enterprises varies from 3 in Finland to 50 in Netherlands. Spain, and in some way United Kingdom, include in the craft production the artistic activities, others countries (see table n. 2) refer the definition of craft enterprise to the profession of the independent worker or to the economic activities carried out. The three European countries where craft enterprises are more diffused are Italy, France and Germany. Defining craft enterprises or enterprises producing goods based on material culture in terms of their size it is not worth the effort. In fact in Europe there are 19,370,000 enterprises (year1998, excluding the primary sector), but the enterprises with, in average, less than 6 workers are 19,330,000 that is the whole European industrial structure.
Table n. 2 – Number of craft enterprises (<50 workers) European Union (figures in thousands) 1991 1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998 1999
Professional approach Austria
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
n/a
598
606
614
594
598
603
605
607
608
4
4
4
4
4
4
n/a
n/a
n/a
France
854
857
831
811
821
828
Italy
1140
1209
1260
1272
13 26
1333 1325 1338
Netherlands
101
107
115
121
101
127 1 40
Portugal*
n /a
n/a
n/a
Germany Luxembourg Sector / size approach
n/a
n /a
823
819 145
n/a n /a
n/a
n/a 1382 n/a n /a
Artist approach Spain
14
15
15
15
n/a
n/a
n/a
15
15
15
15
n/a
Other approaches Belgium
n/a
54
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
, Definition adopted by 44 countries’ representatives participating in the UNESCO/ITC International Symposium on "Crafts and the International Market: Trade & Customs Codification" (Manila, 1997). The following is added: “Artisans can be basically defined as persons who carry out a manual work on their own account, often helped by family members, friends or apprentices, even workers, with whom they constantly keep personal contacts, which generate a community of intellect and attachment to the craft.
1
9
Finland
n/a
Ireland
n/a
Greece
133
United Kingdom
n /a
n /a
n/a
104
n /a
n/a
n/a
n /a
n/a
n /a n/a
n /a
n /a
n/a
n /a
n/a
n /a
n/a
n /a
n/a
n/a
17
n/a
n /a
n/a
n /a
n /a
n /a
19
n /a
164
n /a n/a
Source: European Observatory on SMEs European Commission – DG Enterprise N.B.: As the definition of craft differs between countries, no direct comparison between countries is permitted. *There aren’t retrospective data for Portugal, because only recently a D.L has been approved, which defined establishment, limits and the craft functions of craft business, in order to line up with the position Franco-Italian.
4.
Paradigmatic models of the value chain for material cultural heritage
4.1 Economic importance of selected material-culture-based-sectors: an international comparison Each national economic system has, in principle, ever been engaged in satisfying the material and, let’s say, anthropological needs of its citizens. Nevertheless the goods based on material culture are in relative economic terms more important in the developing countries, where technological industries are rare. During the XX century the production of goods based on material culture was dominated by the western nations whose exports weakened the productive capacity of the developing countries. The developing countries were neither capable in substituting imports with national competitive production, nor in improving the value of the local production, enhancing the links with the local culture, perfect expression of traditions and customs. However at the beginning of this new century, developing countries seem to be in a better position, given that local productions are self reinforcing and generate a beneficial flow of exports. In this sense the Export/GDP ratio will be the first indicator of the importance of goods based on material culture for a selected number of developed and developing countries. Other indicators, not showed in this paper, are the Value Added per sector/GDP ratio, and Employees per sector/Total Employees. Let’s take, just as a first exercise, some example of products based on material culture. The table n.3 shows the percentage of the export over the GDP in men wear woven, women wear woven, total wear woven, clothing accessories, and pottery. As it can be observed, in the developing countries the average ratio is permanently superior in the developed countries. Considering that usually export comes after satisfying the domestic demand, this result seems to confirm a global trend in the importance of the material culture for the economic development of the developing countries.
Table n. 3
Export/GDP %,
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Selected countries and items, 2002 Country
MENS/BOYS Women TOTAL CLOTHING Pottery WEAR, Wear WEAR ACCESSORIES Export/GDP WOVEN Woven WOVEN Export/GDP % % Export/GDP Export/GDP Export/GDP % % %
Developing Mexico India Indonesia Morocco China Thailand Bangladesh Hong Kong Turkey Pakistan Korea Rep. Ecuador
AVERAGE
0,323 0,211 0,601 1,523 0,600 0,481 4,270 0,835 0,603 0,864 0,128 0,019
0,271 0,366 0,659 2,282 0,732 0,436 1,713 1,545 1,096 0,286 0,134 0,002
0,594 0,578 1,260 3,805 1,332 0,917 5,983 2,380 1,698 1,151 0,262 0,021
0,052 0,047 0,056 0,088 0,172 0,066 0,028 0,000 0,236 0,447 0,152 0,021
0,010 0,003 0,039 0,179 0,119 0,144 0,017 0,000 0,015 0,000 0,004 0,013
0,872
0,793
1,665
0,114
0,045
0,227 0,084 0,004 0,007 0,390 0,003
0,283 0,127 0,080 0,004 0,404 0,045
0,510 0,211 0,084 0,010 0,795 0,048
0,168 0,025 0,027 0,010 0,102 0,043
0,025 0,021 0,015 0,001 0,029 0,023
0,119
0,157
0,276
0,062
0,019
Developed Italy Germany France Usa Belgium United Kingdom
AVERAGE
Sources GDP: World Development Indicators database, World Bank, July 2003 4 EXPORT: International Trade Statistics, International Trade Center, UNCTAD/WTO
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4.2 Two leaders, two policy options Considering the absolute values of export (table n. 4) it may be noted that Italy and China emerge as leaders of two groups of countries: developed and developing.
Table n. 4 Exports and GDP (values in 2002 US$ ‘000) Selected countries and items, 2002 COUNTRY
GDP
TOTAL POTTERY CLOTHING WEAR ACCESSORIES WOVEN
Developing China
1237145000
Mexico
637205000
16,475,347 1,476,884 3785203
2,127,837
60707
332506
India
515012000
2974521
15666
244259
Indonesia
172911000
2179325
66962
96837
Morocco
37263000
1417747
66554
32774
Thailand
126407000
1159255
181544
83475
Bangladesh
47328000
2831663
8072
13151
Hong Kong
161532000
3843946
483
332,506
Turkey
182848000
3105380
27439
431663
Pakistan
60521000
696319
280
270349
Korea Rep.
476690000
1249761
18138
726515
Ecuador
24347000
5231
3277
5070
1180921000
6,021,783
292,061
1,985,188
Germany
1976240000
4,175,570
423,905
496,016
France
1409604000
1181824
211908
377236
Usa
10416818000
1085807
82968
998878
Belgium United Kingdom
247634000
1967721
70617
251769
1552437000
738326
356600
664356
Developed Italy
Sources GDP: World Development Indicators database, World Bank, July 2003 4 EXPORT: International Trade Statistics, International Trade Center, UNCTAD/WTO
But at the same time Italy and China are the two poles of an axis that measures the quality of the products based on material culture. Italy represents the maximum level of aesthetic, design and symbolic value. China, largely involved in production under foreign licenses, in copying and counterfeiting, gets on average a low-minimum level of quality. This phenomenon divides the world of production of material cultural goods in two groups of countries. This division may be expressed in two different ways; first of all the countries can be grouped according to their level of development: developed ones are headed by Italy and developing ones by China. Secondly there is another and unexpected division between the countries producing medium/low quality goods, i.e. commodities that per se do not aspire to
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esthetic, design or symbolic values, made up of the developed economies plus China, and the countries with high quality marketable goods, that include Italy and, possibly or hopefully, the others developing countries. As shown in the graphic n.1 this division is based on a sharp discontinuity between Italy and China. The variable on the axis of the ordinates may be intended as a composite indicator of the product quality. Observing the market for goods based on material culture, the following characteristics should be in included as indicators: design value, esthetic value, artistic value, symbolic value, quality of the raw materials. On the axis of abscissas is just indicated in an informal way the importance of goods based on material culture over the national economy. To be more precise this notion should be expressed by variables like the value added in the material culture sector over GDP or the economic value of the international and national reputation of material culture sector per country . Italy and China divide the world into two groups: the developed countries, which, the more important material culture become for their economies, the more they pay attention to quality, and the developing countries whose trend seems for the moment uncertain. Italy appears as the new frontier of the production of goods based on material culture. But developing countries face two options, or opportunities: if the option A is chosen, it means that the country will move towards high quality production; if option B is selected, it means that the country will follow the Chinese model, more market, low costs oriented and less sustainable in countries without that massive local market. Which option will prevail, it depends on the evolution of four models, namely the models representing the production of material culture in Developed Countries, Italy, China, and Developing Countries.
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Graphic n. 1
Four models for material culture production
Quality ( design, esthetic, artistic value)
4. Developing Countries 2. Italy
Option A
1. Developed Countries
Option B 3. China
Min
Max
The importance of goods based on material culture over the national economy
4.3
New models are coming up: China’s and Italy’s value chains compared
Material cultural resources offer an important alternative way of development, especially for small and medium enterprises and local communities. Thus national models can be compared in terms of the productive capacity of their value chain structures. The term ‘value chain’ is often used in economics with reference to the process from conception to the consumption of a product. Economists define it as collections of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliver and support a product. (Rappaport 1986). The value chain as a process covers all the phases of production maintaining its relation with each other. The general value chain of the cultural production develops in five phases: selection, creation, production/realization, distribution and consumption. Each of them, while keeping its own autonomy, can overlap the other in a dynamic process continuously renewing (Santagata, 2003). All five phases are very sensitive in its nature especially when we talk about the quality of cultural goods.
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Comparing the value chain structure of the four models so far identified is a task beyond this paper. What follows is just a hint, with some more detail for the production/realization phase. Creation or conception phase in the value chain of culture-based goods is a key phase. The artistic activity is a combination of the creativity and expertise/skills. Someone can be a good craftsman, but to give an aesthetic touch, attractive design and quality to ceramics, one needs to be more creative. The creativity appears to be one of the more influential characters of the current global markets for cultural goods (Santagata, 2004). Without any doubt there are strong differences in the conception phases of the four ideal types. The most important difference refers to the role of the intellectual property rights. Creating a product, its form, design and aesthetic value need a proper system of protection from piracy and illegal reproduction. If there are some new positive developments in the last years, the institutions safeguarding the intellectual property are not fully enforced in China and in many developing countries, and consequently the practice of counterfeiting is there widely accepted. Once the artist/designer is selected, creativity is ensured and product is realized then distribution comes next in the value chain. In the present arena of economic globalization the distribution mechanism of locally produced cultural goods is of the most importance. In this arena, every desired thing can be easily obtained by a click of a computer mouse. Therefore distribution is very competitive, and also requires creativity to find new and innovative ways to reach to consumers on a large scale. The phase of the distribution makes a great difference between developed and developing countries. The intellectual property rights not only protect the original creation but also contribute in the distribution and proper sale of the production by minimizing the chances of piracy and illegal marketing. Even if China is per se an enormous market, the control of the distribution is a real advantage for the enterprises of the developed countries. To reach to the global markets effective networking and marketing processes are of ample importance. As a matter of fact the distribution system needs direct networks, virtual promotion and distributive mechanisms to reach out to the consumption on mass level. Innovations on distribution level can make it possible. The distribution, along with the new trends in consumption, is today the most important phase from the economic and strategic point of view. It expands itself towards the conquer of worldwide markets; it is the most receptive phase in terms of new technologies and informatics revolution. In most cases the distribution head the hierarchy of the value chain. The managers of the distributive sector, very close to the preferences of the consumers, have the command of the production sector, the old focal centre of the chain (Santagata, 2003). The phase of production/realization is the place where the major differences appear. As far as the production of goods based on material culture is concerned, the main characteristics of the four models defining the scenario previously sketched are roughly showed in table n.5. The quality of production shows a deep division. Italy is renowned for the high quality of its products, while the low quality of Chinese products is the result of a strategy based on the search for low production costs. Given that the international competition is slowly moving from the competition on costs to the competition in terms of quality, the option A becomes strategic and more sustainable in the long run. Chinese local governments are of course interested in increasing the quality of their product through more innovation and managerial skills, but “the context is dominated by small and medium firms, managed by entrepreneurs of rural origin in collaboration, in many cases, with members of their family”. This structure
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doesn’t necessarily mean that products should be of low quality, structure can be similar in Italy and nevertheless products have a high quality. ( p. 13, Bellandi, Di Tommaso, forthcoming). Italy keeps control of its intangible, oral and material culture, sanctioning low quality district free rider firms investing in reputation. Considering the mode of production, while Italy crossed the Fordist production and entered the age of flexibility and adopted the industrial districts or clusters formula, China seems more attracted to quantities produced at low costs. Seen from the developing countries, China is an industrialized country with mass production; its average annual growth in GDP during 19862001 has been 10,5%. In the field of production of goods based on material culture the number of specialized SMEs is significant. Let’s take some example of specialized town in Guangdong Province: in Chengai 2000 firms, each of 15 employees in average, are producing toys; in Fengxi 3000 firms, each of 16 employees in average, are producing ceramics; in Guzhen 1500 firms, each of 26 employees in average, are producing lamps; in Shaxi 580 firms, each of 51 employees in average, are producing clothing; Shiling 4000 firms, each of 16 employees in average, are producing textiles; Zhangcha 2000 firms, each of 10 employees in average, are producing knitting (p. 16, Bellandi, Di Tommaso, forthcoming). The other developing countries can be presently classified as low scale, low quality production. Low scale means no surplus for export over the local demand, low quality means local products less marketable or of little attractiveness. If the developing countries choose the option of high quality they should pass from artisanal, low scale production to serial production with design and quality. The structure of the industry shows for Italy the well-known pattern of the cultural districts or clusters. Small and medium sized enterprises, competing in search for new international markets, are grounded on the local culture and the Marshallian “industrial atmosphere”. They together produce a great value of externalities, trust, cooperation and social capital. In China there are experiences of productive structures operating from the bottom at a village level (Bellandi, Di Tommaso, forthcoming), like the so-called township and village enterprises collectively owned by local administrations and now object of privatization processes. In China, 1998, the average number of workers in the industrial township enterprises was 11,1. Aside the township enterprises there are significant industrial districts and clusters. The type of product is in the Italian model highly creative and linked with local culture and traditional knowledge. The importance of the intellectual property, of design and of traditional knowledge is overwhelming in the Italian production. In China the prevailing orientation towards copying, counterfeiting, and licensing weaken the development of creativity. What counts is homologation at low costs. Also the massive flows of foreign investments have become a substitute for domestic entrepreneurship. The labor market is in the China model seriously corrupted by systematic violation of the worker’s rights. While Italy went beyond the rigidities of the labor market of the sixties and seventies, introducing many flexible options (formal and informal). China stayed behind and liberalizes cautiously its labor market. Even today many Chinese firms may survive due to cheap labor force.
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Table n. 5
Production/realization of Goods based on material culture Developed Countries
Italy
China
Developing Countries
Quality of production
Low/High
High
Low
Option A: high
Mode of production
Serial production Fordist production
Serial production with artisanal assistance
Serial Production
Option A: from artisanal,
The firm and the market
Individual entrepreneur
Cultural district or clusters
Township enterprises
Option A:
Option B: low
SMEs Type of Product
Technological Innovation
Labor market
From rigidities to
Private and collective enterprises Creativity culture Standard based, Intellectual property, design, tacit Copying Counterfeiting knowledge Licensing Flexibility
Violating workers’ rights
low scale production, to serial production with design and quality Cultural district or clusters Option B: China model Option A: Creativity culture based, Intellectual property, design, tacit knowledge
Between violating workers’ rights and flexibility
Flexibility
5. Strategic choices for sustainable economic development In the last decade the trends in development have broadened the role of culture in the models of economic development. Aside the notions of physical capital, natural capital, social capital and human capital, the cultural capital gained importance as a fundamental asset for development. Preserving and fostering cultural capital has become a significant target of most political strategies for development, shared by the main international donors and agencies. Nevertheless, efforts were and have been directed mostly exclusively to tangible heritage assets recovery and conservation (monuments, natural environment, museums, etc). Some attention has been also given to the preservation of intangible cultural heritage, but they have not been significant. Unfortunately, evidence has shown that it is very difficult for this kind of projects to become self-sustained and that funding for conservation cannot last forever.
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It is necessary then to find new strategies for the economic development based on intangible and oral cultural heritage and material cultural heritage. Material cultural heritage will enable projects to be self-sustained, given that one can get income from selling culture-based goods and services. The developing countries will definitely choose their option for the quality, the option A above, according to the evolution of some strategic issues related to individual and collective behavior and the industrial organization. The four issues that follow are just a first preliminary list: o the capacity to organize the production systems as cultural districts or cluster; o the capacity to assign and manage collective and individual intellectual property rights; o the use business development services in order to develop cultural districts or clusters, so that its members can take full advantage of their “industrial atmosphere”; o the involvement of local communities, which are real actors of their development, and have shown more and more interested in models based on cultural capital. Each issue will be shortly examined.
5.1
The industrial and institutional cultural districts/clusters formula
The concept of cultural district is not too old (Pyke, F., G. Becattini and W. Sengenberg, 1990; Becattini, Bellandi, Dei Ottati, Sforzi, 2003) but new to the most of developing countries. A cultural district is the one where most of the production have basis in the cultural context of the area. The products are produced with the symbolic and aesthetic potentials attached to the local culture. In a cultural district although products have cultural touches but the process is also inclusive, interdependent and based on value oriented approach. The local resources in terms of human and material and the potentials (creativity and ingenuity) are considered as main inputs in cultural production that characterize a district as a cultural district which leads towards an endogenous growth and sustainable economic development. Indeed, the choice of the cultural districts strategy is actually a sort of constrained choice towards the quality, the design, and the technology needed to enter the international markets of goods and services based on material culture (Santagata, 2002). The Italian experience shows that a process of endogenous economic development may be supported by a strategy based on cultural districts models. These models represent good practices of sustainable endogenous growth led by individuals, communities and public authorities. Even if a district is supported by a mix of selfish individualistic behaviour and boosts of cooperative spirits, the role of local and regional governments is an imperative aspect for the successful consolidation of these models. While most of the developing countries are in its evolution process of decentralized government structures, therefore the concept of full cultural districts in developing countries will take time to be implemented.
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Nevertheless in developing countries many potential industrial districts exist, whose characteristics match those single out by the theoretical analysis: a density of small and medium sized enterprises belonging to the same value chain and producing a good based on the local material culture; positive externalities generated by the free circulation of knowledge and skilled workers; trust and cooperation; some local institutions supporting the local system. To assist the change from potential to real districts may be useful, as we will argue later in the assignment of collective intellectual property rights. Recently four main cultural district/cluster types are described on the economic level, i.e. industrial cultural district, institutional cultural district, museum cultural districts and metropolitan cultural districts. All types have the very potential of endogenous growth. In Italy Murano-Venice is an example of industrial cultural district where the showpieces made by glass are produced with an attractive aesthetic look rooted in the cultural value and endogenous creativity and ingenuity. The collective property right of Barolo, that is the protected designation of origin of the prestigious Italian wine, has become the signal of quality wine produced locally, giving the district an identity of institutional cultural district.
5.1.1 Cultural districts for material culture based goods: the challenging case of Pakistan The promotion of goods based on material culture needs development within the local communities. In countries like Pakistan culture-based goods are not produced, developed and promoted on a very formal level. In the public sector, although a department of small industries has its institutional basis, its access is just limited to some urban communities while far-flung rural communities are deprived from it. In rural communities individuals are producing some culture-based goods, but they are of low quality, poor designs and with a little consumption on local level. The whole process of this production is very informal and the producers are just involved in it for their survival, to earn some money and poorly sustain their livelihood. But most of the local producers are living in a despair situation. Craftsmen guilds and associations are absent and individuals are producing goods but vastly exploited by the local middlemen. The new generation is alien from their ancestor’s occupation. Once they gone through the modern schooling then they never go near to their ancestor’s occupation, just looking towards a job in any public department. The school curricula have no space for the indigenous skills; local productions and resources; in the result it creates disrespect in new generation towards local skills. Professional institutions are seriously lacking in the country to promote indigenous skills in the new generations. To cope up with the fast pace of development, new generation is in search of quick fix economic solutions rather than developing their own potentials in local skills, resources and production. There are some institutions in Pakistan offering courses in arts and crafts design but to most extent these are not fulfilling the needs of rural communities particularly. The elitist style of
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these institutions has made it very costly which limits it only to the elite populations of the urban communities. Economic globalization is taking place through its technological tools and systems. To compete in such a technological era, someone has to be more developed and innovative in technology to be survived. But countries like Pakistan are far away from developed countries in this regard. Then how it will have access to the global market while having no basis in technological designs and production? Even metropolitan and big cities are enjoying the fruits of technology on a very limited and inefficient scale. About only 10 percent of the total population is aware about the computer and its miracles. The developing consumer culture needs more luxury goods to consume on a mass level. In this culture locally produced culture-based goods are also seen as luxury goods to use it as show pieces in drawing rooms, halls and offices. Locally produced goods are not of the needed quality because design strategies and creative mechanisms are absent. The products are not aligned with the fashion trends and developing consumption need. Culture based goods of Pakistan are deprived from the appropriate export policies and practices. A very little concentration is given to it, which is not enough for the promotion and distribution of these goods on a global scale. Graphic n. 2
$30,000 $27,500 $25,000 $22,500 $20,000 $17,500 $15,000 $12,500 $10,000 $7,500 $5,000 $2,500 $0
Export of goods (handicrafts) based on material culture (value in .000)
$26,790
$20,057
$19,087
$16,338
$10,631
2000-2001
2001-2002
2002-2003
Jul-Feb 02-03 Jul-Feb 03-04
Source: EPB Pakistan
All the above-mentioned reasons are causing a serious decline of culture-based goods
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production in countries like Pakistan. On one hand the indigenous skills are obsolescing, and on the other hand the economic statuses of local communities are worsening day by day. Local communities are badly becoming dependent on the global market for their needs and local interdependency and self-reliance are vanishing in illusions. This entire situation is not so encouraging for the local economy. Decentralization and encouraging signs for cultural districts in Pakistan Most of the developing countries including Pakistan exercised the devolved and decentralized local government structures in last few years. As the very representatives of grass root level newly established local governments have soft corners for culture development but are, to some extent, unable to get proper steps for its development. The main causes of these limitations are lack of theoretical basis and skills regarding cultural development, lack of sound human resources that can play a vital role in community mobilization, indigenous resources utilization and partnership building between local governments and communities. Local governments are in its evolution process and are welcoming to new ideas and systems especially in case of indigenous resources utilization and cultural production development. It is an encouraging sign for the promotion of culture-based goods with the support of these governments, which would ultimately contribute in the local economy. New governance system of local governments is open and supportive in the utilization of indigenous resources and culture-based goods promotion that can give birth to the cultural districts concept in Pakistan. So keeping in mind the situation, there is a need to involve local governments, youths and communities in a process of reflection and action that would lead them towards strengthening of local economies through production and marketing of cultural goods and development of cultural districts. Here we can quote the examples of Bangladesh, where emphasize is given on the endogenous development and growth by the involvement of local communities. The interesting aspect of this endogenous development is the active role of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) that lead the whole process. Grameen Bank is involved with the grass root communities, providing micro credit to them and developing the endogenous strategies of sustainable economic development. Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) is providing educational services to rural communities and on the other hand it is organizing communities to act collectively for the economic development. Most of the practices of BRAC are focused on the production of culture-based goods through the utilization of local resources. All such like NGOs are closely working with the decentralized government structures that help them on the policy level as well as providing opportunities to them to be grounded on the grass root level. Since Bangladesh needs to take the quality measures in terms of design, aesthetic and artistic value and its promotion but still Bangladesh (besides China) can be another example for the developing countries to learn from its experiences of decentralized and endogenous economic growth. Potentiality of Cultural Districts in Pakistan Many districts in Pakistan have characteristics of cultural districts. It just needs to be structured, systemized and recognized as cultural districts and promote its potentials. For example District Swat is very famous because of its fine cloth made by hand in most of the
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households. The local cloth called Khadar is wear through out the Pakistan in winter. The quality and culture touch of Khadar shows the identity of its district. But all these production of Khadar is not formalized to enough extent. Similarly Tharparker is producing a very fine quality caps and clothe called Ajrak. The local cultural aesthetics and elements are very obvious in it. But the marketing of all these production is limited within Pakistan and can hardly be obtained in other countries. Likewise the Pashmeena Shawls of Kashmir, embroidery products of Balochistan, ceramics of Hassan Abdal, foot ware of Charsada and visual arts of Lahore have the basic characteristics of local cultures and are worth to be distributed worldwide but in most cases such products are deprived from export favours. To develop these potentials of cultural districts it is imperative to assemble the local artists and make strong partnerships with the newly established local and district governments to formulate sustainable strategies and favourable policies. Potential is there but needs strengthening and streamlining on public as well as private level. NGOs can play role of catalysts and a bridge between artists’ communities and district governments for the promotion of cultural districts. NGOs will, on one side, mobilize and organize communities and on the other side, will launch advocacy campaign with government structures. It is obvious if once the cultural district models are recognized and promoted in Pakistan; it will also regenerate the indigenous skills in youth by establishing proper capacity building institutions and creating more and more employment opportunities in cultural sector that will ultimately enhance the quality, production and consumption of culture-based goods on global level.
5.1.2
Cultural districts for material culture based goods: the case of Ecuador
When referring to cultural districts in Ecuador, one must review some basic notions about the cultural districts theory, namely that a cultural district can not simply be created from one day to the other –cultural districts are the result of a historic process, of time and space-specific creativity-, and that a distinction should be made among existence of potential cultural districts and development of cultural districts. Taking this into consideration, one can analyze the current situation of cultural districts in Ecuador, their immense potentiality and the implications of material cultural capital for their development.
Background of cultural districts Ecuador, the smallest of the Andean states, is considered to be a mega diverse and multicultural country, which encompasses a large cultural richness, especially but not exclusively, hold by indigenous people. Within indigenous communities, cultural expressions and manifestations are deeply intertwined with their daily activities -just to give an example, family members wear textile crafts produced by them and traditional dances are performed for harvesting time or for religious celebrations. Cultural activities have been performed for centuries all over the country, but each region has developed its own cultural expressions according to local habits and available materials. As time passed by, each region specialized in certain kind of culture-based products, especially in crafts production, and even within regions clear differentiations in aesthetical, functional and structural terms from one small village to another could be perceived. Progressively, incipient
22
but well-rooted cultural districts started to emerge and consolidate and their importance started to grow notoriously. Spanish invasion occurred afterwards. Most authors agree that the arrival of the conquerors dramatically interfered with the evolution of the cultural districts and caused a significant diminishment of existent cultural capital. Some other authors consider that as a result of Spanish conquer; syncretism took place and enriched cultural manifestations, which accordingly encompass both indigenous and Spanish origins. In any case, cultural districts survived and after more than 500 years, they have started to regain importance and its wide potential cannot be neglected.
Current situation of cultural districts Cultural districts in Ecuador exist then as a result of a historic process. They are mainly located in the Highlands and the Coast Regions and their production can be easily identified as pertaining to one sub-region or another. Apart from product distinctions, most cultural districts in Ecuador share general features and obstacles. Some failures can be identified as pertaining to a specific phase of the value chain of production, mentioned above, while others have a deep incidence in several of them. Some examples of main obstacles include: - No mechanisms for selecting artists and promoting the inclusion of talented individuals into the cultural district, apart from auto-selection (selection phase) - Unprotected individual and collective intellectual property rights (conception and production phase mainly, but equally affects distribution and consumption) - Design not in accordance to market trends (conception and production phase, affecting distribution and consumption) - Low quality of crafts (production phase) - Lack of market access both at national and international level (distribution phase) - Demand hasn’t been sufficiently generated at a national level (consumption phase) - Training and funding limitations - Progressive abandonment of districts by artisans unable to sell their products and forced to emigrate and look for jobs in other sectors - Inexistence of an institutional framework able to coordinate efforts of individual artisans within the districts and generate networking (all phases) - Lack of alliances with local governments, private sector, and other cultural subsectors Even though obstacles seem to be significant and general requirements for the existence of cultural districts –stated in the previous section- seem not to be accomplished, crafts cultural districts have demonstrated to have economic significance for the country. Just as examples, one can consider the importance of ceramics, textiles and leather regarding GNP, Foreign Trade and employment, as the following chart shows:
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Table n. 6
Ecuador, Economic information on Ceramics, Textiles and leather, Toquilla Straw (Panama Hats) Ceramics
GNP
Foreign Trade
Employment
Textiles and leather
Toquilla Straw (Panama Hats) (Coastal districts)
(Highlands districts) Excluding oil, food, chemic products and machinery, ceramic production represent 40% of total production of manufactured goods
(Highlands districts) This sector represents 15,7% of GNP (30% of which is hold by leather)
Ceramics total exports represent 8% of nontraditional manufactures Craft ceramic exports represent 33,5% of total ceramic exports Ecuador is considered to occupy one of the first four positions of countries in which ceramic is produced Trade balance of ceramics shows a surplus for the country
Since 1987, textiles and leather have occupied the second place in importance within industrial activities, being one of the most stable products –even though there hasn’t been much foreign investment in the sector lately
Ecuador holds a 11,95% share of Panama hats world market
In Azuay Province, one of the regions in which ceramics constitute an important economic activity, 12% of its total working population is devoted to ceramics
800,000 people rely on leather-related activities in the country, including craftsmen and their families, both in the formal and informal sector - Leather treatment ateliers: 100000 workers - Shoes ateliers: 330000 workers - Leather products commercialisation: 290000 people - Others: 80000 people
More than 40000 people are related directly or indirectly to the sector (from which 72,6% are women)
In 1998, almost 7000 people worked in ceramics (21% of manufactures sector, excluding food, chemical and machinery production) At the industrial level, between 900 and 1000 direct jobs are generated by this
In year 2000, it was estimated that there were 1582 leather-based ateliers, in which 7910 people worked. Each atelier hires around five craftsmen.
Panama hats: 50% of production is exported to Europe
90% of craftsmen (women) live in rural areas or economic depressed areas Activity represents 8,5% of national working population
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sector It has been estimated that between 5000 and 7000 craftsmen work in small ateliers
Activity considered as complimentary for generating income to families
From existence of cultural districts to development of cultural districts Under appropriate conditions potential of cultural districts seems to be significant. Some foreseen benefits, both economic and social include: - Job creation with subsequent unemployment rate reduction - Income generation and poverty alleviation - Emigration rate reduction - Non-erosive development and alternative to this kind of current models - Preservation of cultural heritage by means of self-sustained development due to material component-based strategies - Links with other sectors of the economy: tourism especially Even though there seems to be no disagreement about the possible outcomes of cultural districts in Ecuador, it appears to be more difficult for policy makers and other stakeholders to adopt proper strategies aimed to achieve cultural districts development. It is in this context that a proper comprehension of the importance of material culture becomes fundamental. Efforts must be especially aimed to support the material component of cultural districts. Cultural districts in Ecuador need to be structured. They require an institutional framework capable of coordinating actions, developing networking capabilities, establishing a formal system for creation and protection of intellectual property rights, in sum, providing members of cultural districts with the necessary services they require. For this means, conformation of craftsmen organizations would have to be promoted and supported. These organizations could take the form of cooperatives, associations, non-for profit organizations, or any other, and would be mainly in charge of providing craftsmen with Business Development Services (BDS), which really constitute corner-stone for a proper development of cultural districts. BDS would have to be oriented to solve obstacles that craftsmen face in each phase of the value chain for culture. Special emphasis would have to be given to training, fund raising, market access, demand development, among others. The special insight that material culture gives to cultural districts is that if especial attention is given to the support and promotion of the material component of cultural capital of the cultural district, then cultural districts would be able to become self-sustained given that it is by means of the marketable part of cultural products and services that income is generated. This income can serve of course, and is vital actually, for the preservation of tangible cultural assets and especially for the maintenance and continual regeneration of intangible cultural capital. It seems difficult to imagine negative effects of developmental strategies based on the cultural districts formula –especially if they are founded on their material component. However, certain aspects would have to be taken into consideration in order to achieve a proper development districts, such as applying permanently a multi-stakeholder approach and allowing craftsmen to be promoters of their own initiatives, if projects aim to be successful in the long run.
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To sum up, one can say that even though cultural districts in Ecuador already exist, it’s vast potentially still has to be developed and for this means a strategy based on their material component seems to be more than appropriate. Cultural districts in Ecuador need to be structured, require an institutional framework that shall allow them to benefit from “industrial atmosphere” generated by cultural clusters. To this end, the conformation of associations and cooperatives seems crucial, as well as the providence of business development services (BDS).
5.2
Collective Property Rights The goods based on material cultural heritage are characterized by many intangible inputs, like esthetic design, decoration, functional ideas, technological innovations and traditional knowledge. All these inputs make the counterfeiting ratio (i.e. the ratio: economic value of intellectual components/economic value of the raw components) of the goods to increase, signaling an increase in the probability of illegal copies (Benghozi and Santagata, 2001). Therefore to resort to the intellectual property rights is the main way for protecting the honest producers from illegal and unfair competition. The table n. 7 shows the main types of intellectual property rights and the potential application to the goods based on material cultural heritage. While the individual intellectual property rights safeguard individual producers providing them with the efficient incentives to invest, mostly in quality and reputation, the collective intellectual property rights pertain to all the producers located on a given territory. Geographical indication and Appellation of origin are two collective rights that revealed themselves as very important in the start-up phase of the potential cultural districts or clusters. The appellation of origin is a distinctive sign, usually the name of a village or locality, assigned to a product whose characteristics are deeply rooted in the local social and cultural environment or territory. In the ITC-WIPO definition (ITC-WIPO, 2003 p. 10): “ An appellation of origin is the geographical name of a country, region or locality, used to designate a product that originates there, and that has quality and characteristics that are due exclusively or essentially to the geographical environment, including human factors”. The appellation of origin gives rise to an exclusive right, namely to a monopolistic power which is shared among the producers located in one protected area. The geographical indication is a sign, also usually the name of a village or locality, assigned to “… goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or reputation that are due to third place of origin.” (ITC-WIPO, 2003 p. 10) This second type of protection is less intense and strict. It is usually used in reference to the field of "unfair competition". The assignment of collective intellectual property rights yields particularly interesting positive consequences: as they create a monopolistic privilege, they allow an increase of prices and of yields, which contributes to a substantial accumulation of capital;
26
legal protection generates incentives so that producers find their incentives in the investment and valorization of products that have been selected through a long cultural tradition; legal protection and economic incentives lead to better control of the productive and distributive process, with a remarkable increase in the quality of the products.
Table n. 7 Types of intellectual property suitable to Material cultural heritage Rights
Goods
Brand or Trademark Copyright Industrial design Geographical indication Appellation of origin Patent Petty patent or utility model Trade secrets or confidential business information
Material cultural heritage Does not apply Material cultural heritage Material cultural heritage Material cultural heritage Does not apply Does not apply Material cultural heritage
5. 3
Business development Services (BDS)
“The development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has long been regarded as crucial for the achievement of broader development objectives, including poverty alleviation, economic development and the promotion of more democratic and pluralist societies” (Committee of Donor Agencies for Small Enterprise Development, year, p. ). The provision of Business Development Services - which include a vast array of financial and non-financial instruments - has demonstrated to constitute a strategic tool to this aim. Business development services are delivered at the micro, meso and macro levels. Micro level instruments are delivered directly to beneficiaries (artists, craftsmen, cultural entities) and usually include a combination of training, extension, consultancy, counselling, information delivery, business linkages promotion, technology development and transfer, funds provision or facilitation, as well as the developing of commercial entities. Meso level interventions are aimed to enhance the efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of indigenous local organizations, through institutional development and capacity building. Macro level interventions, undertaken with governments, include: setting up national SME agencies, supporting conferences, meetings and publications, establishing regulatory committees, decentralizing SME development policy to the local level, supporting for national and local dialogue on SME promotion strategies and measures, improving SME access to public tenders,
27
export and bank credits, strengthening the advocacy capacity of trade associations, among others. Most Business Development Services instruments have been successfully applied in the cultural context and experience has shown that if appropriately directed they can become fundamental tools for allowing cultural actors to overcome obstacles they usually face for their development, particularly in cultural clusters and districts – in practice, the collective provision of BDS has shown to be more efficient that individual assistance, in terms of outreach and cost-efficiency. Donor support for these interventions has increased significantly over recent decades. Donors have accumulated considerable experience in this field and some major shifts in their approaches have been adopted, particularly regarding impact, cost-effectiveness and sustainability of the interventions. It seems easier to imagine then that donors would be more interested in providing business development services to projects based on material cultural capital - which in the medium and long run are expected to become self-sufficient and sustainable due to marketable features of the cultural goods - than supporting interventions for projects purely based on intangible or tangible cultural capital. Evidently, donors do not constitute the sole providers of business development services, but a very important source, of course. Nevertheless, the same rationale applies for most BDS providers, even for non-profit organizations given that current competition and limitation for funds require institutions to be extremely aware of their effectiveness and sustainability of their efforts. Material component seems then an added-value for cultural projects in need of BDS.
5.4
Indigenous Communities
As earlier mentioned, most of the craftsmen and artists of developing countries are involved in the cultural production just to survive and it has very informal basis to be able to contribute in the national economies. Since craftsmen and artists of indigenous and local communities are not organized, thus the culture based goods production and its access to global market is not only limited but also lacks the proper strategies of quality design and promotion. In most cases formal guilds and association of craftsmen are absent, which gives grounds for the middlemen’s exploitation. To promote and develop culture-based goods it is imperative to mobilize and organize the local craftsmen communities in guilds, associations and organizations, so that their real potentials could be fostered in a compound and organized way. Once artists are organized, then it is easy to seek new ways of appropriate trainings in order to enhance their skills and creativities to produce quality goods. Such like trainings will improve the knowledge of artists by exposing them to the global market of culture-based goods and this exposure will definitely increase and foster their skills besides polishing their creative potentials. Their introduction to new technologies, orientation of modern global trends in cultural production and new promotion strategies and physical and virtual networking should be the main contents of these trainings. The exposure to the Italian and Chinese experiences,
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to some extent of Bangladesh models will categorically develop and strengthen the local artists’ communities. The process of local artists communities’ development should be followed in four stages i.e. mobilization, organization, production and promotion. In mobilization stage local artists’ communities should be assembled, oriented and mobilized through formal and informal meetings. Once they are mobilized then they should be organized in one organization or network to act collectively and to avoid unnecessary competition. Capacity building trainings constitute a part of organization stage. Production of culture based goods needs quality raw material and continuous monitoring to produce quality goods. The promotion stage is very important as the distribution phase of the value chain. In this stage new marketing strategies, networking with other association, partnerships with local government, and proper contacts with other firms and continuous monitoring are essential for the quality goods that will ultimately play a vital role in the strengthening of local communities as well as for their economies.
6 Conclusions on the dignity of material cultural heritage and the safeguard of the world cultural diversity The international missions of safeguarding the world cultural diversity (UNESCO Convention, 2001) and the goal of dignifying the strategic sector of the goods based on material cultural heritage are strategies mutually supporting. Actually by pursuing the first mission it is inevitable to foster the second goal and develop an international demand for goods based on material culture and in the other sense, by fostering material cultural heritage world cultural diversity would be ensured. Nevertheless, in order to achieve these goals it is necessary to support development of cultural clusters and districts. In this sense the public support for potential cultural districts and their economic start-up is not conceivable as violation of free market rules or undue interference and limitation of the virtues of free competition at a global level, it does not mean asking for “cultural exceptions”. On the contrary cultural diversity is a prerequisite, a guarantee that the free competition is safeguarded from monopolies and multinational cultural invasions. One must not forget that Material cultural heritage is the ground of a wide range of artifacts produced since the dawn of humankind. Material cultural heritage defines, along with tangible and natural heritage, and intangible and oral heritage, the richness of the world cultural diversity. As it has been suggested in this paper, to transform potential cultural districts in actual clusters producing goods and services based on material culture needs quality, quality, and quality provided by the institutions of the intellectual property, community capacity building, public policies, marketing support crossing the path to more alive cultural diversity and to more sustainable development. There is the field for further research.
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