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NOTE TO USERS

This reproduction is the best 'copyavailable

THE BRILLIANCE OF COMITATUS: AESTHETICS AND SOCIETY IN EARLY ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND

A Thesis Submitted t o t h e Eomrrtittee on G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s

i n P a r t i a l Fulfilment of t h e R e q u i r e r n e n t f o r the Degree of Master of Arts

i n the F a c u l t y of Arts and Science

TRENT UNITERSITY Peterborough, O n t a r i o , Canada

Q C o p y r i g h t by

Kendra Mary Ann Adema 1 9 9 9

Anthxopology M.A. Program

June 1 9 9 9

IJ(il of

National Library Canada

Bibliothèque nationale du Canada

Acquisitions and Bibliographie Services

Acquisitions et services bibliographiques

395 Wellington Street OttawaON K1AON4

395. nie Wellington OtbwaON K1AON4

Canada

Canada Your tije Vorre relerence

Our lYe

Noue réUrence

The author has granted a nonexclusive licence dowing the National Library of Canada to reproduce, loan, distribute or sell copies of this thesis in microfom, paper or electronic formats.

L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive permettant à la Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thèse sous la f o m e de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.

The author retains ownership of the copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's permission.

L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation.

ABSTRACT The B r i l l i a n c e o f C o r n i t a t u s : A e s t h e t i c s a n d S o c i e t y i n E a r l y Anglo-saxon England Kendra Adema I n t h i s t h e s i s , key items o f Anglo-Saxon m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r e examined i n - o r d e r t o d e m o n c t r a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between. s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s i n e a r l y Anglo-saxon

England.

The t h e o r e t i c a l

framework employed h e r e i n i s one i n w h i c h t h e a n t h r o p o l o g y of e x p e r i e n c e

is j o i n e d w i t h s y m b o l i c a n d a e s t h e t i c a n t h r o p o l o g y . primarily contextual

-

This approach is

i n v o l v i n g a re-examination of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

d a t a from 5 t h t o 7 t h c e n t u r y K e n t i s h b u r i a l s .

Evidence from h i s t o r i c a l

and l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s i s employed t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e s e same a r t e f a c t s i n r e i n f o r c i n g b o t h t h e e t h o s and t h e a e s t h e t i c o f t h e comitatus s o c i a l relationship.

T h i s s t u d y begins w i t h t h e premise t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s no s i m p l e dichotomy b e t w e e n p e r s o n s and t h i n g s ; i n s t e a d , o b j e c t s c o n t r i b u t e t o s h a p i n g o u r habitus.

The p o s i t i o n i n g o f b u r i a l goods w i t h i n Anglo-saxon

graves is r e v e l a t o r y of t h e i r a c t u a l r o l e i n t h e c r e a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l and g r o u p i d e n t i t y w i t h i n e a r l y Anglo-Saxon

society.

I n t h i s study, t h e

l i f e of t h e s e o b j e c t s , t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e y moved t h r o u g h Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y , w e r e u s e d , i n t e r a c t e d w i t h , a n d t h o u g h t o f , i s examined t o d e t e r m i n e how a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s were c o n s t r u c t e d and a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n t h e c o m i t a t u s r e l a t i o n s h i p and how t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d r o l e s of t h e wapned, t h e "weaponed" o r w a r r i o r , and t h e w e b b e , the "weaverV, became

l i v e d metaphors w i t h i n t h i s s o c i e t y .

T h i s t h e s i s has b e n e f i t e d from t h e h e l p and a s s i s t a n c e of many people.

Dr.

Sarah Keefer f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d m e t o t h e world of t h e Anglo-

Saxons when s h e handed m e a copy of Beowulf i n t h e Old English and s a i d , "Here.

Can you read t h i s ? " .

Since t h e n ,

s h e has unwaveringly given

encocragernent, s u p p o r t and u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r t h i s p r o j e c t , f o r which 1

am t r u f y g r a t e f u l .

Sarah h a s a l s o encouraged m e t o a t t e n d v a r i o u s

medieval c o n f e r e n c e s and i n t r o d u c e d m e t o o t h e r s who have made t h e s t u d y o f Anglo-Saxon

England t h e i r l i f e ' s work. Through h e r 1 met D r . Gale

Owen-Crocker of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Manchester who has a l s o shown me g r e a t k i n d n e s s , e n c o u r a g i n g m e t o c o n t i n u e and p r o v i d i n g m e with a d v i c e on m a t t e r s of t e x t i l e manufacture and r i t u a l .

1 am a l s o g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d

t o h e r f o r opening h e r home t o m e and p r o v i d i n g m e with t h e r e f e r e n c e s n e c e s s a r y t o enter t h e back rooms of t h e L i v e r p o o l Museum where much of t h e F a u s s e t t c o l l e c t i o n is s t o r e d .

At t h e L i v e r p o o l Museum, D r . Simon

Bean g r a c i o u s l y took t i m e frgm h i s busy s c h e d u l e t o a l l c w m e a c c e s s t o t h e F a u s s e t t c o l l e c t i o n ; he a l s o k i n d l y g a v e m e permission t o t a k e photographs and a f f o r d e d me t h e t o examine t h e a r t i f a c t s i n d e t a i l . Without t h e s k i l l s and t a l e n t s of Bruce Walker, t h e r e would be no a r t i s t ' s r e n d e r i n g s of t h e webbe and wapned f i g u r e s . generously of h i s t i m e ,

Bruce gave

and h e and Grace Walker have b c t h given t h e i r

unwavering s u p p o r t f o r my endeavours t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o c e s s of w r i t i n g t h i s t h e s i s and i t i s d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

Gina T u r f f has a l s o o f f e r e d

encouragement and much p r a c t i c a l a d v i c e ; s h e h a s a l s o l i s t e n e d f o r c o u n t l e s s h o u r s t o my ramblings about t h e Anglo-Saxons and t h e i r ways a s 1 p u l l e d my t h o u g h t s t o g e t h e r t o w r i t e .

Throughout t h e r e s e a r c h and

w r i t i n g o f t h i s thesis, D r . Andrew McDonald and Kevin Whetter have a l s o p r o v i d e d encouragement and a forum f o r seerningly e n d l e s s d i s c u s s i o n s o f b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s , t h e e f f e c t s of l i g h t and shadow and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e Anglo-Saxon

comitatus. D r .

J u l i a H a r r i s o n took time away from h e r

own r e s e a r c h t o d i s c u s s m a t t e r s of a e s t h e t i c s w i t h me and t o s u g g e s t a

iii few key s o u r c e s on v i o l e n c e and beauty; w i t h o u t h e r kind encouragement i n f i r s t year,

I would probably s t i l l b e a t h e o r e t i c a l .

M y Eeliow g r a d

s t u d e n t , David Lee, a l s o gave o f h i s t i m e f o r t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n and l e n t a n e a r and sound a d v i c e a t a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e .

Many members of AnSax-L o f f e r e d t h e i r k i n d a s s i s t a n c e e i t h e r on t h e L i s t o r i n p e r s o n i r - t r a c k i n g d o m s o u r c e s , p r o v i d i n g a d v i c e on t h e c u l t u r a l world o f Anglo-saxon England and encouragement f o r t h e completion of t h i s p r o j e c t i n c l u d i n g D r . Norman Hinton, D r . W i l l i a m Schipper, D r .

G e o f f r e y Russom, D r .

D r . Karen J o l l y , D r .

Stephen G l o s e c k i , D r .

Carol Biggarn and D r .

P a u l i n e Alama,

L a r s Hemmingsen.

Their time

and t h o u g h t f u l n e s s a r e d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d a s i s t h e g e n e r o s i t y o f Gordon Dibb, M.A. who l e n t m e h i s copy o f Martin Carverrs l a t e s t p u b l i c a t i o n when i t was nowhere t o b e found. 1 t h a n k f u l l y acknowledge t h e e f f o r t s a n d kind c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e

Graduate D i r e c t o r , D r . Hermann Helmuth, my e x t e r n a l r e a d e r , D r . Peter R m d e n , my s u p e r v i s o r , D r . Joan Vastokas, a n d my cornmittee members, D r . Sharon Hepburn and D r .

Sarah L a r r a t t Keefer, who gave o f t h e i r tirne o v e r

t h e Christmas h o l i d a y s o t h a t t h i s t h e s i s m i g h t be b r o u g h t s o q u i c k l y t o defense.

The e f f o r t s and guidance of my s u p e r v i s o r i n b r i n g i n g t h i s

t h e s i s t o c o m p l e t i o n a r e a l s o g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

As w e l l ,

1 owe a

d e b t of g r a t i t u d e t o t h e members and s t a f f of t h e O f f i c e o f Research and Graduate S t u d i e s f o r t h e i r a d v i c e , encouragement and p a t i e n c e . Finally,

1 o f f e r my t h a n k s and a p p r e c i a t i o n v t o P a n a g i o t i s

f o r b a r b e c u i n g something a t

Mihalaros f o r h i s s u p p o r t and encouragement, l e a s t once a week,

f o r keeping t h e n o i s e d o m w h i l e 1 w r o t e and f o r

spending a l o t o f tirne a l o n e on rny b e h a l f .

1 would a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k

G i l a d , Doozer, Marlee, Teddy and Tula f o r t h e i r s p e c i a l companionship and f o r keeping m e s a n e when a l 1 e l s e f a i l e d .

TABLE OF

CONTENTS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ACKNOWLEDGENENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii TAf3LE O F CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v L I S T O F TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi L I S T O F FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii C W T E R 1. PURPOSE, THEORY AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 T h e o r e t i c a l Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1 ABSTRACT

M e t h o d o lo g y Summary C W T E R I I.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

ANGLO-SAXONENGLAND

H i s t o r i c a l Background Belief System

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 K i n s h i p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 7 Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 T h e C o r n i t a t u s and t h e "Joys of t h e H a l l r ' . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 T h e R o l e o f W o m e n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 CHAPTER III.. EVIDENCE FROM THE BURIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0 The B u r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 K i t s , O b j e c t P l a c e m e n t and P a t t e r n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Settlement

T h e Kits

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 3

O b j e c t P l a c e m e n t and S p a t i a l P a t t e r n i n g

. . . . . . . . . . . .

74

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 D o v e r and C h e s s e l l Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 B u c k l a n d a t D o v e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Results of F u r t h e r S t u d i e s

Kits,

O b j e c t P l a c e m e n t and S p a t i a l P a t t e r n i n g a t D o v e r

Male Kits, O b j e c t P l a c e m e n t and S p a t i a l P a t t e r n i n g a t

. . . . -85 D o v e r . . 85

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Female Kits. O b j e c t Placement and S p a t i a l P a t t e r n i n g a t Dover

88

Congruence Between M a l e and Female Graves

92

Male K i t s a t C h e s s e l l Dowri

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

Fernale K i t s a t C h e s s e l l Down

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

. . . -96 B u r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . 96 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

0bject placement' and S p a t i a l P a t t e r n i n g a t C h e s s e l l Dom Anglo-saxon Men and Women: "Typicai" Wapned B u r i a l : W e b b e Burial:

C h e s s e l l Down B u r i a l

Summary and P r e l i m i n a r y O b s e r v a t i o n s CHAPTER IV

.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

-99

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

104

c h e s s e l 1 Down B u r i a l 45

AESTHETIC VALUES. ARCWOLOGY AND THE L I F E OF THE OBJECTS

Anglo-saxon Colour

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -106 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106

The P r e f e r e n c e f o r B r i l l i a n c e

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 . . . . .

"Brilliance":

A Q u a l i t y i n People. Things and Deeds

"Brilliance":

The P e r s o n a l Charisma of t h e Anglo-saxon W a r r i o r l l l

109

. . . . . . . . . 112 The W æ p n e d and the W e b b e i n L i t e r a t u r e and Archaeology . . . . 115 B u r i a l Objects: E x p r e s s i o n s of A e s t h e t i c V a l u e . . . . . . . .117 Waopned and Webbe a n d t h e L i f e o f t h e Ob jects . . . . . . . . . 123 "Brilliance":

Wiepned B u r i a l s

Myth I m i t a t e s

An A e s t h e t i c and S o c i a l Value

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 L i f e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Wapned and Webbe:

CHAPTER V. ENDNOTES.

C r o s s o v e r s i n Meaning

. . . . . . . . . . .

150

. . . . . . . . . . . 154 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 SUMMARY. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -190 REFERENCES

LIST OF TAELES

-

Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Table 4 Table 5

-

7 8 9 10 11 -

Anglo-saxon

Deities and S u p e r n a t u r a l Beings

Violence and Warfare i n Anglo-saxon England Frequencies of Weapon S e t s i n Undisturbed Anglo-Saxon B u r i a l s S k e l e t a l Positions z t Dover "Male" and "Fernale" B u r i a l K i t s : C h e s s e l l Dom

-

a t Buckland-Dover and

Table 6

Buckland a t Dover

Table

C h e s s e l l Down Supplementary Assemblages

Table Table Table Table

Supplementary Assemblages

I n t e r p r e t i v e Associations Supplementary Assemblages

-

Kent and t h e I s l e of Wight

The Old ~ n g l i s hLight-Dark Axis Location of Old E n g l i s h Colour Words on t h e Hue Axis and on t h e Light-Dark Axis

Table 1 2

-

The O l d E n g l i s h Hue Axis Compared w i t h t h a t of Modern E n g l i s h

Table 1 3

-

Old English Colour Terms Showing Focus on C h a r a c t e r i s t i c

vii L I S T OF FIGURES

Map of Germanic P e o p l e s o f t h e M i g r a t i o n Age ( c . 400-600 AD) Map o f Anglo-Saxon T e r r i t o r i e s i n t h e 7 t h / 8 t h C e n t u r i e s Map o f S o u t h e a s t e r n England Showing Kent Amulets o f Bone, Horn and I v o r y Woden-headed

Implements

Woden Hanging o n t h e T r e e , ~ggdrasil Gold B r a c t e a t e Image of Woden w i t h B r e a t h I s s u i n g F o r t h Woden' s W a r r i o r on Horseback

"Dancing W a r r i o r s " P l a q u e from S u t t o n Hoo H e l m e t Woden s W a r r i o r s ,

t h e Berserks

l L r t i f a c t s Marked with t h e W h i r l i n g D i s c Symbol o f Woden R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f Woden a s "The Masked God" Visual Riddles Anglo-saxon

-

Animal and Human Masks

B i r d Brooches and D e c o r a t i v e Forms

S w a s t i k a , T-Rune,

Whirling D i s c ,

L i g h t n i n g F l a s h Markings

Horse M o t i f s and I n t e r l a c i n g H o r s e Designs Mark o f Tyr, t h e T-Rune,

on S p e a r a t Holborough,

Kent

Side P a n e l o f t h e F r a n k s C a s k e t (3 Hooded F i g u r e s a t R i g h t ) F r o n t P a n e l o f t h e F r a n k s C a s k e t (Weland Scene a t L e f t ) V a l k y r i e Guiding Warrior's S p e a r End P a n e l o f t h e F r a n k s C a s k e t ( a Valkyrie i n h e r " t e r r i b l e a s p e c t " m e e t i n g o n e o f t h e f o l l o w e r s o f Woden A r t i s t t s Rendering o f a n Anglo-Saxon

Hall

"Congruence" Between Female B u r i a l s ,

Holywell Row

"Congruence" Between M a l e B u r i a l s ,

Holywell Row

P o s i t i o n o f S h i e l d B o s s e s i n Anglo-saxon "Congruence" Between M a l e B u r i a l s , P o s s i b l e Live B u r i a l ,

Burials

Buckland a t Dover

Buckland a t Dover Grave 67

"Congruence" Between Female B u r i a l s ,

Buckland a t Dover

"Congruence" Between Male and Female B u r i a l s Wapned B u r i a l :

Grave 26, C h e s s e l l Down

viii L I S T OF FIGURES (CONTINWED)

Runic and Rune-Like W e b b e Burial:

Inscriptions

Grave 45, C h e s s e l l Dom

Bead Types from t h e I s l e of Wight Bronze p a i l from Grave 4 5 , Chessell Down Anglo-Saxon Blown Glass Claw Eeaker and Cone Beaker S i e v e Spoon and C r y s t a l B a l l , Grave 45, C h e s s e l l Down Square-Beaded Brooches, Grave 45, C h e s s e l l Dom Square-Headed Brooch With Opposed Animal Heads Showing Eye on Upper Border Masks o r Faces on Button Brooches, Dover Grave 48, C h e s s e l l Down Graves 7 and 89 Disc Brooches Showing Beaded Rim and "Light and Shade" E f f e c t Equal-armed Brooch, Grave 4 5 C h e s s e l l Down Kingston Brooch, G a m e t - I n l a i d

Cloisonné

D i s c Brooches w i t h Reserve N i e l l u r e Borders

Examples of Notching Rods of Meta1 Welded Together i n Pattern-Welding Process Pattern-Welded

Sword Blade

Seaxes Decorated with I n c i s e d Lines, Grooves and Meta1 Inlay

Balls Made f r o m Q u a r t z C r y s t a l Rock C r y s t a l Whorls and Beads "Bright Cups" i n T r a n s l u c e n t Blown Glass Woven Tabby and T w i l l P a t t e r n s Wæpned and Webbe "Type" B u r i a l s A.rtist ' S Rendering

Warp-Weighted

-

Anglo-saxon W e b b e o r Weaver

Loom S i m i l a r t o t h a t used by Anglo-saxons

Sword-Shaped Weaving Battens Made from Bone and I v o r y Woman Weaving a t Warp-Weighted Loom Showri B e a t i n g Weft Threads I n t o P o s i t i o n Scandinavian Pin-Beater of Whale Bone R i s e l y Pendant w i t h Woden Figure Between Two C r e a t u r e s

LIST 3F FIGURES ICCSN?l!INUED) --

--

- -

Finglesham Buckle With Horned F i g u r e Carrying Two S p e a r s

-

Contents of Grave 4 , S a r r e , Kent C r y s t a l Ball, Sieve Spoori, Brooches, B r a c t e a t e s , and B e l l Beaker Keys, L a t c h - l i f t e r s A r t i s t ' s Rendering

and "Girdle-Hangers"

-

Anglo-Saxon Wapned o r Warrior

E a r l y Anglo-Saxon S h i e l d s a s shown on Franks Casket and i n R e c o n s t r u c t i o n C o f f i n B u r i a l of a Youth of About F i f t e e n a t B r o a d s t a i r s 1 S h i e l d Appliques w i t h Animal-style Decoration Upper Edge of Scabbard w i t h ~oden-mask Design i n Reserve S i l v e r N i e l l o Work, Grave 76, C h e s s e l l Dom Sword with Ring A t t a c h e n t , Grave C r Dover Anglo-saxon Manuscript I l l u s t r a t i o n of Sword Beads Hanging from Thongs a t K i l t Sword from Coombe, Kent Showing C e n t r a l Mask-Like Pomme1 Similar t o t h a t Found on Brooches

Device on

Symbol o f Thunor on t h e B i f r o n s Swordfs Pomme1 o r "Glory" M i n i a t u r e o r Mode1 Weapons Found i n Kentish Women's B u r i a l s

Archaeology i n G r e a t B r i t a i n , a s i n many o t h e r a r e a s of t h e world, has p r o g r e s s e d from t h e work o f l o o t e r s , g r a v e r o b b e r s , amateur h o b b y i s t s and a n t i q u a r i a n s t o t h e e f f o r t s o f d e d i c a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t e n t on improving Our knowledge o f Anglo-saxon England.

The e x p l o r a t i o n of

b u r i a l s i t e s h a s l o n g dominated Anglo-saxon archaeology, p r i m a r i l y because Anglo-saxon

cemeteries a r e numerous,

relatively easy t o find

-

B u r i a l s o f t h e Anglo-saxon

r i c h i n a r t i f a c t s and

hence t h e i r v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o d e s t r u c t i o n . p e r i o d c o n t i n u e t o be of importance w i t h t h e

development o f new ways o f examining t h e i r e v i d e n c e f o r f r e s h i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e l o n g d e p a r t e d communities which t h e y r e p r e s e n t (Webster 1986: 124).

E a r l y a p p r o a c h e s t o Anglo-saxon mortuary a r c h a e o l o g y c e n t r e d on historical, typological, o r c l a s s i f i c a t o r y analyses.

L a t e r s c h o l a r s of

t h e p e r i o d l i m i t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e s t u d y o f p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s e s of m a t e r i a l , o r t h e a r t - h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s of s p e c i f i c o b j e c t types. Despite many t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances, a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s e s a r e s t i l l t o o o f t e n n a r r o w l y focused and r e l i a n t on c o n c e p t s i n h e r e n t i n a l i m i t e d and o v e r - s p e c i a l i z e d t h e o r e t i c a l framework. The t i m e h a s corne f o r a more h o l i s t i c approach t o b e t a k e n toward t h e a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e rneaning o f Anglo-Saxon mortuary remains.

This t h e s i s explores t h e

rnanner i n which t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t s found w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l c o n t e x t r e s i d e s i n b o t h t h e o b j e c t s themselves a ~ idn t h e i r " p e r f o r m a t i v e [ o r ] ' g e s t u r a l l p a t t e r n s o f behaviour"

(Vastokas 1 9 9 4 : 3 3 7 ) i n Anglo-

Saxon s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l l i f e .

Zboreticcrl Fraxmwrk

T h i s t h e s i s combines symbolic and c o g n i t i v e archaeology w i t h t h e anthropology of e x p e r i e n c e (Dewey 1958, Dissanayake 1 9 9 2 , Johnson 1987, Lakoff 1987, T u r n e r 1974, 1990, Vastokas 1 9 9 2 ) .

Aesthetic considerations

a r e n o t l i n i t e d t o "high a r t " ,

but are relevant t o material culture a s

A r e t h i n k i n g of what l i e s behind a s o c i e t y ' s a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s ,

well.

p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e manner i n which members e x p e r i e n c e t h e world around them i s c a l l e d f o r .

I n t h e Germanic world, s o c i e t a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s were d e f i n e d and ' m a t e r i a l i z e d t t h r o u g h t h e h i g h l y r i t u a l i z e d u s e and exchange of m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s (Alkemade 1997: 1 8 4 ) ; a c l o s e r l o o k at' t h e r o l e t h e s e o b j e c t s p l a y e d i n n e g o t i a t i n g , c r e a t i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g Anglo-Saxon

s o c i a l values, i n c l u d i n g a e s t h e t i c values, i s

n e c e s s a r y t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Anglo-Saxon

s o c i e t y a s a whole.

O b j e c t s p l a c e d i n a b u r i a l c o n t e x t are, i n some ways, documents of t h e s o c i a l rcle p l a y e d by t h e b u r i e d i n d i v i d u a l and of t h e v a l u e p l a c e d on t h e i n d i v i d u a l by h i s o r h e r community (Hodder 1980: 163; Pader 1980:

144; R i c h a r d s 1992: 135, 1 4 3 ) .

On examination of t h e archaeological

r e c o r d f o r p a r t s o f Anglo-saxon England,

a discernible pattern i n the

placement o f b u r i a l o b j e c t s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e s i s a p p a r e n t ( P a d e r 1980).

A c e r t a i n "congruence" between t h e g r a v e s o f men and women may be

seen i n t h e p a t t e r n i n g of t h i s placement o f o b j e c t s ( P a d e r 1 9 8 0 ) .

It i s

shown t h a t t h i s complementarity i s based on a system of c a t e g o r i z a t i o n founded upon meanings which were c r e a t e d o u t o f b o d i l y e x p e r i e n c e and through i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e o b j e c t s (Johnson 1987; Lakoff 1 9 8 7 ) .

Clues

t o t h e b a s i s of t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s y s t e m can be found i n t h e metaphors of s u r v i v i n g Old English p r o s e and p o e t r y a s w e l l a s o t h e r cognate, and about contemporary, s o u r c e s such a s t h e Old Norse and I c e l a n d i c s a g a s . The Germanic comitatus o r warband (OE dugud) w a s t h e main s t r u c t u r a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e of Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y upon which a l 1 social, cultural, political, of t h e c o m u n i t y were c e n t r e d .

economic,

r e l i g i o u s and r i t u a l a s p e c t s

The s e t s o f Anglo-saxon o b j e c t s

i d e n t i f i e d h e r e i n a r e key symbols of t h e b u r i e d i n d i v i d u a l ' s p l a c e w i t h i n t h e comitatus s t r u c t u r e , a complex of r e l a t i o n s h i p s based on an i d e a l of unwavering l o y a l t y t o o n e r s l o r d and o n e ' s companions and upon a d e s i r e f o r p e r s o n a l g l o r y (Evans 1997; P o l l i n g t o n 1 9 9 6 ) . At t h e same t i m e ,

it i s

i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h a t b u r i a l o b j e c t s a r e not simply s t a t i c markers of s o c i a l r o l e s ; t h e meaning of such o b j e c t s i s n o t found by simply c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e o b j e c t as a symbol f o r something else.

Instead,

s i g n i f i c a t i o n must be d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e " l i f e " of t h e o b j e c t s themselves (Vastokas 1994: 3 4 1 ) , by e x p l o r i n g t h e r o l e played by o b j e c t s a s i n t e r a c t i v e a g e n t s i n s o c i a l l i f e and c o g n i t i o n ( G o t t d i e n e r 1995; Kopytoff 1986; Vastokas 1 9 9 4 ) . ob j e c t s w e r e manufactured,

T h i s can be done by l o o k i n g a t how t h e

used, a t changes i n ownership and i n use and

a t how t h e o b j e c t s w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d and i n t e r p r e t e d ( V a s t o k a s 1 9 9 4 ) . Meaning i s based on b o d i l y e x p e r i e n c e (Dewey 1958: 15, 246; Dissanayake 1992: 24-30;

Johnson 1987; Lakoff 1987; V a s t o k a s 1992: 32-4;

1994: 337) and "our r e a l i t y i s shaped by t h e p a t t e r n s o f Our b o d i l y movement, t h e c o n t o u r s of Our s p a t i a l and temporal o r i e n t a t i o n , and t h e forms of o u r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o b j e c t s "

(Johnson 1987: x i x )

.

P a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t moments of b o d i l y e x p e r i e n c e a r e t h o s e which C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i has i d e n t i f i e d a s "deep flow" e x p e r i e n c e s when a c t i o n and awareness a r e merged, r e s u l t i n g i n a " l o s s of ego" and an i n c r e a s e i n " k i n e s t h e t i c s e n s a t i o n " ( C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i 1975: 4 3 ; b u t a l s o 1990, 1 9 9 6 ) . T h i s " h o l i s t i c s e n s a t i o n " i s " p r e s e n t when w e a c t w i t h t o t a l involvement [ i n ] a s t a t e i n which a c t i o n f o l l o w s a c t i o n according t o a n i n t e r n a 1 l o g i c which seerns t o need no c o n s c i o u s i n t e r v e n t i o n on o u r p a r t " (Turner 1974: 8 7 ) .

Research on t h e "flow" e x p e r i e n c e has focused on v a r i o u s

forms of p l a y and s p o r t such a s mountaineering, rock-climbing, chess, e t c .

hockey,

( C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i 1975, 1990, 1996; Turner 1974: 8 7 ) .

-Psnglo-

Saxon l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e b a t t l e f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e a l s o c o n t a i n s moments of "£lowff. "berserker",

I n t h e same way t h e phenomenon of t h e

a s t a t e of b a t t l e madness known from e a r l y Scandinavian

l i t e r a t u r e and l i k e l y a l s o p r e s e n t i n e a r l y Anglo-saxon

society

(Hemmingsen 1 9 9 8 ) , would r e p r e s e n t a n extreme o r e x a g g e r a t e d form of t h e "flow" e x p e r i e n c e .

A s Turner has shown,

such an e x p e r i e n c e r e l a t e s t o

communitas, though "flow" i s e x p e r i e n c e d by i n d i v i d u a l s and communitas

between o r among i n d i v i d u a l s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , "flow" i s o n e o f t h e

t e c h n i q u e s whereby p e o p l e s e e k t o a c h i e v e " d i r e c t , unmediated communion w i t h one a n o t h e r , even though s e v e r e s u b s c r i p t i o n t o r u l e s is t h e frame i n which t h i s communion may p o s s i b l y b e induced" ( T u r n e r 1 9 7 4 : 8 9 ) i s s o u g h t i n both "flow" and communitas i s u n i t y , 'white',

'puret-, 'primary'

, ' seamless ' .

What

"an i n d i v i s i b l e u n i t y ,

This u n i t y is e x p r e s s e d i n such

symbols ... a s running water, dawn, l i g h t and w h i t e n e s s . s o u g h t , i n s t e a d of h e t e r o g e n e i t y "

.

Homogeneity i s

( T u r n e r and Turner 1978:

254-5).

The

members o f t h e c o m u n i t y , i n t h i s c a s e of t h e comitatus, are r e g a r d e d " a t l e a s t i n r i t e and çymboll' a s a s i n g l e u n i t (Turner and Turner 1978: 255) . The Anglo-saxon

c o m i t a t u s w a s based upon f r e q u e n t c o n f l i c t and a s t r i c t

code of honour; i t was s u s t a i n e d by t h e p o s i t i v e r e - e n f o r c e m e n t o f w a r r i o r i d e a l s through t h e j o y s and camaraderie o f t h e " b r i g h t " mead hall.

The c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s which made up t h e comitatus

p r o v i d e d t h e "main c u l t u r a l flow-mechanisms and p a t t e r n s " 90) w i t h i n Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y .

(Turner 1974:

A t t h e same tirne, t h e "flow" e x p e r i e n c e s

of b a t t l e r e i n f o r c e d t h e c o m m u n i t a s o f t h e warband w h i l e working t o

e s t a b l i s h i n t e r r e l a t i n g moral and a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s y s t e m s An o p p o r t u n i t y f o r llElow" e x p e r i e n z e can be n o t e d arnongst t h e a c t i v i t i e s of Anglo-saxon women a s w e l l .

Spinning i s a r e p e t i t i v e and

t i m e consuming a c t i v i t y , y e t i t i s a " p l e a s a n t l y rhythmic" and " v e r y r e s t f u l a c t i v i t y " ( B a r b e r 1994: 39), one which a f f o r d s moments o f "flow". S p i n n i n g can be done s i t t i n g o r s t a n d i n g , and t h e s p i n d l e s t i c k w i t h i t s a t t a c h e d whorl t w i r l i n g l i k e a t o p i n mid-air would have b e e n a s f a m i l i a r a companion t o t h e Anglo-saxon woman a s t h e s p e a r was i n t h e hands o f t h e Anglo-saxon man.

Both s p i n d l e and s p e a r would become " e x t e n s i o n s 1 ' of t h e

b o d i e s o f t h e i r b e a r e r s , e x p a n s i o n s of t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s t h r o u g h h a b i t u a 1 use s o t h a t t h e woman and t h e s p i n d l e , t h e man a n d t h e s p e a r become i n d i v i s i b l e and i r r e d u c i b l e wholes ( S h i e l d s 1994: 212-3). T h e weaving p r o c e s s employed by Anglo-saxon women made u s e of a

hanging, warp-weighted loom t o make b o l t s of c l o t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y s i x f e e t

wide.

Weaving was d i i f i c u l t , heavy p h y s i c a l work which employed many of

t h e same a m and b o d i l y motions a s d i d d u e l l i n g o r combat.

Anglo-saxon

women walked back and f o r t h on a wooden walkway suspended o v e s a sunken floor.

The loom weights h e l d t h e warp t h r e a d s s t r a i g h t , w h i l e t h e woman

used a bobbin o r bodkin t o weave t h e weft t h r e a d frorn s i d e t o s i d e .

Once

t h e w e f t t h r e a d was i n p l a c e , t h e woman would t h e n b e a t t h e w e f t t h r e a d up i n t o t h e warp moving t h e weaving sword i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n t o t h a t of a man employing h i s sword i n b a t t l e .

Like w a r f a r e , weaving was an

arduous "bodily" e x p e r i e n c e which r e q u i r e d s t r a t e g y and Eorethought.

The

rhythmic s i n g i n g o r c h a n t i n g which is s a i d t o have o f t e n accompanied t h e weaving p r o c e s s (Barber 1 9 9 4 : 85) worked t o i n d u c e t h e "flow" s t a t e . T e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n was an a c t i v i t y where t h e weaver o r w a b b e , e s p e c i a l l y a s k i l l e d craftswoman, c o u l d becorne one with t h e weaving much a s the w a r r i o r o r w w n e d L became o n e w i t h t h e moment o f b a t t l e . Many o f t h e t o o l s of t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e p r o c e s s of weaving i t s e l f c a r r y e r o t i c u n d e r t o n e s which a r e o f t e n a l l u d e d t o i n Old E n g l i s h and Old Norse r i d d l e s and p o e t r y .

This metaphorical e r o t i c i s m i s

i n h e r e n t i n t h e motions o f a n e e d l e pushing through f a b r i c and suggested by t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e s h u t t l e a s i t i s pushed i n t o and between t h e warp

threads.

The s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between men and women i s b r o u g h t t o t h e

f o r e f r o n t h e r e , a s i s t h e p h y s i c a l f o r c e of such union: c l o t h , an unsheathed weaving-sword b e a t i n g t h e w e f t into place.

t o produce t h e

is f o r c e d t h r o u g h t h e warp t h r e a d s ,

I n Germanic s o c i e t y , t h i s a s p e c t of t e x t i l e

weaving h a s o f t e n been likened t o t h e p l a y of swords upon t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , t h e warp and t h e w e f t t h r e a d s s y m b o l i c a l l y p r o v i d i n g t h e blood and e n t r a i l s of t h e u p r i g h t w a r r i o r of the loom (Davidson 1962: 1 2 3 ) .

In

N j a l ' s Saga, a loom s e t up by V a l k y r i e s i s s a i d t o have "human heads a s weights" and heddle-rods o f "blood-wet

spears"

( E n r i g h t 1990: 6 6 ) .

This

s t r o n g m e t a p h o r i c c o n n e c t i o n between t h e work o f t h e loom and t h e work of t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , 1 s u g g e s t , is a symptorn of t h e s i m i l a r n a t u r e o f moments o f "flowtl experienced i n b o t h a c t i v i t i e s

.

6

Combat i s a s t r o n g l y s e n s u a l e v e n t , t h e f i e r c e b o d i l y n a t u r e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by moments of a n t i c i p a t i o n , f e a r , even t e r r o r , b u t a l s o by moments of c o n f i d e n c e and s a t i s f a c t i o n .

The

cornbatant e x p e r i e n c e s s u r g e s o f a d r e n a l i n e , e n d o r p h i n s and o t h e r body c h e m i c a l s b e f o r e , d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e a c t i v i t y .

The e m o t i o n a l c o n t e n t

o f t h e "flow" moments a d d s t o t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l enjoyment o f the experience.

This "intensely pleasurable",

"sexual" a s p e c t of v i o l e n c e i s

w e l l a t t e s t e d by modern combat v e t e r a n s (Shay 1 9 9 4 ) .

Violence,

p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r u c t u r e d , r i t u a l i z e d v i o l e n c e , l i k e t h e choreographed movements of b a t t l e , c a n be c o n s i d e r e d t t b e a u t i £ u l " i n i t s performance, g i v e n t h e n e u r o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s i t e l i c i t s i n b o t h combatant and o b s e r v e r (Moeran 1986; Riches 1986; Schechner 1 9 9 3 ) .

I n Anglo-saxon

England, where w a r f a r e and t h e r o l e o f t h e w a r r i o r w e r e i d e a l i z e d , t h e n e u r o l o g i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f combat were a l s o h i g h l y valued.

These e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e a n i m i s t i c

b e l i e f s i n h e r e n t i n Anglo-Saxon

s o c i e t y and a system o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n t

s o c i a l mechanisms and i n s t i t u t i o n s were brought i n t o p l a y which encouraged and v a l i d a t e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e "flow" e x p e r i e n c e o f battle.

The c o m i t a t u s s t r u c t u r e was p r i n c i p a l among t h e s e .

S i n c e s o c i a l a c t i v i t y produces m a t e r i a l forms which a r e embodiments o f s o c i a l v a l u e s ( G o t t d i e n e r 1995: 7 0 ) , it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e i d e o l o g y o f the c o m i t a t u s , grounded a s i t is i n t h e s t r u c t u r e d v i o l e n c e o f w a r f a r e ,

t h e a n i m i s t i c p r e c e p t s o f t h e c u l t o f Woden, a s w e l l a s t h e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s of t h e Anglo-saxon comrnunity, Saxon m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e 2 .

should be found e x p r e s s e d i n Anglo-

The Anglo-Saxon p r e f e x e n c e f o r " b r i g h t n e s s f t , a s

founo i n t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e and s e e n i n t h e i r material c u l t u r e , i s a metaphor f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l v a l u e s h e l d w i t h i n t h e c o m i t a t u s . T h i s rnetaphor i s based u l t i r n a t e l y upon t h e b o d i l y "flowtf e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , b u t i t may a l s o b e s e e n r e f l e c t e d i n a s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e i n t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n and i n t h e m y t h o l o g i e s and t r a d i t i o n s which accompany b o t h weaving and w a r f a r e .

T o g e t h e r , weaving and w a r f a r e r e p r e s e n t t h e

two i d e o l o g i c a l l y dominant p r a c t i c e s of Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y , t h e webbe and t h e wapned, t h e "weaver" and t h e "warrior" i t s two h a l v e s ( F e l l 1984: 3 9 ) . A s Vastokas (1994) h a s argued, such dominant t e c h n o l o g i e s , t h e i r p r o c e s s e s and t h e i r p r o d u c t s , provi.de t h e metaphors used f o r c u l t u r a l expression.

" [ C l u l t u r a l ways, i n c l u d i n g moral and a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s , art

forms, s o c i a l and r i t u a l performances, a s w e l l a s s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a r e a f f e c t e d t o a h i g h degree by t h e dominant t e c h n o l o g i c a l systern" (Vastokas 1994: 343). This is t h e c a s e i n AngloSaxon s o c i e t y a s w e l l .

"Social and moral i s s u e s w a r e " i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h q u e s t i o n s of a e s t h e t i c v a l u e " (Gombrich 1965: 1 9 ) and s o meaning must be sought i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f s h a r e d ideology, s o c i a l c o n t e x t and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e ( G o t t d i e n e r 1995: 2 9 ) .

I n o t h e r words, i d e o l o g i c a l and

a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s may be found embodied i n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . t h a t p a s t i d e o l o g i e s can be re-discovered

It follows

today by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e

i n t e r a c t i v e r o l e once p l a y e d by o b j e c t s w i t h i n a s o c i e t y .

E x p r e s s i o n s of

Anglo-saxon i d e o l o g y and i t s a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s y s t e m a r e found i n t h e metaphors o f Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e .

For t h a t r e a s o n , t h e p o e t r y and

p r o s e of t h e s e v e n t h t o n i n t h c e n t u r i e s i s c a l l e d on h e r e a s e v i d e n c e of t h e Anglo-saxon a e s t h e t i c p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e q u a l i t y of " b r i l l i a n c e " , e x p r e s s e d i n t h e b r i g h t countenance of w a r r i o r and weaver alike and d i s p l a y e d i n t h e s h i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Anglo-saxon m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e .

~thodology

B u r i a l remains a r e v i r t u a l l y a l 1 t h a t s u r v i v e Erom t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f t h e Anglo-saxon p e r i o d . The m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e examined and d i s c u s s e d h e r e i n d a t e s from t h e f i f t h t o s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s and was recovered frorn inhumations on t h e I s l e of Wight and i n Kent.

These two

a r e a s i n t h e s o u t h e a s t o f England were among t h e f i r s t t o r e c e i v e

Germanic s e t t l e s s d u r i n g t h e Migration Period, and i t i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h s e t t l e d by t h e same e t h n i c o r t r i b a l group,

t h e J u t e s (HE 1. 15; Arnold 1990; Hines 1 9 9 7 )

.

Evidence g a t h e r e d from

t h e Dover, Kent b u r i a l grounds and from t h e C h e s s e l l Dom, Isle o f Wight b u r i a l s p r o v i d e s t h e main f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y .

Data from o t h e r key

Kentish b u r i a l s i t e s a r e also used, where necessary, t o p r o v i d e a n o v e r a l l summary and t o i d e n t i f y a n o v e r a l l p a t t e r n . There a r e some two hundred known Anglo-saxon

b u r i a l qrounds i n

Kent, and t e n on t h e 1 s l e o f Wight; each c o n t a i n s anywhere from one t o two hundred i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e s .

Inhumation of t h e dead predominates i n

b o t h o f t h e s e a r e a s , a l t h o u g h c r e m a t i o n s do occur.

However, t h e s e l a t t e r

w i l l n o t b e d i s c u s s e d h e r e a s t h e y a r e o u t s i d e t h e parameters o f t h i s investigation.

Few inhumation b u r i a l s a r e i d e n t i c a l , y e t t h e r e a r e a number o f u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s which rnay be employod t o d e s c r i b e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e body and t h e placement o f a r t i f a c t s w i t h i n t h e g r a v e . Such d i f f e r e n c e s can be d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f "congruence",

"addition",

" s ~ b s t i t u t i o n ~"anomalyw ~, o r " d e ~ i a t i o n ' ~w, i t h t h e most b a s i c p r i n c i p l e b e i n g "congruence" (Pader 1980, 1982)

.

T h i s term i s used t o irnply

c o n s i s t e n c y i n p o s i t i o n i n g and placement and i s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from " i d e n t i c a l " i n t h a t t h e l a t t e r would imply a b s o l u t e correspondence i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e body and t h e placement o f goods between g r a v e s .

Two

g r a v e s may b e considered c o n g r u e n t i f t h e r e i s r e g u l a r s p a c e u s e on and around t h e body i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a r e g u l a r l y corresponding s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n ( P a d e r 1980, 1 9 8 2 ) . D i s t i n g u i s h i n g e l e m e n t s are based on what i s p r e s e n t a s w e l l a s what i s a b s e n t and on how t h e s p a c e i s used.

Evidence f o r "congruence"

i n t h e placement of t h e v a r i o u s key o b j e c t s ûf Anglo-saxon m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l s i s examined.

This f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s a n a l y s i s

ends w i t h a cornparison of t h e b u r i a l s p a c e s f o r evidence o f a s i g n i f i c a n t comparative r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e g e n d e r s .

The v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l

b u r i a l s are a l s o examined t o e s t a b l i s h whether o r n o t t h e r e i s any g e n e r a l p a t t e r n t o t h e placement o f b u r i a l goods i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e body

Two p a r t i c u l a r sets o r " k i t s "

and w i t h i n t h e s p a c e of t h e g r a v e i t s e l f .

o f o b j e c t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d : a "male k i t " a n d a "fernale k i t " .

As w e l l ,

a

f u r t h e r o r " s u p p l e m e n t a r y " assemblage o f o b j e c t s i s o b s e r v e d i n c e r t a i n womenfs b u r i a l s .

These supplementary assemblages, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r

p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e r o l e p l a y e d w i t h i n t h e comitatus by t h e women w i t h whom t h e y were b u r i e d ,

a r e discussed i n d e t a i l .

Where p o s s i b l e ,

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e rnuseum examples of t h e i d e n t i f i e d " k i t " o b j e c t s w e r e examined and compared f o r a n y s i m i l a r i t y o r c o n t r a s t i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such a s c o l o u x , t e x t u r e and l u m i n o s i t y . The n e x t s t e p i n t h e approach t a k e n h e r e i n i n v o l v e s a r e v i e w o f Anglo-saxon l i t e r a r y a n d h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s and a cornparison o f contemporary w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s d e s c r i b i n g t h e Ge,manic C o n t i n e n t and i n S c a n d i n a v i a .

p e o p l e s on t h e

This i s f o l l o w e d by r e c o u r s e t o secondary

i n t e r p r e t i v e s o u r c e s t o d e t e r m i n e how t h e v a r i o u s key o b j e c t s were u s e à i n everyday l i f e , how t h e y were produced,

exchanged and e x p e r i e n c e d , i n

s h o r t , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n t e x t i n which t h e i r meaning w a s e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , v a r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n u s i n g w r i t t e n s o u r c e s . F i r s t l y , most of t h e Anglo-Saxon

h i s t o r i c a l and a l 1 o f

t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e t o u s d a t e s from t h e s e v e n t h t o t h e eleventh c e n t u r i e s .

The e a r l i e s t of t h e h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s , t h e Laws of

E@elbert o f Kent a r e r o u g h l y contemporary t o t h e p e r i o d b e i n g e x p l o r e d

h e r e , d a t i n g f r o m t h e e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r y ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y were r e c o r d e d a f t e r Kent came u n d e r C h r i s t i a n i n f l u e n c e and s o p r e s e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e produced i n predominantly non-Christian

centuries.

There is a s i m i l a r d i f f i c u l t y

w i t h t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y w r i t i n g s o f t h e Anglo-Saxon h i s Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum.

s c h o l a r , Bede, and

T h e r e is a l s o some

u n c e r t a i n t y a s t o t h e d a t i n g o f v a r i o u s O l d E n g l i s h m a n u s c r i p t s ; howevex, i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t a l 1 e x t a n t examples o f Old E n g l i s h p o e t r y and p r o s e

were w r i t t e n a f t e r t h e a d v e n t of ~ h r i s t i a n i t y . While much o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e may b e t h e r e s u l t o f t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l t r a d i t i o n , s u c h a c c o u n t s

a r e a l s o i n t e r p r e t i v e v e r s i o n s of r e a l i t y and should be used w i t h t h i s p o i n t i n mind. S c a n d i n a v i a n myths and s a g a s w e r e a l s o t r a n s c r i b e d i n a l a t e r p e r i o d , and a l t h o u g h t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e e t h n o g r a p h i c a l l y analogous, t h e y a r e n o t d i r e c t l y d e s c r i p t i v e of Anglo-saxon Kent.

G e r m a n i a , by t h e Roman

h i s t o r i a n T a c i - t u s , p r o v i d e s one of t h e e a r l i e s t accounts o f - t h e Germanic a n c e s t o r s of t h e Anglo-Saxons on t h e C o n t i n e n t .

Dating t o t h e E i r s t

c e n t u r y AD, t h i s account p r o v i d e s v a l u a b l e e t h n o h i s t o r i c m a t e r i a l ; yet it i s a l s o p r o b l e m a t i c because it p r e d a t e s t h e Migration Period.

These

r e l a t i v e l y Eew documents cornprise a l 1 a v a i l a b l e e x t a n t w r i t t e n s o u r c e s . However, d e s p i t e t h e shortcomings mentioned, t h e s e documents may be p r o f i t a b l y c o n s u l t e d i f employed w i t h c a u t i o n . F i n a l l y , i t should be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t approximately h a l f t h e inhumation b u r i a l s d a t i n g from t h e p e r i o d covered h e r e i n c o n t a i n no very few a r t i f a c t s .

I t i s t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t h a t any s t u d y which

f o c u s e s on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of b u r i a l o b j e c t s is n e g l e c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e segment of t h e p e r i o d ' s p o p u l a t i o n , t h o s e b u r i e d w i t h o u t grave o b j e c t s .

With r e s p e c t t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g y of Anglo-Saxon England,

u n f u r n i s h e d b u r i a l s have been i n t e r p r e t e d v a r i o u s l y a s b u r i a l s o f t h e lower c l a s s e s (Aicock 19871, of t h e f o l l o w e r s o f C h r i s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y [Evison 1 9 8 7 ) , o f a rernaining B r i t i s h p o p u l a t i o n under Anglo-saxon

r u l e (Harke 1989, 1992a) o r a s t h o s e o u t s i d e

t h e e l i t e w a r r i o r c o m u n i t y (Arnold 1997; H a l s a l f 1 9 8 9 ) .

Since t h i s

t h e s i s f o c u s e s upon t h e warband s t r u c t u r e , u n f u r n i s h e d b u r i a l s l i e o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of t h i s s t u d y . P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s of Anglo-saxon b u r i a l s have c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e a n a l y s i s o f o b j e c t s found i n male b u r i a l s symbofic r o l e o f weaponry i n t h a t c u l t u r e .

-

t h a t i s , upon t h e

Anglo-saxon female b u r i a l s

have n o t been t h e focus of t h e same d e g r e e o f d i a g n o s t i c a t t e n t i o n . While weaponry and v e s s e l s have been used t o d e f i n e male b u r i a l s , i t e m s of self-adornment have formed t h e major d i a g n o s t i c t r a i t f o r f e m a l e s .

As

f a r a s it can b e d e t e d n e d , no s t u d i e s of Anglo-Saxon a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a , up t o t h i s p o i n t i n t h e , h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between male and female g r a v e s . Care must be t a k e n h e r e n o t t o b e g i n w i t h a s s u m p t i o n s o f b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n s which presuppose p u b l i d p r i v a t e o r p o l i t i c a l / d o m e s t i c d i c h o t o m i e s o r t h e s t r i c t s e x u a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r which rnay n o t have been c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e Anglo-saxons

themselves.

In the past,

s t e r e o t y p i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s o f a r t i f a c t s a s s e x u a l c o r r e l a t e s have r e s u l t e d from the dominance o f a male b i a s .

Gender s h o u l d n o t be

s e p a r a t e d from s u c h o t h e r a s p e c t s a s age, r e l i g i o n , c l a s s , s t a t u s , and e t h n i c i t y , which would have combined t o c o n s t r u c t s o c i a l i d e n t i t y i n Anglo-saxon England. The p r e s e n c e of weaponry i n b u r i a l s h a s o f t e n been i n t e r p r e t e d as a m a r k o f manhood, male s t a t u s o r s o c i a l s t a n d i n g .

been a n a l y z e d a c c o r d i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t s c a l e .

Womenls b u r i a l s have

Although wornenls b u r i a l s

are o f t e n r i c h e r t h a n male b u r i a l s i n a r t i f a c t count and q u a l i t y , s u c h a w e a l t h o f o b j e c t s h a s been d i s r e g a r d e d a s a marker of womanhood, s t a t u s or social class.

I n s t e a d , i t h a s been s e e n a s e v i d e n c e o f a p r e d i l e c t i o n

i n t h e men of t h e s o c i e t y f o r t h e adornment of t h e i r women and so r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f male s t a t u s o n l y . One of t h e p r i n c i p l e p r o d u c t s of woments l a b o u r s , t e x t i l e s , r a r e l y survives i n t h e archeological record.

Given t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e of c l o t h , a s w e l l as i t s c a p a c i t y t o s e r v e as a " r e p o s i t o r y " f o r the I t a r t i s t r y o f c o r n p e t i t i v e a e s t h e t i c development"

(Weiner and

S c h n e i d e r 1989: 2 ) , t h e l o s s o f s u c h m a t e r i a l from t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o ï d l e a v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e gap i n o u r knowledge of t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y Anglo-saxon women i n c r e a t i n g and marking s o c i a l meaning a n d relationships.

However, a s n o t e d above, meaning c a n n o t sirnply b e " r e a d "

o f f t h e a r t i f a c t s o r d i s c o v e r e d s o l e l y from t h e i r p l a c e m e n t w i t h i n t h e burials.

Meaning must be s o u g h t c o n t e x t u a l l y i n a s t u d y of t h e "life of

t h e o b j e c t s themselves"

( V a s t o k a s 1994) a s t h e y moved a b o u t w i t h i n a

l i v i n g Anglo-Saxon s o c i e t y comprised o f b o t h men and women

.

slmriurv

No s i m p l e dichotomy e x i s t s between p e r s o n s and t h i n g s ; o b j e c t s c o n t r i b u t e t o s h a p i n g o u r habitus (Bourdieu 1 9 9 4 ) . of b u r i a l o b j e c t s w i t h i n Anglo-Saxon

instead, The placement

g r a v e s i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e i r active

r o l e i n t h e c r e a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l and group i d e n t i t y w i t h i n early AngloSaxon s o c i e t y .

The l i f e o f t h e s e o b j e c t s , t h e ways i n which t h e y moved

t h r o u g h Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y , w e r e used, i n t e r a c t e d w i t h , a n d t h o u g h t o f , a r e examined h e r e i n t o d e t e r m i n e how a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s were c o n s t r u c t e d and a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n t h e comitatus r e l a t i o n s h i p .

One of t h e c h a l l e n g e s

i n h e r e n t i n t h i s s t u d y i s t o d i s c o v e r what r o l e Anglo-saxon women p l a y e d i n t h i s warband r e l a t i o n s h i p and t o e x p l o r e how t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d r o l e s o f t h e waopned and t h e webbe f i t i n t o t h e moral a n d a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s y s t e m s t o become l i v e d metaphors w i t h i n e a r l y Anglo-saxon

society.

Chapter II

Anglo-Saxon England

a i a t o r i d Background

t h e Roman Empire, Germanic p e o p l e s o c c u p i e d

vast t e r r i t o r y

s t r e t c h i n g from S c a n d i n a v i a s o u t h t o t h e Danube and from Gaul e a s t t o t h e Vistula. Generally t a l l ,

f a i r , blue-eyed

and p h y s i c a l l y hardy,

these

p e o p l e s also s h a r e d a common c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e : t h e y spoke v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s o f a Germanic l a n g u a g e , t h e y worshipped n o r t h e r n , n o t Roman, gods ana t h e y l i v e d a w a r - o r i e n t e d l i f e s t y l e t h a t i n c l u d e d "a v e n e r a t i o n f o r t h e p r o p h e t i c powers o f women and a p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r f e a s t i n g and d r i n k i n g " (Owen-Crocker 1986: 1 9 ) .

These t r a d i t i o n s w e r e c a r r i e d t o

B r i t a i n by t h e Angles, t h e Saxons, t h e J u t e s and v a r i o u s o t h e r Germanic

settlers d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f m i g r a t i o n of t h e f i f t h t o t h e seventh

.

c e n t u r i e s ( F i g u r e 1)

I n t h e s o u t h - e a s t o f England,

Kent was one o f t h e f i r s t r e g i o n s t o

b e s e t t l e d by Germanic p e o p l e s a f t e r t h e departure o f t h e Roman l e g i o n s from t h e i s l a n d (Brooks 1989: 55-7; 1981: 3 2 0 ) .

Hawkes 1969: 186; Hawkes and P o l l a r d

B y t h e end o f t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y , Kent had a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d

governing s t r u c t u r e with a s t a b l e royal dynasty.

I t was a s m a l l , compact

kingdom w i t h t h e R i v e r Medway as i t s w e s t e r n f r o n t i e r .

To t h e s o u t h , i t

was p r o t e c t e d b y Romney Marsh and t h e g r e a t F o r e s t o f t h e W e a l d while t h e E n g l i s h Channel and t h e Thames e s t u a r y p r o v i d e d n a t u r a l b o r d e r s on t h e r e m a i n i n g sides ( F i g u r e s 2 and 3 ) .

T h e l a n d was f e r t i l e and w e l l -

w a t e r e d , t h e f i s h i n g a b u n d a n t . The s u r v i v i n g s u b - s t r u c t u r e o f Roman toms, villas,

roads and p o r t s gave Kent a u n i q u e a d v a n t a g e which i t s

e a r l y r u l e r s q u i c k l y r e a l i z e d (Hawkes and P o l l a r d 1981: 321; Hawkes 1969: 188-9)

-

Axchaeological excavation o f b u r i a l sites a d j a c e n t t o t h e s e

e a r l i e s t K e n t i s h s e t t l e m e n t sites o f t h e f l f t h c e n t u r y , such a s Bekesbourne, Howletts, B i f r o n s and Lyminge show g r a v e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s

" i n t e r r e d w i t h a l 1 t h e outward s i g n s of m a t e r i a l p r o s p e r i t y and h i g h s o c i a l s t a t u s " (Hawkes 1969: 1 8 9 ) . According t o Bede's ~ i s t o r i aEcclesiastica w r i t t e n i n 7 3 1 AD,

Kent,

t h e I s l e o f Wight, and a n a r e a of l a n d i n t h e s o u t h of Hampshire o p p o s i t e t h e I s l e o f Wight known a s t h e Meonware, w e r e s e t t l e d b y t h e J u t e s , who

w e r e C o n t i n e n t a l n e i g h b o u r s o f the Angles and t h e Saxons (HE 1-15; Hawkes 1969: 190; Yorke 1989: 89-1) ( F i g u r e 2). On r e a c h i n g England,

t h e s e two

l a t t e r g r o u p s s e t t l e d i n a r e a s t o t h e n o r t h and West o f Kent which came t o b e known as Anglia, Mercia, Essex, Wessex, Northumbria.

Sussex and e v e n t u a l l y ,

The e x a c t C o n t i n e n t a l o r i g i n o f t h e J u t e s h a s b e e n w i d e l y

debated over t h e years.

E a r l y s c h o l a r s pointed t o t h e Danish peninsula

o f Jutland a s a n obvious c h o i c e 3 b u t F r a n k i s h and F r i s i a n o r i g i n s have a l s o been s u g g e s t e d ( f o r i n s t a n c e , Alcock 1987: 268; Owen-Crocker 5).

1986:

More r e c e n t l y , t h e argument h a s corne f u l l c i r c l e , o n c e a g a i n

p o s i t i n g a S c a n d i n a v i a n homeland f o r t h e J u t i s h s e t t l e r s and a S c a n d i n a v i a ~l i n k between t h e p e o p l e s of Kent, t h e Meonware and t h e I s l e of Wight (Arnold 1990; Brooks 1989: 71-3; 1981; H i n e s 1997; Yorke 1 9 8 9 )

.

Hawkes 1969; Hawkes and P o l l a r d

Modern h i s t o r i a n s do agree, however, t h a t

by t h e m i d d l e of t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y AD rnost o f t h e Germanic t r i b e s h a d

become d i v i d e d and d i f f u s e d by t h e m i g r a t i o n , w h i l e t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n remains d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s . Archaeology h a s shown l i n k a g e s between t h e p o t t e r y s t y l e s and metalwork of Kent and t h o s e o f t h e I s l e o f Wight; however,

t h e links

between Kent and t h e s o ü t h of Hampshire a r e r e l a t i v e l y weaker 1990:

168-175;

Hawkes and P o l l a r d 1981: 322; Yorke 1989: 9 2 ) -

Kentish b u r i a l s contain brooches,

(Arnold: The

b r a c t e a t e s and p o t t e r y b e s t p a r a l l e l e d

i n J u t l a n d , p a r t s o f s o u t h e r n S c a n d i n a v i a and F r i s i a (Hawkes 1 9 6 9 : 190; Hawkes and P o l l a r d 1981: 322-5; H i l l s 1996: 4 2 - 4 ) . i n t e r e s t i n g possible origin f o r t h e Jutes;

F r i s i a i s an

f o r i n a passage o f h i s

Historia, Bede r e c o r d s t h e p r e s e n c e o f F r i s i a n s , a s w e l l a s R u g i n i , Danes, Huns, Old Saxons and B o r u c t u r i among t h e o r i g i n a l m i g r a n t s (Owen-

A common a n c e s t r y t o t h e Anglo-saxon

C r o c k e r 1986: 5 ) .

and Frisian

p e o p l e s i s s u g g e s t e d a s w e l l by t h e f a c t c h a t Old E n g l i s h and Old F r i s i a n a r e cognates.

A t t h e same tirne, a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s a

s u b s t a n t i a l m i g r a t i o n of p e o p l e s from ~ r i s i ai n t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y AD, when t h e s e a e n c r o a c h e d upon t h e i r homelands ( H i l l s 1996: 35; Owen 1981:6;

Owen-:rocker

1986: 5 ) .

I t a p p e a r s t h a t a f a i r number o f t h e s e

e a r l y F r i s i a n m i g r a n t s found a home i n ~ n g l a n d ( A i c o c k 1987: 268)

.

P o t t e r y w i t h s t r o n g l y marked F r i s i a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d b u c k l e s and b e l t f i t t i n g s simiiar t o t h o s e found i n Germanic b u r i a l s o n t h e Continent h a v e been d i s c o v e r e d i n e a s t e r n England (Alcock 1987: 268; Evans 1997: 57; H i l l s 1996: 4 2 ) .

~ x c a v a t i o n sa t W e s t b e r e show c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r a n

e a r l y s i x t h c e n t u r y s e t t l e m e n t o f Roman foederati, q u i t e l i k e l y F r i s i a n s ( J e s s u p 1946:21).

At this the,

"the empire w a s desperately s h o r t of

manpower, and n o r t n Germany a e s p e r a t e l y overcrowaed";

many o f t h e young

men o f t h e " w a r l i k e n o r t h e r n t r i b e s f r found a way o u t t h r o u g h s e r v i c e i n t h e Roman army (Hawkes 1961: 1 0 ) .

A continuing t r a d i t i o n of c u l t u r a l

c o n t a c t between F r i s i a and Anglo-saxon

England may b e s e e n i n t h e i n t o

t h e seventh c e n t u r y with t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f an Anglo-Frisian

futhorc, o r

runic alphabet, together with the Frisian p r a c t i c e of inscribing coins w i t h r u n e s ( H i n e s 1996: 5 6 - 7 ) . O t h e r Germanic p e o p l e s a l s o made t h e i r way t o England d u r i n g t h i s

tirne.

A r c h a e o l o g y shows a s t r o n g F r a n k i s h e l e m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Kent,

a s w e l l a s i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t Norwegian and s w e d i s h g r o u p s s e t t l e d i n a n d around E a s t A n g l i a in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y (Hawkes 1969: 190; Owen-Crocker 1986: 6; Rhodes 1990: 5 5 ) . While t r a d i t i o n h a s it t h a t !'the s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e Anglo-saxons

in

s o u t h - e a s t e r n B r i t a i n was accompanied by t h e e x p u l s i o n o r e x t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e n a t i v e Britons",

(Alcock 1987: 2 6 7 ) i t i s now b e l i e v e d more l i k e l y

t h a t t h e r e r e m a i n e d a segment of B r i t o n s o r Romano-Britons w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f n o t o n l y Kent b u t the rest o f Anglo-saxon England.

The

c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e o f n a t i v e B r i t o n s may b e marked by t h e i n c l u s i o n o f

penannular brooches,

i n a s t y l e common t o b o t h pre-Roman a n d Roman

B r i t a i n , i n a number o f e a r l y Anglo-saxon

period burials.

The Romano-

B r i t i s h f i r s t came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h l a r g e s g r o u p s of ~ e r m a n i cp e o p l e s i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y AD, when s u c h c o n t a c t was m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h Roman authority.

T h e r e i s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l , a s w e l l as h i s t o r i c a l , e v i d e n c e f o r

t h e u s e o f Germanic t r o o p s t o defend t h e p r o v i n c e o f B r i t a i n (Alcock 1987: 267-70).

At D o r c h e s t e r "a detachment o f German s o l d i e r s s e t t l e d

w i t h t h e i r womenfolk i n o r n e a r t h e Roman t o m "

[Hawkes 1961: 10).

Here,

the b u r i a l s of two women, " v e r y probably" i m m i g r a n t s from F r i s i a , w e r e found n e a r t h e b u r i a l o f a man "of enormous s i z e w who was accompanied by t h e Roman m i l i t a r y equipment o f t h e n o r t h e r n G a u l i s h t r o o p s (Hawkes 1961:

10).

The p r o g r e s s i o n o f b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n from t h e Roman t o t h e

~ e r m a n i cs t y l e s , p a r t i c u f a r l y a t Dorchester-on-Thames

but a l s o a t

C a n t e r b u r y and Verulamium, shows a c o n t i n u i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n from t h e f o u r t h t h r o u g h t h e f i f t h and i n t o l a t e r c e n t u r i e s (Aicock 1987: 272;

Hawkes 1961: 10).

Germanic t r o o p s were s t a t i o n e d a l o n g what came t o be

known a s t h e "Saxon Shore" a t f o r t s s u c h a s Dorchester-on-Thames, C a n t e r b u r y , Richborough and o t h e r s .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e presence of

t h e s e G e m a n i c t r o o p s w e r e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n £rom Roman B r i t a i n t o Anglo-saxon

England (Alcock 1987: 272; Hawkes 1961: 1 7 ) .

Alone o f t h e Anglo-saxon

kingdoms, Kent was a l r e a d y a kingdom and

t h e n a s t a t e , l o n g b e f o r e t h e advent of t h e Germanic s e t t l e r s . b e e n a C e l t i c I r o n Age p r i n c i p a l i t y and t h e n a Romano-British

It had

civitas

w i t h i t s c a p i t a l a t C a n t e r b u r y , where, a s n o t e d above, t h e r e i s p e r s u a s i v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f ~ e r m a n i cf o e d e r a t i 268; Hawkes 1969: 186; Owen-Crocker

1986: 6 ) .

The s u r v i v a l of Kent a s a

p o l i t i c a l u n i t i s p a r a l l e l e d by t h e s u r v i v a l o f the name. g e o g r a p h i c a l term, "Kent" i s v e r y a n c i e n t ,

(Alcock 1987:

As a

known t o S t r a b o a n d D i o d o r u s

S i c u l u s i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y BAD, and t o ~ t o l e m y ,C a e s a r and Bede,

r e s p e c t i v e l y a s K a v r i o v , Cantium, and C a n t i a .

These a r e a l 1 t a k e n from

t h e C e l t i c C ( h ) a n t o r -nt,

s u g g e s t i n g " t h a t t h e Anglo-saxon kingdom" cf

Kent was "formed n o t s i m p l y by t h e c o a l e s c i n g of groups of E n g l i s h s e t t l e r s , b u t t h a t it had a l s o i n h e r i t e d something of i t s s t r u c t u r e from t h e C e l t i c and Roman p a s t "

(Brooks 1989: 57) .

I n i t i a l Germanic

s e t t l e m e n t w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h o s e a r e a s where t h e major Romano-British

sites had been l o c a t e d .

C e n t r e s of Anglo-Saxon

r o y a l government emerged

a t t h e sites o f former Roman v i l l a s , temples and metalworking c e n t r e s such a s Lyminge, Wingham and Faversham (Brooks 1989: 5 7 ) .

A deliberate

p o l i c y was a p p a r e n t l y adopted by t h e Germanic t r i b e s t o adopt t h e l o c a t i o n s o f p r e v i o u s s e t t l e m e n t f o r t h e i r own use and t o t h u s p r e s e r v e elements o f t h e p a s t i n a continuum t h a t was c r o s s - c u l t u r a l .

I n any

event, "Kent" continued a s t h e name f o r t h e new kingdom (Brooks 1989: 58j. Æ'elbert was t h e rnost powerful Anglo-saxon

r u l e r o f h i s day.

Not

o n l y was he k i n g o f Kent (c. 580-618 AD), b u t he was a l s o s t y l e d Bretwalda o r Brytenwalda, e t a l 1986: 5 3 ) .

" r u l e r of B r i t a i n " o r "wide r u l e r " (Campbell,

Kent p r o s p e r e d under h i s r u l e and w i t h h i s marriage t o

the Frankish princess,

Bertha ( d a u g h t e r of C h a r i b e r t , k i n g of Paris, and

granddaughter o f clovis 1, founder of t h e ~ r a n k i s he m p i r e ) , t h e t i e s between Kent and Francia were s t r e n g t h e n e d .

The importance of t h e t r a d e

connection between t h e s e two kingdorns i s e v i d e n t i n t h e q u a l i t y and v a r i e t y o f F r a n k i s h o b j e c t s found i n seventh c e n t u r y Kentish b u r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e jewellery,

metalwork and d i s t i n c t i v e l y Frankish wine

b o t t l e s . S i m i l a r r o y a l m a r r i a g e s throughout t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y continued t h i s t i e and f o r some g e n e r a t i o n s t h e Kentish and Merovingian d y n a s t i e s

w e r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d (Brooks 1989: 65-7; 1981: 320-5;

Hawkes 1979; Hawkes and P o l l a r d

Owen-Crocker 1986: 9 ) .

Probably through t h e i n f l u e n c e of B e r t h a , who was a C h r i s t i a n ,

meBert

welcomea Augustine and t h e f i r s t C h r i s t i a n r n i s s i o n a r i e s from

Rome i n 597 AD.

H e was soon converted t o t h e new f a i t h and n o t long

a f t e r w a r d s C a n t e r b u r y b e c m e England's f i r s t a r c h b i s h o p r i c .

With

conversion came l i t e r a c y , w r i t t e n r e c o r d s , r o y a l law-codes and c h a r t e r s . Under Æ'elbert, Kent c o n t i n u e d t o e x p l o i t i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o x i m i t y t o

t h e C o n t i n e n t and i t s p o s i t i o n a s t h e l e a d i n g commercial power o f t h e Anglo-saxon

kingdoms (Brooks 1989: 65; Hawkes 1969: 191; Hawkes and 1986: 1 0 ) . By 600 AD,

P o l l a r d 1981: 187; Owen 1981: 129; Owen-Crocker

Kent was t h e r i c h e s t and most cosmopolitan o f t h e ~ e r m a n i ckingdoms i n Great B r i t a i n and a l r e a d y n o m i n a l l y a C h r i s t i a n d i o c e s e . The K e n t i s h p o r t s were e x t r e m e l y busy d u r i n g t h e Roman p e r i o d and,

once t h e Germanic i m m i g r a t i o n s and r e s u l t i n g t u r m o i l had s u b s i d e d , c r o s s Channel t r a d e f l o u r i s h e d once more.

Roman r o a d s w e r e s t i l l open and

provided links t o C a n t e r b u r y and London.

The Saxon kingdoms, i t seems,

d i d n o t t r a d e d i r e c t l y o v e r s e a s b u t depended on Kent, a t l e a s t i n t h e

sixth c e n t u r y , f o r t h e i m p o r t s t h e y r e q u i r e d .

Archaeological evidence

shows t h a t K e n t ' s o v e r s e a s i n t e r e s t s r e a c h e d t o Gaul, Normandy, F r i s i a , T h u r i n g i a and S o u t h e r n Scandinavia a s w e l l a s F r a n c i a (Hawkes and P o l l a r d 1981: 3 2 1 )

.

E v e n t u a l l y , however, t h e power and i n f l u e n c e o f Kent went

i n t o decline.

By t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y t h e kingdom o f

Wight and t h e Hampshire l a n d s of t h e Meonware had corne under t h e c o n t r o l o f Wessex ( Y o r k e 1989: 9 2 ) .

By t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ,

K e n t f s power and p o l i t i c a l independence w e r e a l s o a t an end a s t h e kingdom came u n d e r t h e domination o f f i r s t Mercia and t h e n Wessex (Campbell, e t a l 1982: 26, 67; Hawkes 1969: 1 8 6 ) .

B e l i e f Sys t e m

The Anglo-Saxon s e t t l e r s from t h e C o n t i n e n t and Scandinavia who e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s i n B r i t a i n were n o n - c h r i s t i a n s . t h e i r migration,

b o t h C h r i s t i a n and n o n - c h r i s t i a n

i n late-Roman B r i t a i n .

A t t h e tirne o f

c u l t s were f l o u r i s h i n g

However, i t seems t h a t t h e n a t i v e B r i t i s h

p o p u l a t i o n d i d l i t t l e t o i m p a r t t h e i r ~ h r i s t i a nb e l i e f s t o t h e newcomers (Hines 1997: 378) and t h e B r i t o n s a r e condemned f o r t h i s i n B e d e l s Historia

( E E III.,

II. 4 , V.23)

.

I n f a c t , i t seems t h a t t h e " B r i t i s h

19

c h u r c h e s r e s o l u t e l y r e f u s e d t o h a v e a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e s e b a r b a r i a n s " and, a s a r e s u l t , t h e d i s t r i c t s which came t o be occupied by t h e incoming Germanic s e t t l e r s were removed from a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e Church (Hutton 1991: 2 6 4 ) .

By t h e end o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y ,

" t h e a r e a g i v e n over t o

t h i s imported paganism c o n s i s t e d of v i r t u a l l y everywhere e a s t of t h e P e n n i n e s , t h e Severn, and Somerset" (Hutton 1991:

2641,

t h a t i s , a l 1 of

n o r t h - e a s t e r n and s o u t h e r n England t o what i s now t h e Welsh b o r d e r . R e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f t h e Anglo-Saxon p e o p l e s i s a d i f f i c u l t task.

They w e r e more o r less n o n - l i t e r a t e

(though they did

have a r u n i c a l p h a b e t s u i t a b l e f o r c a r v i n g o r i n c i s i n g ) u n t i l t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , and though t h e y produced w r i t t e n

records i n

t h o s e f i r s t c e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e c o n v e r s i o n , few remain t o d a y (Hutton 1991: 264; a l s o Hines 1997: 3 9 3 ) .

As w i t h most " t r a n s i t i o n a l f t c u l t u r e s

( G e e r t z 1 9 7 3 ; Hines 19971, t h e e a r l y Anglo-Saxon p e r i o d w a s a t i m e of b o t h change and c o n t i n u i t y .

O l d b e l i e f s l i n g e r e d on f o r sorne tirne a f t e r

t h e a d v e n t of C h r i s t i a n i t y ; t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n was slow and t h e "terms i n which t h e newly c o n v e r t e d Anglo-Saxons

interpreted the

C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n were s h a p e d by t h e i r t r i b a l c u l t u r e " , by t h e heathenism o f t h e o l d r e l i g i o n "

and "impregnated

(Chaney 1970: 1 ) . Conversion i s ,

a f t e r a l l , "both a n e v e n t and a p r o c e s s " whereby r e l i g i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n undergoes change 'in

b o t h b e l i e f and p r a c t i c e w ( J o l l y 1996: 1 0 ) .

The

Germanic conversion was " a dynamic p r o c e s s , s t r e t c h e d o v e r t i m e " which i n v o l v e d "a g r e a t d e a l of c u l t u r a l a s s i m i l a t i o n between t h e i m p o r t e d Romano-Christian

r e l i g i o n and t h e n a t i v e ' f o l k l i f e ' o f t h e v a r i o u s

'Germanic' p e o p l e s f l ( J o l l y 1996: 1 0 )

.

T h i s p r o c e s s o f accommodation was

marked b y a c o n t i n u i t y of G e n a n i c a n i m i s t i c b e l i e f s and ''a r e t e n t i o n o f Gennanic f o l k l o r e n ( J o l l y 1996: 10).

I n t h e end, C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n

s u c c e e d e d p r i m a r i l y by accommodating Anglo-saxon c u l t u r e ( J o l l y 1996: 9 ) . Very l i t t l e i s known a b o u t t h e h o l y p l a c e s of t h e Anglo-Saxons a l t h o u g h t r a c e s o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e remain i n p l a c e names.

Aithough

r a r e l y found, ealh, meaning "temple" is found t w i c e i n p l a c e names i n

20

Kent forming " t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t i n Alkham, n e a r Dover and E a l h f l e o t , a n e a r l y name of t h e c h a n n e l c o n n e c t i n g Faversham w i t h t h e sea ( S t e n t o n 1971: 1 0 1 )

.

Hearh,

" h i l l t o p sanctuary",

o c c u r s i n p l a c e names t h r o u g h o u t

t h e s o u t h - e a s t s u c h a s Harrough, Harrow H i l l and Harrowden. "sacred space",

is common t h r o u g h o u t Anglo-saxon

Weoh, t h e

England i n names s u c h

Wye, Wingham, W h i l i g , Weoland, Wyham and ~ u s a n w e o h ( H i n e s 1997: 3 8 4 - 7 ; H u t t o n 1991: 270; ~ t e n t o n1971: 99-102).

I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e Anglo-

Saxons employed h i l l s o r g r o v e s a s s a c r e d p l a c e s , w i t h o u t a c t u a l However, e a l h d o e s imply a s t r u c t u r e and Bede mentions

buildings.

t e m p l e s i n Northumbria,

Kent and E a s t A n g l i a (HE II; H u t t o n 1991: 270;

S t e n t o n 1971: 9 9 - 1 0 2 ) .

A x c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h t e m p l e s is

s c a r c e , however, p o s s i b l y a s a r e s u l t o f Pope G r e g o r y ' s i n s t r u c t i o n t o h i s b i s h o p s t h a t t h e y a d a p t pagan p l a c e s o f w o r s h i p , f e s t i v a l s and s a c r i f i c e s f o r C h r i s t i a n u s e i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e c o n v e r s i o n (HE 1, 30;

Niles 1991: 1 2 9 ) . T h e r e is c o n v i n c i n q e v i d e n c e for a n Anglo-Saxon temple i n Northumberland,

a t Y e a v e r i n g , a s e a t of t h e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y

Northumbrian rnonarchs.

T h i s v e r y l a r g e s t r u c t u r e , s i t u a t e d n e a r a Bronze

Age tumulus and a n a n c i e n t s t o n e c i r c l e , c o n t a i n s no d o m e s t i c m a t e r i a l . Q u a n t i t i e s o f a n i m a l b o n e s found on t h e s i t e s u g g e s t t h e r e g u l a r

s a c r i f i c e of a n i m a l s , e s p e c i a l l y oxen ( H u t t o n 1991: 270-2;

N i l e s 1991:

1 2 8 ) . I n S c a n d i n a v i a n t r a d i t i o n , oxen were o f f e r e d t o Preyr and i t i s

" l i k e l y t h e E n g l i s h a l s o honoured t h e f e r t i l i t y god i n t h i s way" (Owen 1981: 4 5 ) .

The h o r n s of b u l l s s e r v e d a s s y m b o l s of power and were

i m i t a t e d i n c e r e m o n i a l h e l m e t s from t h e Bronze Age onwards (Davidson 196%:

25)

.

A t Harrow i n S u s s e x , a n o t h e r h e a r h o r h i l l t o p s a n c t u a r y , t h e

p r e s e n c e o f o v e r a t h o u s a n d oxen s k u l l s a r g u e s f o r some s o r t of r i t u a l a c t i v i t y ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 0 - 2 ) .

I n Kent, t h e A u g u s t i n i a n m i s s i o n found

e v i d e n c e o f similar s a c r i f i c e , r e p o r t i n g t o t h e Pope t h a t t h e p e o p l e t h e r e " b u i l t s h e l t e r s o f b r a n c h e s around t h e i r t e m p l e s and s a c r i f i c e d oxen"

( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 2 ) .

Animal horn and s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y

t h e s k u l l s and l o n g b o n e s , a r e i m p o r t a n t t o Anglo-Saxon b e l i e f ; t h e y do

21

n o t d i s i n t e g r a t e and i t i s i n t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e animal s p i r i t r e s i d e s and from which i t May be r e b o r n .

The s p e c i a l

powers of t h e animal s p i r i t may be a c c e s s e d by t h e use o r w e a r i n g o f these materials

( F i g u r e 4 ) ( G l o s e c k i 1989 : 26-71

L i t t l e i s known c o n c e r n i n g Anglo-saxon

Evidence from o t h e r Anglo-Saxon

.

r e l i g i o u s officiais.

s o u r c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e " k i n g s were t h e

f o c a l p o i n t of t r i b a l l i f e " and t h a t i t was t h e r u l e r , n o t a " p r i e s t " , who was r e s p o n s i b l e n o t o n l y f o r s u c c e s s i n war b u t a l s o f o r good h a r v e s t s (Chaney 1970; H u t t o n 1 9 9 1 : 271; Owen 1981: 51).

Continental

e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h e r e w e r e b o t h m a l e and female p s a c t i t i o n e r s , w h i l e t h e sagas show t h a t h e a l i n g and d i v i n a t i o n r i t u a l s were conducted p r i m a r i l y by women ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 96-105; t h e presence of "priests",

Owen 1981: 5 0 ) .

Bede r e c o r d s

p a r t i c u l a r l y a h i g h p r i e s t , coifi, arnongst t h e

Northumbrians (Owen 1981: 5 0 ) and i n t h e L i f e o f St. ~ i l f r i da pagan " p r i e s t l ' c u r s e s C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s from a high v a n t a g e p o i n t (Owen 1981: 5 0 ) .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e word " p r i e s t w was used by l a t e r

C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s , f a m i l i a r with such an o f f i c e , t o d e s c r i b e r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i t i o n e r s of an e a r l i e r p e r i o d r a t h e r t h a n members o f a n o r g a n i z e d priesthood.

The " p r i e s t s " r e f e r r e d t o by Bede were n o t p a r t o f an

ordered hierarchy of r e l i g i o u s professionals; the pre-christian n o r t h e r n Europe had no l l c o r p u s f l , no " l i t u r g y " ,

no " s c r i p t u r e " ,

c u l t s of no

e s t a b l i s h e d t h e o l c g y and no p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r a t a l 1 l i k e t h o s e o f Christianity.

R i t u a l and b e l i e f v a r i e d w i d e l y from f a r m s t e a d t o

f a r m s t e a d , v i l l a g e t o v i l l a g e , kingdom t o kingdom; t h e r e was no o r g a n i z e d c e n t e r t o t h o s e sects, r i t e s and customs t h a t a r e l a b e l l e d pagan ( G l o s e c k i 1998; J o l l y 1996: 2 8 ) . There i s no c l e a r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e shamanism i n ~ e r m a n i cs o c i e t y , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e many i n t i m a t i o n s . The p r e s e n c e of a s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r i s s u g g e s t e d a t Yeavering where t h e body o f a n i n d i v i d u a l b u r i e d w i t h a g o a t s k u l l and a wooden staff w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e f f i g y o f a g o a t on o n e end h a s been i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h a t o f a

22

" p r i e s t " o f t h e o l d f a i t h (Wilson 1 9 9 2 : 1 7 5 - 6 ) .

A t Dover,

the b u r i a l of

a woman w i t h a n u n u s u a l Woden-headed p i n h a s b e e n s e e n as t h a t of a c u l t l e a d e r ( F i g u r e 5 ) ( E v i s o n 1987: 0 4 - 5 1 .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e , a great

number o f Germanic women's b u r i a l s c o n t a i n b a g s h o l d i n g c o l l e c ~ i o n so f o b j e c t s which a p p e a r t o have been a m u l e t i c o r m a g i c a l .

T h e r e is a

c e r t a i n c o n f o r m i t y t o the n a t u r e o f t h e o b j e c t s found i n t h e s e b a g s , p i e c e s o f g l a s s , bone and horn, o b j e c t s which w e r e o v e r 100 y e a r s o l d when b u r i e d , t h a t h a s l e d t o t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as t h e m e d i c i n e b a g s o f t h e c o m u n i t y h e a l e r o r c u n n i e n d e wifznan, t h e "cunning" o r "knowing" woman (Meaney 1981: 250-260).

A t Bidford-on-Avon,

t h e b u r i a l of o n e o f

t h e s e "cunning women" c o n t a i n e d a n u n u s u a l a p r o n o r b i b covered w i t h

a p o s s i b l e Link t o r i t u a l feasting o f some k i n d

miriiature buckets,

( D i c k i n s o n 1 9 9 3 ) . The women o f t h e Oseberg s h i p b u r i a l have been s e e n a s h e a l e r s , d i v i n e r s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e c u l t o f ~ r e y j abased on t h e s y m b o l i c c o n t e n t o f t h e i r b u r i a l a r t i f a c t s ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 92; G l o s e c k i 1989: 7 0 ) . Given t h e monumental n a t u r e o f t h e i r g r a v e s and t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r g r a v e goods, i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e women who were b u r i e d w i t h ~ o d e n - l i n k e d b r a c t e a t e s and r e l i e f b r o o c h e s were " p r o b a b l y t h e wives o f t r i b a l k i n g s " and " p r i e s t e s s e s f f of Woden's c u l t (Magnus 1997: 195, 2 0 2 ) . chapters.

These l a t t e r a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n following

Finally,

fxom t h e h e r o i c p o e t r y , t h e a c c o u n t s o f T a c i t u s and

t h e j o u r n a l o f - I b n E'adlan,

w e l e a r n t h a t f u n e r a l s o n g s o r poems w e r e s u n g

by p a r t i c u l a r women t o mourn p u b l i c l y t h e p a s s i n g o f a w a r r i o r ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 2 1 3 ) . Germanic a r t forms f r e q u e n t l y a d a p t e d a n d t o o k on new meanings, which w e r e j u s t a s o f t e n a d d i t i o n s t o a n e x i s t i n g s y s t e m a s t h e y w e r e r e p l a c e m e n t s f o r i t a ( J o l l y 1996: 9 - 1 1 ) .

It is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t today t o

d i s c e r n t h e o n e frorn t h e o t h e r , g i v e n t h e sometimes ambiguous n a t u r e o f Anglo-saxon symbolism and t h e limited a r c h e o l o g i c a l , t e x t u a l , and material culture evidence available.

F u r t h e m o r e , t h e Anglo-saxons

sometimes d e l i b e r a t e l y chose b u r i a l rites and c u s t o m s " t h a t seem

d e l i b e r a t e l y t o select t h e o p p o s i t e o f a l 1 t h e most d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s of C h r i s t i a n b u r i a l " 92, 1 0 6 ) :

( H i n e s 1997: 382; a l s o Carver 1992: 353-365;

1998:

f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e group of r i c h l y f u r n i s h e d s e v e n t h c e n t u r y

barrow b u r i a l s a t Coornbe, Kent, w i t h t h e i r c r e m a t e d b o d i e s and unburnt g r a v e goods, and t h e e l a b o k t e s h i p b u r i a l o f t h e same p e r i o d a t S u t t o n Hoo, S u f f o l k .

These d i s t i n c t i v e l y f u r n i s h e d b a r r o w g r a v e s a p p e a r i n g i n

t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y pagan

r e a c t i o n t o t h e growing power o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ( C a r v e r 1992: 365; 1998: 106; Hines 1997: 382; H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 9 ) .

Since a l 1 f o m of material

c u l t u r e , b u r i a l o b j e c t s and a r t w o r k s , c a n s e r v e t o m a n i f e s t b o t h i d e n t i t y and a l l e g i a n c e a s w e l l as r e l i g i o n , t h e t a s k o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e AngloSaxon b e l i e f s y s t e m i s n e i t h e r s i m p l e n o r clear c u t . The Anglo-saxon

d e i t i e s were v e r y similar t o t h o s e of o t h e r

Germanic and S c a n d i n a v i a n t r i b e s ( T a b l e 1) ( H u t t o n 1991: 264; Owen 1981:

7). An e x t e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n o f t a l e s of t h e s e g o d s s u r v i v e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y I c e l a n d i c Prose ~ d d a(Owen 1981: 8 ) .

But

v i r t u a l l y a l 1 o f t h e s e t a l e s were r e c o r d e d a f t e r t h e coming o f C h r i s t i a n i t y and s o s h o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n s t r u c t pre-Christian

b e l i e f s ( H u t t o n 1991: 264; Owen 1 9 8 1 : 8 )

.

Christian

w r i t e r s i n B r i t a i n were more a n x i o u s t o s u p p r e s s t h a n t o r e c o r d pagan

rites, y e t l i t e r a r y m o t i f s r o o t e d i n paganism d i d sometimes s u r v i v e i n C h r i s t i a n p o e t r y (Owen 1981: 8 ) . Germanic b e l i e f s and r i t u a l s were a l s o r e c o r d e d b y o b s e r v e r s frorn o u t s i d e t h e Germanic w o r l d a s w e l l .

I n t h e l a s t decade o f t h e f i r s t

c e n t u r y AD, t h e Roman T a c i t u s d e s c r i b e d t h e ways o f t h e Germanic p e o p l e s along t h e Rhineland.

The l a t e r w r i t i n g s of t h e Arab t r a v e l l e r ,

Ibn

F a d l a n , p r o v i d e a u n i q u e a c c o u n t o f a t e n t h - c e n t u r y V i k i n g f u n e r a l (Owen 1981: 8). Anglo-saxon

T h e s e a c c o u n t s c a n b e used t o s u p p l e m e n t o u r knowledge o f r i t u a l and b e l i e £ , although w e cannot suppose t h a t t h e

Germanic w o r l d had a u n i f o r m h e a t h e n " f a i t h "

( D a v i d s o n 1993: 35;

Owen

1981: 8; Wilson 1992: 3 and 1801, n o r t h a t t h e i r b e l i e f s y s t e m remained c o n s t a n t over t h e course o f t h e c e n t u r i e s . With such c a v e a t s i n p l a c e , however, a s t u d y of r o y a l genealogy and p l a c e name e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c u l t o f t h e c r e a t o r god, Woden, was t h e most p o p u l a r i n Anglo-saxon England from t h e m i d - f i f t h

century t o t h e

e a r l y p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y (Davidson 1969a: 225-226;

Owen 1981: 8-

9 ) . F i r s t i n a f a m i l y of gods known a s t h e Æsir, Woden i s commernorated by p l a c e names i n Kent, Essex, Hampshire, W i l t s h i r e , ~ t a f f o r d s h i r e , Somerset, B e d f o r d s h i r e and ~ e r b y s h i r e - The f o u r t h day o f t h e E n g l i s h week,

W o d e n s dag, i s named a f t e r him.

k i n g s ; s i x o f t h e e i g h t Anglo-Saxon b y c l a i m i n g d e s c e n t from him.

W o d e n was t h e god o f w a r r i o r s and

r o y a l houses l e g i t i m i z e d t h e i r r u l e

Though t h e r u l e r s of Wessex and Kent d i d

n o t o r i g i n a l l y c l a i m him f o r a n a n c e s t o r , t h e y e v e n t u a l l y came t o do s o when p a t t e r n i n g t h e i r g e n e a l o g i e s a f t e r t h a t o f Northumbria,

the

p o l i t i c a l l y dominant kingdom o f t h e time (Chaney 1970: 29; Hutton 1991: 268; Owen 1981: 3 0 ) .

A t e n t h c e n t u r y O l d E n g l i s h homily shows

be dominant among t h e Anglo-Saxon

Woden to

gods ( J o l l y 1996: 1 9 7 ) w h i l e v a r i o u s o f

h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s make him r o u g h l y t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f the German W o t a n and t h e Norse Odin, marking h i s a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e same d i v i n e s t e r e o t y p e from which t h e C e l t i c ~ u g h ,Lud, L u g and Lleu and Roman Mercury were d e r i v e d (Hutton 1991: 265, 269)

.

The s u r v i v a l of a " s h a m a n i s t i c element" i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f W o d e n "can h a r d l y be doubtedn5 (Davidson 1969: 148)

.

Woden was a t r a n s f o r m e r

who c o u l d c r o s s a l 1 b a r r i e r s between l i f e and d e a t h , between m a l e and female, between human and a n i m a l (Chaney 1970: 34; Davidson 1969b: 56; 1978: 107; Magnus 1997: 196; Owen 1981: 8).

W o d e n r s shamanic n a t u r e may

b e s e e n i n h i s a b i l i t y t o work h i m s e l f i n t o a s t a t e of e c s t a s y and i n h i s

p r o p e n s i t y for s h a p e - s h i f t i n g , 141-8;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 5 2 ) ,

a s t r a l f l i g h t and prophecy (Davidson 1969:

a b i l i t i e s attributed t o h i s consort, Frigg

(OE Frigg, ON F r e y j a , OHG F r i g a ) , a s w e l l .

W o d e n is o f t e n portrayed with

a c u r l i n g b r e a t h coming from h i s rnouth and i t is he, t h e " A l 1 F a t h e r " who

w a s b e l i e v e d t o have b r e a t h e d l i f e i n t o t h e f i r s t man and woman, A s k and

Embla, Ash and Elm, who were c r e a t e d f r o m trees on t h e s h o r e ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 114; 1978: 107; Magnus 1997: 198; G l o s e c k i 1989: 9 3 ) .

Woden was

t h e p a t r o n o f p o e t s and seers a s w e l l a s e c s t a t i c w a r r i o r s ; m e n t a l i n s p i r a t i o n , o r e x h i l a r a t e d e c s t a s y , was h i s g i f t t o them a l 1 (Davidson 1969b: 38-40, 1998: 328-334;

45-56,

90;

1989: 15; 1993: 10, 99-100;

Owen 1981: 22-3;

E n r i g h t 1996: 17;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 5 2 - 5 ) .

Woden p o s s e s s e d

t h e knowledge o f t h e runes, t h e s a c r e d o b j e c t s h e had d i s c o v e r e d w h i l e h a n g i n g a s a s e l f - s a c r i f i c e upon t h e World Tree ( F i g u r e 6 ) ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 110-2;

1969: 141-8;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 52, 7 2 ) .

G l o s e c k i 1989: 70; Magnus 1997: 198; The sacred ash,

Yggdrasil, i s t h e s o u r c e of

unborn s o u l s , and t h e Germanic p e o p l e s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e gods, mankind, p o s s e s s e d two s o u l s .

a s w e l l as

The f i r s t s o u l was bound t o t h e body b u t

t h e s e c o n d o r f r e e s o u l c o u l d l e a v e t h e body a s b r e a t h , d u r i n g s l e e p , f e v e r , h a l l u c i n a t i o n o r t r a n c e , t o v e n t u r e o u t i n s e a r c h o f new knowledge o r t o f i g h t a g a i n s t e v i l and d i s e a s e i n t h e s p i r i t r e a l m s (Magnus 1 9 9 7 : 198).

On a g o l d b r a c t e a t e from Norway, Woden i s shown i n s u c h a s t a t e

w i t h h i s head thrown back and a c u r l i n g b r e a t h i n d i c a t i n g h i s f r e e s o u l s l i p p i n g o u t o f h i s rnouth ( F i g u r e 7 ) (Magnus 1997: 198)

.

Woden's symbols i n c l u d e h i s s p e a r , o n e o f t h e g r e a t t r e a s u r e s o f t h e gods.

C a l l e d Gungnir, t h i s w a s t h e weapon by which h e p r o v o k e d war

and t h r o u g h which he a l l o t t e d victory (Hawkes, e t a l 1965: 2 5 ) . The d r a g o n , t h e e a g l e , a n e i g h t - l e g g e d h o r s e named S l e i p n i r , a p a i r o f r a v e n s , Huginn and Munnin and a p a i r o f w o l v e s , were Woden's known a n i m a l - s p i r i t h e l p e r s (Davidson 1978: 102-4;

Owen 1981: 1 5 ) .

The w o l f

and r a v e n s were B e a s t s o f B a t t l e who warned o f coming c o n f l i c t and who f e d on t h e d e a d o f s l a u g h t e r a f t e r w a r d s ( D a v i d s o n 1978: 101-2; 15).

Owen 1981:

T h e r a v e n s , Thought and Memory, w e r e t h e p r o p h e t s o f the o l d

r e l i g i o n ; t h e y f l e w o u t e a c h d a y a n d r e t u r n e d t o w h i s p e r t h e i r news i n t o Woden's e a r s (Davidson 1978: 1 0 2 ) and t h e y h a v e been s e e n t o r e p r e s e n t t h e mind o f Woden "as s e e r o r shaman"

( S p e a k e 1980: 8 2 ) .

The h o r s e

Sleipnir w a s a c r e a t u r e o f a s c e n t , t h e r h y t h m i c p o u d i n g o f h i s nooves made him t h e p e r f e c t v e h i c l e f o r s h a m a n i c e c s t a t i c t r a v e l (Chaney 1970: 1 3 4 ; Davidson 1969b: 45; 1978: 102-5;

G l o s e c k i 1989: 10, 7 0 ) .

D i f f e r i n g t r a d i t i o n s h o l d t h a t Woden owns a l 1 t h o s e of h i g h e r r a n k who f a 1 1 i n b a t t l e o r , a l t e r n a t e l y ,

h a l f o f t h o s e who f a 1 1 i n b a t t l e w i t h

t h e remainder f a l l i n g t o e i t h e r Thunor o r F r e y j a Davidson 1969b: 8 9 ) .

(Chaney 1970: 34-5;

Woden's c u l t w a s made up o f a w a r r i o r e l i t e and

e n t r y i n t o h i s h a l l upon d e a t h was r e s e r v e d f o r k i n g s and h e r o e s and dedicated warriors.

R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f f i g u r e s who a r e b e l i e v e d t o b e

members o f h i s c u l t a r e found on s t o n e rnarkers a c r o s s S c a n d i n a v i a ( F i g u r e 8 ) (Davidson 1978: 101, 1 1 0 ) .

I t Eollows t h a t members o f h i s c u l t may b e

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c e r t a i n Anglo-saxon b u r i a l rites, s u c h as t h e p r a c t i c e o f b u r y i n g a s p e a r , t h e symbol o f a w a r r i o r f s d e a t h , w i t h t h e deceased (Davidson 1972: 4 ,

70; 1969b: 33-6;

Owen 1981: 1 3 ) .

The c u l t o f Woden

may a l s o b e d e t e c t e d i n t h e Germanic f i g u r a 1 a r t which shows men w e a r i n g horned h e l m e t s , d a n c i n g and c a r r y i n g s p e a r s . a c r o b a t i c f i g u r e s emphasize

...sorne

These "dancing and

t y p e o f shamanic r i t u a l and b e l i e f "

(Arnold 1 9 9 7 : 153) and c o n f i r m t h e " s k i l f u l dance i n which naked y o u t h s dodged s p e a r s and swords" mentioned a s "a t r a d i t i o n a l Germanic s p o r t t * by

T a c i t u s ( F i g u r e 9)(Owen 1 9 8 1 : 14; Gelmania 2 4 ; a l s o G l o s e c k i 1989: 7 0 ) . C e r t a i n o f Woden's w a r r i o r s , t h e berserks, were s a i d t o f i g h t b a r e skinned o r wearing only c l o a k s o f animal s k i n , l i k e wild beasts,

in a

s t a t e o f e c s t a s y which made them i m p e r v i o u s t o p a i n and f e a r ( F i g u r e

IO) (Davidson 1969b: 38-40;

1 9 8 9 : 12; Owen 1981: 1 4 ) .

The l e g e n d s

s u r r o u n d i n g Woden s u g g e s t t h a t l i q u o r , w i t h i t s d i v i n e a s s o c i a t i o n s , rnay have b e e n u s e d t o b r i n g o n t h i s m a n t i c t r a n c e a l t h o u g h a more common means t o d i s s o c i a t i o n i s t h e u s e o f monotonous sound t o i n d u c e e c s t a s y hypnotically.

Rhythmic c h a n t i n g , drumming and d a n c i n g a r e o f t e n a common

a d j u n c t t o e c s t a s y , w h i l e t h e s k i n o f anirnals i s commonly used a s a n agent o f transformation f o r shamanistic shape-shifting 69).

( G l o s e c k i 1989 :

I n snamanic c u l t u r e s , t h e p o s s e s s i o n of h e l p e r s p i r i t s i s n o t l i m i t e d t o shaman a l o n e .

As among N o r t h American a b o r i g i n a l s , s u c h

m a g i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e e x t e n d s t o w a r r i o r s t o o , who have g u a r d i a n s i n t h e i r a m o u r and i n wild b e a s t s ( C h i l d and ~ h i l d1992: 3 2 , 55-61,

64, 94; G l o s e c k i 1989: 1 0 , 1 4 , 69).

The w a r r i o r " b e l i e v e s h i m s e l f

s o c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o h i s a n i m a l cornpanion t h a t t h e two i d e n t i t i e s human and a n i m a l

-

merge"; f o r t h e G e m a n i c w a r r i o r " s h a p e s h i f t i n g w a s

dangerous a n d real", and n o t a t a l 1 "symbolic" for someone i n t h e m i d s t of a c u l t u r e s u f f u s e d w i t h a n i m i s t i c powers ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 1 8 8 ) .

The

a n i m a l names and a n i m a l r e g a l i a a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e berserkr w a r r i o r s e q u a l

a n a g n o r i s i s , a non-Aristotolean

form o f " r e c o g n i t i o n " ,

t h a t defined t h e

w a r r i o r w i t h t h e b e a s t whose s h a p e h e assumed ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 4 ) .

For

i n s t a n c e , i n l a t e r S c a n d i n a v i a n f o l k l o r e , men who changed i n t o w o l v e s a t n i g h t were s a i d t o p u t on a b e l t o f wolf s k i n b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e h o u s e ; t h e s k i n e v i d e n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e s k i n o f t h e s k i n of t h e b e a s t as a whole and a l l u d e d t o t h e coming change i n s h a p e frorn human t o wolf (Davidson 1 9 8 4 : 1 2 ) .

T h e r e i s a l s o a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between berserks

and wolves and h e r o i c w a r r i o r s and b e a r s , s e e n i n names s u c h a s ulf o r Bjorn o r B j a r k i .

A band o f enemy w a r r i o r s i s o f t e n s e e n a s a p a c k o f

wolves o r b e r s e r k i n g "Wolfcoats",

while a hero o r leader often b e a r s a

name a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Brown One (Davidson 1989: 1 3 - 4 ) . f i g u r e s on Germanic and S c a n d i n a v i a n h e l m e t - p l a t e s ,

Various

b u c k l e s and s c a b b a r d s

a p p e a r t o b e men w e a r i n g a n i m a l s k i n s o r a n i m a l h e a d s , some r e s e m b l i n g bears,

o t h e r s wolves (Davidson 1989: 1 3 ) , w h i l e t h e Benty Grange and

P i o n e e r h e l m e t s b o t h c a r r y t h e f u l l f i g u r e o f a b o a r on t h e i r crests. These a n i m a l names o r r e g a l i a were key images which s i g n a l l e d someone superhuman.

As such,

t h e y may b e c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t sharnanic emblerns,

concrete expressions of the warriorfs abstract spirit-strength, o r mana ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 1 4 7 ; C h i l d and C h i l d 1992: 32, 55-64,

h i s -en6 94)

.

The w h i r i i n g s u n d i s c w a s "a f i t t i n g symbol f o r t h a t i n t o x i c a t i o n and e c s t a s y which formed [ a n ] e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " of Wodenfs c u l t

28

( F i g u r e 11) (Davidson 1969b: 56). o n Anglo-Saxon

The human and a n i m a l s h a p e s a n d f a c e s

j e w e l l e r y and weaponry, which a p p e a r t o rnetamorphosize

i n t o o n e a n o t h e r , were " i n t e n d e d t o h a v e a m y t h i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s syrnbolism"

(Arnold 1997: 1 5 3 ) .

The human masks p o r t r a y e d o n c o i n s , g o l d

b r a c t e a t e s and b r o o c h e s a r e l i k e l y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f W o d e n as " t h e masked god" ( F i g u r e 1 2 ) (Chaney 1970: 3 8 ) ; t h e v i s u a l r i d d l e s o f AngloSaxon a r t , t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g a n i m a l and human f o m . m o s t l i k e l y a l l u d e t o Woden's s n a p e s h i f t i n g o r t h e r i o m o r p h i c a b i l i t y ( F i g u r e 1 3 ) ( A r n o l d 1 9 9 7 :

153) o r , a t t h e l e a s t , t o t h e Germanic b e l i e f i n t h e "mythical t r a n s f e r

o f men i n t o anirnals" ( L e i g h 1990: 1 2 2 ) .

The emphasis on b i r d s and

movement i n t h e a r t s u g g e s t s the rnetempsychotic f l i g h t o f t h e s o u l , a b e l i e f widespread i n c u l t u r e s , from Scandinavia t o Indonesia, c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e Old E n g l i s h p e r i o d ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) .

The b i r d / s o u l

a s s o c i a t i o n i s "something more l i t e r a l t h a n a t r o p e " ; i t " r e f l e c t s a n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n o f e c s t a t i c t r a v e l and shamanic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o a v i a n form" ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 79; a l s o Davidson 1969a: 221; Speake 1980: 83).

The t r e a t m e n t of W o d e n and t h e f e a t u r e s o f h i s c u l t i n Anglo-saxon l i n k Germanic e c s t a s y t o a w i d o r Indo-European

art

shamanism, p l a c i n g them i n

t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t of s h a m a n i c p r a c t i c e a t l a r g e ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 7 2 - 9 ) . Women w e r e n o t e x c l u d e d £rom w o r s h i p p i n g W o d e n .

I n Scandinavian

m y t h o l o g y "women sometimes c h o s e t o d i e v i o l e n t l y i n Company with t h e i r h u s b a n d o r l o v e r i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h i s g o d l s c u l t t s (Owen 1 9 8 1 : 1 5 ) and t h e y a r e o f t e n found b u r i e d w i t h m i n i a t u r e s p e a r s , o r w i t h b r o o c h e s o r b r a c t e a t e s b e a r i n g h i s p r o f i l e o r t h e s h a p e s of his a n i m a l cornpanions, t o k e n s o f h i s p r o t e c t i o n ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 36-7;

Owen 1981: 1 5 ) .

There i s

a n " a p p a r e n t a s s o c i a t i o n o f s h a m a n i z i n g w i t h women i n s a g a l o r e " where t h e

s e i a r o r seance, conducted p r e d o m i n a n t l y by women, i s t h e c l e a r e s t r e f l e x o f s h a m a n i c e c s t a s y p r e s e r v e d ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 100; a l s o D a v i d s o n 1988: 161-2).

Woden knew and u s e d seidr t o f o r e s e e t h e f u t u r e , t o c a u s e d e a t h

a n d m i s f o r t u n e , b u t t h e s e i d r was a p r a c t i c e W o d e n had l e a r n e d from h i s c o n s o r t F r i g a , and i t was g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d u n s u i t a b l e f o r a man s i n c e

29

i t was t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e g o d d e s s a n d presumably o f h e r women f o l l o w e r s

( G l o s e c k i 1989: 96-102)

.

A l s o o f t h e B i r , t h e n e x t most p o p u l a r d e i t y appears t o h a v e been Woden's s o n , Thunor.

Although t h e r e a r e f e w e r p l a c e s named a f t e r hirn,

t h e y c a n b e found i n a number o f c o u n t i e s i n c l u d i n g Kent ( H u t t o n 1991: 265) .

God o f t h e s k y and t h u n d e r , Thunor h a s a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e Roman

Jupiter, t h e ~ . c a n d i n a v i & Thor,

T a r a n i s ("the t h u n d e r e r " ) .

t h e Germanic Donner and the C e l t i c

The s w a s t i k a o r "hammer" and a z i g z a g d e s i g n

w e r e T h u n o r ' s symbols ( F i g u r e 1 5 ) ; t h e y d e n o t e h i s c r e a t i o n s ,

the b o l t s

o f t h u n d e r and l i g h t n i n g ( H u t t o n 1991: 266; Owen 1981: 25) which a r e o f t e n s e e n t o b r i n g power from h e a v e n d o m t o humans ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 3 1 ) . Among many c u l t u r e s , l i g h t p r e s a g e s s t r e n g t h and knowledge a n d i s sometimes o b j e c t i f i e d i n t a l i s m a n s , t o k e n s o r syrnbols ( G l o s e c k i 1 9 8 9 : 30).

The s w a s t i k a i s a v a r i a n t o f t h e w h i r l i n g d i s c o f Woden and a s a

moving wheel i t b e t o k e n s b o t h f i r e and t h e Sun (Davidson 1969b: 5 7 ) .

i s commonly found, b o t h i n Anglo-Saxon

It

England and on t h e C o n t i n e n t , on

c r e m a t i o n u r n s b u t a l s o on weaponry and j e w e l l e r y .

The m i n i a t u r e hamrners

found i n wornen's b u r i a l s a r e b e l i e v e d t o b e t o k e n Thunor's g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i v e r o l e ; i t i s s a i d t h a t h i s hamrner, M j o l l n i r , p r o t e c t e d b o t h h u m a n i t y a n d t h e gods a g a i n s t g i a n t s a n d m o n s t e r s .

Thunor's s h a m a n i c

n a t u r e i s r e v e a l e d i n M j o l l n i r ' s a b i l i t y t o c a l 1 t h e s l e e p i n g dead t o renewed l i f e .

A t weddings, t h i s a m u l e t i c hammer was used t o h a l l o w t h e

b r i d e and t o e n s u r e f e r t i l i t y ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 57-72;

Hutton 1991: 267;

Owen 1981: 2 5 ) . T h u n o r ' s own m a r r i a g e t o S i f o f t h e Golden H a i r a p p e a r s t o b e a f o l k memory o f t h e a n c i e n t symbol o f t h e d i v i n e m a r r i a g e between a god o f t h e s k y and a n e a r t h g o d d e s s , when t h e r a i n s m e t the e a r t h and b r o u g h t c r o p s o f f e r t i l e f i e l d s (Davidson 1969b: 7 2 ) . S a c r e d o a k s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Thunor i n S c a n d i n a v i a and i t i s b e l i e v e d h e w a s p r o b a b l y w o r s h i p p e d i n g r o v e s o r meadows. P i l l a r s a n d poles a r e a l s o c o n n e c t e d w i t h h i s c u l t and t h o s e d i s c o v e r e d o u t s i d e what i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e been

a t e m p l e a t Yeavering w e r e q u i t e l i k e l y used i n r i t u a l s c o n d u c t e d i n h i s

honour (Davidson 1969b: 57; Balder o r B a l d r ,

1993: 22; Owen 1981: 2 3 - 4 )

was t h e s e c o n d s o n o f Woden and ~ r i g g( o r E r i g a )

B a l d r was k i l l e d by a d a r t o f m i s t l e t o e ,

é r i c k s t e r god, Loki,

.

.

t h r o u g h t h e t r e a c h e r y of t h e

I t i s n o t clear w h e t h e r t h i s s t o r y w a s known t o t h e

Anglo-Saxons of t h e f i f t h t o s i x t h c e n t u r i e s a l t h o u g h i t w a s known t o t h e V i k i n g s e t t l e r s of t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y who i n c l u d e d Baldr i n t h e i r p a n t h e o n (Owen 1981: 2 5 ) .

It h a s been suggested t h a t t h e r e a r e e p i s o d e s

r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e B a l d r s t o r y i n t h e O l d E n g l i s h poems B e o h ~ l f , i n t h e i n c i d e n t where one b r o t h e r a c c i d e n t l y s h o o t s a n o t h e r , a n d The Dream of the Roud, when t h e c r o s s is a l s o wounded w i t h d a r t s ( D a v i d s o n 1969: 189;

Owen 1981: 19-20; brightest,

27-8).

I n S c a n d i n a v i a n t r a d i t i o n , B a l d r was t h e

f a i r e s t a n d most b e l o v e d o f t h e gods; h i s name, meaning

" b r i g h t one",

h z s a p a r a l l e l i n t h e OE bealder which means " w a r r i o r ,

l o r d , master"

( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 6 7 ) .

T h i s connection between

" b r i g h t n e s s " and t h e p e r s o n o f t h e w a r r i o r o r w a r l e a d e r are d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Chapter IV. Tiw,

a god of t h e s k y a s w e l l a s o f t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , is b e l i e v e d t o

b e o n e a n d t h e same a s S e a x n e t o r S a x n o t , t h e god front whom t h e E a s t Saxcn k i n g s t r a c e d t h e i r d e s c e n t ( H u t t o n 1991: 268; Owen 1981: 30). R e l a t e d t o t h e Roman Jupiter and Mars as w e l l a s t h e Greek Zeus, Tiw, a god o f g r e a t e r a n t i q u i t y t h a n Woden o r h i s s o n s , was k n o m i n Norse l e g e n d a s t h e v a l i a n t god Tyr who g a v e l a w and o r d e r t o rnankind (Davidson 1969b: 5 2 ) .

E v e n t u a l l y T y r seems t o have l o s t h i s supreme r o l e , y e t h i s

c u l t i s c o n f i r m e d i n England b y t h e Anglo-saxon u s e o f Tiwes d g as w e l l a s by t h e p r e s e n c e o f v a r i o u s p l a c e names which honour him, i n c l u d i n g Tysoe i n Warwickshire where a h o r s e f i g u r e i s c u t i n t o t h e hillside (Owen 1981: 2 8 ) .

Horses were s a c r e d a n i m a l s i n n o r t h e r n r e l i g i o n .

Tacitus

t e l l s o f w h i t e h o r s e s " b e l i e v e d t o b e c o n f i d a n t s o f t h e gods" k e p t i n

g r o v e s a n d "used f o r p r e d i c t i o n s " (Owen 1981: 2 8 ) .

Horse m o t i f s and

i n t e r l a c i n g h o r s e d e s i g n s w e r e u s e d f r e q u e n t l y by the Anglo-Saxons

to

d e c o r a t e weaponry, p u r s e s , b u c k l e s , b e l t f i t t i n g s , b r o o c h e s and o t h e r j e w e l l e r y ( F i g u r e 16)(Owen 1981: 28; Hawkes 1961). The T-rune,

symbol o f g l o r y o r v i c t o r y , was named f o r t h e god T i w

( T a b l e 1 ) . T h i s r u n e was t r a d i t i o n a l l y c a r v e d on weapons t o e n s u r e s u c c e s s i n b a t t l e ; it i s a l s o t h e most commonly found r u n e on c r e m a t i o n u r n s (Owen 1981: 2 8 - 9 ) .

A thirteenth-century

I c e l a n d i c poem p r o v i d e s a n

a c c o u n t o f a Valkyrie i n s t r u c t i n g t h e h e r o t o carve t h e name o f t h e god

Tyr t w i c e ,

t o p l a c e s u c h v i c t o r y r u n e s on t h e h i l t o f h i s sword and t h e

r i d g e of h i s b l a d e .

The g l o r y r u n e h a s been found o n a sword pomme1

r e c o v e r e d from Faversham and o n a s p e a r p o i n t found a t Holborough, b o t h i n Kent, c o n f i d n g t h a t s u c h m a r k i n g t o o k p l a c e ( F i g u r e 17) The s e c o n d f a m i l y of g o d s known t o t h e Anglo-saxons,

.

t h e Vanir,

were a l w a y s a p a i r i n g o f male and f e m a l e , and t h i s i s t r u e o f P r e y and h i s t w i n sister Freyja (Davidson 1969b: 7 4 - 8 8 ) . "lord",

was t h e god o f f e r t i l i t y and p l e n t y .

Prey o r P r e y r , meaning

H e is b e l i e v e d t o have

p e r f o r m e d a c o m f o r t i n g r o l e ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 6 8 ) a n d may h a v e been c o n n e c t e d w i t h a n o t h e r f e r t i l i t y god, Ing.

T h e r e is no p l a c e name

e v i d e n c e i n England f o r c u l t s o f Frey a l t h o u g h " c e r t a i n r i t u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f e r t i l i t y god i n S c a n d i n a v i a n m y t h o l o g y a r e d e m o n s t r a t e d by E n g l i s h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s " (Owen 1981: 3 0 - 1 ) ;

the

h o r s e s a c ~ i f i c e s ,o f such g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e d u r i n g t h e M i g r a t i o n P e r i o d , rnay have b e e n l i n k e d t o h i s w o r s h i p (Davidson 1969b: 85,

92).

Both Frey and h i s s i s t e r w e r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e b o a r , f e r t i l i t y , p r o t e c t i o n and r o y a l t y (Chaney 1970: 1 2 4 ) .

a sign of

I t was s a i d t h a t

b o a r meat was s e r v e d a t t h e f e a s t h a l l o f V a l h a l l a , where Woden e n t e r t a i n e d t h e e i n h e r j a r , h i s s p e c i a l champions, t h e w a r r i o r s who w e r e t o l e a d h i s f o l l o w e r s a t t h e f i n a l world-ending (Chaney 1970: 124; Davidson 1969b: 2 8 ) . mentioned i n Beowulf (303-4),

b a t t l e of Ragnarok

The d e c o r a t i v e b o a r f i g u r e s

t h e g i l d e d b o a r s t h e a d s a p p e a r i n g on t h e

c h e e k p i e c e s o f t h e S u t t o n Hoo h e l m e t and t h e b o a r f i g u r e s a p p e a r i n g on t h e crests of t h e Benty Grange and P i o n e e r h e l m e t s may a l 1 b e s e e n a s a

d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o Freyfs b o a r , G u l l i n b u r s t i , t h e "Golden-bristled" (Owen 1981: 3 1 ) . The b o a r f s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h f e r t i l i t y i s an ancient one; t h e Germanic A e s t i i who c u l t i v a t e d t h e i r c r o p s and worshipped the Mother o f t h e Gods wore b o a r masks i n s t e a d o f armour i n h e r honour (Owen 1981: 31).

While no Anglo-saxon place names c a n d e f i n i t e l y be l i n k e d w i t h t h e goddess F r e y j a , whose name means "Ladyat, t h e r e a r e p o s s i b l e d e r i v a t i o n s i n Hampshire and Y o r k s h i r e (Chaney 1970: 26; Owen 1981: 2 2 ) .

The w o r s h i p

o f F r e y r i n Sweden was p r o b a b l y a l a t e r developrnent, r e p l a c i n g t h e

o r i g i n a l c u l t of F r e y j a ; under t h e w o r s h i p o f F r e y j a , i t was the Swedish queens, and r,ot t h e k i n g s , who w e r e r e g a r d e d a s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the d e i t y (Chaney 1 9 7 0 : 2 6 ) .

The d e i t i e s o f t h e V a n i r were worshipped

u n d e r a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f names and r e p r e s e n t e d by many symbols (Davidson 1969b: 8 9 ) .

T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f F r e y j a who, i n t h e Scandinavian

s o u r c e s i s commonly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " t h e G r e a t Goddess" (Davidson 1969a: 225).

F r e y j a , F r i g a and F r i g g a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be a s p e c t s o f

t h e same d e i t y (Davidson 1969b: 90; 1993: 1 0 8 ; Owen 1981: 2 3 ) ; a l 1 t h r e e were concerned w i t h s e x u a l l o v e and f e r t i l i t y ; a l 1 t h r e e were c a l l e d upon by women i n l a b o u r ; and a l 1 t h r e e may have been i d e n t i f i e d with t h e Mother Goddesses rnentioned b y Bede (Davidson 1969b: 90; Owen 1981: 2 3 ) . L i k e Woden, t h e F r e y j a - F r i g a - F r i g g

f i g u r e i s a l s o a s h a p e s h i f t e r , able t o

take on " b i r d form" o r " f e a t h e r form" and go o u t i n ç e a r c h of knowledge and power i n t h e s h a p e o f a hawk (Davidson 1969b: 90-2; E n r i g h t 1996: 279-280;

Speake 1980: 8 4 ;

Owen 1 9 8 1 : 2 2 ) ; b o t h F r i g a and Preyja were

a d d r e s s e d a s "mistress o f t h e hawks"

(Davidson 1993: 108-9) and i t i s

p o s s i b l e t h a t F r i g g and F r i g a a r e i n c a r n a t i o n s o f F r e y j a i n much the same way that Woden i s a n o t h e r form o f t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n O d i n and t h e Germanic Wotan.

The r o l e of t h e b i r d i n Germanic t h o u g n t is p a r a l l e l e d i n C e l t i c myth and b e l i e f where b i r d s axe b e l i e v e d c a p a b l e o f prophecy and it a p p e a r s t h a t Woden and ~ r i g a ' s h o u l d be s e e n w i t h i n a w i d e r European

t r a d i t i o n wnere b i r d s r e p r e s e n t t h e mind o f t h e d e i t y a s seer o r snaman (Davidson 1993: 109; Speake 1980: 82-3)

.

The b i r d - f o r m b r o o c h e s f o u n d i n

a number o f Anglo-Saxon womenls b u r i a l s p o s s i b l y mark t h e s e women a s followers of Friga.

It was E'riga who o r i g i n a t e d t h e shamanic d i v i n a t i o n

ceremony, t h e seibr, which was l e d by a seeress o r v o l v a and Woden h i m s e l f l e a r n e d t h i s a r t from h e r (Davidson 1969b: 9 2 ) . A s Woden's c o n s o r t ,

connected w i t h him.

F r i g a , f i g u r e s i n many o f t h e s t o r i e s

She a p p e a r s i n t h e myths a s t h e weeping mother,

s h e d d i n g t e a r s o f g o l d , l a m e n t i n g first the f a 1 1 o f h e r s o n B a l d r a n d l a t e r t h e d e f e a t o f Woden (Davidson 1969b: 89; 1993: 108; Hutton 1991: 267; Owen 1981: 23).

T h e r e i s some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t b e s i d e s r e c e i v i n g t h e

f a l l e n h e r o e s of b a t t l e

-

t h e dead s h e s h a r e s w i t h Woden

-

F r i g a rnay have

welcorned women i n t o t h e O t h e r w o r l d a s w e l l (Davidson 1 9 9 3 : 1 0 9 ) .

Friga

i s o f t e n d e s c r i b e d a s wearing a necklace o r amulet c a l l e d Brisingamen, an

a n c i e n t symbol of t h e E a r t h Goddess f i g u r e s , and it seems s h e rnay h a v e been one o f t h e Mother Goddesses mentioned b y Bede i n D e Temporum R a t i o n e (Davidson 1969b: 89; Owen 1981: 2 3 ) . Though w e do n o t have s p e c i f i c names f o r f e r t i l i t y g o d d e s s e s from Anglo-saxon neighbours

England,

. . .t h e

" i t i s c l e a r that l i k e t h e i r C o n t i n e n t a l

Anglo-saxons acknowledged a n E a r t h Mother whose f a v o u r

was e ~ s e n t i a l "(Owen ~ 1981: 33; a l s o Davidson 1993: 107-8;

28).

The Anglo-saxon

J o l l y 1996:

g o d d e s s e s Erce, Eostre and Hreda a r e known t o u s

t h r o u g h Bede ( D e T e m p o r u m R a t i o n e ) ( H u t t o n 1991: 268; J o n e s 1943: 211-2) Hreda and E o s t r e w e r e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e s p r i n g months o f March and A p r i l . Hreda may r e l a t e t o t h e OE h r e b a , meaning " g l o r y w o r "fame".

Eostre,

whose name means " e a s t " o r " d a m w was t h e g o d d e s s o f t h e s p r i n g f e s t i v a l and most c e r t a i n l y g a v e h e r name t o E a s t e r (Owen 1 9 8 1 : 3 7 ) . Owen (1981:

33) c l a i m s a n " E a r t h Mother" rnay have b e e n worshipped w i t h r i t u a l s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d by T a c i t u s f o r N e r t h u s , t h e a n c i e n t T e u t o n i c Mother Goddess of t h e C o n t i n e n t .

I n a charm f o r an u n f r u i t f u l l a n d from

a n e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t , a n i m a t e n a t u r e is a d d r e s s e d t h r o u g h

"a

.

series o f r i t u a l a c t i o n s . . . p u n c t u a t e d by m e t r i c a l c h a n t s which b o t h

acknowledge t h e C h r i s t i a n God and make a t i m e l e s s p l e a t o t h e e a r t h a s f r u i t f u l Mother" (Owen 1981: 3 4 ) . I n D e Temporum Ratione, Bede t e l l s us t h a t i n h e a t h e n t i m e s t h e y e a r began on December 25.

T h i s n i g h t was c a l l e d Modranect o r M o t h e r s '

Night and i t was p a r t of a m i d w i n t e r f e a s t which f e a t u r e d b o a r s a c r i f i c e . The Modranect c e l e b r a t i o n s acknowledged a Mother E a r t h c u l t and e n s u r e d f e r t i l i t y i n t h e coming y e a r .

The accornpanying f e s t i v a l ,

G i u l i o r Yule,

was a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f Christmas (Chaney 1970: 125; Owen Mother goddesses a r e known from C e l t i c and S c a n d i n a v i a n

1981: 37).

sources a s well.

The t h r e e hooded f i g u r e s shown on a s i d e p a n e l o f t h e

Franks Casket ( a s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y Northumbrian box of whalebone carved w i t h d e p i c t i o n s from C h r i s t i a n , Roman and Northern myth) may be d e p i c t i o n s o f B e d e ' s Three Mother Goddesses ( F i g u r e 1 8 ) . t h e t h r e e female s u p e r n a t u r a l s from Northern mythology,

Alternately, t h e Norns o r

F a t e s , may be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e t h r e e hooded f i g u r e s (Owen 1 9 8 1 : 3 7 ) . One o f t h e f i n a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f n o t e i s n e i t h e r a god n o r a n a n c e s t o r , y e t h e achieved l a s t i n g fame and h i s legend i s d e p i c t e d on t h e f r o n t o f t h e Franks Casket where t h e dismembennent s c e n e a l l u d e s t o t h e shamanic n a t u r e of h i s a b i l i t i e s ( F i g u r e 1 9 ) ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 147-9; 1981: 38-9).

Owen

Weland t h e S m i t h ' s f u l l s t o r y cornes t o u s from t h e Old

Norse and i s mentioned i n t h e first s t a n z a s of t h e Old E n g l i s h poem D e o r . A s m i t h of o u t s t a n d i n g a b i l i t y ,

he was c a p t u r e d and hamçtrung by h i s

enemy, King N i d h a d and s e t t o work f o r t h e king.

Weland e v e n t u a l l y

revenged h i m s e l f by k i l l i n g t h e k i n g ' s s o n s and r a p i n g t h e k i n g ' s daughter-

H i s name was used by Old E n g l i s h p o e t s t o i n d i c a t e a m o u r o r

weaponry o f t h e h i g h e s t q u a l i t y . I n b i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f B o e t h i u s , King A l f x e d t r a n s l a t e s F a b r i c u s a s Weland and r e f e r s t o him as the i l l u s t r i o u s and w i s e g o l d s m i t h (Owen 1981: 38-9),

a l l u d i n g t o t h e Germanic s m i t h r s

power and a r c a n e knowledge ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 1 0 9 ) . a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e shamanic c u l t o f Woden.

Weland h a s v e r y c l o s e

A c l o s e n e s s between t h e

s k i l l s o f t h e s m i t h and t h o s e o f t h e shaman are p e r c e i v e d i n o t h e r cultures as well;

i n t h e s i b e r i a n t r a d i t i o n s m i t h s a r e b e l i e v e d t o have

s h a m a n i c powers and t h e two a r e s a i d t o corne "£rom t h e same n e s t " ( ~ l o s e c k 1989: i 147).

The many s i m i l a r i t i e s i n d e t a i l t o t h e myths t o l d

a b o u t Woden and Weland (Davidson 1969a: 218;

1969b: 5 0 ) l i n k t h e m b o t h t o

t h e g o d d e s s Friga and t o t h e Valkyries (Davidson 1969a: 211-222)

whose

powers a r e a l s o s h a m a n i c ' i n n a t u r e . The l a s t o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l s known t o t h e Anglo-Saxons d i s c u s s e d h e r e are t h e V a l k y r i e s o r ~ a c l c y r g e s ' .

t o be

A s p e l l recorded i n a

l a t e r m a n u s c r i p t d e s c r i b e s a band o f t h e s e " n i g h t women" r i d i n g o v e r t h e hills,

f l i n g i n g s p e a r s t o c a u s e d i s a s t e r t o t h e i r v i c t i m s (Davidson

1969b: 4 2 ) .

O r i g i n a l l y o f a f i e r c e n a t u r e , t h e s e female s p i r i t s

d e l i g h t e d i n b l o o d and c a r n a g e a n d were o n c e t h o u g h t t o devour human c o r p s e s on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 4 1 ) .

As a t t e n d a n t s o f Woden,

t h e V a l k y r i e s were known a s " C h o o s e r s of t h e S l a i n " , l i k e t h e r a v e n s and t h e w o l f w i t h which t h e y w e r e a t t i m e s m e t a p h o r i c a l l y e q u a t e d (Davidson 1969a: 2 2 1 ) .

V a l k y r i e s c a n b e s e e n i n s c e n e s o f c o n f l i c t on some o f t h e

G o t l a n d s t o n e s and o n t h e S u t t o n Hoo h e l m e t ( F i g u r e 20, t h e s m a l l f i g u r e

i s b e l i e v e d t o b e t h a t o f a Valkyrie g u i d i n g t h e w a r r i o r ' s s p e a r ) ( D a v i d s o n 1969b: 4 1 ) . dignified,

I n l a t e r t r a d i t i o n s , t h e s e psychopomps became more

though t h e y r e t a i n e d t h e i r s h i n i n g e y e s .

as d i g n i f i e d p r i n c e s s e s ,

They were c o n c e i v e d

r i d i n g t h r o u g h t h e a i r on h o r s e b a c k , t h e

s h a m a n i c c r e a t u r e s o f a s c e n t , e s c o r t i n g t h o s e who d i e d i n b a t t l e t o t h e h a l l a t V a l h a l l a where t h e w a r x i o r s w e r e welcomed w i t h h o r n s O£ mead, t h e d i v i n e d r i n k o f i n s p i r a t i o n w h i c h Woden won b a c k from t h e g i a n t s f o r h u m a n i t y (Damico 1990: 181; Davidson 1969b: 4 1 ;

1993: 7 2 ) .

T h i s welcome

g i v e n t o t h e dead w a r r i o r a s h e e n t e r s V a l h a l l a i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n a n o t h e r f a v o u r i t e s c e n e on t h e G o t l a n d s t o n e s , t h a t o f a w a r r i o r on h o r s e b a c k b e i n g r e c e i v e d by a woman h o l d i n g a mead h o r n (Davidson 1969b: 4 5 ) . s c e n e i s s i m i l a r t o t h e welcoming r i t u a l p e r f o r m e d by t h e l a d y o f t h e

This

s o c i e t y and it i s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r below a n d i n

h a l l i n Anglo-Saxon Chapter IV.

A t l e a s t on t h e C o n t i n e n t ,

Valkyries a c t e d a s g u a r d i a n s p i r i t s t o

t h e r o y a l f a m i l i e s , a p p e a r i n g and g u i d i n g s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s .

They

w e r e o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s t h e w i v e s o r c o n s o r t s of t h e e a r l y k i n g s , and as t h e "spirit-wives" 96).

o f t h e shamans o f N o r t h e a s t e r n Europe ( D a v i d s o n 1988:

F r i q a i s b e l i e v e d t o have p l a y e d a s i m i l a r r o l e ;

however,

she is

l i n k e d t o t h e Valkyries i n a t h e r more s i n i s t e r ways t h r o u g h t h e d a r k e r s i d e o f h e r c u l t (Davidson 1969b: 89, 92; 1993: 1 0 8 - 1 0 ) .

The animal-

headed f i g u r e o n t h e F r a n k s C a s k e t w e a r i n g a f j a t h r - h a m r ,

a feathered

c a p e o r s k i n , a n d s e e n c o n f r o n t i n g a n eagle-helmeted

warrior "suggests a

V a l k y r i e i n herr t e r r i b l e a s p e c t " m e e t i n g o n e o f t h e f o l l o w e r s o f Woden

( F i g u r e 21, f a r l e f t ) (Davidson 1969a: 219; As c a n b e s e e n from t h e p r e c e d i n g ,

as t h e i r a n i m a l companions have narnes.

196%:

42)

t h e weapons o f t h e g o d s a s w e l l The " t a l i s m a n i c weapons o f

Germanic l i t e r a t u r e a l 1 seem t o h a v e i n h e r e n t powers, s o u l s , and b l o o d t h i r s t y ones a t t h a t " 1979: 1 0 4 ; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 9 6 ) . image on t h e h e l m e t ,

.

something l i k e

( G l o s e c k i 1989: 6 4 ; a l s o Brady

The words used t o d e s c r i b e t h e b o a r

t h e m a i l c o a t and v a r i o u s of t h e swords i n t h e Old

E n g l i s h poem Beowulf "imply t h a t [ e a c h ] i s a l i v i n g t h i n g , w i t h t h e i m e d i a t e a n i m i s t i c power o m n i p r e s e n t i n . s h a m a n i c a r t , where r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f i g u r e s a r e effective" a s w e l l a s a e s t h e t i c ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 55, o r i g i n a l e m p h a s i s ) .

The a n i m a l f i g u r e s on Anglo-saxon

weaponry

were "viewed a s a power s o u r c e c a p a b l e o f i n d e p e n d e n t a c t i o n " ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 5 7 ) .

They were f l a n i m i s t i c a l l y p o t e n t " g u a r d i n g n o t o n l y t h e

c o r p o r e a l body b u t t h e e t h e r e a l s o u 1 ( o r " b r e a t h u ) f r o m p o w e r f u l e n e m i e s

of t h e s p i r i t r e a l m ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 5 7 ) .

A s markers o f r o y a l t y ,

boar

h e l m e t s u s e d "symbols drawn from t h e a n c e s t r a l mythos t o p r o t e c t t h e heafodnzg, ' h e a d - k i n s m a n l ,

and a l s o t o mark him o u t a s t h e man most

s u f f u s e d w i t h manatf o r s p i r i t - p o w e r

( G l o s e c k i 1989: 57).

I n Scandinavia,

l a r g e c a c h e s o f b r o k e n o r d e s t r o y e d weapons have been found i n t h e b o g s .

Possibly thank-offerings,

t h e b u r i a l of t h e s e "dead" weapons i s more

l i k e l y evidence o f a f e a r o f t h e a n i m i s t i c a l l i e s o f t h e vanquished.

The

weapons b u r i a l s e r v e d t o b u r y t h e power o f t h e enemy war g e a r which had been r i t u a l l y " k i l l e d t o r i d i t o f t h e r e s i d u a l s p i r i t s o f t h e s l a i n enemies" ( G l o s e c k i 1 9 8 9 : 5 7 ) .

Such phenomena are p a r t a n d p a r c e 1 o f t h e

e a r l y Anglo-saxon a n i m i s t i c b e l i e f system; t h e y a r e a l s o m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e l i v e s o f t h e o b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s and a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e Anglo-saxon

lifeworld.

Woden was t h e p r i m a r y god o f l i f e and d e a t h , a c r e a t o r as w e l l a s a

d e s t r o y e r ; he was t h e god o f t h e w a r r i o r e l i t e .

For t h e s e reasons, t h e

c u l t o f Woden was s t r o n g l y l i n k e d w i t h t h e m a s c u l i n e s i d e o f Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y , w i t h t h e t o o l s and r i t u a l s o f w a r f a r e .

H i s c u l t was c e n t r a l t o

t h e i d e o l o g y o f s t r i f e and combat which was paramount t o t h e Germanic w a r r i o r a r i s t o c r a c y (Magnus 1997: 2 0 2 ) .

A s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r below,

w h i l e w a r f a r e was t h e main o c c u p a t i o n of t h e Anglo-saxon w a r r i o r a r i s t o c r a c y , t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n f e l l under t h e domain o f t h e Anglo-saxon women.

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e for a g o d d e s s o r g r o u p o f

goddesses c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s s o f t e r , feminine technology of c l o t h m a n u f a c t u r e . A number o f g o l d b r a c t e a t e s b e a r i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a f e m a l e f i g u r e i d e n t i f i e d a s " t h e weaving g o d d e s s " h a v e been found i n women's b u r i a l s on t h e C o n t i n e n t ( E n r i g h t 1 9 9 0 ) .

T h i s goddess holds a

s p i n d l e o r weaving beam i n o n e hand and i s s u r r o u n d e d by f u r t h e r symbals o f t h e weaving p r o c e s s .

As i n t h e w i d e r Indo-European

tradition, there

a r e v e r y s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n s between weaving and p r o p h e c y i n Germanic t h o u g h t ( E n r i g h t 1990: 67 j

.

As n o t e d above, t h e t r a d i t i o n o f e c s t a t i c

seibr o r shamanic p r o p h e c y b e l o n g e d o r i g i n a l l y t o t h e g o d d e s s known a s

Freyja o r P r i g a .

Evidence f o r "one supreme and p o w e r f u l g o d d e s s " p o i n t s

toward t h i s g o d d e s s i n one o f h e r i n c a r n a t i o n s ( D a v i d s o n 1993: 1 0 8 ) . Queen o f Heaven and c o n s o r t t o Woden, s h e i s a g o d d e s s o f h e a l t h and b o u n t y p o s s i b l y s i r n i l a r i n meaning t o E a r t h Mother figures.

With h e r

V a l k y r i e - l i k e f u n c t i o n i n welcoming women t o t h e a f t e r w o r l d , t h e s e

As

a t t r i b u t e s e s t a b l i s h t h e Freyja-Friga f i g u r e a s a foi1 t o Woden h i m s e l f . Given t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f weaving was o f t e n l i k e n e d t o t h e waging o f war ( E n r i g h t 1990: 66; Owen 1981: 6 1 ) , t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e two p r i m a r y f i g u r e s o f t h e Anglo-Saxon

b e l i e f s y s t e m w i t h t h e two main t e c h n o l o g i e s

o f t h e time p e r i o d , w e a v i n g and w a r f a r e , becornes e s s e n t i a l .

This

c o n n e c t i o n between t h e two dominant t e c h n o l o g i e s a l s o l e n d s g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e d i v i s i o n t h e Anglo-saxons t h e m s e l v e s ma& own world.

in their

Choosing the p r i n c i p a l symbols of t h e s e two s u p e r n a t u r a l

b e i n g s , t h e Anglo-saxons

d i v i d e d t b e i r s o c i e t y i n t o t h e "spere-healf" a n d

" s p i n d l e - h e a l f " (Keller 1906: 150; Fe11 1988: 3 9 ) , comrnonly r e f e r r i n g t o t h e m s e l v e s a s "wapman a n d w i f m a n " , w a r r i o r and weaver'" With r e s p e c t t o m e t a p h y s i c a l b e l i e f s ,

F e l l 1988 : 39) .

r e l i g i o u s images, and

c e r e m o n i e s , o n l y a " s t o i c a l and s l i g h t l y o p p r e s s i v e s e n s e o f t h e workings o f W y r d " o r F a t e c a n b e n o t e d ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 2 ) .

T h i s overwhelming

" s e n s e o f an a l l - p o w e r f u l d e s t i n y " g r e a t e r t h a n t h e g o d s t h e m s e l v e s , r u n s t h r o u g h e a r l y Anglo-Saxon u n i q u e t o t h e Anglo-Saxons

l i t e r a t u r e , a p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h seems t o b e ( H u t t o n 1991: 269-70)

.

" [ T l h e r e i s a famous

p a s s a g e " i n Bede's ~ i s t o r i a" i n which t h e h i g h p r i e s t o f Northumbria d e s c r i b e s t h e pagan E n g l i s h view o f l i f e and d e a t h " a n d l i k e n s it t o " t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a s p a r r o w who f i L e s o u t o f a f r e e z i n g n i g h t i n t o a warm

h a l l f u l l o f f e a s t i n g a n d m e r r i m e n t , and t h e n o u t i n t o t h e n i g h t " once more ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 0 ) .

H u t t o n (1991: 2 7 4 ) c a u t i o n s t h a t t h i s a c c o u n t

may r e c o r d a g e n u i n e b e l i e f o r i t rnay h a v e o r i g i n a t e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s who wished " t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e new faith".

To t h e Anglo-Saxons,

t h e "gods [ w e r e ] more ...t h a n rnerely names

invokedl' (Owen 1981: 4 0 ) .

Like t h e i r Continental counterparts, they

worshipped t h r o u g h r i t u a l ,

i n g r o v e s where t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e i r gods was

f e l t (Owen 1981: 4 0 ) , w h e r e t h e world was a l i v e w i t h s p i r i t u a l e n t i t i e s and humans were not e x i l e d from t h e i r gods ( J o l l y 1996: 27; N i l e s 1991: 132).

Animal s a c r i f i c e , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h a t o f oxen, " p l a y e d a crucial r o l e " i n Anglo-saxon

c e r e m o n i a l s a s i t d i d t h r o u g h o u t a n c i e n t Europe. sacrificed

"The Romans i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e Germanic t r i b e s , l i k e t h e C e l t s , humans a s w e l l a s animals"

( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 4 ) .

"[Tlhere is f a i r l y c l e a r

e v i d e n c e o f t h i s i n Anglo-saxon England" ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 4 ) .

Within t h e

~ c a n d i n a v i a nt r a d i t i o n , human s a c r i f i c e s were o f f e r e d t o Woden, h i s ' v i c t i m s s t a b b e d and t h e n hanged (Owen 1981: 1 5 ) .

While t h e r e i s no s o l i d

e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h p r a c t i c e s i n Anglo-Saxon England, B e d e m e n t i o n s i n c i d e n t s of s e l f - s a c r i f i c e i n t i m e s o f famine when men l e a p t from c l i f f s t o t h e i r d e a t h s i n Woden's honour (Chaney 1970: 38; HE IV. 1 3 ) .

There

are a l s o t h e w e l l known f i n d s from t h e r o y a l c e m e t e r y a t S u t t o n Hoo i n S u f f o l k where b u r i a l s show e v i d e n c e o f d e c a p i t a t i o n and p o s s i b l y o f hanging.

I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e may be t h e r e m a i n s o f r e t a i n e r s or

s l a v e s s e n t t o accornpany t h e i r m a s t e r s ; it i s also p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e y

w e r e s a c r i f i c e d t o honour t h e g o d s ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 4 ) . However, it has a l s o b e e n a r g u e d t h a t , as a p l a c e o f r o y a l b u r i a l , s u c h s i t e s w e r e a f o c a l p o i n t f o r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e a n c e s t o r s a n d s o s e r v e d as p l a c e s f o r t h e judgment and e x e c u t i o n o f c r i m i n a l s ( C a r v e r 1992: 365; 1998: 143; Chaney 1970: 86-105).

At Sewerby a n d a t Dover, t h e r e is what some

b e l i e v e t o be e v i d e n c e f o r l i v e b u r i a l s : i n e a c h case, t h e body o f a woman was a p p a r e n t l y "thrown i n a l i v e " ,

f a c e d o m , and t h e n "pinned down"

with r o c k s and b u r i e d ( H u t t o n 1991:274; a l s o E v i s o n 1987: 1 3 4 ) .

Both

''the p r o n e p o s i t i o n " and t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e r o c k s s u g g e s t a d e s i r e " t o c o n f i n e t h e s p i r i t of t h e dead p e r s o n , e i t h e r t o e n s u r e t h a t i t remained t o g u a r d t h e s p o t o r t o p r e v e n t i t from s e e k i n g v e n g e a n c e upon t h e b u r i a l party"

( H u t t o n 1991: 276; a l s o Davidson 1993: 122; Owen 1981: 7 3 ) . F u n e r a l customs have p r o v i d e d t h e most a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e o f b e l i e f s

i n e a r l y Anglo-saxon England. variation:

Such e v i d e n c e shows a n immense r a n g e of

c r e m a t i o n was p r e f e r r e d amongst t h e A n g l e s of t h e n o r t h and

i n h u m a t i o n among t h e Saxons t o t h e s o u t h b u t b o t h modes c a n be found t h r o u g h England, o f t e n i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o o n e a n o t h e r .

The customs o f

c r e m a t i o n and of p a s s i n g t h e c o f f i n o r b i e r t h r o u g h f i r e may l i e w i t h t h e c u l t o f Woden.

According t o I c e l a n d i c t r a d i t i o n , Odin e s t a b l i s h e d s u c h

r i t e s s o t h a t t h e second o r Eree sou1 rnight s e p a r a t e from t h e body t o j o i n hirn (Owen 1981: 2 0 ) .

Although t h e r e a r e examples o f cremations f o r

t h e v e r y e a r l y y e a r s i n Kent, inhumation b u r i a l s a r e t h e n o m (Owen 1981: 6 7 ) and t h e y a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r .

There i s

s i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n c e t h a t many o f t h e c o f f i n s found i n t h e Kentish b u r i a l s w e r e p a s s e d t h r o u g h f i r e e i t h e r b e f o r e o r a s p a r t of t h e b u r i a l r i t u a l r e s u l t i n g i n a c h a r r i n g of t h e c o f f i n o r b i e r b u t n o t of t h e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l (Owen 1981: 78; a l s o Arnold 1982; F a u s s e t t 1773; J e s s u p 1946).

Inhumation b u r i a l s w e r e f a i r l y s t a n d a r d i z e d w i t h t h e body s u p i n e ,

f u l l y e x t e n d e d , and f u l l y d r e s s e d .

I t was a p p a r e n t l y deemed e s s e n t i a l

f o r b o d i e s t o b e p r o p e r l y d r e s s e d and equipped f o r t h e next world ( H u t t o n 1991: 275; Owen 1981: 6 6 ) . The b o d i e s o f t h e f a l l e n w e r e a p p a r e n t l y always l o o k e d a f t e r ; T a c i t u s r e c o r d s how Germanic w a r r i o r s always b r o u g h t t h e i r dead home f o r b u r i a l . A s a r u l e , o n l y t h e b o d i e s o f c r i m l n a l s went u n b u r i e d ; t h e l a t t e r w e r e u s u a l l y l e f t exposed t o t h e e l e m e n t s on t h e g a l l o w s o r h a n g i n g t r e e ( C a r v e r 1997; N i l e s 1991: 1 3 3 ) . E a r l y E n g l i s h b u r i a l t r a d i t i o n s v a r i e d o v e r t i m e and space.

Fifth-

c e n t u r y g r a v e s a r e f l a t , b u t round o r o v a l t u m u l i a p p e a r o v e r some s i x t h c e n t u r y b u r i a l s a n d become more f r e q u e n t a t s i t e s d a t i n g from t h e e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , when t h e y a r e a l s o found on t h e c o n t i n e n t .

It is not

c e r t a i n w h e t h e r a n y form of wooden markers o r memorials w e r e used ( H u t t o n 1991: 277; Owen 1981: 7 4 ) .

I n t h e e a r l y stages of t h e migration,

N e o l i t h i c , Bronze Age, I r o n Age and Romano-British

round barrows were

used by t h e newcomers ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 7 ) , p o s s i b l y t o d a i m some l i n k t o t h e a n c e s t o r s of t h e l a n d (Wilson 1992: 6 7 ) .

I n t h e Jutish r e g i o n s o f

Kent and t h e Isle o f Wight, t h e r e a r e whole cemeteries o f such barrow b u r i a l s (Owen 1981: 7 7 ) .

Barrows a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Woden, F r e y a and

Weland i n N o r t h e r n myth; t h e i r s i z e e n s u r i n g l a s t i n g fame f o r t h e dead

w a r r i o r b u r i e d below.

T h e r e i s a n emphasis on l o c a t i o n of b u r i a l i n t h e

Sagas.

I t was i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y t o know where k i n g s w e r e i n t e r r e d b u t

a l s o t o r e c a l l t h e b u r i a l l o c a t i o n of a n c e s t r a l s w o r d s i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t b e r e t r i e v e d s h o u l d some need a r i s e ( ~ a v i d s o n1993: 122; Owen 1981: 75).

Aithough s h i p s f e a t u r e a s t r a n s p o r t s t o t h e n e x t l i f e i n s o u r c e s

s u c h as Beowulf, t h e .Sag&

a n d I b n Fadlan a c c o u n t , t h e e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h

f u n e r a r y r i t e s i n England i s c o n f i n e d t o two cemeteries i n S u f f o l k , S n a p e and S u t t o n Hoo ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 7 7 ) ; no s h i p b u r i a l s h a v e been found i n Kent.

The q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s as t o w h e t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s

w e r e d u e t o p e r s o n a 1 whim,

religious belief,

s o c i a l r a n k ( H u t t o n 1991:

2 7 9 ) , p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n o r a l l e g i a n c e ( C a r v e r 1992: 365; 1998: 106; H i n e s 1997: 380, 391) a n d i t seems t h a t t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxons m a i n t a i n e d a rich v a r i e t y i n t h e i r c u l t s a s w e l l a s i n t h e i r b e l i e f s .

About a hundred y e a r s a f t e r t h e m i g r a t i o n had begun, t h a t i s , by t h e m i d d l e of t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , t h e new Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms found

t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e m i d s t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h n a t i v e B r i t i s h and I r i s h C h r i s t i a n s t o t h e n o r t h and t h e south.

During t h i s p e r i o d ,

W e s t

and F r a n k i s h C h r i s t i a n s t o t h e

f o r a n y " r u l e r t o r e m a i n pagan was t o c u t h i s

o r h e r t e r r i t o r y o f f £rom t h e main n e t w o r k o f s t a t e s which c o n t a i n e d t h e g r e a t e s t c e n t r e s o f power, w e a l t h and c u l t u r e .

I t was t h i s f a c t which

t u r n e d t h e new religion i n t o a n i r r e s i s t i b l e f o r c e " ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 4 8 ) . "The f a c t t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y was p r o f e s s e d b y t h e w e a l t h i e r a n d more r e s p e c t e d r e a l m s o f Europe must have c o u n t e d i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e p e r s u a s i o n o f t h e Anglo-Saxons t o i t s ways" c o n v e r s i o n o f Anglo-saxon

( H u t t o n 1991: 2 8 0 ) . The

England which b e g a n w i t h t h e A u g u s t i n i a n

m i s s i o n o f 597 ended a r o u n d t h e e a r l y 6 8 0 s w i t h t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f S u s s e x and t h e I s l e o f Wight ( H i n e s 1997: 3 7 8 ) .

The c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s i s w e l l

documented and t h e r e seems t o have b e e n v e r y l i t t l e b i t t e r n e s s between t h e o l d and new f a i t h s a l t h o u g h t h e r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n was h a p h a z a r d l y s u b j e c t t o t h e f o r t u n e s of war endemic i n s e v e n t h c e n t u r y B r i t a i n ( H u t t o n 1991: 2 8 0 ) .

C h r i s t i a n i t y was a d a p t e d t o Germanie c u l t u r e a s much a s

G e m a n i c ' f o l k w a y s ' were c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y and t h e s e two

d i f f e r e n t , s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y , b e l i e f s y s t e m s e v e n t u a l l y combined i n t h e Anglo-Saxon

c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( 3 0 1 1 1996: ~ 11-4).

was d i r e c t e d a t t h e Anglo-Saxon

The m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t

k i n g s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s a c r e d s t a t u s and W i l s o n 1992: 1 7 4 ) .

p o l i t i c a l power (Chaney 1970: 18-9;

When a k i n g

converted, h i s people generally followed. Occasionally the people r e t u r n e d t o t h e o l d r i t e s under a s u c c e e d i n g k i n g o r f o l l o w i n g some d i s a s t e r ; i n E a s t A n g l i a , King Raedwald i s n o t e d f o r w o r s h i p p i n g a t t h e a l t a r s of b o t h r e l i g i o n s

( H u t t o n 1 9 9 1 : 2 8 0 ) . "Many f e a t u r e s o f t h e

c o n v e r s i o n p e r i o d which have been i n t e r p r e t e d undoubtedly seen with o t h e r

-

and Eamiliar

s p r u n g r u l e r s and t h e i r p e o p l e "

-

...a s

Christian w e r e

o v e r t o n e s by t h e Woden-

(Chaney 1970: 1 ) . B y t h e end o f t h e

s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , C h r i s t i a n i t y had s e c u r e l y e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f i n AngloSaxon England and, p o s s i b l y t h r o u g h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f the Church, t h e custom of d e p o s i t i n g b u r i a l o b j e c t s was abandoned ( H i n e s 1997: 382; Owen 1981: 7 9 ) .

The e x t e n t t o which t h e o l d c u l t s l i v e d on o r c o n t i n u e d i n a

new g u i s e i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e .

R e l i g i o n i s , a f t e r a l l , o n l y one

component o f c u l t u r e ; when t h e Anglo-saxons

converted t o Christianity,

" t h e y d i d n o t abandon t h e i r c u l t u r e w i t h t h e i r r e l i g i o n " ( J o l l y 1996: 15).

Germanic c u l t u r a l t r a i t s c o n t i n u e d a s C h r i s t i a n and p a g a n came

t o g e t h e r i t h e c r e a t i v e t e n s i o n which marked " t h e w i d e r and s l o w e r p r o c e s s e s of accommodation and a s s i m i l a t i o n r 1 r e s u l t e d i n t h e e v e n t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a c u l t u r e r a t h e r t h a n che o b l i t e r a t i o n of p r e - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n s ( J o l l y 1996: 15, 2 9 ) .

The main b u i l d i n g s o f t h e Anglo-Saxon

settlers were frequently

s p a c i o u s d w e l l i n g s , c o n s t r u c t e d e n t i r e l y o f tirnber.

With a n a v e r a g e

f l o o r a r e a of around f i f t y s q u a r e rnetres, t h e s e h a l l s accommodated a b o u t a dozen p e o p l e o r s o ( F i g u r e 2 2 ) .

I n l a t e r Anglo-Saxon England,

b u i l d i n g s w i t h l a r g e r f l o o r a r e a s mark t h e h i g h e r s t a t u s s i t e s and p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e f o r a r i s i n g e l i t e . Throughout t h e p e r i o d , however,

v a r i o u s a g e a n d s t a t u s groups l i v e d and worked t o g e t h e r u n d e r one r o o f a l t h o u g h some h a l l s do f e a t u r e a n i n t e r n a 1 p a r t i t i o n and t h e s e a r e a s have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s s e p a r a t e s l e e p i n g quarters for women and c h i l d r e n . The e a r l y l a w s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e h o u s e h o l d s o f kings and freemen h e l d z number of d e p e n d a n t s o r o t h e r p e r s o n s of l o w e r s t a t u s . were n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a l 1 o f a s i n g l e k i n g r o u p .

These p e r s o n s

I n Kent and Wessex,

h o u s e h o l d s were n o t j u s t r e s i d e n c e s b u t , t o a d e g r e e , a l s o l e g a l u n i t s w i t h t h e master of t h e house r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e a c t s o f a l 1 p e r s o n s w i t h i n h i s household (Alcock 1989: 287-8;

Harke 1997: 129, 138-147).

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e shows t h a t a complete f a r m s t e a d c o n s i s t e d of t h e main h a l l and a few s m a l l e r ,

sunken-floored,

ancillary buildings.

S e t t l e m e n t s w e r e g e n e r a l l y comprised of no more t h a n two o r t h r e e homesteads, and ranged i n s i z e from f i f t e e n t o t h i r t y - s i x i n d i v i d u a l s , though some s e t t l e m e n t s were l a r g e r w i t h a b o u t t e n f a r m s t e a d s .

Available

d a t a s u g g e s t h a m ï e t s of between t w e l v e and f i f t y p e o p l e , b u t which r a r e l y These srnall communities of dependant h o u s e h o l d s

r e a c h e d o n e hundred.

formed t h e b a s i c r e s i d e n t i a l and economic u n i t s o f t h e f i f t h t o s o v e n t h c e n t u r i e s (Harke 1 9 9 7 : 138-40)

.

Economy

I n f o r m a t i o n from t h e e i g h t h c e n t u . r y p o r t r a y s t h r e e l e v e l s o f s e t t l e m e n t i n England:

r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s , p o r t s and r o y a l c e n t r e s .

The

r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s were p r i n c i p a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h food p r o d u c t i o n and, i n c r e a s i n g l y , w i t h s u p p o r t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e p o r t s and r o y a l c e n t r e s ( A r n o l d 1988: 1 9 8 ) .

They a c c o m p l i s h e d t h i s by way of mixed

f a r m i n g , supplemented w i t h c o t t a g e i n d u s t r i e s and some t r a d e .

The e a r l y

Anglo-saxon p e r i o d w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y h o r t i c u l t u r a L i s t s and p a s t o r a l i s t s r a t h e r t h a n by i n t e n s i v e f a m e r s . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e shows t h a t a n i m a l husbandry, e s p e c i a l l y t h e r a i s i n g o f c a t t l e b u t a l s o t h e h e r d i n g o f pigs and sheep, and t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f c e r e a l c r o p s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e .

Nonetheless,

it i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e l a r g e s c a l e

e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e a r a b l e l a n d s of England began w i t h t h e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t r u r a l settlements of t h e f i f t h t o seventh c e n t u r i e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, no s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e Anglo-saxon

economy

h a s y e t b e e n worked o u t , p a x t l y because s o few d o m e s t i c s i t e s a r e known and p a r t l y because it i s q u e s t i o n a b l e whether t h o s e s i t e s which a r e known a r e t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e (Alcock 1987: 285-7,

270; m n o l d 1988 : 1 9 8 ) .

Fanning s e t t l e r n e n t s s u p p o r t e d c r a f t s r n e n a t two l e v e l s .

At the

h i g h e r l e v e l were t h e metalworkers and t h e makers of fine swords, h e l m e t s and j e w e l l e r y .

After t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , s u c h c r a f t s m e n were l i k e l y

p e r i p a t e t i c and worked,

f o r t h e most p a r t ,

p a t r o n a g e o f c h i e i s and p r i n c e s .

a t the royal centres under t h e

A t t h e lower l e v e l ,

craftsmanship

i n c l u d e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of i r o n t o o l s and implernents f o r farming a n d o t h e r c r a f t s and were c a r r i e d on w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e i t s e l f ; however, d a t e n o s r n i t h i e s have been found (Alcock 1989: 270-88;

to

Arnold 1988: 1 9 8 ) .

The numerous s u n k e n - f l o o r b u i l d i n g s o f t h e Anglo-Saxon s e t t l e r n e n t p e r i o d o n c e b e l i e v e d t o be d w e l l i n g s a r e now r e c o g n i z e d a s a n c i l l a r y b u i l d i n g s (Alcock 1987: 287-8).

On o c c a s i o n , t h e s e b u i l d i n g s were u s e d

i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h rnetalworking but much more f r e q u e n t l y , t h e y have been found t o c o n t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n c e f o r t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n . Excavations have u n e a r t h e d h i g h l y p o l i s h e d S t o n e s used a s l i n e n smoothers, whorls f o r s p i n n i n g , bone and i r o n s p i n d l e s , c l a y loorn-weights and the p o s t - h o l e s

f o r t h e u p r i g h t looms t h e m s e l v e s .

Sunken-floor

b u i l d i n g s were d i s t r i b u t e d e v e n l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e t t l e m e n t s , w i t h e a c h household h a v i n g i t s own weaving s i t e (Alcock 1987: 287-8; 136).

Harke 1997:

The d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n of l e a t h e r goods, v e s s e l s , c l o t h e s and

shoes, i s s u g g e s t e d i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f i r o n awls and heavy n e e d l e s . craft as well,

F i n a l l y , p o t t e r y seems t o have been a d o m e s t i c

a l t h o u g h it h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e more e l a b o r a t e

c i n e r a r y urns were made by s p e c i a l i z e d p o t t e r s (Alcock 1987: 287-8). T h e r e is very l i t t l e evidence f o r i n t e r n a 1 t r a d e ,

have e x i s t e d a t l e a s t on a l o c a l b a s i s .

yet it is s u r e t o

R e d i s t r i b u t i o n between k i n

members p r o b a b l y a l s o a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e movement of goods from one a r e a t o a n o t h e r (Arnold 1988: 1 9 8 ) a l t h o u g h s i m i l a r a r t i f a c t s d i s c o v e r e d i n d i f f e r e n t c e m e t e r i e s may j u s t a s e a s i l y t r a c e t h e movement o f F n d i v i d u a l s , b r i d e s , h o s t a g e s , c r a f t s m e n , a s of goods.

The p r e s e n c e of

j e w e l l e r y and o t h e r such abjects i m p l i e s a t r a d e i n m e t a l s such a s g o l d , t i n , copper, s i l v e r , and s o f o r t h . I t a l s o s u g g e s t s t h e p r e s e n c e of cormnunities engaged i n e x t r a c t i n g and r e f i n i n g t h e o r e s , though a trade

i n s c r a p m e t a l s and t h e m e l t i n g d o m o f Roman o r o t h e r o b j e c t s cannot be r u l e d o u t (Alcock 1987: 288) E x t e r n a l t r a d e , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s w e l l a t t e s t e d by t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l record and seems t o have been c a r r i e d o u t o v e r v e r y l o n g distances.

Imported p o t t e r y from Gaul, m i l l e f i o r i g l a s s from t h e

M e d i t e r r a n e a n , Byzantine s i l v e r , bronze, i v o r y , l a p i s l a z u l i and, above a l l , g a r n e t s , came t o t h e Anglo-Saxons Asia.

from a s f a r away a s A f r i c a and

Much o f t h i s wealth may have made i t s way t o England a s b r i b e s o r

l o o t , o r a s dowries o r d i p l o r n a t i c g i f t s r a t h e r t h a n a s commercial t r a d e goods (Alcock 1987: 2 8 8 ) .

Most l i t e r a r y and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s

a r g u e f o r a system of b a r t e r based on t h e exchange of h i d e s and b o l t s o f woven c l o t h r a t h e r than t h e u s e o f h a r d currencyl' Owen 1 9 8 6 : 5 0 ; Weiner 1989: 2 ) .

(Hoffman 1964: 227-8;

Each of t h e two primary i n d u s t r i e s o f

t h e p e r i o d , t h e one dominated by t h e men and o t h e r by t h e women, provided one o f t h e s e f o m s o f t e n d e r o r exchange, perhaps i n d i c a t i n g something of t h e power dynamics of Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y .

IUthough t h e r e i s l i t t l e s i t e

d a t a a v a i l a b l e with which t o i d e n t i f y i n c i p i e n t t r a d i n g s e t t l e m e n t s , B e d e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y

London a s "a market f o r many

p e o p l e s coming t h i t h e r by l a n d and s e a " d o e s h i n t a t a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d commercial t r a d e by t h a t t i m e .

Some form o f coinage was a l s o i n u s e by

Bede's t i m e s i n c e t h e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y Laws of Æpelbert of Kent demand

t h a t p e n a l t i e s be p a i d i n s h i l l i n g s o r s c e a t t a s (Alcock 1987: 2 8 8 ) . The royal c e n t r e s w e r e s u p p o r t e d t h r o u g h an e l a b o r a t e s y s t e m o f tributes,

f o o d - r e n t s and o b l i g a t o r y s e r v i c e .

I n Kent a s i n t h e rest o f

e a r l y Anglo-Saxon

s o c i e t y , t h e r o y a l t o w n s h i p s o r seats f u n c t i o n e d as

c e n t r e s f o r t r i b u t e c o l l e c t i o n w h i l e , i n more d i r e c t f a s h i o n , t h e k i n g a n d h i s c o u r t a l s o t r a v e l l e d a r e g u l a r c i r c u i t £rom o n e t o w n s h i p t o t h e n e x t r e c e i v i n g payments and consuming f o o d - r e n t s Brooks 1989: 67; Evans 1997: 123-5).

( A l c o c k 1987: 291-2;

~ h e r - eis c o n s i d e r a b l e

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e for t h e p r e s e n c e o f a r o y a l v i l l a t E a s t r y where, g i v e n t h e topographical advantages,

"it would b e s u r p r i s i n g i f t h e r o y a l

v i l l had n o t a t t r a c t e d t h e g r o w t h o f some s o r t o f t o w n s h i p

...

perhaps

p a r t l y i n d u s t r i a l and m e r c a n t i l e i n c h a r a c t e r " (Hawkes 1979: 9 6 ) .

There

may have been a c e n t r e o f j e w e l l e r y p r o d u c t i o n a t E a s t r y and t h i s major r o y a l r e s i d e n c e would h a v e r e q u i r e d o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t services from weapon s m i t h s a s w e l l a s from a l e , c l o t h i n g and l u x u r y m e r c h a n t s (Hawkes 1 9 7 9 : 9

6

I t i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t Wodnesbeorge (Woodnesborough), a s i t e

w i t h "one o f t h e b e s t c l a i m s i n Kent" t o be a p l a c e f o r t h e w o r s h i p o f Woden, " i s s i t u a t e d o n l y s l i g h t l y o v e r a mile n o r t h o f E a s t r y " (Hawkes 1979: 9 7 ) .

T h i s c l o s e p o s i t i o n i n g o f r o y a l v i l l and r e l i g i o u s c e n t r e

"can h a r d l y be a c c i d e n t a l "

(Hawkes 1979: 97) and stresses t h e s t r o n g l i n k

between Anglo-Saxon k i n g s h i p and r e l i g i o n .

The r u l e r s o f Kent, l i k e

o t h e r Anglo-saxon k i n g s , a l s o had h a l l s a t v a r i o u s c e n t r e s where d i s p u t e s c o u l d b e s e t t l e d and j u s t i c e meted o u t .

A t Canterbury, t h e g r e a t Roman

t h e a t r e s e r v e d f o r c e n t u r i e s a s a p l a c e .of assernbly f o r t h e C a n t w a r a , t h e p e o p l e o f Kent (Brooks 1989: 6 8 ) .

Ki&saip A m a j o r c o n t r o l l i n g e l e m e n t o f Anglo-saxon

s o c i e t y was d u t y t o t h e

k i n g r o u p which p r o t e c t e d , avenged, and p a i d c o m p e n s a t i o n on b e h a l f o f i t s own.

I n t h e extreme, vengeance c o u l d l e a d t o b l o o d f e u d .

However,

v o r i o u s l a w s of t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y show t h e f e u d b e i n g r e p l a c e d by a s y s t e m o f blood-payments

s u c h a s t h e wergild and m a n b o t .

As can b e s e e n

f r o m t h e Laws o f King melbert o f Kent, t h e s e payments w e r e p r e - s e t ,

with

c o m p e n s a t i o n g o i n g t o t h e k i n g a s w e l l a s t o menbers of t h e wronged k i n

47 group.

E v e n t u a l l y , s u c h s a n c t i o n s became more a n d more t h e p r o v i n c e of

t h e king a l o n e a s r o y a l a u t h o r i t y g r a d u a l l y t o o k precedence over k i n s h i p o b l i g a t i o n s (Alcock 1987: 292-4;

Brooks 1989: 67-8;

Evans 1997: 4 5 ; Loyn

1974: 199, 202-3).

Nevertheless, kinship t i e s w e r e s t i l l a powerful force within Anglo-saxon

society.

A man's s t a t u s depended o n h i s p o s i t i o n i n a f r e e

k i n d r e d ; s t r a n g e r s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o make t h e m s e l v e s known by d e c l a r i n g t h e i r kinship.

A k i n l e s s man could f i n d h i r n s e l f i n d i r e s t r a i t s u n l e s s

he had g e f e r a n o r gegildan, f r i e n d s o r a s s o c i a t e s , w i l l i n g t o make

w e r g i l d payments on b i s b e h a l f s h o u l d t h e need a r i s e . S c h o l a r s have

d e s c r i b e d t h e Anglo-saxon

k i n s h i p s y s t e m a s b i l a t e r a l , w i t h a weak

p a t r i l a t e r a l b i a s and a t e n d e n c y t o v i r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e (Arnold 1988: 145; Harke 1997: 1 3 7 ) .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r and

s i s t e r 1 s son w a s a c r u c i a l one i n Gerrnanic s o c i e t y and t h e r e a r e numerous examples o f i t s i n f l u e n c e i n b o t h l e g e n d (Beowulf) and h i s t o r y (Tacitus) ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 6 5 ) .

The importance of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h i n t s a t a n

a v u n c u l a r s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y w h i c h h a s n o t been f u l l y e x p l o r e d . I t seems p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e f o s t e r a g e s y s t e m may a l s o have f o l l o w e d a n a v u n c u l o c a l t r e n d , r a t h e r t h a n t h e p a t r i l o c a l one most o f t e n surmised; s i s t e r s f s o n s a r e r e g u l a r l y i d e n t i f i e d as l e a d e r s o f a l o r d ' s c o m i t a tus.

"Kinship was a l s o t h e i n i t i a l b a s i s o f l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t s " and

it h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t " r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , and e v e n t u a l l y kingdoms w e r e c r e a t e d by t h e rise t o dominance o f i n d i v i d u a l l i n e a g e s " (Harke

1997: 1 3 7 ) .

While knowledge of k i n t i e s was i m p o r t a n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o

l a n d r i g h t s and t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of l a n d , t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t e r r i t o r i a l c l a n s i n Anglo-saxon 207).

E n g l a n d (Loyn 1974: 199-

I t s e e m s t h a t " k i n d r e d s were not g i v e n enough t h e t o d e v e l o p i n t o

f u l l - f l e d g e d land-owing i n s t i t u t i o n s w b e f o r e t e r r i t o r i a l k i n g s h i p came to t h e f o r e (Loyn 1974: 207; a l s o Harke 1997: 1 3 7 ) -

The kindred d i d , however, r e t a i n i n g control over marriage.

remain s t r o n g a t t h e s o c i a l l e v e l , The groom was o b l i g a t e d t o show t h a t he

could m a i n t a i n h i s b r i d e p r o p e r l y , t h a t he could pay t h e remuneration proper f o r her upbringing,

t h a t he could g r a n t a n a d e q u a t e g i f t i n r e t u r n

f o r her s u i t , and t h a t he c o u l d m a k e adequate p r o v i s i o n for h e r should s h e o u t l i v e him.

Only a f t e r a l 1 of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s had been m e t would

t h e b r i d e ' s k i n d r e d a g r e e t o t h e b e t r o t h a l (Loyn 1 9 7 4 : 2 0 6 ) .

S o c i d Organization

Upon t h e f i r m b a s e o f c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y and mixed farming r e s t e d a s o c i a l pyramid w i t h a w a r r i o r k i n g a t i t s apex (Alcock 1987: 2 8 9 ) . Anglo-saxon

i n s t i t u t i o n o f k i n g s h i p had deep a n c e s t r a l r o o t s .

The

According

t o T a c i t u s ' a c c o u n t , t h e G e m a n i c t r i b e s acknowledged k i n g s chosen from a r o y a l s t o c k ( t h e r e x o r cyning, t h e k i n - l e a d e r )

and w a r l e a d e r s s e l e c t e d

f o r m i l i t a r y s k i 1 1 and v a l o u r ( t h e d u x ) (Chaney 1 9 7 0 : 3 4 ) . during t h e Migration Period,

Apparently,

" t h e s e two a s p e c t s o f l e a d e r s h i p c o a l e s c e d "

( M c o c k 1987: 289; b u t a l s o Chaney 1970: 3 4 ) .

However, e a r l y Anglo-Saxon

k i n g s h i p was n o t t h e s i m p l e and a b s o l u t e i n s t i t u t i o n which i t l a t e r became.

In the f i r s t centuries,

r u l e r s were n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e heads o f

any form of c e n t r a l i z e d government though t h e s e l e a d e r s had f r e e r a c c e s s t h a n most t o goods, women and v a l u a b l e s .

P o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y were

i n i t i a l l y more l i k e l y t o have been achieved t h a n i n h e r i t e d ; d e s p i t e t h e e v i d e n c e f o r s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " t h e r e i s some j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r e g a r d i n g t h e c u l t u r e o f M i g r a t i o n - P e r i o d England

...a s

being

fundamentally e g a l i t a r i a n in t h e s e n s e t h a t p o s i t i o n s o f power were open t o any w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h t o seize and hold them" and t h e y w e r e "not r e s t r i c t e d by n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s u c h a s b i r t h "

(Hines 1 9 8 9 ) .

B y d e m o n s t r a t i n g s u p e r i o r o r a t o r i c a l s k i l l s , war prowess and s u c c e s s i n c e r e m o n i a l exchange, w a r r i o r s c o u l d r i s e t o the t o p , e n h a n c i n g t h e i r own p o s i t i o n and a l s o t h e power of t h e i r k i n s h i p group.

T h e r e a f t e r , i t seems

l i k e l y t h a t such s u c c e s s e s developed i n t o a s y s t e m o f l e a d e r s h i p through

45 i n h e r i t a n c e (Arnold 1988 : 1 9 4 )

.

Over tine, a s y s t e m o f r u l e headed by a

h i g h k i n g came i n t o b e i n g a l t h o u g h t h e t e r m c y n i n g was used t o d e s c r i b e more t n a n one l e v e l o f t h e Anglo-saxon

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y ; above a

series of under-kings w e r e t h e r u l e r s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l E n g l i s h kingdons who f r e q u e n t l y s h a r e d t h e i r r u l e w i t h a son o r o t h e r member of t h e r o y a l stock.

At t h e u l t i m a t e peak o f t h i s s y s t e m s t o o d t h o s e r a r e kings upon

whorn t h e a u t h o r s of t h e Anglo-Saxon C h r o n i c l e bestowed t h e t i t l e o f Bretwalda; s e v e n o f these " r u l e r s o f B r i t a i n " are r e c o r d e d i n t h e C h r o n i c l e , i n c l u d i n g E'elbert o f Kent (ALcock 1987 : 2 9 0 ) Angio-Saxon

.

custom h e l d t h a t t h e k i n g s h o u l d l e a d t h e h o s t , w h e t h e r

it was t o a t t a c k a n o t h e r kingdom o r t o d e f e n d h i s own.

"The f r e q u e n c y

w i t h which t h e k i n g s o f t h e p e r i o d m e t t h e i r d e a t h s on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d " confirms t h i s p r a c t i c e

(Alcock 1987: 292)

other n i l i t a r y functions as w e l l .

.

The r o y a l family performed

Both t h e C h r o n i c l e and t h e Laws o f

H p e l d e s c r i b e how t h e s o n o r nephew o f t h e k i n g

t h e r o y a l bodyguard.

T h i s "bodyguard,

w a s r e q u i r e d t o command

o r p e r s o n a 1 warband of t h e k i n g ,

t h e comitatus a t t e n d a n t s i n L a t i n , heord-geneatas,

hearth-companions,

in

E n g l i s h " r e p r e s e n t e d " t h e l a y e r immediately below t h e r o y a l s t o c k " (Alcock 1987: 2 9 2 ) .

Among t h e Anglo-Saxons,

a n a r i s t o c r a c y based bath on

b i r t h and s e r v i c e t o t h e k i n g d e v e l o p e d (Alcock 1987: 2 9 2 ) . Below t h i s c l a s s o f n o b i l i t y made up of t h e eorls o r thegns, were t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s e s of freemen,

the ceorls.

A p a r t f r o m t h e few c r a f t s r n e n

mentioned above and t h e b a r d s o r s c o p s , t h i s c l a s s o f freemen was made up of f a r m e r s o r s o l d i e r y who were f r e e b u t n o t n o b l e .

T h e s p e a r b u r i a l s of

t h i s p e r i o d a r e o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e g r a v e s of rnembers o f t h i s c e o r l class

-

men who may h a v e been w a r r i o r s a s w e l l as f a r m e r s .

combination, however,

This

i s n o t s u p p o r t e d by t h e s u r v i v i n g l i t e r a t u r e from

t h e p e r i o d which d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between a r u s t i c u s a n d a m i l e s , between a f a r m e r and a s o l d i e r (Alcock 1987: 293; Harke 1997: 1 4 1 ) . At t h e l o w e s t l e v e l o f t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y w e r e t h e s l a v e s and t h e semi-free,

t h e c l a s s o f peow and l a o t (Harke 1997: 1 4 1 ) .

An i n t e g r a l and

s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f Anglo-Saxon

s o c i e t y , t h i s c l a s s i n c l u d e d b o t h war

c a p t i v e s and t h o s e e n s l a v e d by a f a i l u r e t o m e e t l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n s ( P e l t e r e t 1981: 9 9 ) .

Many s l a v e s were n a t i v e B r i t o n s .

v a r i o u s immigrant Anglo-saxon other"

However, t h e

g r o u p s lfwere n o t a v e r s e t o p r e y i n g on e a c h

( P e l t e r e t 1981: 1 0 2 ) , and t h e s l a v e t r a d e remained a n i m p o r t a n t

a s p e c t o f t h e commerce between England and t h e C o n t i n e n t (Alcock 1 9 8 7 : 294) .

T h e r e was a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f i n t e r n a 1 d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and

r n o b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e c l a s s s y s t e m . The s l a v e c l a s s was d i v i d e d i n t o a t l e a s t t h r e e s u b - c l a s s e s and t h e c l a s s of freemen i n t o a t l e a s t two. While a s l a v e c o u l d b e f r e e d , a freeman c o u l d be p u t i n t o s l a v e r y ; a t t h e same t i m e ,

s e r v i c e t o t h e k i n g c o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e w e r g i l d o f any man,

f r e e o r u n f r e e (Harke 1997: 1 4 2 ) .

Wuzfdt~e

Whether C e l t i c o r Germanie, t h e p e o p l e s of B r i t a i n d u r i n g t h e f i f t h t o t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s " s h a r e d one c u l t u r a l t r a i t :

the pursuit

o f w a r f a r e a s a m a j o r a c t i v i t y o f s o c i e t y " (Alcock 1987: 285; a l s o Davidson 1993: 8 ) .

For t h e s e " h e r o i c s o c i e t i e s " ,

p r i n c i p a l v i r t u e of t h e l e a d i n g s o c i a l c l a s s "

-

" m a r t i a l v a l o u r was t h e

s o c i e t y , economy, a n d

b o t h s p i r i t u a l and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e were a l 1 d i r e c t e d towards t h e same m a r t i a l f o c u s (ALcock 1987: 2 9 4 ) .

S u c c e s s f u l w a r f a r e was e s s e n t i a l t o a

s t a b l e k i n g s h l p a s w e l l a s a s t a b l e s o c i e t y (Hooper 1989: 1 9 1 ) .

In

England, carnpaigning e v e n t u a l l y became t h e p r o v i n c e of a w a r r i o r e l i t e , as it had b e e n on t h e C o n t i n e n t p r i o r t o t h e m i g r a t i o n s ( H a l s a l l 1 9 8 9 : 167; b u t also Hines 1989)

.

I n t h e f i f t h and s i x t h c e n t u r i e s , w a r f a r e

t o o k t h e f o r m o f f e u d s between v i l l a g e s .

"As t h e s m a l l t r i b e s and

v i l l a g e s c o a l e s c e d i n t o l a r g e r s t a t e s , and as p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o g r e s s e d beyond t h e t r i b a l s t a g e , c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d " ,

a l t h o u g h "it was

probably i m p o s s i b l e f o r kings t o e r a d i c a t e t h e d e e p l y ingxained c o n c e p t s which [ g a v e rise t o ]

. .. v i o l e n c e f f

and p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s ,

(HalsaI.1 1989: 1 6 7 ) .

For v a r i o u s s o c i a l

t h e c o n t i n u o u s f e u d i n g a ~ endemic d warfare

remained u s e f u l t o t h e e a r l y r u l e r s . However, by t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , k i n g s were making e f f o r t s t o l i m i t warring t o t h a t with r o y a l

Anglo-saxon backing.

It was p r o b a b l y d u r i n g t h i s l a t e r " p e r i o d of s t a t e formation"

t h a t " t h e r i g h t t o f i g h t became l i m i t e d t o c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of s o c i e t y " , a l t h o u g h t h i s was s t i l l n o t a hard and f a s t r u l e ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 7 ) . "Royal i n i t i a t i v e s could n o t . . .

e n t i r e l y remove t h e deep-seated c o n c e p t s

o f w a r " fundamental t o k g l o - ~ a x o n s o c i e t y ( H a l s a l l 1989 : 167) . The s e v e n t h c e n t u r y Laws of Ine o f Wessex g i v e an i d e a of f o r c e s i z e and o r g a n i z a t i o n : "thieves";

a group of up t o s e v e n men were c o n s i d e r e d

from seven t o t h i r t y - f i v e were i d e n t i f i e d a s a "band"; w h i l e a

f o r c e c o n s i s t i n g of more t h a n t h r e e dozen armed men was c o n s i d e r e d a n "army".

Obviously, t h i s is a minimum f i g u r e , a l t h o u g h i t i s u n l i k e l y

t h a t any o f t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon more t h a n a thousand men.

kingdoms c o u l d have r a i s e d a f o r c e o f

Throughout t h e e a r l y p e r i o d , a r m i e s were

i n s t i t u t e d on a p e r s o n a 1 b a s i s with t h e c o r n i t a t u s o r heord-geneatas o f t h e k i n g o r t h e g r e a t l o r d a t t h e i r c o r e (Alcock 1 9 8 7 : 3 0 0 - 1 ) . I n h i s seminal s t u d y of warfare i n pre-Conquest England, H a l s a l l ( 1 9 8 9 ) h a s snown t h a t v i o l e n c e was c l e a r l y graded (Table 2 ) .

At the

f i r s t o r l o w e s t l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e were t h e b r a w l s , r o b b e r i e s and wayside killings.

I f t h e a g g r e s s o r i n t h e s e a c t i o n s c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d , t h e

n e x t l e v e l of v i o l e n c e , t h e feud, might e n s u e .

Within a s e t t l e m e n t ,

f e u d s p r o b a b l y ended f a i r l y q u i c k l y w i t h t h e payment of t h e wergild o r blood p r i c e .

I f t h e g u i l t y p a r t y c a m e from o u t s i d e t h e c o m u n i t y o r t h e

k i n g group, however,

f e u d s were l i k e l y t o b e more s e r i o u s .

The feud was

a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f Anglo-saxon l i f e and t h e law codes of t h e t h e r e v e a l t h a t v a r i o u s r u l e r s were e i t h e r u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o p u t a s t o p t o i t ( H a l s a l l 1989: 159-167). At t h e t h i r d l e v e l , armed v i o l e n c e became w a r f a r e . hand was srnall-scale,

endemic o r r i t u a l f i g h t i n g " ,

o f r a i d s and c o u n t e r - r a i d s " by l o o t o r t r i b u t e .

"On t h e one

which t o o k " t h e form

( H a l s a i l 1989: 1 6 7 ) t o a c q u i r e booty, e i t h e r

The ravaging of enemy l a n d s and t h e s h o r t , q u i c k

b a t t l e s w e r e t h e work of s m a l l e r a r m i e s made up o f a r i s t o c r a t s and t h e i r r e t a i n e r s ( H a l s a l l 1989: 164; b u t a l s o A l c o c k 1987: 305; Hooper 1989: 193).

T h i s s m a l l - s c a l e w a r f a r e o c c u r r e d "more o r less e v e r y y e a r , e x c e p t

i n times o f s t r i c t l y e n f o ~ c e dpeace" scale, n o n - r i t u a l

( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 7 ) .

The l a r g e -

wars, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a p p e a r t o have b r o k e n o u t

among n e i g h b o u r i n g kingdoms o n l y o n c e e v e r y g e n e r a t i o n o r s o [ H a l s a l l 1989: 1 5 9 - 6 7 ) .

I n t h e s o u r c e s , t h e Anglo-Saxons

t h e m s e l v e s do n o t

d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e s e two t y p e s o f w a r f a r e t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f a n y c l e a r l y d e f i n e d t e r m s and it Fs u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e y f o r m a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e r i t u a l Exom t h e n o n - r i t u a l

e v e n t ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 7 3 ) .

C e r t a i n r u l e s o f conduct governed t h e small-scale,

endemic w a r f a r e

w i t h t h e warbands i n v o l v e d a p p a r e n t l y f o l l o w i n g w e l l - d e f i n e d r o u t e s , marked w i t h names s u c h a s Fyrdstraet and Hereford ( r o u g h l y t r a n s i a t a b l e a s M i l i t i a S t r e e t and R a i d e r s ' Ford

-

OE fyrd d e n o t e d a l o c a l o r f r i e n d l y

f o r c e w h i l e OE here à e s i g n a t e d a n i n v a d i n g enemy).

Any f o r c e s e n t e r i n g a

t e r r i t o r y were m e t by a n o f f i c i a l who would a s k them t h e i r b u s i n e s s a n d i t i s c l e a r from t h e s o u r c e s t h a t " t h e s e o f f i c i a l s d i d n o t e x p e c t t o b e

k i l l e d o u t o f hand" ( H a l s a l l 1 9 8 9 : 1 6 4 ) .

Under t h e " r u l e s o f war",

poets

o r b a r d s were a l s o a l l o w e d t o l i v e , a s w e r e a n y godsons o f t h e v i c t o r s who may have been found a s f o s t e r l i n g s arnongst a d e f e a t e d f o r c e ( H a l s a l l 1989: 164). A c h a n c e a t a f a i r f i g h t was a l s o t h e n o m i n r i t u a l w a r f a r e , was t h e o p t i o n t o a v o i d a l l - o u t

t h e invaders.

as

c o n f l i c t by p a y i n g a b r i b e o r t r i b u t e t o

S e r i o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w a s f u r t h e r avoided through t h e

e x c h a n g e o f h o s t a g e s and t h e s w e a r i n g o f o a t h s o f f r i e n d s h i p and it i s also likely, as

F e J i x f s Life o f G u t h l a c r e c o r d s , t h a t some o f t h e b o o t y

t a k e n was a l s o r e t u r n e d t o t h e v i c t i m s f o r t h e same r e a s o n ( H a l s a l l 1989:

The waging of l a r g e - s c a l e w a r f a r e f o r c o n q u e s t f o l l o w e d a d i f f e r e n t set o f r u l e s . I n t h i s form o f w a r f a r e , p a y i n g t r i b u t e was n o t c o n s i d e r e d

a n o p t i o n . L a r g e - s c a l e w a r f a r e a l s o d i f f e r e d from t h e endemic v a r i e t y i n

t h a t t h e f i n a l r e s u l t o f a n e n c o u n t e r w a s o f t e n t h e p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f e r of land.

T h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e f o r p e r m a n e n t f o r t r e s s e s o r d e f e n s e g a r r i s o n s

i n t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon p e r i o d ; open and m o b i l e .

t h e m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s engaged i n were

Frequently, b a t t l e s took place a t t h e f r o n t i e r o f t h e

kingdom b e i n g a t t a c k e d , u s u a l l y n e a r a r i v e r f o r d o r some o t h e r w e l l known l a n d m a r k - s u c h a s p r e h i s t o r i c h i l l f o r t s , barrows, Roman c i t i e s , d y k e s , o r o t h e r e a r t h w o r k s (Aïcock 1987: 305-9;

H a l s a l l 1 9 8 9 : 165).

A p p a r e n t l y , o n e o f the best ways t o b r i n g a n enemy t o b a t t l e was t o occupy a well-known s i t e a s a c h a l l e n g e and a w a i t t h e i r a r r i v a l . Such a p r a c t i c e was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f u l l - s c a l e b a t t l e s f o u g h t d u r i n g t h e Anglo-saxon p e r i o d and s u c h p l a c e s t h e Anglo-Saxons

( r e v e r e d a s " t h e work o f g i a n t s " by

t h e m s e l v e s ) may h a v e h e l d some r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e .

Given t h e n o n - r i t u a l

n a t u r e of t h e b a t t l e s fought a t t h e s e l o c a t i o n s , t h e

d e l i b e r a t e a c t o f g o i n g o u t s i d e t h e n o m of s o c i e t y by s e l e c t i n g tnese a n c i e n t and p r o v o c a t i v e monuments a s a p l a c e o f b a t t l e , may i n d i c a t e j u s t how s e r i o u s t h e s e c o n f l i c t s w e r e ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 6 - 7 ) . Both t h e r i t u a l and n o n - r i t u a l

f o m s of warfare involved planning,

a c a l 1 t o arms and m u s t e r i n g o f t r o o p s , a s w e l l a s i n t e l l i g e n c e r e g a r d i n g

the rnovements o f enemy f o r c e s (Hooper 1989: 1 9 2 ) .

Wooden swords,

i n s c r i b e d w i t h r u n e s , s u c h a s t h a t f o u n d i n t h e terps o f F r i s i a ,

possibly used a s a summons t o war (Davidson 1962: 4 4 ) . warriors rode t o w a r , 1 9 9 6 : 119-2)

.

were

Anglo-Saxon

b u t i t seems, p r e f e r r e d t o f i g h t on f o o t ( K e e f e r

Leaders occupied a p o s i t i o n n e a r t h e c e n t r e , w i t h t h e i r

m i l i t a r y h o u s e h o l d s a r o u n d them.

The o f t - d e s c r i b e d

" ~ h i e l d w a f l ~a~ s, o l i d

and d i s c i p l i n e d f o r m a t i o n w h e r e i n men s t o o d s h o u l d e r - t o - s h o u l d e r ,

seems

t o h a v e been a t i g h t d e f e n s i v e p o s i t i o n employed i n t i m e s o f n e c e s s i t y ; o t h e r w i s e , engagements w e r e g e n e r a l rnelees w i t h e a c h w a r r i o r r e q u i r i n g s u f f i c i e n t s p a c e i n which t o w i e l d h i s weapons (Hooper 1989: 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 ) . I n g e n e r a l , armies g a t h e r e d i n t h e s p r i n g when t h e r e was s u f f i c i e n t grass f o r t h e horses.

"Small a r m i e s i n h o s t i l e t e r r i t o r y c o u l d l i v e o f f

t h e l a n d , s o l o n g a s i t was f e r t i l e enough, b u t t h e r e would n o t b e much

c h a n c e o f t h i s i n most o f Wales 1989: 193).

...o r

e v e n p a r t s o f Northumbria"

(Hooper

A p a r t from g a t h e r i n g p r o v i s i o n s , s u c h f o r a g i n g " s e r v e d t o

e n r i c h t h o s e t a k i n g p a r t as t h e y s e i z e d v a l u a b l e o b j e c t s , c a p t i v e s and livestock"

(Hooper 1989: 1 9 3 ) .

Such m a t e r i a l g a i n s o f w a r f a r e w e r e o f t e n

" e x p r e s s e d most s i m p l y i n t e r m s o f c a t t l e d r i v e n i n from b o r d e r c o u n t r i e s " (Aicock 1987: 3 0 5 ) . of t h e s m a l l - s c a l e ,

Cattle-raiding,

which c h a r a c t e r i z e d much

endemic w a r f a r e (Evans 1 9 9 7 : 126;

als sa il

1989: 164-

5 ) , "was an e x c i t i n g s p o r t f o r t h e young men" w i t h a n a l o g i e s t o t h e

s p o r t s o f h o r s e - r a i d i n g arnong t h e B l a c k f o o t o r c a m e l - r a i d i n g among t h e Bedue (ALcock 1987: 3 0 5 ) . animals, not l i v e s .

I n s u c h c a s e s , t h e p u r p o s e was t o t a k e

If a r a i d i n g p a r t y were opposed and b l o o d s h e d ,

however, more s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t c o u l d r e s u l t ( A l c o c k 1987: 3 0 5 ) .

Raiding

c a u s e d more t h a n j u s t p h y s i c a l damage t o t h e enerny; t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f a k i n g who f a i l e d t o p r e v e n t h i s e n e m i e s ' i n c u r s i o n s s u f f e r e d a s w e l l (Hooper 1989: 193-4).

The i m p o r t a n c e t h e Anglo-Saxons

themselves

a t t a c h e d t o t h i s l o s s o f r e p u t a t i o n may b e s e e n i n t h e number o f human g r i e v a n c e s , i n s u l t s o r p e r s o n a 1 j e a l o u s i e s which a r e r e c o r d e d i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s as t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d much o f t h e f u l l - s c a l e w a r f a r e ; o n l y i n a few i n s t a n c e s i s a c o n f l i c t o v e r l a n d r e c o r d e d ( A r n o l d 1988: 167; H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 8 ) .

The e x t e r m i n a t i o n , e x p u l s i o n o r s u b j u g a t i o n o f

a n o t h e r p e o p l e i n o r d e r t o o c c u p y t h e i r t e r r i t o r y was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a n o b v i o u s r e a s o n b e h i n d many o f t h e m a j o r c o n f f i c t s o f t h e p e r i o d ( A r n o l d 1988: 1 6 7 - 9 ) .

T h e r e is some d o u b t i n t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon p e r i o d ,

however, as t o w h e t h e r t h e e x p u l s i o n o f a p e o p l e a f f e c t e d anyone beyond t h e d e f e a t e d k i n g and h i s warband.

For i n s t a n c e , i t has s o f a r been

i m p o s s i b l e t o a r r i v e a t an a s s e s s r n e n t o f t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e B r i t o n s were a c t u a l l y p h y s i c a l l y removed from t h e l a n d s which f e l l t o t h e AngloSaxon kingdoms (Aicock 1987: 305-6)

.

When a n army f o u g h t on i t s own home ground, l i v i n g o f f t h e l a n d was, of c o u r s e , i n a p p r o p r i a t e . with t h e a m y .

I n s u c h c a s e s , s u p p l i e s had t o b e c a r r i e d

P r o v i s i o n s a n d o t h e r n e c e s s i t i e s were b r o u g h t a l o n g i n

55

c a r t s , o t h e r s u p p l i e s were c o l l e c t e d on t h e march and b e a s t s on t h e hoof p r o v i d e d f r e s h meat a s w e l l .

A g r e a t deal of t h e labour required f o r

s u c h a s u p p l y t r a i n was drawn from t h e p o o r e r l o w e r c l a s s e s .

This i s a

v e r y n e g l e c t e d a r e a of s t u d y f o r t h e e n t i r e Anglo-Saxon p e r i o d , y e t t h e r e

"is no r e a s o n t o doubt t h a t t h e r e were men whose d u t i e s r e q u i r e d them t o go w i t h t h e army but n o t t o f i g h t i n t h e f r o n t l i n e n (Hooper 1989: 1945).

T h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s p r a c t i c e i n Bedels a c c o u n t of

t h e l a t e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y b a t t l e o f t h e T r e n t (HE I V 2 2 ) . I t seems t h a t

a l t h o u g h w a r f a r e was t h e p r e r o g a t i v e of t h e w a r r i o r e l i t e , a l 1 c l a s s e s i n Anglo-Saxon

s o c i e t y e x p e r i e n c e d armed c o n f l i c t o r i t s e f f e c t s a t some

level. The r e a s o n s given f o r war rnay be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e p u r p o s e s which w a r f a r e a c t u a l l y f u l f i l l e d .

There i s some e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e

c o n s t a n t w a r f a r e of t h e t i m e s e a s e d s t r e s s e s i n t h e v a r i o u s kingdoms, l i m i t i n g i n t e r n e c i n e d i s p u t e s and c i v i l s t r i f e a s w e l l a s e n a b l i n g some groups t o r e t a i n t h e i r t r i b a l i d e n t i t y f o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s of t i m e ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 8 ) .

Though undoubtedly bloody, Anglo-saxon

rnay have f u l f i l l e d t h e c o n c e p t o f "war a s p l a y " a s w e l l .

conflicts

If the

s h i e l d w a l l f o r m a t i o n was employed a s more t h a n a p u r e l y d e f e n s i v e measure, w a r f a r e need n o t h a v e been t o o dangerous a s l o n g a s c o h e s i o n was maintained.

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , war a s p l a y is a way t o b r i n g forward new

l e a d e r s , and w a r f a r e i n Anglo-saxon England c e r t a i n l y s e r v e d t h i s p u r p o s e ; l a n d and noble s t a t u s w e r e o f t e n t h e r e w a r d s f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e ( H a l s a l l 1989: 168)

.

Nevertheless, t h e r e w e r e maladaptive

a s p e c t s t o r i t u a l w a r f a r e a s w e l l . Among t h e w a r r i o r c l a s s e s , t h e q u i c k n e s s t o q u a r r e l which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s o c i e t i e s t h a t p r a c t i s e endemic w a r f a r e can be s e e n .

Fear of a t t a c k w a s g r e a t while boasting of

and p r i d e i n w a r l i k e deeds w a s common and d e a t h i n w a r f a r e t h e f a t e o f a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e r u l e r s of t h e p e r i o d ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 7 2 ) . T h e economic purposes behind Anglo-saxon

warfare included t h e

a c q u i s i t i o n o f t r e a s u r e and i t s r e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o f o l l o w e r s ( H a l s a l l

1989: 168). As n o t e d a b o v e , s l a v e s w e r e an i n p o r t a n t comrnodity of t h e p e r i o d and endemic w a r f a r e c o u l d p r o v i d e c a t t l e , h o r s e s a n d o t h e r f o m s o f w e a l t h a s w e l l ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 8 ) .

Such c o m o d i t i e s m o s t l i k e l y

changed hands o f t e n i n r a i d a n d c o u n t e r - r a i d ,

and s o l o n g as a b a l a n c e

was m a i n t a i n e d , endemic w a r f a r e c o u l d b e b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e r u l e r s o f b o t h t e r r i t o r i e s ( H a l s a l l 1989: 1 6 9 ) .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h o u g h endemic w a r f a r e

e a s e d t e n s i o n s w i t h i n and b e t w e e n kingdoms, it d i d n o t remove them and e v e n t u a l l y this f a i l u r e b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f s m a l l - s c a l e c o n f l i c t i n t o l a r g e - s c a l e w a r f a r e , w i t h t h e s e i z u r e o f l a n d and o f t e n o f kingship being t h e f i n a l r e s u l t .

The Cornitatao and the " J o p of khm H d Z "

The i n s t i t u t i o n of t h e comitatus o r warband was a d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e o f Anglo-Saxon s o c i e t y , f r o m t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y t o a r g u a b l y t h e end of t h e period.

I n g e n e r a l , t h e comitatus c o n s i s t e d o f t h a t body o f men which a

l o r d , k i n g o r c h i e f t a i n , c o u l d m u s t e r from h i s own l o c a l r e s o u r c e s , t h o u g h a s u c c e s s f u l warband o f t e n a t t r a c t e d w a r r i o r s from o t h e r g r o u p s w i t h i t s promise o f w e a l t h ,

r e p u t a t i o n and p r e s t i g e f o r i t s mernbers.

The

f r e q u e n c y o f e x i l e and d i s l o c a t i o n o f w a r r i o r s added t o t h e number of young men s e e k i n g s e r v i c e w i t h a n o t h e r l o r d o u t s i d e t h e i r own t r i b a l a r e a (Evans 1997: 33; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 33). The c o r e o f t h i s g r o u p o f f i g h t i n g men, however, 'always came f r o m t h e r o y a l o r n o b l e k i n s h i p , and t h e s o n o r r i g h t f u l h e i r of t h e l o r d l e d t h i s force i n t o b a t t l e . The comitatus w a s a f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t p o s s e s s e d a d e f i n i t e s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n .

I t made u s e o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g c u l t u r a l and

s o c i a l a p p a r a t u s o f i t s t i m e t o s u s t a i n i t s e x i s t e n c e , y e t i t s members w e r e bound t o g e t h e r s o l e l y o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f p e r s o n a 1 r e l a t i o n s h i p s

( A l c o c k 1987: 302; Evans 1997: 2 - 5 2 ) .

These heord-geneatas, o r h e a r t h -

companions, were bound t o t h e d e a t h by o a t h s of l o y a l t y t o t h e i r l o r d . They s e r v e d " i n r e t u r n f o r arms, food, a s h a r e o f t h e b o o t y , and p e r h a p s a permanent g r a n t of l a n d "

(Alcock 1987: 3 0 2 ) , y e t they w e r e n o t

m e r c e n a r i e s , b u t i n s t e a d a d v e n t u r o u s young men who o f f e r e d t h e i r m i l i t a r y s k i l l s t o a l e a d e r who would reward them w e l l i n t h e f e a s t h a l l with weapons, g o l d , mead, and t h e p r a i s e o f b a r d s (Alcock 1987 : 3 0 2 )

.

The m u s t e r i n g of l a r g e r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s was accomplished b y u s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m i t a t u s bands a s b u i l d i n g b l o c k s f o r t h e l a r g e r s c a l e armies; y e t , t h e s e warbands r e t a i n e d t h e i r own commanders and were assigned p a r t i c u l a r missions o r t a s k s f o r t h e b a t t l e .

Thus each

comitatus fought a s a s e p a r a t e , i n t e g r a l u n i t i n s i d e t h e l a r g e r f o r c e (Evans 1997: 3 4 ) , each warband b e n e a t h i t s ow-n g u p f a n a , war f l a g , o r "standard"

(Pollington 1996: 75) .

Within t h e comita t u s , t h e w a r r i o r s

took up p o s i t i o n s a c c o r d e d t o them t h r o u g h age and e x p e r i e n c e , s e r v i n g t o g e t h e r f i r s t a s t h e geogud (young r e t a i n e r s ) and l a t e r a s t h e dugud ( t h e "doughty" o r t r i e d w a r r i o r s ) .

I n b a t t l e , t h e younger w a r r i o r s

fought w i t h j a v e l i n s b e h i n d l e a d i n g men who formed a wedge i n t o t h e f r a y w h i l e t h e o l d e r seasoned w a r r i o r s r e i n f o r c e d t h e warband from behind (Davidson 1989: 16-7)

.

W i t h i n the geogud o r dugud, each w a r r i o r knew bis

p l a c e on t h e bench i n h a l l and was a s s u r e d a d e f i n e d p o s i t i o n w i t h i n h i s s o c i e t y (Evans 1997: 97; Hume 1974: 65). I t i s l i k e l y t h a t g r o u p s o f young men began t h e i r m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g

t o g e t h e r and may have l i v e d t o g e t h e r a s bands, t r a i n i n g i n t h e ways of war, p r a c t i s i n g s k i l l s o f p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and endurance and h u n t i n g t o sharpen t h e i r cornpetence w i t h weaponry b e f o r e becoming p a r t o f a comitatus u n i t .

We h e a r o f such communities o f young f i g h t i n g men from

b o t h Norse a n d I r i s h l i t e r a t u r e .

Old E n g l i s h h e r o i c p o e t r y and t h e

v a r i o u s Saints Lives, s u c h a s t h o s e of S t . Cuthbert and ~ u t h l a c ' ~p, r o v i d e e v i d e n c e f o r such communities w i t h i n Anglo-Saxon

England a s w e l l

(Colgrave 1956 and 1969; Davidson 1989: 19-20). One s u c h community o f f i g h t i n g men were t h e berserks of

Scandinavian t r a d i t i o n who f o u g h t w i t h a w i l d f u r y , " c u t t i n g d o m a l 1 i n t h e i r p a t h and i g n o r i n g d a n g e r and t h e p a i n o f wounds" (Davidson 1989: 1 2 ) . These men were mentioned e a r l i e r i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e c u l t of

Woden, and t h e i r p r e c i s e r o l e w i t h i n t h e c o m i t a t u s i s u n c l e a r .

They

a p p e a r i n some of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s monstrous c r e a t u r e s s e i z i n g w e a l t h and women a s t h e y chose; i n o t h e r s o u r c e s t h e y a p p e a r a s t h e f o r c e o f f i e r c e f i g h t e r s whom a w i s e king could t r u s t most i n t i m e s o f b a t t l e (Davidson 1 9 8 9 : 1 2 ) .

I t i s possible t h a t t h e y w e r e s p e c i a l troops, those

picked w a r r i o r s who d e d i c a t e d t h e i r l i v e s t o t h e m i l i t a r y t h a t we know o f from t h e Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (Evans 1997 : 42 )

.

Although r a n k w i t h i n t h e warband came t h r o u g n b i r t h , it was r e t a i n e d through s e r v i c e .

The l o r d - r e t a i n e r r e l a t i o n s h i p was t h e most

i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i n a band, one t h a t b o t h p r o t e c t e d and s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e b a n d s ' s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l i n t e g r i t y .

Within t h i s

w a r r i o r e l i t e , t h e bonds e s t a b l i s h e d between a l o r d and h i s men e v e n t u a l l y became more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h o s e o f t h e k i n s h i p , even though, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s r n a l l e r bands, a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e comitatus w a r r i o r s were k i n t o t h e l o r d .

Within l a r g e r warbands, w h i l e t h e

p r o p o r c i o n would h a v e been s m a l l e r , t h e l o r d ' s k i n s t i l l formed t h e c o r e , h i s p e r s o n a l bodyguard

(Evans 1 9 9 7 : 5 1 ) ; t h u s , a s a t Maldon, many i n t h e

comitatus were d o u b l y bound t o t h e i r l o r d through t h e t i e s o f both blood and persona1 l o y a l t y

( The

The l o r d - r e t a i n e r

Battle of

ald don")

.

r e l a t i o n s h i p was b u i l t upon a s e r i e s of

o b l i g a t i o n s and d u t i e s owed bÿ l o r d and man e a c h t o t h e o t h e r . was o b l i g a t e d t o t a k e an a c t i v e p a r t i n w a r f a r e ,

The l o r d

f o r by d o i n g s o he

provided an avenue t h r o u g h which h i s w a r r i o r s c o u l d p u t i n t o a c t i o n t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c , m a r t i a l i d e a l s t h a t found f r e q u e n t e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e h e r o i c p o e t r y of t h e p e r i o d (Evans 1997: 5 2 ) . B a t t l e e x p e r i e n c e v a l i d a t e d t h e w a r r i o r c l a s s ' s way o f l i f e ;

f i g h t i n g was a v i r t u e and t h e b e s t means t o

acquire honour and g l o r y f o r t h e w a r r i o r s , t h e band, 1997: 5 2 ) .

and t h e l o r d (Evans

The s h a r e d h a r d s h i p s and d a n g e r s o f t h e b a t t l e f i e l d p r o v i d e d

cormnon experiences which worked t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e bonds o f l o y a l t y w i t h i n t h e band.

Warfare a l s o p r o v i d e d t h e l o r d with t h e m a t e r i a l goods and

l u x u r y items w i t h which t o reward h i s men i n t h e h a l l and t h r o u g h t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n of such rewards Erom t h e gifstol o r g i f t s e a t , t h e bonds of l o y a l t y between a l o r d and h i s r e t i n u e were confirmed and r e i n f o r c e d

(Evans 1997: 53-4;

Owen 1981: 61; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 3 7 ) .

Warriors were e x p e c t e d t o g i v e f u l l and u t t e r s u p p o r t t o t h e i r l o r d , r e g a r d l e s s of where he might l e a d .

A w a r r i o r ' s d u t i e s and

o b l i g a t i o n s encompassed v i r t u a l l y every f a c e t o f l i f e - i n b a t t l e , i n h a l l , i n e x i l e and i n t h e e v e n t o f t h e l o r d ' s d e a t h . every w a r r i o r

CO

It was t h e aim of

e a r n his weorp, p r e s t i g e and honour, i n b a t t l e

( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 2 4 ) .

Ideally, warriors w e r e obligated t o t h e i r lord i n

t h e bad t i m e s a s w e l l a s t h e good and s o t h e y w e r e bound t o f o l l o w him i n t o e x i l e o r i n t o t h e g r a v e . V i c t o r y o r d e a t h were t h e o n l y honourable ends; i t was p r e f e r a b l e to d i e w i t h honour t h a n t o l i v e i n shame and t h e contempt of o t h e r s (Evans 1997: 50-4;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 33-71.

Y e t t h e r e were l i g h t e r o b l i g a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e Young:

h u n t i n g , hawking, f e a s t i n g , d r i n k i n g , songs and a l 1 t h e joys of t h e h a l l (Evans 1997: 5 4 - 5 ) .

The r i t u a l ,

ceremony and t r a d i t i o n s of t h e h a l l

formed an important p a r t of m i l i t a r y l i f e ; t h e s e h a l l - j o y s a c t e d t o hold t o g e t h e r che i n d i v i d u a l s who formed t h e warband, l e n d i n g "a s e n s e of t i m e l e s s permanence" t o t h e group ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 33).

The f a i t h f u l

d i s c h a r g e of a w a r r i o r ' s d u t i e s , i n repayment f o x t h e s e joys,

f o r the

g i f t s and honours bestowed i n t h e h a l l , was known a s "earning one's mead" (Evans 1997: 5 8 ) and f i n a l p a v e n t was o f t e n made i n l i f e ' s b l o o d . The m i g r a t i o n p e r i o d provided an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r many an e a g e r w a r r i o r t o f i g h t f o r a l o r d e s t a b l i s h i n g h i m s e l f on t h e i s l a n d .

Aside

from s o c i a l advancernent and w e a l t h , t h e endemic w a r f a r e of t h e p e r i o d provided a g r e a t e r chance f o r l o r d s and w a r r i o r s a l i k e t o " s h a r e i n t h e e x c i t e m e n t and e x h i l a r a t i o n of b a t t l e " (Evans 1997: 5 7 ) .

R e g a r d l e s s of

t h e i r s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e c o r n i t a t u s , t h e p e r s o n a l motives of t h e i n d i v i d u a l w a r r i o r s recorded i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of the t i m e r e v e a l t h a t honour, g l o r y and r e p t a t i o n were t h e reward most sought a f t e r , and kings a s w e l l a s o r d i n a r y w a r r i o r s h e l d much t h e same a m b i t i o n s (Aïcock 1987: 305-9).

The

i n c l u s i o n of a c o u r t p o e t , b a r d o r scop seem t o h a v e been i n t e g r a l t o t h e developrnent a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e comitatus (Evans 1997: 7 4 ) .

Whether

t h e s e p o e t s remained w i t h o n e warband o r t r a v e l l e d f r o m r e g i o n t o r e g i o n , t e l l i n g s t o r i e s and g a t h e r i n g new o n e s w h e r e v e r t h e y went, their p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n was o n e o f p r o m o t i n g t h e s t a t u s o f t h e l o r d and h i s w a r r i o r s . B a r d i c d u t i e s i n v o l v e d r e c i t a t i o n o f e u l o g i s t i c and n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y a n d it seens t o h a v e been common f o r a e x p e d i t i o n s and r a i d s .

SCOP

t o accompany ~ h warband e on

Most l i k e l y t h i s p o s i t i o n was f i l l e d by someone

w i t h k i n t i e s to t h e warband, a l t h o u g h s h a r i n g t h e h a r d s h i p s and d a n g e r s o f b a t t l e would have s e r v e d t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e bond between scop and comitatus and would have a f f o r d e d him t h e i r r e s p e c t

(Evans 1997: 7 4 - 8 1 ) .

Woden's g i f t o f i n s p i r a t i o n t o t h e scop was o f t h e same n a t u r e a s h i s g i f t o f e x h i i a r a t e d b a t t l e f u r y t o t h e w a r r i o r ; t h e a s s o c i a t i o n may b e s e e n a s " t y p i c a l o f warband r e l i g i o s i t y "

( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 3 5 ) .

Fame and d i s g r a c e were t h e e s s e n c e o f p u b l i c l i f e and p r o v i d e d n a t u r a l sanctions t o behaviour, essential.

s o t h e p u b l i c i z i n g o f r e p u t a t i o n s was

I n t h e Anglo-saxon world,

t h e l o r d ' s and t h e r e t a i n e r s '

r e p u t a t i o n s Lay i n t h e hands o f t h e scop. I t would h a v e been u n l i k e l y f o r a scop t o c r i t i c i z e h i s own l o r d and equally f o o l i s h f o r a w a r r i o r t o e a r n t h e e n m i t y o f t h e h a l l p o e t (Evans 1997: 7 4 - 8 1 ) .

The r e c i t a t i o n o f

h e r o i c p o e t r y r e i n f o r c e d t h e i d e a l s o f t h e comitatus a n d t h e " i n f l u e n c e o f h e r o i c l i t e r a t u r e , o r a l l y composed and r e c i t e d i n h a l l b e f o r e a receptive audience, should n o t be underestimated"

( E v a n s 1997: 8 3 ) .

Such

p o e t r y , its c r e a t i o n and i t s c e r e m o n i a l d e c l a m a t i o n " w e r e f u n c t i o n s of t h e communal l i f e and c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t r i b a l c o h e s i o n and i d e n t i t y " ( E v a n s 1997: 8 3 ) .

This poetry provided a consistent

exemplar and mode1 o f b e h a v i o u r f o r members o f t h e warband, r e i n f o r c i n g v a l u e s and b e l i e f s w h i l e condemning a c t s d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e whole.

As

shown by h i s t o r i c a l examples, s u c h i d e a l s o f t e n m a n i f e s t e d themselves i n l i f e , on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , i n e x i l e and i n t h e h a l l (Evans 1997: 8 3 - 4 ) . W i t h i n Anglo-Saxon

society, t h e h a l l w a s n o t merely a place of

r e s i d e n c e b u t a n image which w a s u s e d as a p o s i t i v e metaphor, r e p r e s e n t i n g the b e s t t h a t l i f e h a d t o o f f e r ; i t was a c i r c l e o f l i g h t , p e a c e and s a f e t y e n c l o s e d by d a r k n e s s , d i s c o r n f o r t and d a n g e r (Hume 1 9 7 4 : 64).

The " c o n c e p t o f t h e h a l l w a s a f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i o - c u l t u r a l s u p p o r t

t h a t gave s t r e n g t h and v i t a l i t y t o t h e warband t o which i t gave s h e l t e r " (Evans 1997: 8 9 ) .

The h a l l ' s s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h i s r e g a r d is comparable

t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e s c o p and h i s p o e t r y .

Indeed,

t h e i m p o r t a n c e g i v e n the h a l l a s a metaphor f o r v a l u e s o f t h e t i m e s may

b e s t be s e e n i n t h e image o f t h e r u i n e d h a l l which is used " t o s i g n i f y t h e t r a n s i e n c e o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s which g a v e men t h e i r c h a n c e o f e a r t h l y s e c u r i t y and happiness"

(Hume 1974: 7 0 ) .

The h a l l ' s s u p p o r t i n g

r o l e was e f f e c t e d t h r o u g h i t s l a y o u t and c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h r o u g h t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t t o o k p l a c e t h e r e (Evans 1997: 8 9 ) .

Prirnary amongst t h e s e

a c t i v i t i e s was t h e communal d r i n k i n g , t h e s h a r i n g o f t h e cup o f mead, which c r e a t e d a " f i c t i v e k i n s h i p " between h a l l comrades and which "must a l s o be viewed a s h a v i n g some of t h e a s p e c t s o f a c u l t i c a c t " ( E n r i g h t 1996: 1 7 ) .

T h e cup ceremony was aimed a t c r e a t i n g a bond of l o y a l t y .

Liquor was u s e d b e c a u s e i t "was t h e medium t h r o u g h which one a c h i e v e d

e c s t a s y and t h u s communion w i t h t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l " ( E n r i g h t 1996: 1 7 ) ; i t was, a f t e r a l l , t h e g i f t o f Woden. The h a l l was a l s o t h e p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g f o r f u r t h e r h a l l - j o y s .

Its

w a l l s w e r e hung w i t h t a p e s t r i e s and s t a n d a r d s , w i t h war t r o p h i e s , weapons and s h i e l d s , w i t h r e m i n d e r s o f v i c t o r y and t h e r e w a r d s t o be g a i n e d i n b a t t l e d i s p l a y e d i n t h e Company o f h a l l f e l l o w s ; it p r o v i d e d t h e s e t t i n g f o r vowc o f l o y a l t y and b o a s t s of d e e d s t o corne, and a f i t t i n g p l a c e f o r t h e l o r d ' s p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n and p r a i s e o f a w a r r i o r ' s s e r v i c e .

It is

no wonder t h a t t h e p o e t r y o f t h e p e r i o d c e l e b r a t e d t h e h a l l a s a p h y s i c a l symbol f o r t h e i d e a l s o f t h e e n t i r e c o m i t a t u s system.

The h a l l d o m i n a t e d

t h e Rnglo-Saxon l a n d s c a p e i n a l i t e r a l s e n s e , s t a n d i n g l o f t y and w i d e g a b l e d (Hume 1 9 7 4 : 6 4 ) , b u t a l s o i n a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e a p p e a r i n g i n

p o e t i c t e x t a s t h e f o c u s and c e n t e r o f t h e e n t i r e community (Evans 1997: 93;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 36) .''

The R o l e of Women

D e s p i t e t h e male b i a s i n t h e w r i t t e n r e c o r d s , something of t h e r o l e and status o f Anglo-saxon women can s t i l l be d i s c e r n e d .

From t h e

e a r l i e s t laws, w e f i n d t h a t a woman's s o c i a l s t a t u s was d e t e m i n e d by t h a t of h e r f a t h e r and d i d n o t change w i t h rnarriage; she r e t a i n e d t h e s t a n d i n g s h e had a c q u i r e d a t b i r t h and k e p t h e r own wergild.

The

c h i l d r e n of t h e m a r r i a g e , however, i n h e r i t e d t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s from t h e i r f a t h e r (Loyn 1974: 2 0 7 ) .

The n e x t most i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n f o r a

free woman was h e r m a r i t a l s t a t u s , w i t h widows sometimes a c h i e v i n g a d e g r e e o f independence and s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t s h a r e d by maidens and m a r r i e d women (Ross 1985: 9 ) . B e t r o t h a l s r e q u i r e d t h e agreement of t h e p r o s p e c t i v e b r i d e and undor t h e laws of e e l b e r t O£ Kent, women had t h e r i g h t t o l e a v e a d i s p l e a s i n g m a r r i a g e w i t h a s h a r e o f t h e communal property.

If t h e w i f e t c o k t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h h e r , s h e was e n t i t l e d t o

h a l f t h e p r o p e r t y ( F e l l 1 9 8 4 : 57-8)

.

A form of elopement w a s a l s o

r e c o g n i z e d ; i f t h e woman w e r e d e s i r o u s o f e n d i n g h e r m a r r i a g e i n o r d e r t o

live w i t n a n o t h e r , s h e might a l l o w h e r s e l f t o be abducted by h e r new suitor.

A f t e r t h e a b d u c t i o n , t h e l o v e r would pay t h e a p p r o p r i a t e wergild

amount t o t h e 'former husband, c o v e r i n g t h e b r i d e p r i c e o f a new w i f e . W e r g i l d payments a l s o p r o v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t r a p e and s e d u c t i o n

a l t h o u g h t h e c o n s e n t r e q u i r e d f o r an elopement would have meant l i t t l e t o " a b d u c t o r s o f s u f £ i c i e n t power, e s p e c i a l l y i n c a s e s where t h e women were c a p t i v e s of war"

(Ross 1985: 1 2 ) .

If no compensation w e r e forthcoming,

t h e woman's husband o r h e r k i n s h i p members w e r e e n t i t l e d t o e x a c t p h y s i c a l punishment on t h e o f f e n d e r ( F e l l 1984: 67; Ross 1985: 10). A f t e r t h e c o n v e r s i o n , t h e Church r e p r o a c h e d t h e E n g l i s h f o r t h e i r pagan h a b i t s of m a r r y i n g t h e i r own k i n o r k e e p i n g o t h e r wornen i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r l a w f u l w i f e (Fe11 1984: 7 2 ) .

The Anglo-Saxons

had brought t h e

s y s t e m o f concubinage w i t h them from t h e C o n t i n e n t and i t was r e l a t i v e l y widespread arnong t h e upper c l a s s , l a s t i n g u n t i l t h e Norman Conquest (Ross 1985: 6,

14, 18).

Under t h e e a r l y laws of Kent,

" t h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n "

t h a t m a r r i a g e " e x i s t e d a s a s o c i a l model, with r e f e r e n c e t o which o t h e r l i a i s o n s w e r e d e f i n e d a s unlawful"

(Ross 1985: 11).

I n s t e a d , t h e r e were

s e v e r a l ways o f e n t e r i n g i n t o a r e c o g n i z e d s e x u a l union with a woman (Ross 1985: 11.). Men were allowed a number of s e x u a l p a r t f i e r s ,

one of

them b e i n g a l e g a l w i f e t o whom h e had been f o r m a l l y b e t r o t h e d ,

and

o t h e r s b e i n g concubines (Ross 1985: 6-14),

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a man might

have a p u b l i c l y recognized c o n s o r t b u t no l e g a l w i f e . Though t h e l e g a l s t a t u s f o r a concubine w a s not d e f i n e d , s h e d i d have c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l l y determined p r i v i l e g e s and h e r c h i l d r e n i n h e r i t e d from t h e i r f a t h e r if he s o wished i t .

The p o s i t i o n of t h e concubine i n Anglo-Saxon

s o c i e t y was n o t a d i s h o n o u r a b l e one f o r i n t h e e a r l y years of t h e Migration P e r i o d , s h e w a s a member o f t h e household.

Her power and

s t a t u s seems t o have o f t e n been a m a t t e r of t h e dynamics of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e i n d i v i d u a l man and woman and was n o t s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d by l a w o r t r a d i t i o n (Ross 1985: 6 ) . C h a r t e r s and w i l l s show i n s t a n c e s o f t h e e q u a l i t y o r independence of women, b u t f o r t h e most p a r t t h e y p r e s e r v e a p i c t u r e of male economic dominance, a t l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o l a n d ( H a r k e 1997: 132). Women are, howevex,

r e p r e s e n t e d i n more than a q u a r t e r of t h e s u r v i v i n g w i l l s and i t

a p p e a r s , from t h e t y p e s of goods which t h e y bequeathed, t h a t women may have c o n t r o l l e d a s p e c i f i c type o f w e a l t h .

The items i n c l u d e d i n Anglo-

Saxon women's w i l l s were predominantly household f u r n i s h i n g s , b e d c l o t h e s , w a l l hangings, t a p e s t r i e s and o t h e r t e x t i l e p r o d u c t s ( F e l l 1984: 40-6). Items s i m i l a r t o t h o s e which women l e f t t o t h e i r s o n s and t h e women o f t h e i r households a r e n o t a b l y a b s e n t from t h e w i l l s o f men i n t h e same p e r i o d s u g g e s t i n g a wornen's r i g h t t o bequeath and i n h e r i t c e r t a i n t y p e s of w e a l t h . Furthermore, a f t e r t h e a d v e n t of C h r i s t i a n i t y , r e c o r d s show t h a t h i g h e r s t a t u s women o f t e n p r e s e n t e d churches and m o n a s t e r i e s w i t h

g i f t s o f v e s t m e n t s , a l t a r c l o t h s and w a l l - h a n g i n g s , t h e B a t t l e o f Maldon,

For i n s t a n c e , a f t e r

"Byrhtnod's widow gave a wall-hanging d e p i c t i n g h i s

deeds t o E l y i n h i s memory" ( F e l l 1 9 8 4 : 4 6 ) .

There i s no r e a s o n t o

b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s p r a c t i c e was n o t t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n f o r t h e d o n a t i o n of t e x t i l e p r o d u c t s by t h e women who produced thern. There was one p a r t i c u l a r form o f r e a l e s t a t e which women d i d have c o n t r o l o f , and t h i s w a s l a n d r e c e i v e d a s a morgengifu o r morning g i f t . I n Anglo-saxon

s o c i e t y , t h e morning g i f t , a form o f b r i d e p r i c e ,

was p a i d

d i r e c t l y t o the new w i f e and n o t t o h e r f a m i l y . I f a woman d i e d c h i l d l e s s , t h e l a n d , l i v e s t o c k , j e w e l l e r y o r o t h e r items g i v e n as morgengifu went t o h e r k i n , n o t t o h e r husband; l a n d r e c e i v e d a s a morning g i f t was i n c l u d e d i n t h e w i l l s o f Anglo-saxon women ( F e l l 1 9 8 4 : 56-7).

A b r i d e w e a l t h s y s t e m is o f t e n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s o c i e t y where

women p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n food and c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n and it i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e morçengifu t r a d i t i o n i s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n t roLe Anglo-saxon women p l a y e d i n f a r m i n g and c l o t h manufacture (Harke 1997: 1 3 2 ) .

Given t h e e x c l u s i v e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t e x t i l e t o o l s w i t h t h e

b u r i a l s o f women i n t h i s t i m e p e r i o d ,

t h e r i g h t t o disposition of t e x t i l e

p r o d u c t s e v i d e n c e d i n women's w i l l s and t h e u s e o f b o l t s o f c l o t h a s a form of c u r r e n c y , i t can b e a r g u e d t h a t i t was t h e i r r o l e a s weavers which e a r n e d women t h e s u b s t a n t i a l b r i d e w e a l t h p a i d t o them and a c e r t a i n economic power and autonomy i n Anglo-Saxon s o c i e t y

.

H i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s p r o v i d e examples o f women who h e l d a d e g r e e of economic, p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y power.

The Anglo-saxon C h r o n i d e r e f e r s

t o Queen Seaxburh o f Wessex who r u l e d a f t e r Cenwealh's death i n 672, and later to Æ'elflzd,

t h e Lady o f t h e Mercians and d a u g h t e r o f King A l f r e d

of Wessex, who r u l e d Mercia a f t e r h e x h u s b a n d ' s d e a t h from 911-918. Æ'elburh,

t h e w i f e of King I n e o f Wessex, a p p e a r s t o have had some r o l e

i n m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p , s i n c e s h e was c r e d i t e d w i t h having d e s t r o y e d Taunton d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f h e r husband ( F e l l 1984: 9 1 ) .

There i s a l s o a

h i n t i n Beowulf t h a t Hodgar's d a u g h t e r , Freawaru would l e a d h e r own f o l l o w e r s a b r o a d on m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s ( F e l l 1984: 91; Harke 1997: 1301. Bede a l s o makes mention of s e v e r a l r o y a l o r n o b l e women who had enough

i n f l u e n c e t o c o n v i n c e t h e i r husbands t o c o n v e r t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , and o f o t h e r s who p l a y e d i m p o r t a n t l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s i n t h e e a r l y Church, rnainly a s a b b e s s e s (HE IV.21).

These p o s i t i o n s would riot have been p o s s i b l e had

n o t s i m i l a r l e v e l s o f a u t h o r i t y b e e n a v a i l a b l e t o women i n contemporary s e c u l a r s o c i e t y ( F e l l 1984: 13; Harke 1997: 130-1). Following t h e Germanic t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e p r o p h e t i c powers o f Anglo-saxon matrons were r e s p e c t e d and t h e i r c o u n s e l s o u g h t ( E n r i g h t 1996: 2 8 4 ; Meaney 1989: 12; Owen 1981: 61). We know from T a c i t u s t h a t Germanic s e e r e s s e s on t h e C o n t i n e n t w e r e h e l d i n h i g h e s t e e m (Samplonius 1995: 7 2 ) ; i t was t h e y who c a s t l o t s t o d e c i d e t h e e x p e d i e n c y O £ w a r f a r e (Meaney 1990: 159).

Icelandic sources give

e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p r o p h e s y i n g women, and t h e f i g u r e o f t h e v o l v a , a kind o f s h a m a n i s t i c sibyl, is w e l l recorded i n t h e Sagas (Samplonius

1995: 72-3; G l o s e c k i 1989: 96-101).

I n E i r i k s Saga, t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f

t h e seance conducted by t h e spokana o r seeress, B o r b j o r g , i s so "rernarkable f o r i t s minute d e t a i l " ,

t h a t i t s u g g e s t s s u c h "shamanic

r i t u a l p e r s i s t e d into t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a " ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 97; a l s o Davidson 1988: 161-2).

The s p a k o n a f i g u r e of t h e Sagas c a r r i e s a s t a f f

and a pouch o f animal s k i n s t h a t c o n t a i n t h e m u l e t s r e q u i r e d i n t h e ceremony.

She s i t s on a high p l a t f o r m t o perform h e r r i t u a l s , r e v e a l i n g

f o r t u n e s and p r e d i c t i n g t h e w e a t h e r (Glosecki 1989: 96-100; Davidson 1988: 161-2).

I n Anglo-saxon England, women were t h e f a m i l y h e a l e r s and

h e r b a l i s t s ( D i c k i n s o n 1993: 5 4 ; Meaney 1981: 250-60; 1989: 10, 19). From t h e p e n i t e n t i a l s , we l e a r n t h a t t h e Church s u s p e c t e d Anglo-saxon women o f d i v i n i n g and working forms of magic o v e t t h e i r weaving (Meaney 1981: 160; 1989: 10, 19). The weaving t o o l s and m u l e t o r h e a l i n g bags found i n

c e r t a i n Anglo-saxon women's b u r i a l s p r o v i d e an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l i n k t o such p r a c t i c e s .

As d i s c u s s e d b o t h above and l a t e r i n C h a p t e r I V , t h e

Anglo-saxon womanrs r o l e a s webbe o r weaver was c o n n e c t e d t o a s y s t e m o f b e l i e f s which l i n k e d ~ e r m a n i cwomen w i t h a goddess o f weaving and prophesy. T h i s r o l e may a l s o be d e t e c t e d i n the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d i n r i c h l y f u r n i s h e d Anglo-Saxon women's b u x i a l s which r e v e a l d e p o s i t s o f weaving implements, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e weaving b a t t e n , g o l d b r a c t e a t e s which a r e connected w i t h t h e c u l t of Woden and t h e g i f t of prophesy, and c r y s t a l b a l l s which have t a l i s m a n i c o r m u l e t i c q u a l i t i e s . T r a d i t i o n a l s c h o l a r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s n o t r e c o g n i z e d t h e r o l e of women w i t h i n t h e comitatus s t r u c t u r e (Evans 1997: 9 6 ) .

More r e c e n t l y ,

s t u d i e s which have focused more d i r e c t l y on t h e r o l e o f Anglo-saxon women have shown t h a t women d i d perform f u n c t i o n s which s u p p o r t e d and reinforced t h e ideology of t h e warrior-oriented

s o c i e t y and c o n t r i b u t e d

t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , maintenance and c o h e s i o n of t h e warband.

As

Davidson (1989: 1 3 ) h a s shown, women and g i r l s composed songs f o r t h e i r d a n c e s which p r a i s e d t h e deeds and accornplishments o f t h e young w a r r i o r h e r o e s and encouraged them t o p e r f o r m even g r e a t e r d e e d s o f b r a v e r y . Wornen w e r e among t h o s e who s u p p l i e d a r m i e s on t h e move and were a l s o p r e s e n t , w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n , on t h e s i d e l i n e s of b a t t l e a s weccend", e x h o r t i n g and encouraging t h e f i g h t e r s t h r o u g h word and sometimes o b s c e n e g e s t u r e ( E n r i g h t 1996: 5 9 ; E n r i g h t 1 9 9 8 : 3 0 6 ) .

The S c a n d i n a v i a n s o u r c e s

show t h a t women a c t e d a s i n c i t e r s o r whetters provoking t h e i r men t o t a k e a c t i o n o r vengeance a g a i n s t an enemy ( J o c h e n s 1996: 162-203). Much o f t h e f i g h t i n g of t h e p e r i o d was i n d i v i d u a l combat o r one s m a l l group a g a i n s t another.

The t a u n t "played a p r a c t i c a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l r o l e " ( E n r i g h t

1998: 3 0 6 ) , provoking a w a r r i o r t o d o h i s utmost.

They may have been

" i n t e n d e d t o d r i v e him t o berserkr f u r y s o he might h u r l h i s e n t i r e b e i n g a t honour and v i c t o r y " , a t t h e p u r s u i t o f mzrd o r fame ( d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n C h a p t e r I V ) ( E n r i g h t 1998: 306)

.

The e f f e c t of the c o n d e m a t i o n o r

p r a i s e o f women f o r t h e e f f o r t s of men i n b a t t l e is a l s o w e l l known from t h e t i m e of T a c i t u s who r e p o r t s t h a t t h e Germanic w a r r i o r ' s c o u r a g e was s p u r r e d on by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w a r r i o r knew t h a t women were t h e

w i t n e s s e s t o h i s b r a v e r y ( E n r i g h t 1996: 58; Germania V I I ) .

Tacitus'

r e p o r t s o f women a s " s t i m u l a t o r s of c o u r a g e , w i t n e s s e s t o b r a v e r y , demanders a n d c o u n t e r s [ a n d t r e a t e r s ] o f wounds, e n t r e a t e r s and c o u n s e l l o r s " is confirmed from o t h e r s o u r c e s ( E n r i g h t 1996: 5 9 ) . Comparative m a t e r i a l s f r o m contemporary C e l t i c and C l a s s i c a l G r e e k c u l t u r e a s w e l l a s e t h n o g r a p h i c a l d a t a add w e i g h t t o t h i s c o n c l u s i o n ( E n r i g h t 1996: 59; 1998: 305). It is a t t h e aristocratie l e v e l , however, t h a t women c a n be s e e n

p e r f o r m i n g on more t h a n a p e r i p h e r a l level. T h e poem Beowulf g i v e s t h e b e s t example o f a n o b l e woman's p l a c e w i t h i n t h e warband ( E n r i g h t 1988:171) a l t h o u g h t h i s womanfs r o l e as c u p b e a r e r a n d a d v i s e r i s a l s o confirmed i n t h e gnomic verse o f t h e Maxims II ( E n r i g h t 1988: 176; Meaney 1990: 1 6 7 ) .

I n t h e poem,

W e a l h p e o w , t h e c h i e f t a i n Hrodgarfs w i f e ,

p r e s e n t s a v e s s e 1 o f mead o r wine t o t h e w a r r i o r s o f t h e cornitatus i n a c e r e m o n i a l o r r i t u a l c o n t e x t . However, a s E n r i g h t (1988, 1 9 9 6 ) has c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e d , t h e a c t i v i t i e s p e r f o r m e d b y t h e l a d y o f t h e h a l l go w e l l beyond t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f d o m e s t i c d u t i e s .

A d e t a i l e d examination

o f t h e t e x t u a l s o u r c e s a s w e l l a s t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e Bas p r o v e n

t o be s i g n i f i c a n t i n showing t h a t " c o n t r a r y t o cornmon a s s u m p t i o n , t h e r o y a l c o n s o r t n o r m a l l y p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t ... r o l e i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of o r d e r and h i e r a r c h y among t h e members o f t h e warband"

( E n r i g h t 1988:

1 7 1 ) . J u s t as o t h e r women have s e r v e d t o b i n d f a m i l i e s i n a l l i a n c e s , s o t h e l a d y o f t h e h a l l a c t e d t o a c h i e v e c o h e s i o n and u n i t y o f p u r p o s e between t h e l o r d and h i s f o l l o w e r s i n t h e r o y a l h a l l ( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 5 ) . R e f e r r e d t o i n t h e s o u r c e s a s t h e freoduwebbe o r fribusibb f o l c a " , l i t e r a l l y t h e "peaceweaver" o r "peacebond o f t h e p e o p l e "

(Beowulf 1942,

2017), t h e l a d y o r webbe f i g u r e s e r v e d a s the d e l e g a t e o f t h e k i n g , p e r f o r m i n g a number o f i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s .

S h e g a v e g i f t s o f g o l d and

o f t e x t i l e s t o cement t h e l o y a l t y and e n h a n c e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e

v o l a t i l e warband ( E n r i g h t 1988: 170-6;

Owen 1981: 6 1 ) .

The o r d e r i n

which s h e moved t h r o u g h t h e h a l l w i t h t h e c e r e m o n i a l cup d e t e r m i n e d t h e

h i e r a r c h y o f t h e band,

t h e o r d e r o f service e s t a b l i s h i n g e a c h w a r r i o r ' s

p l a c e w i t h i n t h e comitatus, f r o m t h e k i n g o r warband l e a d e r downwards ( E n r i g h t 1988: 170-6;

1996: 2-11).

T h i s c u p ceremony s t a r t e d and

c u l m i n a t e d a t t h e g i f s t o l , t h e g i f t - c h a i r o f t h e warband l e a d e r which was "a s p e c i a l , e v e n h o l y , p l a c e which t h e u n w o r t h y d a r e n o t a p p r o a c h " ( E n r i g h t 1996: 5 ) .

While many h a v e r e c o g n i z e d Wealh@eowls r o l e a s a

freoduwebbe o r p e a c e w e a v e r (Owen 1981: 61), t h i s term n o t o n l y d e n o t e s "women g i v e n i n m a r r i a g e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e p e a c e f l b u t also r e f e r s t o the r o l e p e r f o r m e d b y l o r d s T wives when t h e y g i v e g i f t s , s p e a k freondlapu

wordum o r "words o f f r i e n d s h i p " ,

w i t n e s s f o r m a l o a t h s and f u n c t i o n a s

d i p l o m a t s t o c o n s t r u c t bonds o f a l l e g i a n c e between t h e l o r d and t h e members of h i s comitatus ( E n r i g h t 1996: 21-2;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 37).

These women a l s o a c t e d a s whetters o r weccend on o c c a s i o n and t h e words t h e y spoke when p r e s e n t i n g t h e cup o f mead t o t h e h e r o w e r e c a l c u l a t e d t o

e l i c i t h i s p r o m i s e o r b e o t i 7 t o p e r f o m sorne f e a t o r d e e d o f b r a v e r y i n o r d e r t o win mærd o r fame ( E n r i g h t 1996: 4 0 ;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 3 6 ) .

Given t h e i r r o l e a s w h e t t e r s o r e x h o r t e r s , Germanic women had a s e c u r e n i c h e a s j u d g e r s o f r e p u t a t i o n . The c o n t i n u i t y o f t h i s f u n c t i o n p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n s t h e webbels s p e e c h making r i g h t s i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e warband when she s p e a k s words o f p r a i s e a n d a w a i t s t h e w a r r i o r ' s b o a s t o f g r e a t e r d e e d s t o corne ( E n r i g h t 1996: 5 9 ) .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between

women, t h e service o f l i q u o r and i n i t i a t i o n i n t o l o r d s h i p i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l , a s is

t h e l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l i n t i m a c y between

Germanic w a r l o r d s and p r o p h e t i c women ( E n r i g h t 1996: 6 0 ) . who were r e v e r e d a s sibyls w i e l d e d some i n f l u e n c e . La Tène p e r i o d i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y AD,

Germanic women

From t h e end o f t h e

s u c h women worked c l o s e l y w i t h

t h e l e a d e r s of Germanic warbands; t h e i r p o s i t i v e p r o p h e s i e s i n f l u e n c e d t h e morale o f t h e t r o o p s .

I t seems t h e w a r l e a d e r c o n t r o l l e d a c c e s s t o

t h e sibyl a s o r a c l e and t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e from t h e C o n t i n e n t t h a t s u c h l e a d e r s x e g u l a r l y m a i n t a i n e d p r o p h e t i c women t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l on t h e i r b e h a l f . F o r instance, C i v i l i s ernployed t h e services

of Veleda, Ganna t h o s e o f Masgos and Vitellius t h o s e of a woman o f t h e Chatti ( E n r i g h t 1996: 6 4 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e l e a d e r and t h e

p r o p h e t e s s was e v e n t u a l l y c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d t h ~ o u g hm a r r i a g e and t h e p r o p h e t e s s ' s r o l e became c r u c i a l t o t h e maintenance and p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e comitatus i n s t i t u t i o n ( E n r i g h t 1 9 9 6 : 64-80).

The l o r d ' s w i f e i s

c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h h i s a u t h o r i t y and s h e h e l p s t o a f f i r m t h a t The l a d y ' s o r w e b b e ' s s y m b o l i c s t a t u s i s b o t h

a u t h o r i t y i n v a r i o u s ways.

a n c i e n t and w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d .

"Many s o u r c e s a s f a r back as t h e

M i g r a t i o n P e r i o d r e f e r t o t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e queen a s a t e c h n i q u e f o r gaining legitimacy",

and even t h e n i t a p p e a r s t r a d i t i o n a l ( E n r i g h t 1996: Germanic c l a m t o t h e t h r o n e were e x p r e s s e d

69; a l s o Chaney 1970: 2 7 ) .

i n c o h a b i t a t i o n w i t h t h e former r u l e r ' s w i f e and t h e c a p t u r e o f h i s thesaurus, i n c l u d i n g h i s t a b l e w a r e which was an i m p o r t a n t symbol o f h i s

a b i l i t y t o f e e d and care f o r h i s p e o p l e ( E n r i g h t 1996: 6 9 ) . tradition,

I n Germanic

t h e queen is o f t e n regarded a s t h e g u a r d i a n o f t h e r o y a l

i n s i g n i a which have emblematic s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e m a r r i a g e of a conqueror t o t h e f o r m e r r u l e r ' s w i f e , t h e r e f o r e , worked t o l e g i t i m i z e t h e new r u l e . Though t h e power o f t h e queen o r l a d y o f t h e h a l l depended upon t h a t o f h e r husband, women o f t h e Anglo-saxon n o b i l i t y , l i k e t h e i r Germanic c o u n t e r p a r t s , s e r v e d w i t h i n t h e warband a s b i n d e r ,

"weaver" o r webbe, and

o a t h c a r r i e r ; t h i s r o l e was e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e comitatus which was i t s e l f t h e most i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e Germanic world ( E n r i g h t 1996: 22-42)

.

Chapter III

Evidance from thr Burials

The Bruids

Throughout t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon p e r i o d , b u r i a l p r a c t i s e s remain remarkably s i m i l a r d e s p i t e minor v a r i a t i o n s from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n and from cemetery t o cemetery w i t h i n e a c h o f t h e Anglian, Saxon and J u t i s h areas.

The s i z e and o r g a n i z a t i o n of the b u r i a l ground, t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

and o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l b u r i a l s , t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e body w i t h i n t h e g r a v e and t h e l o c a t i o n o f o b j e c t s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e body a r e a l 1 important features f o r consideration.

"Whatever t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s

i n v o l v e d i n determining t h e form of t h e b u r i a l ,

[ t h e Anglo-Saxons]

b e l i e v e d t h e r e was an a p p r o p r i a t e form of b u r i a l for each i n d i v i d u a l " and "by t h i s means t h e b u r i a l r i t e s r e i t e r a t e d contemporary s o c i e t y " (Arnold 1997: 1 5 6 ) . A s n o t e d i n Chapter 1, some two hundred Anglo-saxon

a r e known i n Kent and t e n on t h e I s l e o f Wight.

b u r i a l grounds

These range i n size from

s i n g l e b u r i a l s (Coombe, E a s t r y I I ) t o l a r g e c e m e t e r i e s w i t h c l o s e t o t h r e e hundred i n t e r m e n t s (Dover, ~ a r r el a) .

Kentish g r a v e s o f t h e e a r l y

Anglo-saxon p e r i o d a r e predominantly o r i e n t e d w i t h heads t o t h e n o r t h , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e always d e v i a t i o n s w i t h i n a b u r i a l ground where, t h e most p a r t , b u r i a l s a r e never found symrnetrically i n rows.

for

There a r e

no i n d i c a t i o n s of marker Stones, a l t h o u g h it h a s now been shown t h a t t h e r e w e r e more s t r u c t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Anglo-Saxon

cemeteries than

was p r e v i o u s l y apparent (Arnold 1 9 9 7 : 156; Owen 1 9 8 1 : 7 3 ) .

I n e a s t Kent,

e v i d e n c e shows t h a t g r a v e s were sometimes covered w i t h tirnber s t r u c t u r e s ; p o s t h o l e s and l e d g e s a r e i n d i c a ~ i v eo f f e n c e s , b u i l d i n g s and i n d i v i d u a l wooden g r a v e m a r k e r s (Arnold 1 9 9 7 : 156) , b u t t h e e x a c t n a t u r e of t h e s e perishable features is uncertain. B u r i a l mounds a r e r a r e b e f o r e t h e seventh c e n t u r y , y e t barrow b u r i a l s came i n t o use i n Kent and on t h e Isle of Wight much e a r l i e r t h a n

i n o t h e r p a r t s o f Anglo-saxon England.

Whole c e m e t e r i e s o f barrow

b u r i a l s have been found i n b o t h t h e s e a r e a s (Owen 1981:75-7)

where

s e t t l e r s i n t h e e a r l y M i g r a t i o n P e r i o d t o o k o v e r p r e h i s t o r i c barrows f o r t h e i r own u s e . With t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a few c r e m a t i o n s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f K e n t i s h s e t t l e m e n t , t h e J u t e s o f Anglo-saxon England b u r i e d t h e i r dead i n shallow s i n g l e graves.

P o l h i l l i s especially notable f o r its multiple

b u r i a l s , i n c l u a i n g t r i p l e i n t e r n m e n t s , b u t o t h e r K e n t i s h s i t e s , Dover f o r i n s t a n c e , have a l s o r e v e a l e d d o u b l e b u r i a l s .

I n most cases, m u l t i p l e

b u r i a l s h o l d an a d u l t w i t h a c h i l d o r a n i n f a n t , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o i n s t a n c e s where two o r t h r e e a d u l t s have been p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e sarne grave.

"The g r a v e s t h e m s e l v e s Vary i n t h e i r shape, b e i n g s u b - r e c t a n g u l a r

o r more o v o i d , b u t r a r e l y i n the p a s t were d e t a i l s o f t h e s h a p e i n t h r e e dimensions r e c o r d e d t t (Arnold 1997: 1 5 6 ) . U t h o u g h t h e p r a c t i c e i s uncommon i n o t h e r p a r t s o f Anglo-saxon England, many Kentish b u r i a l s c o n t a i n e d wooden c o f f i n s , some showing s i g n s o f c o n t a c t w i t h f i r e (Owen 1981: 7 8 ) .

S i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n c e for t h e

p r e s e n c e of wooden b i e r s and l i n e n s h r o u d s i s a l s o p r e s e n t a t K e n t i s h b u r i a l sites. A s n o t e d i n Chapter 1, t h i s a n a l y s i s u s e s d a t a p r i r n a r i l y from t h e

Anglo-Saxori cernetery a t Buckland, n e a r Dover, i n Kent and from t h e b u r i a l s i t e a t C h e s s e l l Dom on t h e I s l e o f Wight.

Supplementary i n f o r m a t i o n i s

p r o v i d e d by o t h e r key K e n t i s h s i t e s which a l s o d a t e from t h e l a t e f i f t h t o e a r l y seventh centuries.

I n t h e s e J u t i s h a r e a s , t h e c o r p s e was l a i d

o u t w i t h c a r e . The b o d i e s a r e norrnally found on t h e i r b a c k s , extended o r s l i g h t l y f l e x e d (Arnold 1990: 1 6 7 ) .

Where b u r i a l o b j e c t s o c c u r , t h e y may

b e p e r s o n a 1 i t e m s t h a t were, i n l i f e , a t t a c h e d t o c l o t h i n g o r c a r r i e d on t h e p e r s o n and t h e r e i s "a d e g r e e O£ r e g u l a r i t y about t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a r t i f a c t s i n t h e graves, e s p e c i a l l y within individual cemeteries, a s though s u c h p o s i t i o n s were c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e "

(Arnold 1997: 1 6 0 ) .

R e g r e t t a b l y , i t i s now " d i f f i c u l t t o gauge t h e e x t e n t t o which c o s m e t i c s ,

leather-workings,

p a i n t and c a r v i n g were used" w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l " a s

s u r v i v i n g examples a r e r a r e o r n o n - e x i s t e n t "

and "we a r e f o r c e d t o

p e r c e i v e e a r l y Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y t ' s o f e l y " t h r o u g h t h o s e d u r a b l e a r t i f a c t s t h a t h a v e surviveci" (Arnold 1997: 1 0 0 ) . E a r l y Anglo-saxon

b u r i a l r i t u a l p u t a "remarkably s t r o n g e m p h a s i s

on g e n d e r d i s p l a y t h r o u g h a r t i f a c t s " w i t h " t h e m a j o r i t y o f a d u l t b u r i a l s " showing "a marked m a l e / f e m a l e dichotomyl' (Harke 1997: 1 3 2 ) . " t h e r e are gender-neutral

Although

b u r i a l s without diagnostic objects o r without

a n y g r a v e goods a t a l l w ( i n f a n t s and young c h i l d r e n , and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 4 p e r c e n t o f j u v e n i l e s and a d u l t s ) (Harke 1997: 1 3 2 ) , s u g g e s t i n g s t a t u s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , i t a p p e a r s t h a t g e n d e r i s t h e f i r s t , a n d age t h e s e c o n d , f a c t o r d e t e d n i n g t h e c h o i c e o f b u r i a l o b j e c t s (Arnold 1 9 9 7 : 1 8 4 ) . Wornen w e r e o f t e n b u r i e d w i t h a g r e a t e r number and v a r i e t y o f o b j e c t s t h a n

were men ( A r n o l d 1997: 182, 1 8 5 ) .

S t u d i e s which have compared a number

c e m e t e r i e s einphasize how much g r e a t e r i s t h e

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y Anglo-Saxon

v a r i e t y i n f e m a l e g r a v e items and how e v i d e n t i t is t h a t t h e male a n d f e m a l e h i e r a r c h i e s a r e n o t t h e same ( A r n o l d 1988: 150, 156; Pader 1980, 1 9 8 2 ) . Two o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e n o t e w o r t h y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s y m b o l i c , i d e a t i o n a l and socio-cultural s i g n i f i c a n c e of these b u r i a l objects.

The

f i r s t i s t h e r a r i t y o f u t i l i t a r i a n t o o l s f o r a g r i c u l t u r e , c a r p e n t r y , and m e t a l w o r k i n g ( A r n o l d 1997: 9 9 ) .

Secondly, i n "the m a j o r i t y

o f cases

where symbols o f l e a d e r s h i p a r e p r e s e n t [ t h e y ] a r e [ f o u n d i n ] f e m a l e g r a v e s o f t h e l a t e r s i x t h c e n t u r y and male g r a v e s of t h e e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r y " ( A r n o l d 1997 : 2 0 8 )

.

Kits, nbjrct Placanrnt and PatteEning E a r l y work assumed a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l a t i v e w e a l t h o f g r a v e o b j e c t s a n d t h e s t a t u s of i n d i v i d u a l s .

Studies such a s t h o s e

c o n d u c t e d b y P a d e r h a v e l o o k e d a t new ways o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e v a r i o u s b u r i a l o b j e c t s t o e a c h o t h e r and t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n whose g r a v e t h e y were i n c l u d e d .

Numerous c o m p a r a t i v e

s t u d i e s undertaken o v e r t h e l a s t decade o r s o have r e s u l t e d i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f "male" and "female" b u x i a l kits, composed of a l i m i t e d r a n g e of a r t i f a c t t y p e s .

Research h a s a l s o r e v e a l e d i n some cerneteries a

p a t t e r n t o t h e placement of t h e s e k i t s around t h e body w i t h i n t h e space o f t h e g r a v e (Arnold 1988: 143-162;

1997: 132-6,

182; Pader 1980, 1 9 8 2 ) .

The K i t s

I n h e r a n a l y s i s o f two E a s t Anglian c e m e t e r i e s , Pader (1980; 1982) i d e n t i f i e s f o u r c l a s s e s o f a r t i f a c t s found o n l y with wornen (brooches, beads, h o l d e r s and w r i s t c l a s p s ) and two c l a s s e s found o n l y w i t h men (shields, spears).

The b a s i c male k i t s c o n s i s t of a k n i f e , a s p e a r , a

b u c k l e and a s h i e l d ; c o n t a i n e r s a r e a l s o "widely d i s t r i b u t e d among males b u t n o t t o t h e same e x t e n t a s t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e b a s i c k i t "

(Pader 1982:

99-100). The b a s i c female k i t c o n s i s t s of " a t l e a s t one brooch, a bead n e c k l a c e , a k n i f e and an implement h o l d e r " and, when s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n t h e cemetery i s c o n s i d e r e d , w r i s t c l a s p s a l s o ( P a d e r 1982: 1 0 1 ) . "The m a j o r i t y of t h e fully k i t t e d women have a d d i t i o n a l , non-basic i t e m s a s w e l l " such a s b u c k l e s and c o n t a i n e r s and, Pader (1982: 101) n o t e s , " i t i s n o t s o s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p r o c e s s t o d e t e r m i n e who is f u l l y k i t t e d among t h e females as it i s among t h e males"

.

With t h e male b u r i a l s , it

i s more " a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t a r t w i t h a b a s i c k i t and s u b t r a c t o b j e c t s i n o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e v a r i a b i l i t y " whereâs w i t h female b u r i a l s , a n a l y s i s b e g i n s a s w e l l w i t h t h e b a s i c k i t b u t a r t i f a c t s o r a t t r i b u t e s of d i a g n o s t i c v a l u e a r e added ( P a d e r 1982: 1 0 1 ) . Knives a r e t h e o n l y a r t i f a c t s i n t h e b a s i c female k i t which cut a c r o s s t h e male-fernale boundary w h i l e c o n t a i n e r s and b u c k l e s , which a l s o cut a c r o s s t h e boundary, a r e p a r t of t h e b a s i c a d u l t male k i t .

Only

among t h e males are a r t i f a c t s b o t h a g e and s e x f i n k e d ( t h e s h i e l d s , c e r t a i n containers, spears)

.

I n female b u r i a l s , t h e k n i f e c o r r e l a t e s t o

age, w h i l e a l 1 " o t h e r f o u r items i n t h e female b a s i c k i t a r e s e x l i n k e d , b u t n o t c o n s t r a i n e d b y age" ( P a d e r 1982: 1 0 3 ) .

P a d e r (1982: 1 3 0 ) a l s o found t h e ernphasis o n g e n d e r d i s p l a y t o be confirmed by o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i n h u m a t i o n s a n d t h e s t u d i e s o f Harke (1997: 1 3 3 ) and A r n o l d (1997: 162) c o n f i r m t h i s p o i n t . men w e r e d e p o s i t e d i n a f l e x e d p o s i t i o n .

More women t h a n

The o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e b o d i e s

a l s o d i f f e r e d , w i t h m e n ' s h e a d s more o f t e n t o t h e w e s t and women's more often t o the south.

Such t r a i t s l i n k t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f f e m a l e a d u l t s

w i t h t h a t o f c h i l d r e n a n d Pader h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t women and c h i l d r e n s h a r e d a s i m i l a r s t a t u s , d i f f e r e n t f r o m men (and by i m p l i c a t i o n , i n f e r i o r t o ) ( P a d e r 1982: 1 3 0 ) .

Harke, however, a r g u e s t h a t s i n c e g e n d e r - s p e c i f i c

d i f f e r e n c e s i n b u r i a l t r e a t m e n t Vary from c e r n e t e r y t o c e m e t e r y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n g e n d e r - l i n k e d r i t u a l b e h a v i o u r may a l s o i m p l y v a r i a t i o n i n g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s as w e l l ;

therefore,

women's s t a t u s

need n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d a s l o w e r t h a n t h a t of men ( H a r k e 1997: 1 3 3 ) . While t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e l i k e l y t o r e l a t e t o Anglo-Saxon p e r c e p t i o n s o f g e n d e r r o l e s , t h e f r e q u e n c y of weapons i n male b u r i a l s and t h e e x c l u s i v e appearance o f t e x t i l e - w o r k i n g t o o l s i n f e m a l e b u r i a l s need n o t l e a d t o t h e obvious i n t e r p r e t a t i o n :

" n o t a l 1 m a l e s b u r i e d w i t h weapons

had been w a r r i o r s " a n d " p r o b a b l y n o t a l 1 f e m a l e s b u r i e d w i t h [ t e x t i l e ]

t o o l s had been weavers o r s p i n n e r s " (Harke 1 9 9 7 : 1 3 4 ) .

That is not,

however, t o Say t h a t " w a r r i o r s " and "weavers" w e r e n o t p a r t of an i d e a l r o l e e n v i s i o n e d f o r t h e "spere-healf 0r and "spindle-healf" o f Angf O-Saxon society.

abject P l a c e m e n t and

Wtid Patterning

P a d e r ' s s t u d y of t h e two A n g l i a n cerneteries a l s o r e v e a l t h a t though t h e r e a r e few g r a v e s which are a b s o l u t e l y i d e n t i c a l , a number o f underlying p r i n c i p l e s prevail. "addition",

"substitution",

P a d e r u s e s t h e t e r m s "congruence",

and " d e v i a n c e "

( i n c l u d i n g b o t h p o s i t i v e and

n e g a t i v e d e v i a n c e ) to describe t h e p a t t e r n e d p l a c e m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e above d e s c r i b e d k i t s w i t h i n t n e g r a v e s a t H o l y w e l l Row and W e s t g a r t h Gardens ( P a d e r 1980; 1 9 8 2 ) .

Of these,

"the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e i n e f f e c t is

congruence" which can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from ' i d e n t i c a l ' which i m p l i e s "an a b s o l u t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between a n y two o r more compared e n t i t i e s , whereas congruence implies c o n s i s t e n c y and f i t " (Pader 1 9 8 2 : 1 1 4 ) .

Pader

(1982: 1 1 4 ) c o n s i d e r e d t'go g r a v e s t o be c o n g r u e n t i f s h e found "a r e g u l a r space-use on and around t h e body i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a r e g u l a r l y corresponding s k e l e t a l position". ~ c c o r d i n gt o h e r scheme, two b u r i a l s may b e c o n s i d e r e d congruent i f s e v e r a l key f e a t u r e s c o r r e s p o n d , s u c h a s s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n , placement o f brooches a t t h e s h o u l d e r o r p o s i t i o n of h a n g e r s a t t h e w a i s t i n female g r a v e s ( F i g u r e 23) o r placement of s p e a r s t o t h e r i g h t and s h i e l d s upon t h e c h e s t i n male b u r i a l s ( F i g u r e 2 4 ) .

Even t h e most l a v i s h l y f u r n i s h e d

g r a v e s may be c o n s i d e r e d c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e less w e l l - f u r n i s h e d s o l o n g a s t h e a d d i t i o n a l i t e m s i n t h e r i c h e r burial a r e supplemental t o but do n o t d i s p l a c e t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e ( P a d e r 1982: 1 1 8 ) . B u r i a l s a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d congruent s h o u l d one i t e m b e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r another.

The g e n e r a l s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e

g r a v e i t s e l f d o e s n o t Vary, and Pader (1982: 119-123) n o t e s how s u b s t i t u t i o n , l i k e a d d i t i o n , emphasises t h e importance o f s p a c e use as a means o f c a t e g o r i z i n g t h e s o c i a l world.

By s u b s t i t u t i n g o n e o b j e c t f o r

a n o t h e r , a p a r t i c u l a r s p a c e i s n o t l e f t empty.

This l e a d s t o t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l needed t o be f i l l e d , and t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e f i l l e d u s i n g o b j e c t s frorn some p a r t i c u l a r category.

A d d i t i o n a l o b j e c t s t a k e up o t h e r s p a c e s w i t h i n t h e g r a v e ,

p o s s i b l y i n d i c a t i n g a g r e a t e r number and v a r i e t y of r o l e s and s o c i a l relationships f o r the interred individual. Some g r a v e s d e v i a t e f r o m t h e norm and Pader h a s d i v i d e d them i n t o " n e g a t i v e " a n d " p o s i t i v e " d e v i a t i o n s (Pader 1982: 1 2 4 ) .

Positive

d e v i a n c e o c c u r s when a g r a v e d i f f e r s from t h e norm y e t f i t s t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e , v a r y i n g t h e usage o f s p a c e i n some ways b u t conforming i n others.

N e g a t i v e d e v i a n c e , o n t h e o t h e r hand, c a n be seen i n t h e unusual

o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e i t s e l f o r of t h e s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n . I t a l s o

r e f e r s t o t h e p r e s e n c e of a m u l t i p l e b u r i a l i n a cemetery o f s i n g l e burials.

An unusual placement o f k i t items w i t h i n t h e g r a v e c a n a l s o

mark deviancy a s might t h e b u r i a l o f extremely u n u s u a l o b j e c t s i n t h e absence of t h e normative s e t ( P a d e r 1982: 124-6)

.

I n some s e c t o r s of t h e Holywell cemetery, Pader ( 1 9 8 2 : 1 1 7 ) found t h a t " t h e p r i n c i p l e o f congruence might a l s o be a p p l i c a b l e i n u n i f y i n g t h e males and fernales", based on s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n i n g .

Otherwise, s h e

n o t e s t h a t t h e b u r i a l s o f women and c h i l d r e n t e n d t o form one group and t h e b u r i a l s of men a n o t h e r .

Pader (1982: 1 3 0 ) i n t e r p r e t s s e v e r a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f male b u r i a l ( s u c h a s t h e extended s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n ) a s "normative" ( a n d by i m p l i c a t i o n a s s u p e r i o r ) f e a t u r e s and t h e n p r o c e e d s t o compare female and c h i l d t r a i t s as " d e v i a t i o n s " from t h i s nom.

While t h i s assumption may be c r i t i c i z e d , h e r emphasis on space-use

w i t h i n a g r a v e a s a means o f c a t e g o r i z i n g t h e s o c i a l world and h e r a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c o b j e c t s and t h e i r s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n are s y m b o l i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( P a d e r 1982: 7 8 ) is s u g g e s t i v e .

Space use,

" l i k e t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c o r p s e and s k e l e t o n " , rnight " a l s o u s e f u l l y be c o n s i d e r e d a s one o f t h e l a r g e r f e a t u r e s o f t h e b u r i a l r i t u a l " and i t s e v i d e n c e sought as a means of r e c o g n i z i n g s o c i o - c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s (Pader 1982: 7 8 ) . "The f a c t t h a t an o b j e c t i s i n c l u d e d and used i n a p a r t i c u l a r manner must b e b o t h a r e l e v a n t and i m p o r t a n t c l u e t t t o how t h e Anglo-Saxon p e o p l e s c a t e g o r i z e d t h e i r s o c i a l world, whether r e a l o r i d e a l (Pader 1982: 8 0 ) .

For i n s t a n c e , i t h a s been p o i n t e d o u t ( H a r k e 1990: 36) t h a t

n o t a l 1 t h o s e b u r i e d w i t h weapons w e r e "warriors", others infirm or disabled.

A t t h e same time,

some b e i n g t o o Young,

"having p a r t i c i p a t e d i n

f i g h t i n g d i d n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y q u a l i f y a man f o r weapon b u r i a l " ;

interred

men e x h i b i t i n g s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r wounds i n c u r r e d i n b a t t l e were n o t always accorded a weapon b u r i a l (Harke 1 9 9 0 : 36). However,

few f o r e n s i c

s t u d i e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c t u a l c a u s e o f d e a t h have been conducted. S i n c e

s o f t t i s s u e i n j u r i e s cannot b e d i s c e r n e d , i t i s o f t e n i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e , w i t h o u t s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e , whether t h e d e c e a s e d was ever

wounded i n b a t t l e o r w h e t h e r he d i e d £rom s o m e t h i n g l i k e a blow t o t h e stomach which would l e a v e l i t t l e e v i d e n c e i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l record". Nevertheless,

from t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a t hand it d o e s a p p e a r t h a t t h e weapon

b u r i a l r i t e may i n d i c a t e a n i d e a l r a t h e r t h a n a n a c t u a l r o l e .

As such,

I n t h i s r e s p e c t , it i s

it may show a s c r i b e d a s w e l l a s a c h i e v e d s t a t u s .

important t o n o t e t h a t a l 1 a s p e c t s of each b u r i a l should not " i n i t i a l l y be c o n s i d e r e d a s i n d e p e n d e n t classes o f d a t a and examined s e p a r a t e l y t t , but instead interpreted a s "integral,

interdependent aspects of t h e

b u r i a l " and t r e a t e d as a u n i f i e d e n t i t y f o r a n a l y s i s ,

keeping t h e dynamic

and ambiguous n a t u r e o f m a t e r i a l symbolism i n mind ( P a d e r 1982: 7 9 ) .

Rasultn o f EUrther Studies

P a d e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e d a t a h a v e been c o r r o b o r a t e d by f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , a l t h o u g h as Arnold p o i n t s o u t , t h e p a t t e r n i n g o f a r t i f a c t s w i t h i n t h e g r a v e s a p p e a r s t o be s t r o n g e r i n some c e m e t e r i e s (Arnold 1997: 1 6 0 ) .

Y e t t h e c h o i c e o f o b j e c t s f o r i n c l u s i o n in b u r i a l i s

f a i r l y c o n s t a n t a c r o s s t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon p e r i o d ,

a n d is p a r t i c u l a r l y

n o t i c e a b l e among t h e r i c h e r o f t h e women's g r a v e s ( A r n o l d 1990: 173; 1997: 144, 1 8 2 ) .

I n h i s v a r i o u s reviews o f s i x t h and s e v e n t h c e n t u r y

c e m e t e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g samples from Kent and t h e Isle of Wight, Arnold a l s o n o t e s a s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n between p a r t i c u l a r g r a v e goods and t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s g e n d e r (Arnold 1988; 1990; 1 9 9 7 ) .

For him,

"keys, b e a d s a n d

b r o o c h e s are a s s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h fernales, a s weaponry i s w i t h males"

( A r n o l d 1997: 1 8 2 ) .

necklaces, buckles,

rings,

A r n o l d ' s analysis r e c o g n i z e s brooches, keys, weaving b a t t e n s ,

v e s s e l s i n t h e f e m a l e k i t s (Arnold 1988: 1 7 6 - 7 ) .

t o i l e t r y i t e m s and H i s analysis reveals

t h a t s p e a r s and b e a d s a r e t h e most d i a g n o s t i c a r t i f a c t s , b e i n g c l e a r l y gender-linked

(Arnold 1997: 1 8 2 ) .

The s p e a r i s t h e m o s t common g r a v e

o b j e c t , o c c u r r i n g i n o v e r 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e weapon b u r i a l s a n a l y z e d by Arnold (1997: 9 7 ) .

I t s h o u l d b e noted, however,

t h a t Arnold h a s l e f t t h e

most c o m o n o b j e c t s , k n i v e s a n d b u c k l e s , o u t o f h i s s t u d y s i n c e h e

b e l i e v e s " t h e y cause a h i g h e r rimer o f s m a l l s u b - d i v i s i o n s " t h a n "seems a c c e p t a b l e " (Arnold 1988: 1 4 8 ) .

Because of t h i s , w e a r e l e f t wondering

whether t h e s e o b j e c t s rnay p o s s i b l y form p a r t o f e i t h e r o r b o t h t h e b a s i c kits. N e v e r t h e l e s s , Arnold d o e s p o i n t o u t t h a t s i x t h c e n t u r y "male-rich g r a v e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a n e x t e n s i v e a r r a y of grave-goods,

always

( A r n o l d 1988: 1 7 5 ) .

i n c l u d i n g weapons and some form o f c o n t a i n e r "

Rich

wornenfs g r a v e s of t h e same p e r i o d "fonn an e q u a l l y c l e a r group i n most, b u t n o t a l l , a r e a s " and t h e y a r e " c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r i c h l y d e c o r a t e d d r e s s ornaments

...i n

most c a s e s b y a key and a c o i n , and i n a few c a s e s b y

p e r f o r a t e d spoons and c r y s t a l b a l l s " (Arnold 1 9 8 8 : 1 7 5 ) .

That t h i s same

t y p e of women's g r a v e may be found n o t o n l y i n Kent and t h e Isle o f Wight, where t h e r e a r e b e l i e v e d t o be s t r o n g l i n k a g e s , " b u t a l s o i n o t h e r p a r t s o f England as f a r n o r t h a s L e i c e s t e r s h i r e c a r r i e s a number o f important implications"

(Arnold 1988: 1 7 5 )

.

H e b e l i e v e s t h a t " t h e items

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s v e r y d i s t i n c t i v e form of f e m a l e r i c h b u r i a l w e r e used i n e v e r y d a y l i f e i n a s i m i l a r rnanner t o which t h e y a r e found as grave-goods,

f o r how e l s e would a s o c i a l n o m s u c h a s t h i s be t r a n s m i t t e d

o v e r s u c h a wide g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a . .

." (Arnold

1988: 1 7 8 ) .

"Poorer

g r a v e s which n e v e r t h e l e s s have some of t h e r a n g e of i t e m s found i n t h e r i c h e r examples

. . .

may r e p r e s e n t e m u l a t i o n o f t h e e l i t e i n r i c h e r

areas" (Arnold 1988: 1 7 8 ) .

F i n a l l y , A r n o l d f s r e s e a r c h shows t h a t while

r i c h male g r a v e s of t h e l a t e r s i x t h and e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s t e n d t o r e v e a l more v a r i e t y t h a n e a r l i e r examples, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n on weapons and c o n t a i n e r s remains;

a t t h e same time, r i c h women's g r a v e s o f t h i s

p e r i o d a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d and l a c k c o n s i s t e n c y (Arnold 1988: 179). According t o H a r k e ' s

(1989; 1990; 1 9 9 7 ) r e s e a r c h , which

i n c o r p o r a t e s d a t a from some f o r t y - s e v e n c e m e t e r i e s t h r o u g h o u t v a r i o u s r e g i o n s o f Anglo-saxon

England, t h e b a s i c "male k i t " c o n s i s t s o f weapons

and t o o l s ( e x c l u d i n g t e x t i l e - w o r k i n g t o o l s ) , w h i l e t h e basic "female k i t "

i n c l u d e s i t e m s o f adornment, o b j e c t s suspended from t h e b e l t , and textile-working.

Dress ornaments i n c l u d e brooches, beads and p i n s ; keys,

g i r d l e h a n g e r s and c h a t e l a i n e s make up t h e c a t e g o r y o f items suspended from t h e b e l t and s p i n d l e whorls, loom weights and weaving b a t t e n s are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t e x t i l e - w e a v i n g t o o l s (Harke 1997: 132). Weapon b u r i a l s a r e t h e primary f o c u s o f H a r k e ' s r e s e a r c h . He h a s found t h a t s p e a r s o c c u r i n most weapon b u r i a l s , s h i e l d s i n almost h a l f , swords i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y one o u t of t e n . Seaxes and axes appear i n l e s s t h a n 10 p e r c e n t of b u r i a l s .

P a t t e r n s of weapon combination can be

i d e n t i f i e d , a s w e l l a s p a t t e r n s o f weapon placement w i t h i n t h e g r a v e a s follows:

a s i n g l e s p e a r a l o n e , a s h i e l d and a s p e a r , a sword w i t h a

s h i e l d and/or a spear.

Alone o r i n combination, t h e s p e a r s a r e rnost

o f t e n found l y i n g t o t h e r i g h t of t h e head o r s h o u l d e r ; t h e sword, when p r e s e n t , l i e s c r a d l e d i n t h e l e f t a m o r a l o n g t h e left s i d e o f t h e body;

seaxes a r e p l a c e d a t t h e l e f t waist, where a l s o worn; as i f i n r e a c h of t h e r i g h t hand, a x e s a r e found along t h e x i g h t s i d e of t h e body; s h i e l d s a r e u s u a l l y p l a c e d h o r i z o n t a l l y over t h e body a l o n g t h e middle a x i s of t h e g r a v e , a l t h o u g h some a r e u p r i g h t a g a i n s t a s i d e o f t h e g r a v e p i t o r coffin (Figure 2 5 ) .

~ h i e l d sand swords may have been used a s

a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e b u r i a l r i t u a l ; t h e a g s p a t t e r n i s almost i d e n t i c a l f o r both. shield. 25-6;

Seaxes a r e found a l o n e o r w i t h a s p e a r b u t r a r e l y w i t h a Most a x e s a r e found without o t h e r weapons (Harke 1989: 52; 1 9 9 0 :

1992b: 65-9) ( T a b l e 3 ) .

Helmets and m a i l c o a t s a r e found i n o n l y a

h a n d f u l of v e r y r i c h b u r i a l s i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r r o l e a s symbols of r a n k o r

status (Harke 1990: 26; 1992a: 1 5 9 )

. Only

gradua1 changes over t i m e a r e

r e v e a l e d by c h r o n o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s , w i t h s i n g l e s p e a r and s e a x combinations i n c r e a s i n g i n frequency w h i l e s h i e l d and sword combinations d e c l i n e (Harke 1989: 55; 1992a: 1 5 9 ) .

While t h e x e a r e v a r i a t i o n s i n

weapon combinations from cemetery t o cemetery,

t h e y remain i n t e r p r e t a b l e

on a r e g i o n a l l e v e l (Harke 1989: 5 5 ) . O n a v e r a g e , weapon b u r i a l s a r e more r i c h l y f u r n i s h e d t h a n b u r i a l s

w i t h o u t weapons, having a g r e a t e r number and v a r i e t y of o b j e c t s and being accornpanied by more o b j e c t s made o f o r d e c o r a t e d w i t h p r e c i o u s rnetals (Harke 1990: 37; Harke 1992a: 1 5 7 ) .

They a l s o c o n t a i n e d a "much l a r g e r

number o f d r i n k i n g v e s s e l s " (Harke 1990: 3 8 ) .

Orinking v e s s e l s and

l i q u i d c o n t a i n e r s , i n c l u d i n g g l a s s v e s s e l s , bronze bound wooden vessels and b u c k e t s were found i n 13.8 p e r c e n t o f male weapon b u r i a l s . v e s s e l s i n t h e sample were found o n l y w i t h i n weapon b u r i a l s .

Bronze Harke

(1992: 152, 158) n o t e s t h a t a l 1 s u c h f e a s t i n g - r e l a t e d v e s s e l s b e l o n g t o

t h e r i c h e s t o f t h e weapons b u r i a l s , a l o n g w i t h t h e h i g h e r s t a t u s weapons, sword, s e a x , and axe.

As a r e s u l t o f examinations of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ,

s k e l e t a l and e p i g e n e t i c t r a i t s £rom o v e r 1 , 6 0 0 Anglo-Saxon b u r i a l s , Harke s u g g e s t s t h a t , " i n t h e f i f t h and s i x t h c e n t u r i e s , b u r i a l w i t h weapon was used a s a n e t h n i c marker by t h e immigrants and t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s t ' (Harke 1997: 1 5 0 ) . Z u By means of weapon symbolism, he w r i t e s , t h e ~ e r m a n i c p o p u l a t i o n was r i t u a l l y e x p r e s s i n g i t s domination over t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n population

-

which may be r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e inhumation b u r i a l s w i t h o u t

weapons found w i t h i n t h e same c e r n e t e r i e s (Harke 1990; 1 9 9 7 b ) .

No similar

s t u d i e s have been conducted f o r fernale b u r i a l s . U t h o u g h H a r k e f s r e s e a r c h c o n c e n t r a t e s on weapon b u r i a l s , h e co,ments on t h e cornparatively g r e a t e r " b u r i a l wealth" o f woments b u r i a l s , n o t i n g a s w e l l t h a t t h e y a r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n s of o b j e c t s made o f , o r d e c o r a t e d with, p r e c i o u s r n e t a l s and r a r e m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s amber and rock c r y s t a l .

T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s a b s e n t from t h e g r a v e s of

i n f a n t s and young c h i l d r e n b u t o c c u r s among o l d e r c h i l d r e n (7-14 y e a r s of a g e ) and c o n t i n u e s through s u c c e e d i n g a g e groups, c l e a r l y i n d i c a t i v e o f a d u l t s t a t u s (Harke 1997: 1 3 4 ) .

T h i s c o n t r a s t h a s been i n t e r p r e t e d a s a

consequence o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n d r e s s s t y l e s between a d u l t men and women;

i t has a l s o been suggested t h a t a woman's d i s p l a y e d w e a l t h r e f l e c t s h e r husband's w e a l t h a s w e l l as h e r own.

It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t while

m e n f s g r a v e goods w e r e determined by s o c i a l s t a t u s , women's w e r e determined by wealth (Shepherd 1979: 5 8 ) . I t i s argued h e r e i n t h a t t h i s

d i s p l a y o f womenKs w e a l t h w a s more l i k e l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f women's own i n h e r i t e d w e a l t h and t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y a s weavers a s i t was a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i r h u s b a n d K sp r e s t i g e .

The markea gender dichotomy i n Anglo-saxon b u r i a l s i s c o n s i d e r e d s u r p r i s i n g i n l i g h t of r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on f r o n t i e r s o c i e t i e s ( S t o o d l e y 1 9 9 3 a s cited i n Harke 1997: 135) which s u g g e s t s t h a t gender r o l e s and

d i s t i n c t i o n s become m o r e ' b l u r r e d and f l e x i b l e among s e t t l e r s , something n o t s e e n i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d of t h i s p e r i o d .

I t h a s been

s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n Anglo-saxon b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s was "a r i t u a l way o f c o p i n g w i t h t h e e r o s i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l g e n d e r r o l e s " i n t h e m i g r a n t s o c i e t y (Harke 1997: 136) ,

However, if w e r e c a l l f r o m Chapter II

t h a t men's w e a l t h was a c q u i r e d p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h c a t t l e r a i d i n g and womenKsw e a l t h through t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n , t h e dichotomy i n b u r i a l goods may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f s t a t u s and w e a l t h based upon economic c o n t r i b u t i o n and gendered t e c h n o l o g i e s i n s t e a d o f a s o c i a l r a n k i n g based s o l e l y on g e n d e r .

Ibver and Chossell Do-

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , much o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a t i o n i n Kent and on t h e I s l e o f Wight was u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h and e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h centuries.

Over 7 5 0 Anglo-saxon b u r i a l s i n t h e C a n t e r b u r y a r e a a l o n e

were u n e a r t h e d b y t h e Reverend Bryan F a u s s e t t between 1760 and 1773 (Hawkes 1990: 1 ) . Although F a u s s e t t and h i s s u c c e s s o r , C.R.

Smith, k e p t

j o u r n a l r e c o r d s , much of t h e a r c h a e o l o g y of t h i s p e r i o d amounts t o n o t h i n g more t h a n g r a v e r o b b i n g and t r e a s u r e h u n t i n g . Many m a t e r i a l s o b v i o u s l y n o t i n d i c a t i v e of h i g h s t a t u s

-

s k e l e t a l material, charred

p i e c e s o f wood, t e x t i l e s , and u n i d e n t i f i e d lumps of i r o n o r l e f t i n t h e ground.

I t w a s n o t u n t i l 1 8 4 7 t h a t C.R.

-

were d i s c a r d e d

Smith n o t e d t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f r e c o r d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l t o determine t h e i r use.

I t was he who began t h e p r a c t i c e o f drawing t o

i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b u r i a l o b j e c t s and s k e l e t o n i n s i t u

82 (Rhodes 1990: 4 9 ) .

T h e r e f o r e , much w a s l o s t , g i v e n away o r l e f t b e h i n d

t h a t t o d a y c o u l d b e a n a l y z e d f o r a more complete c o n t e x t u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b u r i a l remains. The Buckland site a t Dover i s r e p o r t e d by Vera Evison ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

Sorne

o f t h e b u r i a l s were e x c a v a t e d u n d e r h e r s u p e r v i s i o n , o t h e r s w e r e r e s c u e d from t h e s c r a p e r and t r e n c h e r .

The i n d i v i d u a l b u r i a l s a r e f u l l y

i l l u s t r a t e d and c a t a l o g u e d by t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t , e n a b l i n g t h e r e v i e w o f b u r i a l k i t s , assemblages and s p a t i a l p a t t e r n i n g which f o l l o w s below.

The

C h e s s e l l Dom s i t e , however, h a s s u f f e r e d a more uneven h i s t o r y of e x c a v a t i o n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h work clairned by Dennett f o r 1816, S k i n n e r ' s e x p l o r a t i o n s of 1817, 1818 and 1831 and H i l l i e r ' s more complete e x c a v a t i o n s of 1854 a n d 1855.

Records o f s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n i n g and

placement o f t h e o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e g r a v e , however, a r e s p o r a d i c a t b e s t . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e no a t t e m p t h a s been made t o d e a l w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a t C h e s s e l l Down, b u r i a l k i t s may s t i l l be identified. The i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r t h i s t h e s i s c o n f i r m s t h e p r e s e n c e o f male and fernale k i t s , a s w e l l a s t h a t o f a c o n s i s t e n c y i n c h o i c e o f b u r i a l o b j e c t s ( w i t h o n l y minor v a r i a t i o n s ) i n l i n e w i t h t h o s e n o t e d above.

T h e r e is

a l s o a d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n t o t h e p l a c e m e n t of o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e g r a v e s a t Buckland,

Dover a n d p o s s i b l y a t C h e s s e l l Dom ( a l t h o u g h t h i s i s a

d i f f i c u l t determination given t h e l i m i t e d information a v a i l a b l e ) . Nevertheless, t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y s u p p o r t t h e observation b u r i a l o b j e c t placement p a t t e r n s c u t a c r o s s e a r l y Anglo-saxon g e n e r a l (Arnold 1990: 173; 1997: 144, 1 8 2 )

that

England i n

.

Bzackland at Dovmr

Dover i s s i t u a t e d a t t h e mouth o f t h e Dour R i v e r , i n t h e s o u t h east o f Kent, on t h e p o i n t o f l a n d n e a r e s t t o t h e C o n t i n e n t . v a l u a b l e p o r t t o t h e Romans and l a t e r t o t h e Anglo-saxons,

I t served a s a w i t h Roman

r o a d s l e a d i n g t o Richborough, t o Lympne and t o London by way of

Canterbury.

The d a t e t h a t t h e Dover a r e a p a s s e d from t h e c o n t r o l of t h e

Romano-British

t o t h e Anglo-Saxons i s u n c e r t a i n .

However, t h e r e a r e

s t r o n g t r a c e s of Germanic p e o p l e s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a i n t h e f i f t h century.

At Buckland, t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e " t h a t can be d e f i n i t e l y a s s i g n e d

t o any o f t h e g r a v e s [ i n t h e cemetery] is a b o u t AD 475, a l t h o u g h one o r two c o u l d b e e a r l i e r " Evison 1 9 8 7 : 1 7 2 ) .

Buckland c o n t i n u e d i n u s e

t h r o u g h o u t t h e e a r l y Anglo-Ssxon p e r i o d and w e l l i n t o t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n period of t h e l a t e seventh t o e a r l y e i g h t h century. B u r i a l o b j e c t s d i s a p p e a r by t h e end of t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , a l t h o u g h b u r i a l s c o n t i n u e d t o mid-eighth century.

B u r i a l I s by inhumation o n l y , w i t h g r a v e s

o r i e n t e d w i t h heads t o the w e s t (Evison 1987: 145, 1 7 2 )

.

Seven b u r i a l phases b e g i n n i n g i n t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y and ending i n t h e l a t t e r s e v e n t h c e n t u r y can be d i s c e r n e d a t Buckland where Anglian, Saxon, J u t i s h and S c a n d i n a v i a n elements a p p e a r unevenly " i n a r n a t e r i a l c u l t u r e which i s mainly K e n t i s h and F r a n k i s h t h r o u g h o u t "

( E v i s o n 1987:

1 7 2 ) . I n Phase 1, c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e Angles, Saxons and S c a n d i n a v i a n s can be s e e n " b u t mostly w i t h t h e Franks" (Evison 1987: 1 7 2 )

.

In Phase 2,

t h e r e a r e s t i l l s t r o n g F r a n k i s h i n f l u e n c e s a l t h o u g h t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e Kentish jewellers w e r e i n f u l l production.

By Phase 3 , t h e

j e w e l l e r y i s e x c l u s i v e l y K e n t i s h b u t male g r a v e s s t i l l show e v i d e n c e of s t r o n g c o n t a c t w i t h Francia.

Through Phases 4 , 5 and 6 t h e r e i s a

gradua1 d e c l i n e i n Frankish i m p o r t s a l t h o u g h t h e c o n t i n u e d c o n n e c t i o n cannot be denied.

B y Phase 7,

g r a v e goods a r e s p a r s e a n d o n l y t h e

p r e s e n c e o f arnethysts and g l a s s beads mark a f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e (Evison 1987: 1 7 2 ) . Out o f t h e 165 g r a v e s e x c a v a t e d a t Buckland, f i f t y - f o u r a d u l t male b u r i a l s and s i x t y - s i x a d u l t female b u r i a l s have been i d e n t i f i e d .

Thirty-

Eive of t h e b u r i a l s a r e j u v e n i l e s and c h i l d r e n under t h e a g e of e i g h t e e n . The b a l a n c e are i n d e t e r m i n a t e a s t o sex, a g e o r b o t h . T h e r e a r e no i n f a n t b u r i a l s . While f o u r t e e n o r f i f t e e n of t h e males l i v e d p a s t t h e a g e of

forty-five,

o n l y e l e v e n o f t h e women seem t o have made i t i n t o t h e i r l a t e

f o r t i e s o r o l d e r (Evison 1987: 127-132) A r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e r e v e a l s t h a t " c a r e was t a k e n t o l a y o u t t h e body on t h e back w i t h a m and l e g s s t r a i g h t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e male sword g r a v e s t ' (Evison 1987: 1 3 3 ) .

V a r i a t i o n s from t h i s p o s i t i o n a r e

s l i g h t ; t h e r e a r e no crouched p o s i t i o n s and o n l y one p r o n e b u r i a l . Out o f 117 g r a v e s where t h e p r e c i s e p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e limbs w e r e r e c o r d a b l e , were l a i d on t h e back w i t h l e g s s t r a i g h t and f e e t t o g e t h e r .

Of

92

the

b u r i a l s where t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e arms and hands could b e a s c e r t a i n e d , t h e n a j o r i t y w e r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e hands on t h e t o p o f t h e femurs o r "in t h e p e l v i s t 8 (Evison 1987: 1 2 9 ) .

O f t h e t e n b u r i a l s where one arm was

s t r a i g h t and t h e o t h e r b e n t i n w a r d s , f i v e had t h e l e f t a m o n l y b e n t inwards and f i v e had t h e r i g h t arm o n l y b e n t inwards.

Eight skeletons

were found w i t h t h e arms s t r a i g h t down b e s i d e t h e body.

One b u r i a l had

t h e r i g h t a m a c r o s s t h e body and t h e l e f t hand on t h e l e f t s h o u l d e r , t h r e e had the l e f t hand i n t h e p e l v i s and t h e r i g h t a m a c r o s s t h e w a i s t , w h i l e o n l y one had t h e r i g h t a m s t r a i g h t , away from t h e body. t h e b u r i a l s showed a f l e x e d o r s l i g h t l y f l e x e d p o s i t i o n .

Of

Ten o f

these,

five

had b o t h knees b e n t t o t h e l e f t o r r i g h t and f i v e o t h e r s had one knee only s l i g h t l y bent.

The v a r i a t i o n s a r e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e cemetery

and n o t p e c u l i a r t o any one p l o t o r p h a s e (Evison 1987: 1 2 9 ) .

It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t some o f t h e b o d i e s were " d i s p l a y e d i n t h e g r a v e t o onlookerst' (Evison 1987: 1 3 3 ) ; i n Graves 96 and 60, " t h e legs w e r e c r o s s e d a t t h e a n k l e i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e roorn f o r an o b j e c t " and t h e e x c a v a t i n g a r c h a e o l o g i s t sees t h i s a s h a v i n g completed t h e o v e r a l l b u r i a l p i c t u r e f o r viewing (Evison 1987: 1 3 3 ) .

Whether o r n o t t h e b o d i e s w e r e

viewed i n t h e grave as p a r t o f t h e interriment ceremony, it i s a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e i r c o n t e n t s were i n t e n d e d t o r e v e a l t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e o c c u p a n t i n rnuch the same f a s h i o n a s a mernorial g r a v e s t o n e ( H a l s a l l 1998: 32931; R i c h a r d s 1992: 143-47).

Some o f t h e b o d i e s were lowered i n t o t h e

g r a v e i n a c o f f i n o r a shroud and d i s p l a c e m e n t i n t h o s e g r a v e s may have

o c c u r r e d during t h i s o p e r a t i o n (Evison 1987: 1 3 3 ) .

Graves 137 and 149

c o n t a i n what appear t o be remains of a wooden b i e r o r c o f f i n o r some s o r t o f s t r e t c h e r beneath t h e body (Evison 1987: 1 9 ) . I n any e v e n t , t h e on s i t e a r c h a e o l o g i s t n o t e s t h a t " t h e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s do n o t appear t o have s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o s e x " (Evison 1987: 1 2 9 ) w h i l e , a t t h e same tirne,

" t h e range o f p o s i t i o n s of t h e bodies compare w i t h t h e normal

p o s i t i o n s i n ~ e n t i s hcerneteries"

(Evison 1987: 133) ( T a b l e 4 )

.

K i t s , nbject P l a c a m s a t and S"patia-2 Patterntng at Dovox

I n t h e 120 b u r i a l s found t o c o n t a i n o b j e c t s a t Dover, r e s e a r c h r e v e a l s t h e p r e s e n c e o f two d i s t i n c t i v e b u r i a l k i t s , male and female, s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d i s c u s s e d above.

As w e l l ,

a secondary

or

"supplernentary" fernale assemblage i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d . U n l i k e t h e above a n a l y s e s , h e r e t h e k n i f e i s n o t d i s c o u n t e d a s a p o s s i b l e elernent i n t h e b a s i c b u r i a l k i t s f o r b o t h males and fernales.

MaZr K i t s , nbject Placamsnt und

Pattarning at mvmt

The b a s i c men's k i t c o n s i s t s o f a k n i f e , a b u c k l e and a s p e a r . The f u l l k i t i n c l u d e s t h e s e items p l u s a sword, a s h i e l d and a d r i n k i n g v e s s e 1 o r c o n t a i n e r o f some s o r t ( T a b l e 5 ) .

There i s a s l i g h t deviation

h e r e from t h e r e s u l t s n o t e d above. At Dover, it a p p e a r s t h a t swords a r e s l i g h t l y more l i k e l y t o be added a s t h e n e x t e l e m e n t t o t h e b a s i c k i t t h a n i s t h e s h i e l d (as w a s t h e c a s e i n o t h e r s t u d i e s a s a b o v e ) . S u b s t i t u t i o n s and a d d i t i o n s a l s o e x i s t i n male b u r i a l s a t Dover. B u r i a l 65 c o n t a i n s a s e a x r a t h e r t h a n a sword ( k n i f e + b u c k l e + s p e a r + s e a x ) , Grave 93 c o n t a i n s a s e a x i n a d d i t i o n t o b o t h sward and s p e a r

(knife+buckle+spear+sword+shield+seax)

.

Other a d d i t i o n s i n c l u d e a

b a l a n c e o r s c a l e (Grave C ) , p i n s ( 3 3 , 50, 96a,

96b,

136, 150, 1 5 8 ) , b e l t

mounts (56, 5 7 ) , t w e e z e r s ( 5 0 , 65, 1 5 6 ) , s h o e - l a c e t a g s (139, 150, 156) p u r s e s ( 4 7 , 50, 139) and s h a q e n i n g steels (65, 144, 148, 162)

.

The

s h a r p e n i n g s t e e l s a r e found p r i m a r i l y i n t h e g r a v e s of j u v e n i l e s ,

the

86

The p i n s

shoe-lace t a g s f o r t h e most p a r t i n p o o r l y f u r n i s h e d b u r i a l s .

p r e s e n t something o f a dilemma i n terms of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : t h e y may have served a s f a s t e n e r s f o r b u r i a l shrouds r a t h e r than items i n t h e b u r i a l appointments. It a p p e a r s t h a t c o n t a i n e r s a c t e d e i t h e r as s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r

b u c k l e s o r as a d d i t i o n s t o t h e basic male k i t .

Of

t h e seven b u r i a l s

which hold v e s s e l s o r c o n t a i n e r s , f i v e a r e i n b u r i a l s w i t h o u t b u c k l e s . O f t h e remaining two c o n t a i n e r b u r i a l s , one i s t h e b u r i a l (137) of a j u v e n i l e with a knife+buckle+spear.

There i s a b r o n z e bowl a t t h e head

of t h i s grave and a p o t t e r y b o t t l e a t t h e f o o t .

The l a s t c o n t a i n e r

b u r i a l (156), i s t h e g r a v e o f an "old" man w i t h a f u l l b a s i c k i t , an asrow o r awl, and two bronze s h o e - l a c e t a g s . O f t h e b u r i a l s rnissing key i t e m s from t h e b a s i c k i t ,

p o s s i b l e s i g n s of d i s t u r b a n c e ,

f i v e show

seven a r e t h e b u r i a l s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o v e r

t h e a g e o f 45 (one a t l e a s t o v e r GO), two a r e t h e g r a v e s of small c n i l d r e n and t h e r e m i n d e r which f o r t h e most p a r t c o n t a i n only a k n i f e and buckie e x p r e s s sorne d e v i a n c y i n s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n . A number of t h e m a l e b u r i a l s a t Dover a r e o f h i g h s t a t u s c o n t a i n i n g

a r i n g sword ( C ) , sword knot ( 7 1 ) , o r i n l a i d sword (91), i n l a i d s p e a r s i n c l u d i n g one with a s w a s t i k a d e s i g n (50, 71, 93,

94b, 1561, and s h i e l d s

w i t h bronze a p p l i q u e s o r o t h e r d e c o r a t i a n (27, 50, 71, 93, 98)

.

A l 1 of

the swords have p a t t e r n - w e l d e d b l a d e s . Both w a r r i o r s i n t h e d o u b l e b u r i a l have a s p e a r and a sword and one (96a) h a s a s h i e l d a s w e l l .

There is a s l i g h t deviance t o t h e s k e l e t a l

placement of t h e s e two b u r i a l s a s well.

The r i g h t a m o f t h e l e f t

s k e l e t o n (96a) l i e s s l i g h t l y outward and t h e f e e t o f t h e s k e l e t o n on t h e r i g h t (96bJ have been c r o s s e d , p o s s i b l y t o make room w i t h i n t h e g r a v e . Otherwise, t h e double b u r i a l i s o n l y s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d nom f o r t h i s cernetery i n space usage.

Both s k e l e t o n s have

t h e i r swords t o t h e l e f t o f t h e body; both have a s p e a r p o i n t i n g towards t h e t o p o f t h e g r a v e (one t o t h e l e f t and one t o t h e r i g h t of each,

probably because of l i m i t e d room w i t h i n t h e g r a v e ) ; b o t h have k n i v e s t o t h e l e f t of t h e w a i s t .

The b u c k l e and s h i e l d o f t h e s k e l e t o n t o t h e l e f t

( 9 6 a ) a r e p l a c e d i n t h e s t a n d a r d p o s i t i o n s f o r t h i s cemetery, t h a t i s a t t h e mid-waist and o v e r t h e lower l e g r e s p e c t i v e l y . Both s e a x b u r i a l s a r e r a t h e r unusual. I n t h e f i r s t ( 6 5 ) of t h e s e two b u r i a l s , t-he s e a x l i e s d i a g o n a l l y a c r o s s t h e body and t h e s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n d e v i a t e s s l i g h t l y from t h e n o m w i t h b o t h hands on t o p of t h e femurs and t h e r i g h t knee s l i g h t l y b e n t . o v e r 4 5 y e a r s o f age a t t h e t h e o f d e a t h .

The occupant of t h i s grave was

I n t h e second of t h e s e a x

b u r i a l s (93), t h e s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n i s a l s o s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e n o m with t h e r i g h t f o r e a m b e n t i n .

The occupant of t h i s b u r i a l was

between 30 and 4 5 a t t h e time o f d e a t h and h i s g r a v e c o n t a i n s a number o f unusual a d d i t i o n s i n c l u d i n g a c y l i n d r i c a l g l a s s bead and an i r o n rod b e n t nearly into a triangle.

Both t h e s e o b j e c t s a r e t o t h e l e f t o f t h e s k u l l .

The seax i t s e l f i s unusual i n t h a t i t a p p e a r s t h a t i t held s c a b b a r d s f o r two horn-handled k n i v e s on t h e o u t s i d e of i t s own s h e a t h .

As well,

this

b u r i a l c o n t a i n s t h e o n l y s p e a r s h a f t t h a t was l i k e l y broken b e f o r e deposition. Another u n u s u a l b u r i a l i n t h i s cemetery i s Grave 1 1 4 which has been i n t e r p r e t e d by Evison (1987) a s belonging t o a s c o p o r bard who was approximately 20 t o 3 0 y e a r s o f age a t . d e a t h .

Along w i t h a k n i f e a t the

w a i s t and a s p e a r a t t h e r i g h t a r e what a p p e a r s t o b e t h e rernains of a l y r e a t t h e l e f t ankle.

Other f e a t u r e s of n o t e i n this b u r i a l a r e t h e

p o s i t i o n of t h e s p e a r h e a d , which i s p o i n t e d t o t h e f o o t of t h e g r a v e r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e head, and some d e v i a n c e i n t h e placement of t h e s k e l e t o n i n t h a t the hands are placed on t o p o f t h e femurs i n s t e a d o f lying within t h e pelvis. S p a t i a l p a t t e r n i n g i s f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t among t h e male b u r i a l s . Knives a r e p l a c e d a t t h e l e f t w a i s t , swords at t h e l e f t t o r s o , sometimes c r a d l e d i n t h e crook of t h e a m .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h i s placement

corresponds w i t h where each was worn i n l i f e ; t h e percentage of k n i v e s

88 and swords p l a c e d t o t h e r i g h t roughly r e f l e c t s t h e number o f l e f t - h a n d e d i n d i v i d u a l s e x p e c t e d i n a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n . Spears p o i n t towards t h e head o f t h e g r a v e , w i t h approximately t w i c e a s many on t h e l e f t s i d e a s on t h e right.

S h i e l d s can be found i n one o f f o u r p o s i t i o n s , o v e r t h e head and

upper c h e s t , a t t h e head b u t on edge above t h e s k u l l , t o t h e one side o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e upper b u r i a l , p r o b a b l y on edge, o r o v e r t h e lower l e g s and f e e t .

The m a j o r i t y occupy t h e l a t t e r p o s i t i o n .

c o n t a i n e r s are found n e a r t h e head.

Most v e s s e l s and

I n summary, t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t

d e g r e e o f "congruence" between male b u r i a l s a t Dover i n b o t h space usage and a b j e c t placement around t h e s k e l e t a l remains ( F i g u r e 26) a s t h a t t e r m i s d e f i n e d b y Pader, above.

remale Kits, nbject ~iacaxmntand *tiaï

Pattœraing at mvmr

With r e s p e c t t o t h e fernale b u r i a l s a t Dover, f r e q u e n c y a n a l y s i s shows t h e most b a s i c k i t t o c o n s i s t of a k n i f e , beads and keys-

The

extended k i t c o n t a i n s a p i n , a hanger, a weaving t o o l , a d i s c brooch and/or a c o n t a i n e r (Table 5 ) .

T h i s i s i n keeping w i t h t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s s e t o u t above a s made b y Pader, Harke and Arnold.

As

w i t h t h e male b u r i a l s , t h e p r e s e n c e of p i n s i s once a g a i n problernatic. Some o f them a r e most l i k e l y shroud p i n s ; o t h e r s a r e n o t .

The d e c o r a t i o n

and p o s i t i o n i n g of a number o f t h e p i n s s u g g e s t t h e y f a s t e n e d c l o a k s o r o t h e r i t e m s of d r e s s f o r t h e l i v i n g , w h i l e t h e placement of o t h e r s ( f o r i n s t a n c e above o r b e s i d e t h e s k u l l , e s p e c i a l l y i n male b u r i a l s ) s u g g e s t s t h e i r f i n a l use was as shroud p i n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e two uses w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l c o n t e x t . As i n P a d e r l s s t u d y ,

t h e d i s c brooch, bead n e c k l a c e , and hanger a r e

s e x l i n k e d . The v e s s e l s o r c o n t a i n e r s a r e n o t .

Nevertheless, twice as

many female g r a v e s c o n t a i n v e s s e l s . Given t h e s l i g h t d i s p a r i t y i n s e x

-

r a t i o w i t h i n t h e cemetery, t h i s is a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . A s i n Harke's

( 1 9 9 7 ) s t u d y , t h e o b j e c t s found i n female g r a v e s a t Dover may b e

grouped i n t o item o f adornment, o b j e c t s suspended frorn t h e b e l t , and

textile-working categories.

While t h i s d i v i s i o n i s c o n v e n i e n t , i t i s

a l s o i n a sense misleading.

Articles o f adornment may a l s o b e e t h n i c o r

t r i b a l markers of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , o b j e c t s from t h e b e l t may a l s o s e r v e a s adornments and t e x t i l e - w o r k i n g t o o l s c a n be d e c o r a t i v e symbols of s t a t u s a s w e l l a s functional tools.

I n comparison t o A r n o l d ' s ( 1 9 8 8 : 1 7 7 )

a n a l y s e s , t h e frequency of b a s i c k i t o b j e c t s seems t o d i f f e r somewhat a t Dover a l t h o u g h f o u r b u r i a l s ( 1 4 , 20, 2 9 and 3 8 ) f i t c l o s e l y w i t h A r n o l d ' s c r i t e r i a f o r "fernale-rich" g r a v e s , l a c k i n g o n l y t h e r a r e sieve spoons, c r y s t a l b a l l s and g o l d t h r e a d s o f t h e v e r y r i c h b u r i a l s ( T a b l e 6 ) Like t h e male b u r i a l s , very few female b u r i a l s do n o t c o n t a i n a k n i f e . I n c a s e s where no k n i f e h a s been found, t h e c l e a r m a j o r i t y have been d i s t u r b e d i n some f a s h i o n ; t h e b a l a n c e have a deviancy i n s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n i n g making them unusual i n o t h e r ways a s w e l l o r t h e y a r e t h e b u r i a l s of juveniles.

Not a l 1 j u v e n i l e b u r i a l s , however, a r e w i t h o u t a

k n i f e . Perhaps, beyond i t s obvious f u n c t i o n a l importance, t h e k n i f e was somehow connected t o Anglo-saxon i d e a s o f "personhood" s i n c e i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e b u r i a l c o n t e x t d o e s n o t depend s o l e l y on a d u l t s t a t u s , n o r upon gender ( b e i n g found w i t h j u v e n i l e s and a d o l e s c e n t s o f b o t h s e x e s as w e l l )

.

Only f i v e b u r i a l s l a c k a f u l l b a s i c k i t . Of t h e s e , t h r e e have been s e v e r e l y d i s t u r b e d ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y s t i l l c o n t a i n a t l e a s t one o t h e r o b j e c t , one (126) a d i s c brooch w i t h a r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n , a n o t h e r ( 1 1 6 ) a g i r d l e hanger and t h e t h i r d ( 9 4 a ) a b u c k l e . j u s t a s i n g l e pin.

The remaining two c o n t a i n

These b u r i a l s a l s o s l i g h t d e v i a t e s l i g h t l y i n

s k e l e t a l positioning.

Should t h e p i n s be shroud f a s t e n e r s , a s it i s

s u s p e c t e d , t h e s e b u r i a l s would f a 1 1 o u t s i d e t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s . Should t h e p i n s be g a m e n t f a s t e n e r s , t h e b u r i a l s remain u n u s u a l b u t warrant i n c l u s i o n f o r p u r p o s e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . No female b u r i a l s c o n t a i n j u s t a b a s i c k i t alone; t h e r e a r e always one o r more a d d i t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s .

Out of a t o t a l of 69 female

graves containing b u r i a l objects, over one-third contain a b a s i c k i t plus

a t l e a s t two o t h e r i t e m s .

Of those,

a l m o s t h a l f c o n t a i n an a d d i t i o n a l

A c l o s e r exzmination reveals t h a t t h e s e

f i v e o r more d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s .

a d d i t i o n a l i t e m s c a n be s a i d t o form a t l e a s t one secondary o r I n t h i s schema, t h e b a s i c k i t ( k n i f e , b e a d s ,

"supplementary" assemblage.

keys) a c t s a s a c o r e d e p o s i t i o n .

The supplementary assemblage,

c o n s i s t i n g of [weaving implement + r i t u a l / f e a s t i n g o b j e c t s +- b r a c t e a t e type pendant

+ a m u l e t ] , r e f l e c t s t h e p o s i t i o n o f h i g h e r - s t a t u s women

w i t h i n t h e community.

The combination of f u l l b a s i c k i t p l u s complete

supplementary assemblage is r a r e , cemetery ( T a b l e 9 )

-

a p p a r e n t l y o c c u x r i n g o n l y once p e r

w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of Finglesham cemetery where two

such b u r i a l s a r e found.

Finglesham was a p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h s e t t l e r n e n t

and p o s s i b l y t h e h o l d i n g of a p r i n c e o r n o b l e and t h i s may account f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e two r i c h b u r i a l s .

Dover 20 and C h e s s e l l Dom 4 5

c o n t a i n t h e f u l l b a s i c k i t p l u s complete assemblage combination.

Rich

womenls b u r i a l s o f t h e t y p e o u t l i n e d h e r e have been found a c r o s s AngloSaxon England and on t h e C o n t i n e n t .

Women's b u r i a l s with t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

combination of o b j e c t s a p p e a r t o r e f l e c t t h e r o l e s played by r o y a l women

within t h e c o r n i t a t u s s t r u c t u r e a s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I I .

A s webbe o r

freobuwebbe, such women a c t e d a s weavers of p e a c e , cupbearers and

a d v i s o r s , sibyls, and p r o b a b l y h e a l e r s .

The c a t e g o r y d i v i s i o n s s e t o u t

i n T a b l e s 6 and 7 a r e based p r i r n a r i l y on f u n c t i o n and so g i v e e q u a l weight t o s p i n d l e whorls, weaving p i c k s , n e e d l e s , e t c . as i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e womants r o l e a s a weaver, rather t h a n s i n g l i n g o u t weaving b a t t e n s simply a s p r e s t i g e items.

Cornbs are n o t i n c l u d e d i n the weaving

implement c a t e g o r y , d e s p i t e t h e i r p o s s i b l e u s e i n wool p r e p a r a t i o n 2 ' . C a t e g o r i z a t i o n by f u n c t i o n a l s o moves al1 f e a s t i n g and d r i n k i n g c o n t a i n e r s i n t o one c a t e g o r y .

T h e b r a c t e a t e c a t e g o r y has a l s o been

expanded and now i n c l u d e s s i l v e r and g o l d d i s c pendants which r e s e ~ n b l e b r a c t e a t e s i n form and shape, as well a s p e r f o r a t e d coins and c o i n pendants which share s i m i l a r i t i e s of s i z e , d e c o r a t i o n and f u n c t i o n w i t k t h e gold b r a c t e a t e s .

I t is a l s o i n keeping w i t b t h e h i s t o r y and

iconography of t h e g o l d b r a c t e a t e s , which evolved from Roman c o i n s (Owen 1986: 56) and came t o have s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n s with b o t h t h e cult of Woden and a weaver goddess ( E n r i g h t 1 9 9 0 , 1996; Hawkes and P o l l a r d 1 9 8 1 ) .

S e v e r a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have remarked upon t h e s i m i l a r i t y between t h e v a r i o u s d i s c pendants and ' ~ o m a nand Anglo-Saxon c o i n s , n o t i n g t h e i m i t a t i v e n a t u r e of t h e i r d e s i g n (Evison 1987: 2 2 4 ) .

Given t h e s h a r e d

iconography o f . t h e s e p i e c e s , t h e r e i s no reason t o b e l i e v e t h e y would n o t have s h a r e d syrnbolic c o n t e n t .

Bracteates a r e strongly a s s o c i a t e d with

h e a l i n g , weaving and prophecy.

I n t h e c o n t e x t of women's b u r i a l s

d i s c u s s e d h e r e i n , t h e symbolic c o n t e n t o f t h e s e b r a c t e a t e s i s brought i n t o a s s o c i a t i o n with weaving t o o l s , h e a l i n g amulets and t h e c o n t a i n e r s

and v e s s e l s o f r i t u a l f e a s t i n g . The d i s c brooch i s found i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a f u l l b a s i c k i t , b u t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o be p a r t of any f u r t h e r supplementary assemblage, u n l e s s one c o n s i d e r s d i s c brooches, c h a t e l a i n e s , and boxes t o be a grotiping o f p r e s t i g e i t e m s .

I f such i s t h e c a s e , square-headed brooches

and p u r s e s can be s e e n a s e i t h e r a d d i t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s , t h e former t a k i n g t h e p l a c e o f t h e d i s c brooch o r b e i n g an a d d i t i o n t o i t , t h e l a t t e r perhaps s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r t h e box. As n o t e d above, s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n i n g i s f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t

t h r o u g h o u t t h e cemetery w i t h o n l y minor d e v i a t i o n s .

The most obvious

d e v i a t i a n i s t h e prone b u r i a l ( 6 7 ) ' w h i c h , a l t h o u g h i t a p p e a r s t h e woman was a l i v e when i n t e r r e d , c o n t a i n s a number o f beads, a g o l d pendant, two s i l v e r - g i l t d i s c pendants w i t h b r a c e l e t (Figure 2 7 ) .

fragments of a t h i r d and a bronze w i r e

T h i s g r a v e d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a k n i f e o r keys; it

d o e s c o n t a i n a lump o f i r o n p y r i t e s by t h e l e f t f o o t .

With r e s p e c t t o

placement o f b u r i a l o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e s p a c e of t h e g r a v e and i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s k e l e t a l remains, t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f congruence between a number o f g r a v e s ( F i g u r e 28) a l t h o u g h t h i s f e a t u r e o f P a d e r f s methodology i s more d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e f o r female t h a n f o r male g r a v e s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n - g r a v e s p a c e usage a t Dover remains f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t . Knives a r e g e n e r a l l y found a t t h e l e f t w a i s t o r h i p ; keys, wotk boxes, n e e d l e s and c h a t e l a i n e s a t t h e l e f t h i p .

Shears a r e a l s o

o u t s i d e t h e h i p , o r a t t h e w a i s t , a p p a r e n t l y i n a bag and n o t suspended £rom t h e h a n d l e . Beads and b r a c t e a t e pendants a r e found a t t h e neck o r suspended frorn brooches o r p i n s a c r o s s t h e u p p e r c h e s t . l i e at the center throat.

Disc broorhes

Q u i t e l i k e l y , such p l a c e m e n t s r e f l e c t the

place where e a c h was worn i n life (Evison 1987: 1 9 ) .

Boxes a r e l o c a t e d

a t t h e f o o t , sometimes accommodated by c r o s s e d legs.

Al1 b u t one of t h e

vessels a r e a l s o a t the foot.

Amulets a r e g e n e r a l l y a t t h e w a i s t , o r

c o n t a i n e d i n t h e boxes. Whorls can be found a t t h e f o o t and t h e weaving p i c k between t h e knees.

One of t h e weaving b a t t e n s i s i n t h e upper l e f t

of t h e b u r i a l ( 2 0 ) b e s i d e t h e s k u l l , t h e o t h e r two a x e i n the lower r i g h t hand s i d e o f t n e b u r i a l o u t s i d e t h e r i g h t l e g ; one ( 3 8 ) is p o i n t e d towards t h e head, t h e o t h e r ( 4 6 ) towards t h e f o o t .

The p a t t e r n i n g i n

fernale g r a v e s a t Dover a p p e a r s t o be akin t o t h o s e observed by Pader: b u r i a l k i t s can be i d e n t i f i e d and o b j e c t placement i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i n t h e b u r i a l s w i t h a d e g r e e of "congruence" between b u r i a l s .

Congruance Betwmen W e and F

d

e Graves

A cornparison of male and female b u r i a l s a t Dover and a t Holywell

Row r e v e a l s a s i m i l a r i t y o r "congruence" i n s p a c e u s e between m a l e and fernale b u x i a l s a s w e l l .

S i m i l a r l y s i z e d and shaped o b j e c t s occupy

comparable s p a c e s w i t h i n t h e g r a v e s ( F i g u r e 2 9 ) .

Chu~aell.Dom A s n o t e d above, t h e e x c a v a t i o n s a t C h e s s e l l Dom were conducted i n

t h e p e r i o d 1816 t o 1855 by a s e r i e s of e x c a v a t o r s . and best r e c o r d e d a r e t h o s e o f George H i l l i e r .

The rnost e x t e n s i v e

The r e p o r t s and j o u r n a l s

o f t h e s e e x c a v a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h o s e of o t h e r e a r l y a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work on t h e I s l e o f Wight, were o n l y r e c e n t l y b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r f o r p u b l i c a t i o n

i n 1982 by C I J. &nold

who n o t e s t h a t t h e s e e a r l y works w e r e conducted

b y " n o t perhaps t h e most t r u s t w o r t h y e x c a v a t o r s " (Arnold 1982: 13). f a c t becomes imrnediately c l e a r upon examination

This

t h e site report.

There a r e innumerable unprovenanced f i n d s , many o b j e c t s f i s t e d a s u n i d e n t i f i e d "lumps o f i r o n " and a generaf i n t i m a t i o n t h a t o n l y t h e most s p e c t a c u l a r o r d e s i r a b l e of t h e f i n d s w e r e ever recorded.

The cemetery a t C h e s s e l l Down "was s i t u a t e d on t h e n o r t h s l o p e of t h e c h a l k dom i n t h e p a r i s h of S h a l f l e e t " on t h e w e s t e r n s i d e of t h e

I s l e o f Wight ''at a h e i g h t o f 375 f t . O.D."

(Arnold 1982: 181.

It i s

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e name C h e s s e l l a e r i v e s from t h e OE c i e s t hyll ( c h e s t o r c o f f i n h i l l ) , a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e c e r n e t e r y f s e a r l y p r e s e n c e (Arnold 1982: 1 8 ) .

The v a r i o u s r e p o r t s g i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t 133 g r a v e s were

excavated i n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . artifacts.

O f these,

35 were w i t h o u t

I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y were n o r t h - e a s t

o r i e n t e d , a l t h o u g h a few e x c e p t i o n s a r e n o t e d .

-

south-east

I n t h e majority of cases,

t h e r e i s no s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e s e x of t h e b u r i e d i n d i v i d u a l .

Graves 1 0

and 5 1 a r e d e s c r i b e d a s female, g r a v e s 52 and 53 a s male, t h r e e more a r e d e s c r i b e d a s a d u l t and four as c h i l d r e n . determinations i s not s t a t e d .

The b a s i s f o r t h e s e

I n most c a s e s , t h e

sex o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s

can now o n l y be i n f e r r e d from a s s o c i a t e d a r t i f a c t s (Arnold 1982: 13-19). "None of t h e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l is k n o m . t o have s u r v i v e d " (Arnold 1982: 18).

P o r t i o n s o f c h a r c o a l were f r e q u e n t l y observed a t t h e head and feet.

Based on H i l l i e r and S k i n n e r ' s r e p o r t s , t h e most u s u a l s k e l e t a l p o s i t i o n a p p e a r s t o have been extended w i t h t h e arms by the s i d e s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e c a s e s with one o r b o t h arms a c r o s s t h e body. for

W

c i s t s over

few

T h e r e is a l s o e v i d e n c e

t h e b u r i a l s (Arnold 1982:

e K i t s at Qœsrell Pown

Given t h e above r e s t r i c t i o n s , 22 b u r i a l s can be i d e n t i f i e d a s male. The male k i t o b s e r v e d i n t h e s e b u r i a l s , based on a n a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c y a n a l y s i s , i s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d above.

However, s p e a r s a r e t h e

most f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d a r t i f a c t found here, i n s t e a d o f t h e g e n e r a l l y more common k n i f e .

The b a s i c male k i t a t C h e s s e l l Down could be s a i d tu

c o n s i s t of s p e a r , k n i f e and s h i e l d based s o l e l y on a r t i f a c t count. The most common combination, however, i s a k n i f e o r a b u c k l e w i t h a s p e a r , showing t h e b a s i c combination a t C h e s s e l l Down t o b e i n keeping w i t h o t h e r a r e a s r e p o r t e d above.

Given t h e e x c a v a t o r s ' a p p a r e n t i n c l i n a t i o n

t o r e p o r t o n l y t h e more s o u g h t - a f t e r o b j e c t s a s w e l l a s t h e l a r g e number o f unprovenanced k n i v e s and b u c k l e s from the cernetery, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t many a s s o c i a t e d f i n d s went u n r e p o r t e d .

The extended k i t i n c l u d e s a

sword, s h i e l d and a v e s s e 1 o r c o n t a i n e r , a g r e e i n g in o r d e r with A r n o l d ' s (1980) d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f o r a w i d e r range of Anglo-Saxon above).

England ( o u t l i n e d

Rings, b r a c e l e t s , a r r o w s , an axe, and s h e a r s a p p e a r a s a d d i t i o n s

t o the basic kit. Only one axe i s r e c o r d e d ( g r a v e 8 0 ) . I t accompanies a s p e a r and t h e o n l y r e p o r t e d p a i r o f s h e a r s i n t h e cemetery.

T h i s g r a v e , l i k e many i n

t h e cemetery, a l s o c o n t a i n e d a number of o t h e r o b j e c t s d e s c r i b e d o n l y a s u n i d e n t i f i e d "lumps" and " p i e c e s " by t h e o r i g i n a l e x c a v a t o r s , l e a v i n g much i n doubt a s t o t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t . Five b u r i a l s have complete b a s i c k i t s , one ( 2 6 ) l a c k s o n l y the b u c k l e o f t h e f u l l extended k i t , two (53, 9 4 ) more l a c k o n l y t h e sword, a n o t h e r ( 5 9 ) i s m i s s i n g s h i e l d and c o n t a i n e r , w h i l e t h e f i f t h (21), m i s s i n g sword and s h i e l d , d o e s c o n t a i n a bowl.

Two g r a v e s a r e r e c o r d e d

a s h a v i n g c o n t a i n e d weapons o n l y (38, 5 4 ) : each h o l d s a s p e a r , sword and shield. One k n i f e ( 2 6 ) is r e p o r t e d t o t h e l e f t and a n o t h e r ( 1 7 ) t o t h e r i g h t of t h e s k e l e t a l remains w h i l e t h e l o c a t i o n of one b u c k l e ( 2 1 ) i s n o t e d a s on t h e "abdomen",

t h r e e s p e a r s (17, 21, 26) a r e n o t e d a s h a v i n g

been found t o t h e r i g h t band s i d e of t h e b u r i a l . e x c a v a t o r ' s account,

According t o t h e

f o u r b u r i a l s may have c o n t a i n e d more t h a n one s p e a r

(53, 76, 105, 1 0 6 ) a s t h e y a r e recorded i n t h e p l u r a l b u t no number

given.

P o s i t i o n s a r e n e t r e c o r d e d f o r t h e swords.

One s h i e l d was found

o v e r t h e l e g s ( 2 6 ) , a n o t h e r a t t h e head ( 5 4 ) .

The bowl i n grave 2 1 was

found a t t h e knees w h i l e g r a v e 26 c o n t a i n e d a b u c k e t , hanging bowl and a bronze p a i l , none of which a r e g i v e n a r e c o r d e d l o c a t i o n .

F

d

e K i t s ut: C314sse11 Dom

Out o f t h e 113 r e c o r d e d inhumations a t C h e s s e l l Down o n l y 1 6 g r a v e s c o n t a i n i n g b u r i a l o b j e c t s can be i d e n t i f i e d a s f e m a l e .

Once a g a i n , t h i s

i s based upon a r t i f a c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n upon s e x i n g of t h e s k e l e t a l remains.

S i x b u r i a l s c o n t a i n i n g o n l y a s i n g l e brooch o r bead

have been l e f t o u t o f t h i s a n a l y s i s .

S i n g l e b r o o c h e s have been found i n

male b u r i a l s o f t h e sub-Roman p e r i o d and s i n g l e b e a d s a r e o f t e n found w i t h j u v e n i l e s of e i t h e r s e x .

Therefore, t h e s e o b j e c t s alone a r e n o t

b e l i e v e d t o be d e t e r m i n a t e w i t h o u t s u p p o r t i n g s k e l e t a l evidence. The b a s i c fernale k i t c o n s i s t s of b e a d s ,

k n i f e and buckle, t h e

extended k i t a d d s a t l e a s t one brooch t o t h i s set. Rings, tweezers and pendants a p p e a r t o b e a d d i t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s .

Three bird-shaped

brooches, c o m o n on t h e C o n t i n e n t (Arnold 1982: 5 7 ) , a r e found a s s u b s t i t u t i o n s o r a d d i t i o n s i n b u r i a l s 3, 23 and 4 0 .

The p r e s e n c e o f a

supplernentary assemblage ( s i m i l a r t o t h a t i d e n t i f i e d a t Dover) made up of a weaving implement, a food o r d r i n k c o n t a i n e r , a b r a c t e a t e - t y p e p e n d a n t and an a m u l e t i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d (Table 7 ) . q u a l i t y of t h e s i t e r e p o r t s .

However, g i v e n t h e poor

t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is n o t c o n c l u s i v e .

Once a g a i n , where noted, t h e k n i v e s are a t t h e l e f t w a i s t , beads a t t h e neck, d i s c brooch a t r i g h t s h o u l d e r and t h e square-headed brooches down t h e f r o n t c h e s t .

The v e s s e l s i n Grave 4 5 w e r e a r r a n g e d a t t h e f e e t ,

t h e weaving b a t t e n i s n o t e d a s b e i n g c r a d l e d i n t h e r i g h t a m of t h e b u r i e d i n d i v i d u a l i n H i l l i e r ' s drawing b u t is shown b e s i d e t h e r i g h t S m i t h ' s i l l u s t r a t i o n (Arnold 1982: 2 8 ) . T h i s b u r i a l a n d

forearm i n C.R.

one o t h e r ( 4 0 ) c o n t a i n c r y s t a l b a l l s , t h e b a l 1 i n Grave 4 5 found c r a d l e d i n s i d e t h e bowl o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d spoon l y i n g between t h e knees of t h e woman i n t e r r e d

.

nbjœct P&c.munt

and Spatial Patterning st Chrssell mm

While b o t h a male and female k i t can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d a t C h e s s e l l Dom, no c o n c l u s i v e s t a t e m e n t can be made c o n c e r n i n g s p a t i a l use o r t h e

p a t t e r n e d placement of b u r i a l o b j e c t s .

As w e l l ,

there is insufficient

e v i d e n c e t o a l l o w comment on any o v e r a l l congruence i n b u r i a l f e a t u r e s .

Angle-Saxon Men aad W'n: " T J r p i c a l W Burials

Based on t h e above o b s e r v a t i o n s , two "type" b u r i a l s may b e i d e n t i f i e c i and two s o c i a l r o l e s seem t o be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e assemblages. R e g a r d l e s s o f whether t h e s e r o l e s w e r e l i v e d o r i d e a l , the p o s i t i o n s i d e n t i f i e d a r e t h o s e of t h e w a r r i o r o r w n e d and t h e woman a s

a weaver o r w e b b e , The f i r s t "type1? b u r i a l , t h a t of t h e w a r r i o r i n c l u d e s a k n i f e a t t h e l e f t s i d e , a buckle a t t h e waist, a s p e a r t o t h e r i g h t , a s h i e l d o v e r t h e body, a sword a t t h e r i g h t h i p and a d r i n k i n g v e s s e 1 n e a r t h e head.

I n t h e r i c h e s t burials, each o f t h e s e o b j e c t s i s e l a b o r a t e l y d e c o r a t e d . S p e a r s and swords a r e p a t t e r n e d with i n l a i d m e t a l s o r r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n s . Sword b l a d e s a r e pattern-welded,

t h e i r pomrnels enhanced w i t h sword-ring

o r bead and t h e i r s c a b b a r d s e l a b o r a t e l y e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h nie110 work w h i l e s h i e l d s and b u c k l e s c a r r y zoornorphic d e s i g n s . a r e of t h i n l y blown g l a s s , f r a g i l e and r a r e .

The d r i n k i n g v e s s e l s

These s e t s o f objects

symbolize t h e man's r o l e a s a w a r r i o r w i t h i n t h e comitatus, h i s r i g h t t o b e a r a m , h i s p l a c e w i t h i n t h e h a l l and h i s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n hall ritual. The weaver o r w e b b e b u r i a l i n c l u d e s a k n i f e a t t h e w a i s t , f e s t o o n s of beads down and a c r o s s t h e c h e s t , a pendant o r b r a c t e a t e a t the t h r o a t , brooches a t each s h o u l d e r and lower c e n t e r c h e s t a s w e l l a s near t h e w a i s t , keys o r a c h a t e l a i n e a t t h e l e f t h i p , an m u l e t n e a r t h e f e e t o r a t t a c h e d to t h e c h a t e l a i n e , a weaving implement o f some s o r t a t t h e s i d e , and food and d r i n k c o n t a i n e r s n e a r t h e f e e t .

T h e more e l a b o r a t e b u r i a l s

c o n t a i n a s i e v e spoon and c r y s t a l b a l 1 a t t h e knees, a gold-woven

headband and f i n g e r r i n g s .

These s e t s o f o b j e c t s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t h e

womants r o l e w i t h i n t h e c o m i t a t u s a s w e l l , marking h e r a s a weaver and r e c o g n i z i n g t h e a s s o c i a t i v e f u n c t i o n s o f prophecy and c o u n s e l .

These

o b j e c t s a l s o symbolize t h e woman's r o l e as d i s t r i b u t o r o f food and d r i n k w i t h i n t h e h a l l , and her r i l e i n t h e çup r i t u a l ( a s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r

II). Forms o f - t h e s e two ' b u r i a l t y p e s a r e found a t b o t h C h e s s e l l Down and Dover.

C h e s s e l l Dom Graves 26 and 45 p r o v i d e examples o f a t y p i c a l

man's and a t y p i c a l womanrs b u r i a l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

These t y p e s a r e

r e p r e s e n t e d a t Dover a s w e l l , where Grave 20 i s much t h e same a s C h e s s e l l Down 45, l a c k i n g o n l y t h e c r y s t a l b a l 1 b u t c o n t a i n i n g a g o l d b r a c t e a t e i n s t e a d o f t h e gold-braided headband. w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d a t Dover.

T y p i c a l men's b u r i a l s a r e a l s o

Dover Grave 7 1 c o n t a i n s a bronze sword r i n g

i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o t h e r o b j e c t s and t h e s h i e l d is d e c o r a t e d w i t h i r o n appliqués.

Although Dover 96 i s a d o u b l e b u r i a l , i t t o o f i t s t h e t y p i c a l

p a t t e r n , e a c h man armed w i t h a sword and s p e a r i n a d d i t i o n t o b a s i c k i t i t e m s and a l t h o u g h t h i s b u r i a l h o l d s o n l y one s h i e l d , t h a t i s probably a r e s u l t of space constraints within the grave i t s e l f .

m n e d Burial:

Chosael1 Down Burial 26

The man b u r i e d i n t h i s g r a v e was i n t e r r e d on h i s l e f t s i d e w i t h a n iron k n i f e a t h i s h i p , a s p e a r e i g h t f e e t l o n g a t t h e r i g h t o f b i s head

and a s h i e l d a t h i s knees ( F i g u r e 3 0 ) ( A r n o l d 1982: 2 4 ) . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e o t h e r b u r i a l o b j e c t s i s n o t r e c o r d e d and t h e r e i s no diagram showing placement.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , one o f t h e f i r s t o b j e c t s r e c o r d e d i s a b r o n z e

hanging bowl w i t h t h r e e bird-shaped e s c u t c h e o n s . Bowls of t h i s t y p e a r e p e c u l i a r t o r i c h g r a v e s such a s t h i s one, accompanied by a f u l l s e t of weaponry.

S i m i l a r i n s i z e and shape t o t h e p a i l i n t h e woman's g r a v e

C h e s s e l l Down 45, t h e bronze p a i l i n t h i s b u r i a l i s l e s s e l a b o r a t e l y d e c o r a t e d w i t h a s e r i e s of i n c i s e d l i n e s b u t may s t i l l have come from t h e same s o u r c e ; b o t h p a i l s have been i d e n t i f i e d a s Coptic and share a Middle

Eastern origin.

The bronze-bound wooden bucket i n male grave C h e s s e l l

Dom 53, i s s l i g h t l y t a l l e r b u t of a s i m i l a r d i a m e t e r w i t h b i n d i n g s c o v e r e d w i t h a r e p o u s s é d e c o r a t i o n o f a r c a d e s and d o t s (Arnold 1 9 8 2 : 58). and, as

A i 1 s u c h v e s s e l s a r e commonly i n t e r p r e t e d a s f e a s t i n g c o n t a i n e r s ,

such, symbols of t h e h i g h ranking i n d i v i d u d y s a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e a b o u n t i f u l t a b l e ( E n r i g h t 1996: 49-50)

.

The sword found i n t h i s b u r i a l ( 2 6 ) has no s u r v i v i n g a t t a c h m e n t s . However,

t h e sword i n C h e s s e l l Down Grave 76 has a b r o n z e pomme1 w i t h

t r a c e s o f g i l d i n g a s w e l l as t h e remains of a s c a b b a r d , mouthpiece and guard-plates,

a l 1 o f which a r e s i l v e r g i l t .

The attachrnent of a sword

r i n g i s i n d i c a t e d by a r i v e t h o l e and a n i n d e n t a t i o n i n t h e pornrnel.

The

g o l d f i l i g r e e work on t h e h i l t i s r a r e i n England p r i o r t o t h e l a t e s i x t h c e n t u r y , though i f t h e sword is of S c a n d i n a v i a n o r i g i n , i t c o u l d date t o t h e f i f t h centüry.

The n i e l l o - f i l l e d

chevrons on t h e t o p of t h e s c a b b a r d

mount a r e s i m i l a r t o a d i s t i n c t i v e s t y l e o f Scandinavian j e w e l l e r y o f t h e l a t e f i f t h and e a r l y s i x t h c e n t u r i e s .

It i s most l i k e l y t h a t t h e same

c r a f t s m e n who made t h e j e w e l l e r y of t h e t h e , made t h e weaponry;

i n fact,

t h e y may n o t have d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e two c a t e g o r i e s i n t h e modern s e n s e , making a sword a s much an o b j e c t of b o d i l y adornment a s a t o o l of war.

I n t h e openwork p a n e l below t h e s c a b b a r d mouth has "an outward-facing man's p r o f i l e head a t each end" (Arnold 1982: 32).

The s c a b b a r d p l a t e

c a r r i e s a r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n which can be i n t e r p r e t e d as "augmentor o f p a i n " b u t may a l s o be t h e owner's name, Acca.

Runic o r r u n e - l i k e

i n s c r i p t i o n s have been found on swords and brooches a c r o s s Anglo-saxon England and on t h e C o n t i n e n t ( F i g u r e 3 1 ) ( A r n o l d 1982: 63). The remaining o b j e c t s i n Grave 26 a r e seven m e t a l arrowheads w i t h diamond shaped blades.

While common t o a d u l t b u r i a l s o f t h e e a r l y Anglo-Saxon p e r i o d ,

a r r o w s a r e l a t e r found more commonly i n c h i l d r e n ' s b u r i a l s . however,

Here,

t h e y make up t h e f i n a l e l e m e n t i n t h i s man's f u l l b u r i a l k i t .

From t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y onwards w e may p i c t u r e Germanic w a r r i o r s , s u c h a s t h e man buried i n C h e s s e l l Down 26, w i t h s p e a r s i n hand a n d

swords i n r i c h s c a b b a r d s a g a i n s t a background of s h i n i n g a m o u r and f i t t i n g s , gold ornarnents and b r i g h t c o l o u r s (Davidson 1962: 1 0 5 ) . I n t h e Hrafnsmal, t h e w a r r i o r s of Harald F a i r h a i r a r e d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g

s c a r l e t c l o a k s w i t h s p l e n d i d b o r d e r s , swords bound with s i l v e r c a r r i e d on g i l d e d b a l d r i c s w h i l e t h e Eddic Gudrunarkvida t e l l s us t h a t wooers of G u d r u n wore r e d c l o a k s and s h o r t m a i l c o a t s (Davidson 1962: 1 0 5 ) .

A

f i f t h c e n t u r y d e s c r i p t i o n , w r i t t e n by S i d o n i u s , l a t e r Bishop o f Clermont, r e c o r d s t h e a p p e a r a n c e of Germanic c h i e f s a t t e n d i n g t h e wedding of a Burgundian p r i n c e s s :

wearing g r e e n m a n t l e s w i t h crimson b o r d e r s , t h e s e

w a r r i o r s c a r r i e d t h e i r a m a s adornment

-

barbed s p e a r s and a x e s and

s h i e l d s which " f l a s h e d with tawny g o l d e n b o s s e s and snowy s i l v e r b o r d e r s " (Davidson 1962: 1 0 4 ) .

W e know,

from T a c i t u s once a g a i n , t h a t men such a s

t h e s e i n t e n d e d t h e i r appearance t o i m p r e s s and i n t i m i d a t e t h e i r enemies (Owen-Crocker 1986: 8 3 ) .

W e b b e Bauia.2: Cbssall Dom Gram 4 5

Although t h e s k e l e t a l remains were n o t aged o r sexed by t h e e x c a v a t o r , C h e s s e l l Down Grave 4 5 a p p e a r s t o be t h a t o f a woman of a d u l t s t a t u r e and h i g h s t a t u s ( F i g u r e 3 2 ) i n t e r r e d w i t h an e x t e n s i v e b u r i a l kit.

The i r o n k n i f e and kidney-shaped

s i l v e r i n l a i d buckle a t t h e waist,

and t h e s t r i n g of beads a t t h e neck complete t h e b a s i c k i t .

Although t h e

beads from t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b u r i a l c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d , t h e y are most c e r t a i n l y among t h e e l e v e n s t r i n g s of beads recovered from C h e s s e l l Down p r e s e n t l y a t t h e B r i t i s h Museum.

Yellow, red, orange, b l u e , g r e e n , w h i t e

and c l e a r , i n v a r i e g a t e d and s o l i d forms, t h e g l a s s beads front C h e s s e l l

Down a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e found i n o t h e r Anglo-saxon c e m e t e r i e s a s a r e t h e amber and amethyst beads a l s o r e c o r d e d ( F i g u r e 3 3 ) . The v a r i e g a t e d d e s i g n s d i f f e r w i t h s p i r a l s , d o t s and s i n g l e l i n e s marking a s o l i d background b u t t h e markings a r e most o f t e n o f a l i g h t e r c o l o u r t h a n t h e background g i v i n g a c o n t r a s t between l i g h t and d a r k t o t h e d e s i g n . F u r t h e r i t e m s i n Grave 45 i n d u d e two v e s s e l s o r c o n t a i n e r s ; t h e

f i r s t , a b r o n z e p a i l a t t h e f o o t , i s d e c o r a t e d w i t h a continuous f r i e z e o f l e o p a r d s o r dogs c h a s i n g d e e r e x e c u t e d i n a form of punch work which would have made a dark c o n t r a s t a g a i n s t t h e gleam o f t h e bronze background ( F i g u r e 3 4 ) .

The r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n i n c i s e d a c r o s s one of t h e

d e e r i s e p i g r a p h i c a l l y d a t e a b l e t o t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y and c l o s e l y s i m i l a r t o t h e i n s c r i p t i o n on t h e sword s c a b b a r d i n g r a v e 76 (A-rnold 1982: 6 0 ) . At t h e left f o o t a r e two s i l v e r rims which b e l o n g t o one o r p o s s i b l y two wooden cups.

O t h e r d r i n k i n g o r f e a s t i n g v e s s e l s were a l s o

found a t C h e s s e l l Down, i n c l u d i n g two g l a s s b e a k e r s , one amber and one l i g h t g r e e n c o l o u r e d . S i m i l a r b e a k e r s a r e foünd i n Germanic graves a c r o s s England and on t h e Continent ( F i g u r e 35)(-zlrnold 1982: 5 7 ) .

Cone b e a k e r s

a r e r a t h e r d e l i c a t e v e s s e l s made o f t h i n l y blown t r a n s l u c e n t g l a s s , o f t e n w i t h g l a s s b e a d i n g around t h e upper rim which would have c r e a t e d a d a r k e r i m p r e s s i o n when t h e v e s s e 1 was f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d . A t t h e k n e e s of Grave 4 5 a r e two r a t h e r u n u s u a l items, a s i l v e r

g i l t s i e v e spoon and a smoky c r y s t a l b a l l ( F i g u r e 3 6 ) .

The bowl of t h e

spoon i s j o i n e d t o t h e h a n d l e by a t r i a n g u l a r p l a t e d e c o r a t e d w i t h b l a c k i n l a i d n i e l l u r e a g a i n s t r e s e r v e d s i l v e r and punched c i r c l e s (Arnold 1 9 8 2 : 27).

A l t e r n a t i n g p l a i n and grooved bands d e c o r a t e t h e h a n d l e which ends

i n a rounded knob which h a s been p i e r c e d f o r s u s p e n s i o n . spoons f r e q u e n t l y have g a r n e t i n l a y s .

Such p e r f o r a t e d

T y p i c a l l y found i n r i c h e r g r a v e s

of t h e s i x t h sentury, t h e y a r e o f t e n accompanied by c r y s t a l b a l l s .

There

a r e e i g h t o t h e r examples o f t h i s spoon type i n England, s i x of them from Kent. The Lyminge 4 4 example i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a i r of d i s c brooches and a p a i r o f s i l v e r - g i l t

i n l a i d square-headed b r o o c h e s , a c r y s t a l b a l l

and f r a g m e n t s o f gold b r a i d , a s i s t h e c u r r e n t example.

The spoon from

S a r r e 4 a l s o cornes from a g r a v e v e r y s i m i l a r t o C h e s s e l l Down 4 5 , a g a i n a s s o c i a t e d with a c r y s t a l b a l l , d i s c brooches and a p a i r of square-headed brooches.

The Bifrons 42 g r a v e c o n t a i n e d a g a r n e t and n i e l l o - i n l a i d

s i e v e spoon, a c r y s t a l b a l l and a g a r n e t - i n l a i d

square-headed brooch.

The spoon from Winterborne Gunner 7 i n W i l t s h i r e , a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with a

square-headed brooch, i s r a t h e r unusual i n t h a t i t i s made of bronze with r a t h e r crude d e c o r a t i o n and "is almost c e r t a i n l y a l o c a l i m i t a t i o n of t h e Kentish t y p e s " (Arnold 1982: 6 5 ) .

P e r f o r a t e d s i e v e spoons a r e known on

t h e Continent and found i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s r a d i a t e and b i r d brooches, beads, v e s s e l s , coins, c h a t e l a i n e s and r i n g s . n o t a s e l a b o r a t e a s t h e Kentish examples. always a p p e a r i n womenfs graves.

These spoons a r e

With one known e x c e p t i o n , t h e y

"It i s c l e a r t h a t most of the E n g l i s h

examples had a uniform meaning o r f u n c t i o n t o t h e i r u s e r s , a s must a p p l y t o t h e o t h e r grave-goods

f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them" (Arnold 1982:

6 5 ) . T h e s i e v e spoon has cornrnonly been i n t e r p r e t e d a s a symbol of a

noblewomants " a b i l i t y t o s e r v e expensive irnported winel' (Meaney 1981: 2 4 8 ) o r sorne o t h e r d r i n k , such a s mead o r beer, much a s t h e l a d y of t h e

h a l l i n Beowulf s e r v e s t h e rnembers of t h e c o m i t a t u s . The c r y s t a l b a l l i n C h e s s e l l Down 4 5 i s a b o u t 2 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r and i s mounted i n two engraved s i l v e r s l i n g s w i t h a loop f o r s u s p e n s i o n . No two l i k e b i n d i n g s have been found and a l t h o u g h Chessel Down Grave 40 a l s o c o n t a i n s a c r y s t a l b a l l , i t s b i n d i n g is s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e b a l l s were probabfy manufactured i n d i v i d u a l l y a s required.

There is no s i e v e spoon i n Grave 4 0 b u t t h e b a l l i s of c l e a r

c r y s t a l , l i k e t h e r n a j o r i t y of rock c r y s t a l b a l l s found elsewhere.

Like

t h e s i e v e spoons, c r y s t a l b a l l s a r e found i n England mostly i n Kent, where t h i r t e e n examples a r e known.

Like t h e Grave 4 5 b a l l , s i x of t h e

Kentish examples are accompanied by p e r f o r a t e d s i e v e spoons and g o l d brocade headbands. The e x a c t f u n c t i o n o r meaning of t h e c r y s t a l b a l l s i s unknown, though i t h a s been suggested t h a t t h e y may have been b e l i e v e d t o h o l d m y s t i c a l powers and t o have been used f o r d i v i n a t i o n s o r h e a l i n g (Glosecki 1989: 28; Meaney 1981: 242; Owen 1986: 5 8 ) .

Since s u n l i g h t

w i l l n o t f o c u s on t h e o p t i c a x i s of t h e c r y s t a l s , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e y were used a s a l e n s f o r s t a r t i n g f i r e s .

I n any e v e n t , t h e y are r a r e

p o s s e s s i o n s which were a v a i l a b l e o n l y t o a Limited number of Anglo-saxon

C r y s t a l b a l l s a r e known on t h e C o n t i n e n t as w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

wornen.

t h e Frankish areas.

They a r e most o f t e n found between t h e knees o r

t h i g h s and, when spoons a r e p r e s e n t , t h e y a r e i n , under, o r b e s i d e t h e s i e v e spoon (Arnold 1982: 64-65).

L t i s p o s s i b l e t h e s e o b j e c t s mark t h e

presence of a s e e r o r prophetess. A t t h e o u t s i d e l e f t f o r e a m i n Grave 45 is a n i r o n i n s t r u m e n t

o r i g i n a l l y w i t h d o u b l e hooked terminais ( F i g u r e 3 2 ) .

A similar

i n s t r u m e n t i s found i n S a r r e 4 , t h e K e n t i s h grave mentioned above which i s s i m i l a r i n s o xnany r e s p e c t s t o C h e s s e l 4 5 .

i n s t r u m e n t s a r e a form o f key, lifter.

It is believed t h a t these

c l o s e l y resembling a Roman form of l a t c h -

The s i z e of t h i s l i f t e r i n d i c a t e s a t h i c k e r d o o r and h e a v i e r

pegs holding a b o l t i n position.

I t i s thought t h a t s u c h l a t c h - l i f t e r s

b e l o n g e d t o wornen who h e l d some a u t h o r i t y i n a household.

Given t h e

r a r i t y o f such keys, i t can a l s o be s a i d t h a t l o c k a b l e d o o r s were p r o b a b l y uncommon and used o n l y b y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e community (Arnold 1982: 7 0 ) .

A s can be s e e n i n F i g u r e 37 t h e r e a r e three i n l a i d square-headed

b r o o c h e s d o m t h e c h e s t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n Grave 4 5 a s w e l l a s a srnall gamet-inlaid silver-gilt,

s i l v e r g i l t d i s c brooch on t h e r i g h t s h o u l d e r and a srnall, garnet-inlaid,

equal-armed brooch on t h e l e f t s h o u l d e r .

A

f r a g m e n t o f g o l d b r a i d a c r o s s t h e f o r e h e a d was most l i k e l y woven i n t o t h e f a b r i c O£ a woollen headbanà. The u s e o f such b r a i d i s m o s t l y a K e n t i s h f a s h i o n , w i t h 18 examples known from t h e r e .

It i s a s t y l e a l s o found i n

conternporary b u r i a l s i n Francia and b e l i e v e d t o have o r i g i n a t e d i n Byzantium. A g o l d r i n g on t h e r i g h t hand and a s i l v e r r i n g on t h e l e f t hand o f t h e b u r i e d i n d i v i d u a l complete t h e l i s t of p e r s o n a 1 adornments ( A r n o l d 1982: 28, 66)

.

The t h r e e square-headed b r o o c h e s a r e i d e n t i c a l i n b e i n g s i l v e r g i l t w i t h e i g h t i n l a y s o f g a r n e t and w h i t e p a s t e .

T h e o u t e r margins a r e

d e c o r a t e d w i t h punched d o t s and z i g z a g n i e l l u r e . The g a r n e t s a r e o v a l , t r i a n g u l a r and diamond-shaped and a r e backed by p a t t e r n e d g o l d f o i l .

The

upper b o r d e r s c o n t a i n "devolved opposed animal heaas i n which t h e h e a d and p e r h a p s t h e eyett can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d on 45x ( F i g u r e 3 8 ) ( A r n o l d 1982: 28).

S e v e r a l t y p e s of square-headed brooch have been i d e n t i f i e d , w i t h Many o f t h e brooches a r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h

varying degrees of decoration.

e l a b o r a t e animal and human f i g u r e s and f a c e s which, i t seems p o s s i b l e g i v e n t h e i r p o p u l a r i t y i n S c a n d i n a v i a a s w e l l a s i n England, may have connections t o ' t h e c u l t

of

t h e masked god, Woden.

s e e n on t h e b u t t o n brooches found i n Graves 7,

S i m i l a r f a c e s can be

12 and 89 ( F i g u r e 3 9 ) .

The d i s c brooch has a beaded r i m e n c l o s i n g t h r e e p a n e l s o f c r o u c h i n g a n i m a l s and a c e n t r a l w h i t e s e t t i n g ( F i g u r e 4 0 ) .

Al1 other

examples o f t h i s t y p e of brooch corne from Kent, a p a i r found i n S a r r e 4, two a t Faversham and Howletts and a s i n g l e i n Dover 59 (Arnold 1982: 28, 52).

The edges o f t h e equal-armed

brooch a r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h c i r c u l a r

knobs w i t h l i n e a r and c i r c u l a r ornaments i n between ( F i g u r e 4 1 ) -

This i s

a r a r e brooch, one of o n l y f i v e known examples, i n c l u d i n g C h e s s e l l Dom unprovenanced 23. The o t h e r t h r e e known examples are from F r a n c e (Arnold 1982: 2 8 , 5 1 ) .

The gold f o i 1 b e n e a t h t h e i n l a i d g a m e t s on a l 1 o f t h e s e

p i e c e s adds ta t h e brightness o f t h e gems.

G a m e t s set i n t h i s f a s h i o n

t e n d t o Vary i n c o l o u r from b r i g h t r e d t o almost b l a c k , d e p e n d i n g on how l i g h t f a l l s upon them. The g i l t f i n i s h common t o j e w e l i e r y o f t h i s p e r i o d

is most o f t e n g o l d i n c o l o u r , w h i l e much o f t h e g o l d employed h a s a r e d d i s h - g o l d t i n t (Evison 1987: 5 1 ) . F i n a l l y , t o t h e o u t s i d e r i g h t of b u r i a l is an i r o n weaving b a t t e n "Used f o r b e a t i n g up t h e w e f t a t r e g u l a r

w i t h t r a c e s o f a wooden handle. i n t e r v a l s on a n u p r i g h t loom",

weaving b a t t e n s o r swords a r e q u i t e rare

and known i n England from o n l y n i n e o t h e r s i t e s , seven o f which a r e i n Kent (Arnold 1982: 6 3 ) .

I n England and on t h e C o n t i n e n t , weaving b a t t e n s

a r e most o f t e n found i n r i c h wornen's g r a v e s of t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y ( A r n o l d 1982: 6 3 ) .

Based on d i s t r i b u t i o n , it is b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e E n g l i s h g r o u p

p r o b a b l y emerged a t an e a r l y d a t e , i n d e p e n d e n t of C o n t i n e n t a l developments (Arnold 1982 : 6 4 )

.

O f t e n c o n v e r t e d swords, weaving b a t t e n s

a r e f r e q u e n t l y pattern-welded

and t h i s element o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n

would have been q u i t e v i s i b l e a s t h e b a t t e n s w e r e b e i n g used t o b e a t up t h e l a n o l i n - r i c h woollen t h r e a d s on t h e loom.

The n a t u r a l o i l s p r e s e n t

i n t h e woollen f i b r e s and t h e movement of t h e b a t t e n through t h e t h r e a d s would have p r e v e n t e d r u s t and kept t h e weaving sword w e l l p o l i s h e d and gleaming i n t h e red-gold

c o l o u r common t o b l a d e s of t h i s design".

While contemporary d e s c r i p t i o n s of Anglo-saxon

women a r e found less

f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h o s e o f t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s , we know from T a c i t u s and Roman c a r v i n g s t h a t t h e jewel-bedecked

a p p e a r a n c e o f Anglo-saxon

vomen was no l e s s s t r i k i n g . We may p i c t u r e t h e s e women,

such a s t h e one

b u r i e d i n C h e s s e l l Down 4 5 w i t h b r i g h t l y c o l o u r e d c l o a k s , pattern-woven g o m s , ernbroidered g i r d l e s and f e s t o o n s of m u l t i - c o l o u r e d beads hanging between a s e r i e s o f o r n a t e brooches. Anglo-Saxon

women a p p a r e n t l y s h a r e d

t h e i r men's p r e f e r e n c e f o r " r e s t l e s s exuberance" i n t h e i r j e w e l l e r y and t h e i r t a s t e f o r " b r i l l i a n t v u l g a r i t y " i n t h e i r o v e r a l l appearance (Hawkes, e t a l 1965: 1 8 ) .

s

.

m& ~ pZ9L-w

Q ~ ~ O = & ~ O M

There i s a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of "congruence" i n s p a c e usage between t h e r i c h male and f e m a l e b u r i a l s of t h i s p e r i o d .

O b j e c t s of s i m i l a r s i z e

and shape a r e s i m i l a r l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e s p a c e o f t h e grave, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e sex o f t h e o c c u p a n t .

For i n s t a n c e , l o n g narrow s p e a r s and weaving

b a t t e n s a r e o f t e n p l a c e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e body, on e i t h e r s i d e , with t h e blade of t h e b a t t e n and t h e head of t h e s p e a r e i t h e r b e s i d e t h e l e g s o r o u t s i d e t h e upper a m .

Large round bowls a r e o f t e n p l a c e d a c r o s s t h e

l e g s o r o v e r t h e body i n t h e women's b u r i a l s , s i m i l a r l y p o s i t i o n e d w i t h t h e s h i e l d s i n t h e male b u r i a l s .

This s i m i l a r i t y i n placement o r

"congruence" may be s e e n i n Figure 2 4 . The a b j e c t s i n t h e r i c h e r b u r i a l s a p p e a r t o b e connected through s t r o n g e r a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a n j u s t b u r i a l placement, however.

Their

metaphoric s i g n i f i c a n c e and t h e c o n t e x t i n which t h e y w e r e used i n l i f e

105 a p p e a r t o have been t h e p r i m a r y d e t e z m i n i n g f a c t o r s f o r t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n the burials.

Discovering t h e r o l e t h e o b j e c t s p l a y e d i n t h e l i v e s o f

t h e g r a v e occupants i s i m p o r t a n t t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r syrnbolic, m e t a p h o r i c and metonymic a s s o c i a t i o n s .

The a s p e c t s o f such

r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e s e t o u t i n T a b l e 8 and d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n C h a p t e r I V . R e t u r n i n g t o Chapter II, w e r e c a l l t h a t t h e l a d y o f t h e h a l l p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e h a l l cup r i t u a l and i t seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e women who performed t h i s r o l e i n l i f e rnay be found i n t h o s e women's b u r i a l s which c o n t a i n t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y a s s e m b l a g e s i d e n t i f i e d above ( T a b l e s 6, 7 and 9 )

.

Many o f t h e l e s s " r i c h " b u r i a l s c o n t a i n s e t s o f o b j e c t s which

a p p e a r t o be p u t t o g e t h e r i n a n a t t e m p t t o ernulate t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e r i c h e r g r a v e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w i t h c o i n p e n d a n t s and t h e i r o n spoons i n p l a c e o f b r a c t e a t e s and s i l v e r s p o o n s .

Examples of t h e " t y p e " b u r i a l

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y assemblage i d e n t i f i e d h e r e i n have been remarked upon a c r o s s Anglo-Saxon England, most f r e q u e n t l y i n Kent ( T a b l e 9).

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r "persona" o r "role" i s being

portrayed.

Given E n r i g h t r s ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 6 ) i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e h i g h l y

o r g z n i z e d n a t u r e of t h e comitatus and t h e r o l e of c e r t a i n women i n h o l d i n g t h e warband t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h h a l l r i t u a l (and d i p l o m a c y ) , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e women b u r i e d w i t h t h e supplementary a s s e m b l a g e s may have a c t e d i n s u c h a c a p a c i t y , a s webbe o r Ereobuwebbe, weavers o f p e a c e and prophecy.

T h i s a s p e c t is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Chapter I V .

I n t h e r i c h e r male g r a v e s , a "type" b u r i a l which e x h i b i t s s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h h a l l l i f e a n d t h e w a r r i o r v a l u e s o f t h e comitatus rnay a l s o be i d e n t i f i e d .

The b u r i a l o b j e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e g r a v e s a r e

i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e man's r o l e w i t h i n t h e warband a s a w a r r i o r , a r e t a i n e r , and p o s s i b l y as a warlord.

O f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s "weapon b u r i a l s " ,

these

g r a v e s c o n t a i n s p e a r s , s h i e l d s and swords a s w e l l a s t h e v e s s e l s and c o n t a i n e r s o f r i t u a l f e a s t i n g . Rich weapon b u r i a l s o f t h i s type a p p e a r a c r o s s Anglo-saxon England and a p p e a r t o r e p r e s e n t t h e wapned o r w a r r i o r

side o f Anglo-Saxon s o c i e t y a n d t h i s i s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n C h a p t e r I V .

Chapter IV

Assthetic V a l u e s , Archaeolos and the Life of the Objmcts

Angïo-Saxon Colour Classification

Our common human p h y s i o l o g y r e s u l t s i n o u r h a v i n g g e n e r a l i z e d r e s p o n s e s t o c e r t a i n s t i m u l i , y e t " p e r c e p t i o n i s a n a c t i v e and c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n which s e v e r a l f a c t o r s p l a y a d o m i n a n t r o l e " ( ~ o o t e1992: 2 4 7 ) . Colour v i s i o n i s o n e o f t h e chief c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m s t h a t m e d i a t e t h e s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n of r e a l i t y .

Colour p e r c e p t i o n c a n evoke a p o s i t i v e

e m o t i o n a l o r " a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e " (Morphy 1 9 9 2 : 1 8 1 ) and i t i s by means o f such s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t p e o p l e corne t o u n d e r s t a n d and o r g a n i z e

t h e world a r o u n d them ( L a k o f f 1987: 3 7 1 ) ; t h i s i s as t r u e o f t h e AngloSaxons a s it is t o d a y .

A r e v i e w o f t h e Anglo-Saxon

colour classification

s y s t e m a n d t h e Old E n g l i s h c o l o u r v o c a b u l a r y e n h a n c e s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f Anglo-saxon a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s . The Anglo-Saxons,

w h i l e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s e v e r a l hues, placed

g r e a t e s t stress on d a r k n e s s and l i g h t n e s s " 63; M i l l w a r d 1989: 1 0 8 ) .

( B a r l e y 1974: 1 7 ; Cramp 1957:

S c h o l a r s have b e e n a w a r e o f t h i s fundamental

l i g h t - d a r k o p p o s i t i o n i n Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e s y m b o l i c l o a d it c a r r i e s s i n c e t h e nineteenth century.

Old E n g l i s h p o e t r y h a s been c a l l e d

"a l i t e r a t u r e o f light and d a r k , w h i t e and b l a c k " , o f b r i g h t day and d a r k e s t n i g h t , l i g h t a l e - h a l l ( B a r l e y 1974: 1 7 ) .

and ~ e o w u l f"a ~ ~poem

a n d gloomy wastelandl'

The two most commonly r e f e r r e d t o t c o l o u r s ' i n Old

E n g l i s h p o e t r y a r e b l a c k and w h i t e , e x p r e s s e d a s blzc, deorc, dun, sweart, wann and b l a c , hwit, beorht, l e o h t , scir, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Yet,

it

i s " a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e i s a n e q u a t i o n of b r i g h t n e s s and w h i t e n e s s , d a r k n e s s a n d b l a c k n e s s , o r , more a c c u r a t e l y , a n a b s e n c e o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t Eoflows from Our own h u e - s t r e s s i n g and I l ) ( B a r l e y 1974: 1 7 ) .

Anglo-Saxon

system" (Tables 1 0

c o l o u r words c a r r i e d i n f o r m a t i o n

which s p e c i f i e d s u r f a c e q u a l i t y and r e f l e c t i v e n e s s a l o n g w i t h hue ( B a r l e y 1 9 7 4 : 2 4 ) a n d s o i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t " t h e r e i s no Old E n g l i s h word

107 t h a t can be r e g u l a r l y t r a n s l a t e d a s f c o l o u r f " ( i . e . "hue") ( B a r l e y 1974: 2 1

.

There a r e s e v e r a l words, such a s f z r p u , hiw and b l e o , t h a t c a n rnean

'colour',

b u t t h e y a r e o f t e n b e t t e r t r a n s l a t e d as ' a p p e a ~ a n c e ' . For t h e

Anglo-Saxons,

" c o l o u r s were a t t r i b u t e s o f abjects"; rnany of t h e i r c o l o u r

words o r i g i n a t e d " a s comparisons w i t h c o n c r e t e r e f e r e n t s " 21; a l s o Cameron 1 9 6 8 ) .

( B a r l e y 1974:

These words e v e n t u a l l y became d e t a c h e d frorri t h e

o r i g i n a l r e f e r e n t , t a k i n g on a s e p a r a t e l e x i c a l e x i s t e n c e , y e t t h e i r usage began i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t o r f e a t u r e . c o l o u r s y s t e m d i d n o t stress hue, h u e s

Although t h e Anglo-saxon

were of c o u r s e d i s t i n g u i s h e d (Millward 1989: 1 0 8 ) .

It i s i m p o r t a n t t o

n o t e , however, t h a t t h e r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l v a r i a t i o n between Old E n g l i s h and Modern E n g l i s h i n t h e p o s i t i o n of b o u n d a r i e s .

The Anglo-Saxons

d i s t i n g u i s h e d f i v e b a s i c c o l o u r terms, c o r r e s p o n d i n g r o u g h l y t o t h e Modern E n g l i s h b l u e , p u r p l e , r e d , y e l l o w and g r e e n (Biggam 1995: 62; Millward 1989: 1 0 8 ) .

Because o f t h e dif f e r e n c e i n c a t e g o r y b o u n d a r i e s ,

O l d E n g l i s h ' r e d t i s n o t Modern E n g l i s h r e d ,

b u t c o n t a i n s hues which t h e

Modern E n g l i s h s y s t e m c l a s s i f i e s a s y e l l o w s ( T a b l e 1 2 ) ( B a r l e y 1974: 1 8 ) . L i g h t and d a r k were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j o y and s a d n e s s i n t h e e a r l y Anglo-Saxon p e r i o d and, by t h e coming of C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n had extended t o good and e v i l a s w e l l ( B a r l e y 1974: 1 7 - 8 ) .

I n both t h e

e a r l y and t h e l a t e r Anglo-saxon p e r i o d s , " f a i r l y l i g h t c o l o u r s w i t h an admixture o f w h i t e [ a r e ] prominentw; " d a r k e r c o l o u r s a r e less f r e q u e n t and i n some c a s e s ...have a s i n i s t e r o r t h r e a t e n i n g importt' (Alexander 1975: 1 5 3 ) .

The " p a l e c o l o u r s ,

...b l o b s

o f w h i t e and z i g z a g o u t l i n e s

...

g i v e a b r i l l i a n t and v i v i d e f f e c t " and i t a p p e a r s " t h i s i s a n a e s t h e t i c p r e f e r e n c e which i s connected b o t h w i t h p o e t i c c o n v e n t i o n s o f l i g h t and d a r k a s good and e v i l and a l s o

...w i t h

t h e Old E n g l i s h c o l o u r v o c a b u l a r y "

(Alexander 1975: 1 5 4 ) . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t words such a s wann can mean b o t h ' d a r k f and ' l u r i d f and glaxf b o t h * h a p p y f and I s h i n i n g t " .

This

b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n between l i g h t and d a r k " s e r v e s as a b a s i c s t r u c t u r i n g d e v i c e , o r d e r i n g t h e f i e l d s o f e x p e r i e n c e and e t h i c s " ( B a r l e y 1974: 1 8 ) .

The Preferenccr for Brilliance

The Anglo-Saxons

i n c l u d e d i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e i r ' c o l o u r ' words which

Modern E n g l i s h u s a g e would n o t i n c l u d e u n d e r ' c o l o u r ' a t a l l .

For

example, t h e Old E n g l i s h wann i s "used o f s u c h t h i n g s a s the r a v e n , d a r k waves and d a r k c h a i n - m a i l n

( B a r l e y 1974: 2 4 ) .

It i s " a p p l i e d t o t h i n g s

n e g a t i v e l y s p e c i f i e d f o r hue, d a r k t h i n g s which a x e g l o s s y t o t h e p o i n t o f h a v i n g h i g h l i g h t s r i p p l i n g a c r o s s t h e i r s u r f a c e " ( B a r l e y 1974: 2 4 ) . T h i s quality o f " v a r i e g a t e d s u r f a c e - r e f f e c t i v i t y "

t a k e s in n o t j u s t hue

b u t " t h e whole e x t e r n a l a p p e a r a n c e " o f t h e r e f e r e n t , what might b e termed

it s

'b r i g h t n e s s '

-

i t s l i g h t n e s s , l u s t e r and s c i n t i l l a t i o n z 6 ( T a b l e

1 3 ) ( B a r l e y 1974: 24; Millward 1989: 1 0 8 ) .

" A l 1 of these e f f e c t s are

s i r n u l t a n e o u s l y p r e s e n t " and i t i s o n l y t h r o u g h c o n t e x t o r t h e a d d i t i o n o f a prefix,

t h a t o n e o r t h e o t h e r i s made predominant (Cramp 1 9 5 7 : 6 3 ) .

T h i s sarne b a s i c q u a l i t y o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e Old E n g l i s h l e x i c o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , fealu i s a p p l i e d t o h o r s e s , g l i n t i n g s h i e l d e d g e s , waves and flame, brun t o h e l m e t s , s w o r d s , waves and f e a t h e r s .

It h a s been

s u g g e s t e d " t h a t OE fealo, brun a n d wann, and a l s o gr-,'?

a r e terms

g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o g l o s s y t h i n g s " a n d t h a t t h e y have two cornponents: h u e and s u r f a c e r e f l e c t i v i t y ( B a r l e y 1974: 2 4 ) .

This a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f b r i g h t n e s s a b o v e a l 1 o t h e r c o l o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is o f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , rnarking a s i t d o e s a n a e s t h e t i c p r e f e r e n c e f o r b r i g h t n e s s w i t h i n Anglo-saxon S o c i e t y . I n summary, t h e Anglo-Saxon a p p r o a c h t o c o l o u r was f a r d i f f e r e n t

from t h e modern Western h u e - s t r e s s i n g s y s t e m .

The Anglo-saxon s y s t e m

h e l d words o f "complex s e n s e i m p r e s s i o n " t h a t s p e c i f i e d l i g h t and d a r k a n d g e n e r a l s u r f a c e q u a l i t y a l o n g w i t h hue ( B a r l e y 1974: 2 4 ) . The Old E n g l i s h c o l o u r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m was concerned c h i e f l y w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f l i g h t and d a r k .

Brightness, l i g h t o r b r i l l i a n c e

c a r r i e d p o s i t i v e exnotional, s o c i a l , and m o r a l v a l u e s . concrete properties, social relations"

"Both as t e r m s and

c o l o u r s a r e engaged a s s i g n s i n v a s t schemes o f

( S a h l i n s 1977: 1 6 7 ) .

T h e Anglo-saxon p r e f e r e n c e f o r

" b r i l l i a n c e " was s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e o r d e r i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e and t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning, r e l a t i n g t o t h e i d e o l o g y a s w e l l a s t h e

socio-

p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the t i m e s .

B z 5 l l i a n c e : A -2-

in People, Tbings and Deo&

Throughout t h e corpus of Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , " b r i g h t n e s s " i s a f e a t u r e i d e n t i f i e d with people, ob je c t s and a c t i o n s , and commented upon i n t h e n a t u r a l and s u p e r n a t u r a l world; it i s always a p o s i t i v e v a l u a t i o n . Brightness a s an a e s t h e t i c p r e f e r e n c e o r v a l u e i s important both t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e comitatus and t o t h e reinforcernent of i d e a l s i n h e r e n t i n t h e warband ideology.

Examples of this usage and v a l u a t i o n O £

" b r i l l i a n c e " may be found i n t h e h e r o i c e p i c , Beowulf, but t h e y a r e a l s a apparent i n t h e wisdom poems such a s The Fortunes o f M e n and t h e Maxims. The Anglo-saxons used words d e n o t i n g b r i g h t n e s s o r b r i l l i a n c e t o d e s c r i b e t h e ornament, armament and t h e b e a r i n g of w a r r i o r s who went o f f t o win p e r s o n a 1 g l o r y , g r e a t n e s s and s p l e n d o u r , t o become m r e , "famous"

o r 'tgreatt'26. I n Beowulf, t h e watchman on t h e s h o r e n o t e s t h e coming of Beowulf and h i s men by t h e i r b e o r h t e rondas, t h e i r " b r i g h t s h i e l d s " (Beowulf 231).

On approaching t h e s e s t r a n g e r s , t h e watchman knows

immediately from Beowulf's c a r r i a g e and t h e way he wears h i s a m o u r and weapons t h a t Beowulf is no m e r e r e t a i n e r , u n l e s s h i s wlite, h i s "appearance" o r "splendour", b e l i e s h i s znlic ansyn, h i s "unique countenance" o r "presence" (Beowulf 2 5 0 ) . a s " b r i g h t n e s s " o r "adornmentft a s well," watchmen r e c o g n i z e s Beowulf's "greatness",

Here w l i t e may be i n t e r p r e t e d and so i t appears t h a t t h e h i s m z r d , £rom t h e s h i n i n g

quality of t h e h e r o t s p h y s i c a l presence a s w e l l a s from h i s m i l i t a r y a d o r n ~ n e n t s ~The ~ . s h i n i n g q u a l i t y of Beowulf's armour and person is noted f r e q u e n t l y throughout t h e poem; h i s wlonc, h i s %oldness of p o s t u r e " ,

is

r e a l i z e d i n t h e eloquence o f h i s speech and t h e dom, t h e "shiningt' o r "glory" o f h i s deeds, i n h i s d e f e a t of b a t h Grendel and G r e n d e l ' s mother (Beowulf 338-47,

405-55, 1 6 4 5 )

. Dome

i s a l s o used t o r e f e r t o Beowulf's

s t a t e l i n e s s and r e s p l e n d e n c e o f Eorm as he r e t u r n s t o t h e h a l l with G r e n d e l ' s head, s i n c e h i s a p p e a r a n c e with t h i s t o k e n o f s u c c e s s a s w e l l a s t h e deed i t s e l f r e c e i v e t h e f a v o u r a b l e judgment of o t h e r s (Beowulf 1645; Taylor 1990: 2 1 4 ) .

A s t r o n g connection between p e r s o n a 1 p r e s e n c e

o r charismas' and a b r i g h t n e s s o f form and countenance i s e v i d e n t h e r e w i t h i n t h e Anglo-Saxon

value system.

These two p o s i t i v e l y valued

q u a l i t i e s appear t o be i n t r i n s i c t o t h e f i g u r e o f t h e beorn m z r e ,

the

*famous w a r r i o r " T e m s f o r adornments which enhance t h e appearance of t h e wearer

e x p r e s s e d i n terms of b r i l l i a n c e a r e found i n Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e i n d e s c r i p t i o n s of women a s w e l l as men3'.

I n Old E n g l i s h , a woman's

a t t r a c t i v e n e s s i s d e s c r i b e d i n terms of her adornments, n o t i n t e r m s of h e r own p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Old English t e x t s r a r e l y mention t h e

hue o f a woman's hair, e y e s o r complexion (Millward 1989: 1 0 8 ) . s h e is s a i d t o be beaghroden,

"ring-adorned",

o r sinchroden, "treasure-adorned"

Instead,

goldhroden, "gold-adorned"

( T a y l o r 1990 : 216-18

)

.

The s i t u a t i o n

i s s i m i l a r with t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f men. The appearance of a man o r a t r o o p is d i s c u s s e d i n terms of t h e b r i g h t n e s s of a m o u r and weaponry and t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e y and t h e i r armament a r e g e a t o l i c , "adorned"

(Beowulf 215, 308, 1 4 0 1 ) .

Both t h e men and women o f Old English p o e t r y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d more a t t r a c t i v e i n appearance and more worthy i n r e p u t a t i o n by t h e a d d i t i o n of some b r i g h t o b j e c t t o t h e i r p e r s o n .

For i n s t a n c e , on l e a v i n g the l a n d o f

t h e Danes, Beowulf g i v e s a g i f t o f a bundengold swurd, a "gold-bound sword" t o t h e man who had guarded h i s boat (Beowulf 1900) t h e man

wa?s

on meodubence maPrne @y weorpra y r l e a l a f e ,

.

Afterwards

"held i n g r e a t e r

honour on t h e mead-bench b e c a u s e o f t h a t t r e a s u r e and h e i r l ~ o r n " (Beowulf ~~ 1901-3 )

.

S i m i l a r l y , af ter r e c e i v i n g the w r a t l i c n e wundeurmaPPum,

"wondrous t r e a s u r e - n e c k r i n g " geweordod,

o f g o l d , Hrodgar ' s d a u g h t e r ' s b r e a s t was

"more nobly adornedn3' (Beowulf 2173, 2175)

.

Damico's ( 1 9 8 4 ) review of t h e r o l e of female adornment c o n c l u d e s

t h a t t h e r a d i a n c e o f women i s a n ornamentaf r a d i a n c e which ernphasizes a f e m a l e s t r e n g t h o r f o r c e d i s t i n c t frorn t h e m a s c u l i n e b a t t l e s t r e n g t h . Nevertheless,

t h e women of 01d E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e s h a r e many o f t h e Women

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s admired i n t h e h e r o i c w a r r i o r s (Damico 1990: 182). s u c h as Wealpeow, Judith and Elene h a v e " q u i c k n e s s o f mind,

s p e e c h " and a " t h o u g h t f u l i n t e n t t o w a r d d u t y "

s a g a c i t y of

( T a y l o r 1990: , 2 1 7 ) .

They

a r e a l s o o f s h i n i n g p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , beorht m q , v l b r i g h t - m a i d e n s v v d e s c r i b e d i n terms s u c h a s blachleor, " b r i g h t - c h e e k e d "

.

"elf - s h i n i n g W (Judith 5 8 , 128, 2 5 4 )

o r elfscienu,

S i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are

o b s e r v e d i n t h e Valkyries, t h e " s u n - b r i g h t

o n e s " who c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d b y

t h e i r " c l e a r b r i l l i a n t hue o f c o u n t e n a n c e "

(Damico 1990: 181; a l s o

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 7 0 ) .

H w i t , d e a l l , g l m , l e o h t , scir, scine, scima and

t o r h t al1 s i g n i f y l i g h t n e s s o r b r i g h t n e s s ,

while designating radiance of

form, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e f a c e ( T a y l o r 1 9 9 0 : 2 1 2 - 7 ) .

r8Brilliancm":

Ibe P e r ~ o n a lChazisnn of the lLrrg10-Saxon W a r r i o r

Such d e s c r i p t i o n s , it seems, interior quality.

r e c o r d t h e outward s i g n o f sorne

A " p a r t i c u l a r f o r c e w h a s been observed i n t h e O l d

E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e which i s f r e q u e n t l y m a n i f e s t e d i n t e r m s f o r b r i g h t n e s s ; t h e manner i n which t h i s f o r c e o r b r i g h t n e s s is r e f e r r e d t o " s u g g e s t s a n a t u r a l power" o r " p r e t e r n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h " 217).

( T a y l o r 1990:

R e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n between t h e Anglo-Saxon

preference f o r brightness,

t h e p e r s o n a 1 c h a r i s m a o f the Anglo-Saxon

w a r r i o r and t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f i n n e r power i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a l i z i n g t h e l i n k bgtween Anglo-saxon

b e l i e f s and a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s . I n most s o c i e t i e s ,

" s o c i a l phenomena a r e n o t d i s c r e t e :

e a c h phenornenon c o n t a i n s a i l t h e

t h r e a d s o f which t h e s o c i a l f a b r i c i s composed" (Mauss 1967: 1). W i t h i n t h e Germanic t r a d i t i o n ,

l i g h t s h i n e s f o r t h frorn t h e e y e s o f

d i v i n i t i e s i n c l u d i n g Woden a n d h i s c r e a t u r e s , t h e Wælcyrges ( D ~ C O1990: 181).

I n c r e a t i n g t h e l i g h t r e f l e c t i n g d e s i g n s on sword, s c a b b a r d ,

b u c k l e , b r o o c h , e t c . , t h e Anglo-Saxons

were i m p a r t i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l power

112

a s well a s s u r f a c e decoration.

T h e i r craftsmen mixed t h e n a t u r a l and t h e

s u p e r n a t u r a l , working a form o f e f f e c t i v e magic which worked i n harmony w i t h t h e a f f e c t i v e q u a l i t y of t h e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e .

The d e s i g n s worked by

t h e Germanic c r a f t s m e n w e r e n o t meant t o simply amuse t h e eye b u t t o add t o t h e b r i l l i a n c e of t h e w a r r i o r and s o proclaim h i s s u c c e s s i n b a t t l e . As d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r II, t h e e c s t a t i c s t a t e i s a r e c u r r i n g

f e a t u r e o f t h e c u l t o f Woden and c e n t r a l t o t h e berserkr s t a t e o f h i s While n o t a shaman himself, a berserkr may be s e e n a s

w a r r i o r Eollowers.

a k i n t o a P l a i n s I n d i a n w a r r i o r who r e l i e s on g u a r d i a n h e l p e r s

-

using

animal names, animal b e h a v i o u r , animal r e g a l i a and s e l f - i n d u c e d e c s t a s y . S t a t e s of e c s t a s y , encouraged by t h e Germanic w a r r i o r c u l t s , "

were

important a s a " k i n e s t h e t i c image schema" (Lakoff 1987: 372) which worked t o c r e a t e and shape t h e Anglo-saxon v a l u e system.

To predicate t h e

rnetaphor of animal s h a p e o r b e h a v i o u r upon t h e a p p e a r a n c e o r behaviour of an Anglo-saxon w a r r i o r i n b a t t l e - f u r y was a means t o convey " i n c h o a t e psychological experiences"

(Fernandez 1986: 2 5 ) .

The symbols used t o

g i v e meaning t o t h e k i n e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e began i n m e t a p h o r i c s t a t e m e n t , u s i n g images from t h e n a t u r a l world t o g i v e e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e e v e n t (Fernandez 1986: 32, 4 3 ; G l o s e c k i 1989: 89; and Johnson 1987: xv, 1 3 - 1 5 ) . The S t a t e s of berserkr r a g e may be l i k e n e d t o t h e extended p e r i o d s of "flow" describeci by modern a t h l e t e s ( C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i 1975, 1990, 1996; Enright 1998: 3341, o r t h e " a d r e n a l i n e rush" r e c o u n t e d by war v e t e r a n s (Shay 1994: 75-97)

Brilliance:

.

An Aestïzatic aad

Social V ' u a

According t o T h e Fortunes o f M e n (68-70), s k i 1 1 i n combat and gewealdenne wigplegan, "mastery o f t h e game of war" brought t h e Anglo-

Saxon w a r r i o r t o r h t l i c n e tii*6, " b r i g h t glory" o r gupe b l d ' , " b a t t l e

fame".

I n t h e poetry,

t h e sun s h i n e s b r i g h t l y on s u c h deeds.

After

Beowulf's b a t t l e w i t h Grendel, h i s merdo naned, h i s " g l o r y proclaimed" (Beowulf 8 5 7 ) , and w e a r e t o l d t h a t nowhere i n t h e world was t h e r e a

s h i e l d - b e a r e r n o b l e r t h a n h e "beneath t h e b r o a d sweep o f t h e b r i l l i a n t skytt3' (Beowulf 859-801 ) courage, generosity,

.

For t h e Anglo-saxon m i l i t a r y e l i t e , prowess,

a d e s i r e f o r fame and t h e f e a r o f d i s g r a c e were

rneaningful i d e a l s (Evans 1997: 85; P o l f i n g t o n 1996: 2 4 ) .

The Maxims

d e c l a r e t h a t a man who is sceomiande, "ashamed" rnust w a l k i n t h e shadows, b u t t h a t scir, " b r i g h t n e s s " ,

o r "bright things",

ought t o be i n the l i g h t

(Maxims 1, A 6 6 ) . Though e v i l and d a n g e r l u r k i n t h e d a r k n e s s ,

"as soon

a s l i g h t dawns, and t h e Sun, c l a d i n h e a v e n l y b r i l l i a n c e shines from t h e s o u t h , anyone who s o w i s h e s w i l l be a b l e t o walk o n c e a g a i n w i t h a b o l d h e a r t t o t h e mead-drinkingW3" (Beowulf 603-6)

.

Such t - e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f

brightness i n O l d English i n d i c a t e t h e p o s i t i v e v a l u a t i o n given the c o n c e p t w i t h i n Anglo-saxon

s o c i e t y and shows i t s s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n t o

t h e i r a e s t h e t i c value system. Deeds o f g r e a t n e s s , performed i n s c i r hame, " s h i n i n g a m o u r " w i t h b r i g h t sword o r beado l e o m a , " S a t t l e - l i g h t " , bold o r goldsele,

were rewaxded i n t h e b e o r h t e

t h e "bxight building" o r "gold h a l l " ,

where t h e l o r d

and t h e l a d y o f t h e h a l l g a v e p r a i s e and s p l e n d i d g i f t s t o t h e worthy men (Beowulf 1441-54,

1895,

1523, 997, 715, 1020-34,

1195).

a d o r n e d weaponry and a m o u r , rewards from t h e g i f s t o l ,

Gilded and b o t h added t o t h e

p e r s o n a 1 w e a l t h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l w a r r i o r a n d p r o v i d e d m a t e r i a l p r o o f o f h i s s u c c e s s i n b a t t l e . The "famous",

t h e mære, wore t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s

upon t h e i r p e r s o n f o r a l 1 t o s e e

-

r i n g s o f g o l d (Beowulf 2036-8).

I n t h e end, t h e b e s t w a r r i o r s were t h o s e

most " e a g e r t o win fame, g l o r y "

-

bright b l a d e s , s h i n i n g s h i e l d s and

t h o s e most l o f g e o r n o s t (Beowulf 3 1 8 2 ) ;

death i n b a t t l e ensured e t e r n a l brightness. S i t t i n g i n t h e h a l l , t h e w a r r i o r s o f t h e c o m i t a t u s s h a r e d mead from t h e same s h i n i n g cup, f r o m t h e madpumfdot maore, t h e "famous" o r " g l o r i o u s treasure",

d e l i v e r e d by t h e hands of t h e l a d y o f t h e h a l l who walked

amongst them goldhroden, 614, 616-629).

" g o l d adorned" a n d b r i g h t - f a c e d (Beowulf 24 05,

The l a d y w i t h t h e mead cup accornpanied e a c h d r i n k w i t h a n

e x h o r t a t i o n t o d i s p l a y b r a v e r y , g e n e r o s i t y a n d l o y a l t y f o r her a p p r o v a l ;

i n a c c e p t i n g t h e h o s p i t a l i t y of t h e cup, t h e w a r r i o r s a c c e p t e d t h e consequent o b l i g a t i o n s (Russom 1988: 1 8 2 ) .

The mead h a l l s t o o d w i t h

tirnbered g a b l e s t r a c e d w i t h g i l d i n g and f i l l e d w i t h famous w a r r i o r s ; its " l i g h t blazedl1 f o r t h "over many l a n d s m c 0 ,i l l d n a t i n g t h e d a r k n e s s lixte se l e o m a ofer l a n d a fela (Beowulf 307-11). The wynn

01 " j o y s "

of t h e h a l l ,

t h e mondreamas,

" t h e j o y of l i f e

among men114', t h e f e a s t i n g and s i n g i n g and c a m a r a d e r i e , promoted and r e i n f o r c e d t h e v a l u e s of t h e s o c i e t y , t h e r i t u a l p r o v i d i n g a s e n s e of

tirneless permanence t o t h e group (Evans 1997: 93; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 33). The poems c e l e b r a t e "not s i m p l y t h e h a l l a s a b u i l d i n g but t h e s o c i a l systern a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it" (Hume 1974: 6 4 ) .

Though assumptions about

h a l l s were n e v e r b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n t o "an a ~ t i c u l a t e ds o c i a l philosophy",

t h e h a l l "had a p o s i t i v e v a l u e b a s e d on [ i t s ] r o l e a s

p r o t e c t i n g r o o f and a s a c e n t r e of power";

l i f e w i t h i n i t s w a l l s was

" p a r t of a l a r g e r p a t t e r n o f o b l i g a t i o n s which gave a r e t a i n e r t h e security of a defined position i n h i s society" the hall,

(Hume 1974: 6 4 - 8 ) .

Within

r e c o g n i t i o n o f worth was g i v e n p u b l i c l y and s t a t u s was

unambiguous; i t was f o r m a l l y acknowledged by p l a c e on t h e bench (Evans 1997: 9 7 ) .

The ceremony and r i t u a l , t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e h a l l - t r e a s u r e s

and d e c o r a t i o n , t h e music and s t o r i e s of p a s t h e r o e s imposed p a t t e r n and o r d e r on h a l l l i f e , outside"

"making i t s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e chaos

(Hume-1974: 66) .

The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h a l l was l l p o e t i c a l l y

e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e mondream it [enclosed], t h e b e s t f e a t u r e t h a t s o c i e t y c o u l d o f f e r t o i t s members"

(Hume 1974: 6 7 ) .

D e s t r u c t i o n of t h e hall

meant t h e end o f o r d e r , s o c i a l p l e a s u r e and s e c u r i t y , t h e end o f a way o f life.

I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e g o l d s e l e , t h e "gold" o r "gleaming

hall",

with a l 1 i t s joys,

occupied a c e n t r a l p l a c e i n Anglo-saxon

thought

(Evans 1997: 93) and f u n c t i o n e d as a " p o s i t i v e e x i s t e n t i a l metaphor" w i t h i n t h e i r s o c i a l w o r l d (Hume 1974: 69; Evans 1997: 8 8 ) . T h i s b r i e f r e v i e w o f Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s how i n t e r t w i n e d was t h e Anglo-Saxon p o s i t i v e p r e f e r e n c i n g of b r i g h t n e s s w i t h t h e s o c i a l

mechanisms and v a l u e s of t h e c u l t u r e , w i t h t h e i d e o l o g y a n d t h e b e l i e f s of these peoples.

The q u a l i t y o f b r i g h t n e s s was s e e n t o b e p r e s e n t i n

p e o p l e , o b j e c t s and deeds a n d t h e v a l u a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b r i g h t n e s s w e r e employed t o promote, reward and r e i n f o r c e t h e i d e a l s o f t h e s o c i e t y

and t o f o r t i f y t h e s t r u c t u k l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e comitatus.

The W a p n œ d a d the ~ e h b ei-n Zitarature and Azchaeology

Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e is a l s o a s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e n a t u r e o f v a r i o u s Anglo-saxon s o c i a l r o l e s ( F e l l 1984: 2 5 ) .

Two

p a r t i c u l a x f i g u r e s i n the f i t e r a t u r e a r e of primary concern t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y : t h e w a r l o r d a n d t h e l a d y of t h e h a l l

webbe.

-

t h e wapned and t h e

Both t h e wisdom and t h e h e r o i c p o e t r y p o r t r a y Anglo-Saxon men a s

weapon-adorned w a r r i o r s s e e k i n g t o become mëere o r g r e a t i n b a t t l e .

The

i d e a l l o r d i s t h e u l t i m a t e w a r r i o r , farnous f o r h i s war d e e d s and h i s p e r s o n a 1 courage, a s k i l l e d s t r a t e g i s t and a g e n e r o u s g i f t - g i v e r .

Heroic

p o e t r y t h u s r e i n f o r c e d v a l u e s and b e l i e f s t h a t t e n d e d t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e w a r b a n d ' s s t r u c t u r e whife condemning d e t r i m e n t a l b e h a v i o u r -

Therefore,

t h e p o e t r y p a i d c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s o f al1

members o f t h e warband s i n c e t h e y were fundamental t o t h e h e r o i c v a l u e

s y s t e m upon which t h e c o m i t a t u s was b u i l t (Evans 1997: 83)

.

As n o t e d i n Chapter II, t h e l a d y of t h e h a l l i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o

as freoduwebbe o r f r i d u s i b b folca, l i t e r a l l y "peaceweaver" o r "peacebond o f t h e p e o p l e f f (Beowulf 1942, 2 0 1 7 ) .

A r e c e n t review of t h e c o n t e x t s i n

which t h e s e compound forms a p p e a r show t h a t t h e terrn "does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t a Germanic custom of g i v i n g a wornan i n m a r r i a g e t o a h o s t i l e t r i b e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e peace" a s i t was once t h o u g h t ( S k l u t e 1990: 2 0 8 ) .

"Rather it i s a p o e t i c metaphor r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p e r s o n

whose f u n c t i o n i t seems t o b e t o perform o p e n l y t h e a c t i o n o f making p e a c e by weaving t o t h e b e s t of h e r a r t a t a p e s t r y o f f r i e n d s h i p and amnesty" ( S k l u t e 1 9 9 0 : 2 0 8 ) , and by s o d o i n g to c o n s t r u c t bonds of a l l e g i a n c e w i t h i n t h e c o r n i t a c u s , between t h e w a r l e a d e r and h i s warband,

and between t h e Company of t h e h a l l and o u t s i d e r s ( E n r i g h t 1988, 1990; Sklute 1990: 2 0 8 ) . The warband was o r g a n i z e d a l o n g aristocratie l i n e s and i t s members w e r e p r i m a r i l y o f t h e dominant s o c i a l c l a s s .

I t i s t h i s dominant

m i l i t a r y c l a s s w i t h i t s m a r t i a l i d e a l s , a c t i v i t i e s and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e t h a t r e c e i v e s t h e e x c l u s i v e f o c u s of t h e h e r o i c l i t e r a t u r e (Evans 1997:

41).

While t h e s t r o n g e s t e v i d e n c e for t h e n a t u r e of t h e w n e d and webbe

r o l e s cornes t o us from Beorrulf, t h e gnomic v e r s e o f t h e Maxims a l s o g i v e s us something o f t h e r o l e o f a young w a r r i o r , Geongne z p e l i n g s c e o l a n gode g e s i d a s and to b e a h g i f e . . . (Maxims II 1 4 - 1 5 ) b y l d a n tu beaduwe A young p r i n c e ought t o be encouraged i n war and i n g e n e r o s i t y b y good

companions. a s w e l l as an i n s i g h t i n t o l i f e i n t h e comitatus, Gold gerisep on p a n sweorde, s e l l i c s i g e s c e o r p , s i n c on cwene, go s c o p gumum, g a r n i p w e r u m , wig t o w i p r e wicfreopa healdan. Scyld s c e a l cempan, s c e a f t r e a f e r e , s c e a l bryde b e a g . . . . (Maxims B 56-61) It is r i g h t f o r gold t o be on a man's sword, and f o r a woman t o Wear p r e c i o u s t h i n g s , f i n e c l o t h e s t o be admired and g i v e p r e s t i g e ; i t i s r i g h t f o r men t o have a good p o e t and f o r w a r r i o r s t o f i g h t with spears, d e f e n d i n g t h e peace of t h e i r homes a g a i n s t war. A s h i e l d i s f o r t h e w a r r i o r , a s p e a r s h a f t f o r the r a i d e r , a r i n g f o r t h e b r i d e ...

More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e Maxims c o n f i r m many of t h e a e t a i l s o f t h e

ritual roles of t h e wzpned and t h e webbe w i t h i n t h e h a l l a s t h e y a r e s e t o u t i n Beowulf: Cyning s c e a l mid c e a p e cwene gebicgan Bu s c e o l o n arest bunum ond beagum. Gu6 sceal i n e o r l e , geofum god wesan. w i g geweaxan, on w i f e gepeon, leohtmod wesan, l e o f mid hyre leodum , rune healdan, rumheort beon meodorædenne mearum on mapmum, f o r gesidmagen symle aghwaor eodor z p e l i n g a arest g e g r e t a n , forman f u l l e t o f r e a n hond ri cene geracan , ond hiin ré& witan barn atsomne. (klaxims B 10-21) boldagendum A king must endow h i s queen w i t h good t h i n g s ,

w i t h beakers and b r a c e l e t s ;

V a l o u r and b a t t l e b o t h must from t h e b e g i n n i n g be g e n e r o u s w i t h g i f t s . power must grow i n t h e man, and t h e woman must p r o s p e r , l o v e d by h e r p e o p l e ; [ s h e rnust] be cheerful-minded, keep s e c r e t s , be g e n e r o u s w i t h h o r s e s and t r e a s u r e s ; a t t h e mead-drinking [ s h e must] always and everywhere i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e warrior-band f i r s t g r e e t t h e p r o t e c c o r o f n o b l e s , a t once p u t t h e f i r s t cup i n h e r l o x d ' s hand, and g i v e w i s e a d v i c e f o r t h e p a i r of them, t h e h a l l - r u l e r s 4 = . I t h a s been argued t h a t t h e cup r i t u a l d e s c r i b e d above w a s t h e

e a r l i e s t r o y a l i n a u g u r a t i o n r i t u a l w i t h i n t h e c o r n i t a t u s , b a s e d on i t s s i m p l i c i t y , a n t i q u i t y a n d a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o b o t h house-lord and t e r r i t o r i a l ruler.

t h e r u l e r was r e c o g n i z e d when his w i f e

By s u c h means,

s e r v e d him b e f o r e o t h e r s ( E n r i g h t 1996: 8 9 ) .

The a d v i c e s o u g h t and g i v e n

by Gerrmanic women t o t h e i r men i s w e i l a t t e s t e d e l s e w h e r e (Damico 1 9 9 0 :

160; Evans 1997: 96). The w n e d and t h e webbe f i g u r e s o f t h e p o e t r y a r e , i t a p p e a r s , e x t r e m e l y p e r t i n e n t t o a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e two "type" b u r i a l s i d e n t i f i e d i n C h a p t e r III, s i n c e t h o s e h i g h s t a t u s b u r i a l s c o n t a i n o b j e c t s wbich a p p e a r t o connect them w i t h t h e r o l e s i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e p o e t r y (Meaney 1981: 245). I t i s obvious t h a t t h e Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e and t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s are complementary s o u r c e s which s h o u l d n o t be s e e n i n i s o l a t i o n (Cramp 1957 : 57 1

BurirrL bbjecb:

.

Expressions of A e s t h e t i c V a l u e

For t h e rnost p a r t ,

o b j e c t s found i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l b u r i a l

c o n t e x t a r e t h e work of t h e j e w e l l e r and t h e metalworker.

A r t i c l e s of

wood, h o r n and t e x t i l e t e n d n o t t o s u r v i v e , y e t t h e r e i s no r e a s o n to b e l i e v e t h a t o b j e c t s f a s h i o n e d from t h e s e m a t e r i a l s were n o t e l a b o r a t e d i n some way, and i n c o l o u r s and designs s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o b s e r v e d an t h e

less p e r i s h a b l e a r t i f a c t s .

However, t h o s e o b j e c t s which do exist e x h i b i t

t h e Anglo-Saxon p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e " b r i l l i a n t and v i v i d " i d e n t i f i e d above.

The weapons, weaving t o o l s , j e w e l l e r y and o t h e r forms of body

ornament, as w e l l a s t h e v e s s e l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e a s t i n g , found i n t h e webbe and wa3pned b u r i a l s w e r e c r a f t e d i n such a way a s t o a t t a i n t h e

maximum effect of b r i g h t n e s s , l u s t r e and s c i n t i l l a t i o n p o s s i b l e .

The

a e s t h e t i c s e n s e shown l i n g u i s t i c a l l y above "can b e p a r a l l e l e d from a r c h a e o l o g y i n t h e Anglo-saxon p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t e c h n i q u e s o f ornament which p r o d u c e a n e f f e c t o f l i g h t and shade" ( C r a m p 1957: 63). A g r e a t d e a l o f t h e work of t h e Anglo-Saxon

o r ~ e r r n a n i cmetalworker

is i n s m a l l scale, and t h e ornament "an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e o b j e c t , e x e c u t e d by t h e s a m e c r a f t s m a n "

(Speake 1980: 2 ) . RiIl a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

t h e i n t r i n s i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h i s ornament demanded a c l o s e v i s u a l s c r u t i n y (Speake 1980: 2 ) . B a s i c a l l y ,

two k i n d s o f d e c o r a t i o n w e r e u s e d by Anglo-

Saxon j e w e l l e r s and m e t a l w o r k e r s t o c r e a t e s u c h a n e f f e c t . The f i r s t r e s u l t e d i n " c o l o u r i s t i c effects", t h a t i s , e f f e c t s which a c c e n t e d b o t h hue and b r i g h t n e s s ; t h e s e c o n d r e s u l t e d i n " t e x t u r a l e f f e c t s " (Leigh 1990: 1 0 8 ) which p l a y e d up t h e amount o f l i g h t s e e m i n g l y r e f l e c t e d from the surface.

N i e l l o , g a r n e t i n l a y , and mercury g i l d i n g w e r e u s e d t o

c r e a t e c o l o u r and c o n t r a s t , w h i l e i n c i s i n g and r e p e a t e d i m p r e s s i o n s were used t o b r e a k t h e smooth s u r f a c e cf p o l i s h e d rnetal by p u n c h i n g , n o t c h i n g ,

etc. (Leigh 1990: 1 0 8 ) . Some o f t h e most e l a b o r a t e b r o o c h e s , p e n d a n t s , sword b e a d s and b e l t b u c k l e s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y , w i t h t h e i r ornament c o n s i s t i n g o f "gold c e l l s , o r cloisons, p a i n s t a k i n g l y b u i l t i n e l a b o r a t e s h a p e s and f i l l e d w i t h s e m i - p r e c i o u s s t o n e s " s u c h a s g a r n e t s , o r w i t h p i e c e s of r e d o r b l u e g l a s s o r w h i t e s h e l l ( F i g u r e 42)(Owen-Crocker 1986: 2 7 ) . and w h i t e and g a r n e t and g o l d were f a v o u r i t e c o m b i n a t i o n s ,

Garnet

t h e darkness

o f t h e g a r n e t s c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e l i g h t n e s s of g o l d and s h e l l . I n t h i s technique, t h e cells a r e l i n e d with gold f o i l t o catch and reflect t h e l i g h t ( E v i s o n 1987: 4 4 ) .

One o f t h e more d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

g a r n e t s ( o r e v e n red g l a s s ) mounted i n t h i s f a s h i o n i s t h e way t h e y c a t c h and r e f l e c t v a r y i n g arnounts o f l i g h t , changing i n c o l o u r as t h e y do s o from a d e e p bright r e d t o a d a r k , blackish, blood c o l o u r .

T h i s change

from l i g h t t o d a r k was c o n t r i v e d "by v a r i o u s means, sometimes by v a r y i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e g o l d f o i l b a c k i n g , p o s s i b l y by a f o i l o f s i l v e r o r g o l d w i t h s i l v e r c o n t e n t , o c c a s i o n a l l y by s e t t i n g t h e g a r n e t w i t h o u t a

119 f o i 1 backing, and probabfy a l s o by v a r y i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e s t o n e s " ( E v i s o n 1987: 4 4 ) . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , blood r e d d e s i g n s a r e popular i n many t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e s ; t h e c o l o u r i s s e e n t o h a r b o u r a s o r t of dynamism, t o c a r r y symbolic l i f e powers t h a t ward o f f demons and i l l n e s s .

Beings who

p o s s e s s r e d i n s p i r e f e a r ; w a r r i o r s a r e f e a r e d because t h e y r e l e a s e blood, b l a c k s m i t h s because t h e y a r e m a s t e r s o f f i r e , of t h e red-hot rnetal which t h e y f o r g e i n t o weapons t h a t shed blood and t o o l s t h a t wound t h e e a r t h ( B a r b e r 1994: 94; Zahan 1977: 56-64). "The r e s e r v e d s i l v e r z i g z a g and nie110 t r i a n g l e s b o r d e r " was "a well-defined 39).

f e a t u r e " of t h e K e n t i s h metalworkers* c r a f t (Evison 1987:

N i e l l o i s a black i n l a y i n g m a t e r i a l , o f e i t h e r a s i l v e r o r c o p p e r

mixed s u l p h i d e , a p p l i e d i n s o l i d o r rnolten form t o i n d e n t a t i o n s i n t h e m e t a l s u r f a c e (Leigh 1990: 1 0 8 ) .

On s i l v e r brooches and o t h e r p i e c e s of

K e n t i s h d e s i g n , t h e s e i n d e n t a t i o n s c o n s i s t of rows of r e p e a t i n g t r i a n g l e s , sometimes with two rows i n o p p o s i t i o n

-

the black a g a i n s t

s i l v e r c r e a t i n g a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t "which g a i n s i n impact from t h e zig-zag rnetal l i n e s s e e n i n r e s e r v e between t h e p a i r s of t r i a n g l e s " 4 3 ) ( L e i g h 1990: 1 0 8 ) .

(Figure

T h i s t e c h n i q u e makes t h e s i l v e r "peaks" a p p e a r

l i g h t e r and s h i n i e r , while t h e d a r k i n l a y f i l l i n g t h e i n d e n t a t i o n s c r e a t e s t h e desired c o n t r a s t i n g shadow o r d a r k n e s s .

N i e l l o i s o f t e n used

a s p a r t of an e f f e c t r e f e r r e d t o a s " l i g h t and shaae",

a p a t t e r n of

a l t e r n a t i n g p l a i n and beaded s e c t i o n s ( P h i l p 1973: 1 9 0 ) .

G i l d i n g , in

b r i g h t s i l v e r o r gold, was a p p l i e d t o a l 1 manner of o b j e c t s ,

from b u c k l e s

and b r o o c h e s t o buckets, w h i l e t i n o v e r l a i d onto bronze r e s u l t e d i n a " s h i n i n g whiteness" of s u r f a c e ornament (Davidson 1968: 3 5 3 ) . For t e x t u r a l e f f e c t s , n o t c h i n g o r c h i p c a r v i n g was used on t h e e d g e s and flat surfaces ( L e i g h 1990: 1 0 9 ) ; t h i s t e c h n i q u e of b r e a k i n g srna11 p i e c e s o f f i n a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n of s p a c i n g produced a c o n t r a s t i n l i g h t and dark shading, a d d i n g t o t h e l u s t e r of t h e p i e c e .

The s h a r p

r i d g e s " r e f l e c t l i g h t and shadow and give t h e s u r f a c e ...a t h r e e -

120 dimensional impression1' ( F i g u r e 4 4 ) (Magnus 1997: 1 9 4 ) .

Stamping r e p e a t e d

punched shapes was a l s o used t o c r e a t e a t e x t u r a l e f f e c t (Leigh 1990: 109) and t h i s t e c h n i q u e a l s o worked t o c a t c h and r e f l e c t t h e l i g h t , a s d i d t h e p i e r c e d o r open work a p p l i e d t o t h e edges of bronze bowls, which allowed l i g h t t o s h i n e t h r o u g h .

etc.

Repoussé work w a s a l s o an

e f f e c t i v e way t o c r e a t e s u r f a c e t e x t u r e .

Hammering o r p r e s s i n g on t h e

r e v e r s e s i d e produced f i g u r e s a n d d e s i g n s i n r e l i e f . T h i s t e c h n i q u e was common t o Anglo-saxon metalwork a n d a v a r i a t i o n of t h e method was applied t o l e a t h e r work, such a s t h a t found on s h e a t h s o r s c a b b a r d s , a s w e l l . The symbols i n c i s e d i n t o o r n i e l l o e d o n t 0 t h e metal s u r f a c e s o f t h e weaponry and p e r s o n a 1 o r n a m e n t a t i o n added t o t h e s c i n t i l l a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t s t h e y decorated n o t only v i s u a l l y , b u t a l s o symbolically:

the

d e s i g n s most o f t e n employed, t h e s w a s t i k a , l i g h t n i n g b o l t , r i n g and d o t , and w h i r l i n g d i s c a l 1 s t o o d f o r n a t u r e ' s s o u r c e s of l i g h t , t h e Sun,

l i g h t n i n g and f i r e , a s w e l l a s the gods of t h e sky, Thunor and Woden. Pattern-welding i s a forging p r o c e s s which gave a d e c o r a t i v e a s p e c t a s w e l l a s s t r e n g t h t o t h e sword b l a d e s , s e a x e s and weaving b a t t e n s i t w a s used t o c r e a t e (Evison 1987:

process,

25; Lang and Ager 1989: 1 1 5 ) .

In this

s e p a r a t e rods o f m e t a l are welded t o g e t h e r i n t o rods and t h e n

t w i s t e d t o g i v e t h e b l a d e added s t r e n g t h and a " c e r t a i n v i t a l i t y " 4 5 ) (Engstrom, e t a l 1990: 4 ;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 1 0 8 ) .

(Figure

The p r o c e s s a l s o

r e s u l t s i n a 5oldly s t r e a k e d o r v a r i e g a t e d p a t t e r n (Cramp 1957: 63; Engstrom, e t al 1990: 4 ) .

I n O l d English l i t e r a t u r e , t h e s e powerful

swords a r e o f t e n a n c i e n t and p u r p o r t e d l y t h e work of Weland, t h e gods o r g i a n t s (Davidson 1962: 103-6). pattern-welded

T h e r e i s a h i g h d e g r e e of p o l i s h t o t h e

sword and t h e c e n t r a l p a n e l " s u g g e s t s molten m e t a l poured

o u t i n a narrow Stream a s t h e l i g h t c a t c h e s t h e s u r f a c e " ( F i g u r e 46) (Davidson 1962: 107) .

The f i n a l s t a g e i n t h e making o f a b l a d e was t h e

bringing up of t h e p a t t e r n ; a t y p e of t a n n i c o r a c e t i c a c i d was p r o b a b l y used t o g i v e t h e "deep b l u e - b l a c k c o l o u r " t o t h e s t e e l (Davidson 1962: 28).

The h i g h d e g r e e of p o l i s h mentioned i n t h e s o u r c e s was p r o b a b l y

a c h i e v e d u s i n g a t y p e o f m i l d l y a b r a s i v e s i l i c a (Davidson 1962: 108). Weaving b a t t e n s and p i n b e a t e r s were o f t e n made from bone o r i v o r y a s

w e l l a s s t e e l (Hoffman 1964: 279, 3SO), m a t e r i a l s which s h a r e a c e r t a i n iridescente and which d e v e l o p a l u s t e r w i t h c s e . Seaxes, s p e a r h e a d s , k n i v e s and b a t t e n s were a l s o o f t e n d e c o r a t e d w i t h " i n c i s e d l i n e s , grooves and a v a r i e t y of m e t a l i n l a y s o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f these''

( F i g u r e 4 7 ) ( G a l e 1989: 7 6 ) . D e c o r a t i v e i n l a y s were

c r e a t e d u s i n g " p l a i t e d w i r e s e t i n t o t h e blade, c r e a t i n g a h e r r i n g b o n e p a t t e r n when l a i d i n two o r more rows s i d e by s i d e " ( G a l e 1989: 7 6 ) . Swords and o t h e r arms w e r e llirmnersed i n wax o r f a t t 1 t o b e " k e p t Eree of rust"

(Davidson 1962: 149) and t h e l a n o l i n o i l i n woollen s c a b b a r d

l i n i n g s k e p t sword b l a d e s s h i n i n g ( E v i s o n 1956: 1 0 0 ) . Many o f t h e m a t e r i a l s u s e d by t h e Anglo-Saxons were c h o s e n d e l i b e r a t e l y f o r t h e i r n a t u r a l b r i l l i a n c e o r luminescence.

For instance,

one o f t h e r e a s o n s B a l t i c amber was s o p o p u l a r was u n d o u b t e d l y " i t s g o l d e n b r i l l i a n c e " which a l s o "caused i t t o be connected w i t h t h e sun" (Meaney 1981: 7 0 ) .

White q u a r t z and r o c k c r y s t a l w e r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h f i r e and l i g h t (Meaney 1981: 9 5 ) , p r o b a b l y because o f t h e i r i n h e r e n t b r i g h t n e s s and l u s t e r , and t h e s e m a t e r i a l s were used t o form b e a d s , s p i n d l e w h o r l s , m u l e t s and " l i f e s t o n e s l 1 (Meaney 1981: 1 9 8 ) .

The Anglo-

Saxons would have responded t o " t h e p r i s m a t i c b e a u t y of c r y s t a l " i n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n t o t h e many t r a d i t i o n a l p e o p l e s who c o n s i d e r c r y s t a l " s o l i d i f i e d l i g h t " ( F i g u r e s 4 8 , 4 9 ) ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 29; b u t see E l i a d e 1972: 4 7 , 50-2,

138).

R i t u a l d r i n k i n g v e s s e l s , t h e badweg o r " w h e t t i n g cups" t h a t s t i m u l a t e d h e r o i c b e h a v i o u r (Russom 1988: 181) b e a k e r s and palm cups

-

-

claw b e a k e r s ,

cone

w e r e made o f t r a n s l u c e n t blown g l a s s i n o l i v e

g r e e n , b l u e - g r e e n o r amber.

" E x c e p t i o n a l l y t h i n and c l e a r " t h e s e v e s s e l s

a r e o f t e n q u i t e d e l i c a t e ( ~ a v i d s o nand Webster 1967: 21) a n d d e c o r a t e d w i t h s p i r a l l i n g t r a i l s of s p u n g l a s s which a r e d a r k a g a i n s t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e glass.

These " b r i g h t c u p s " a r e t h e most c a l l e d upon m e t a p h o r f o r

122

t h e life of "joy" and p r o s p e r i t y e n j o y e d i n the h a l l ( F i g u r e 50)(Magennis 1985: 507-18)

.

Beads and s p i n d l e whorls w e r e a l s o o f t e n o f g f a s s and came i n a v a r i e t y of c o l o u r s , u s u a l l y " p a r t i - c o l o u r e d w w i t h a d a r k background c o l o u r such as r e d o r b l u e o r brown decora-ted w i t h t r a i l s o r marverings, d o t s , s p i r a l s , zig-zag and r o s e t t e p a t t e r n s added i n c o n t r a s t i n g l y l i g h t e r shades of w h i t e , t u r q u o i s e o r opaque yellow.

Many g l a s s beads

had d e s i g n s c u t i n t o them a s w e l l , a d d i n g t o t h e i r b r i g h t n e s s (Meaney 1981: 1 9 5 , 200, 2 0 2 , 2 0 6 ) .

Some whorls were f a s h i o n e d from a c h a l k

material containing i r o n pyrites.

Grooves c u t i n t o t h e c h a l k m a t e r i a l

r e v e a l e d t h e l u s t r o u s , b r a s s - y e l l o w a c c e n t s of t h e p y r i t e .

Many a m u l e t s

w e r e p i c k e d up and c a r r i e d i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e simply because o f t h e i r s t r i k i n g appearance (Meaney 1981: 6 ) . Gold t h r e a d o r b r a i d a p p l i e d t o t e x t i l e s was a l s o a p o p u l a r means o f ornamentation amongst t h e Germanic peoples.

I n Kent, t h e most

cornmonly found items d e c o r a t e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n a r e t h e g o l d headbands found i n t h e webbe b u r i a l s , b u t c u f f s and cloak b o r d e r s were s i m i l a r l y decorated.

T o c r e a t e t h e brocade,

g o l d t h r e a d s were woven i n t o the

f a b r i c and t h e n f l a t t e n e d and b u r n i s h e d , g i v i n g t h e appearance of s o l i d g o l d a g a i n s t t h e background o f t h e t e x t i l e (Owen-Crocker 1986: 5 9 ) .

Hall

wall-hangings and r o y a l s t a n d a r d s were probably brocaded a s w e l l ; a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e from t h e C o n t i n e n t s u g g e s t s such a p o s s i b i l i t y a s do r e f e r e n c e s i n Beowulf (Davidson 1968: 352-54; 1204, 2 9 5 8 ) .

Fe11 1984: 46; Beowulf

Diamond and broken diamond p a t t e r n e d t w i l l s were f a v o u r i t e s

o f t h e Anglo-Saxons

(Crowfoot 1967: 37-9),

and if worked i n d i f f e r i n g

hues o f w a r p and w e f t , t h e s e patterns would have r e s u l t e d i n a weave of c o n t r a s t i n g d a r k and l i g h t ( F i g u r e 5 1 ) .

Fabrics c r e a t e d from s c a r l e t ,

b l u e , v i o l e t , p u r p l e , s a f f r o n and w h i t e were known t o t h e Anglo-saxons (Owen-Crocker 1986: 86-90), and worn i n combination w i t h t h e b r i l l i a n t o b j e c t s found i n the b u r i a l s . A l 1 o b j e c t s worn on t h e body w e r e meant t o be v i s i b l e , b o t h t o

t h o s e viewing t h e wearer and t o t h e w e a r e r s t h e m s e l v e s .

Beads hung i n

cascades d o m t h e f r o n t of wornenrs d r e s s e s , m u l t i p l e keys, t h e c r y s t a l b a l l s and o t h e r s m a l l o b j e c t s hung frorn woments w a i s t s , chiming w i t h t h e i r movements.

P a r t i - c o l o u r e d g l a s s whorls t w i r l e d s p i n d l e s l i k e t o p s ,

warding o f f t h e E v i l Eye (Meaney 1981: 7-8, 2 0 8 ) . B e l t s were worn d i a g o n a l l y a c r o s s t h e c h e s t a s b a l d r i c s , w i t h b e l t mounts and buckles c l e a r l y v i s i b l e . Seaxes were worn a c r o s s t h e abdomen, i n t h e f r o n t of t h e body a s w e l l , w h i l e t h e syrnbols which d e c o r a t e d t h e h a n d l e s of swords, done i n niello, c l o i s o n n é o r incise-work, where t h e y would be most n o t i c e a b l e .

were p l a c e d on t h e pommels

It i s h e r e , a s w e l l , t n a t t h e

p r e s t i g i o u s sword r i n g s were placed: on t h e h i l t o r pommel, t h e meces mardo, t h e "sword's g 1 0 r y " ~ ' .

While t h e b r i g h t m e t a l o b j e c t s d e s c r i b e d

above would c e r t a i n l y have g l i t t e r e d i n t h e l i g h t o f day, it vas i n t h e

softer y e l l o w glow provided by t h e f l i c k e r i n g f i r e and t o r c h e s of t h e h a l l where t h e i r l u s t r e and b r i l l i a n c e would have shown t o t h e b e s t advantage.

I t i s h e r e where i n t e r l o c k i n g animal and human shapes would

have s h i f t e d i n t h e l i g h t , where t h e c r y s t a l , b e a d s and weaponry would have picked up t h e motion o f the flames and r e f l e c t e d t h a t l i g h t i n t h e i r s u r f a c e s a s t h e Anglo-saxon men and women j o s t l e d t o g e t h e r .

It is here

where t h e s w i r l of b r i g h t mead held i n amber g l a s s would have s i g n a l l e d t h e cornfort, cameraderie and cornmunitas which w e r e t h e " j o y s " of t h e hall.

-nad

srrd W-, A

Zha Life of the abjects

m u l t i p l i c i t y of s o c i a l r o l e s ,

r e a l o r i d e a l , may be i d e n t i f i e d

frorn t h e a s s o r t m e n t of o b j e c t s found i n b u r i a l s .

The g r e a t e r v a r i e t y and

number of o b j e c t s found i n Anglo-saxon women's g r a v e s has o f t e n been commented upon and t h i s d i v e r s i t y i n o b j e c t s may r e f l e c t a g r e a t e r r a n g e and f l e x i b i l i t y of s o c i a l r o l e s and i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s open t o Anglo-saxon women t h a n was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s (Arnold 1997: 185, 1 9 6 ) .

The wider range of o b j e c t s found i n Anglo-Saxon women's

124 b u r i a l s l e a d s t o d i f f i c u l t i e s i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s w e l l ( F e l l 1984: 4 0 ) . However, once i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t any one Anglo-saxon woman may have performed a number of r o l e s and t h a t combinations of t h e s e d i f f e r i n g s o c i a l functions a r e being represented i n t h e b u r i a l , t h e s i t u a t i o n becornes more c l e a r .

With t h a t i n mind, t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d becomes

n o t a random c o l l e c t i o n of i s o l a t e d o b j e c t s , "but a c o h e r e n t m a t e r i a l construction

-

a contemporary n a t i v e mode1 of human o r d e r i n g s o f the

s u r r o u n d i n g world" ( F i g u r e 52) (Alkemade 1997: 183) .

WeUm grzrid~

I n t h e c a s e of t h e webbe o r weaver graves, t h e d i f f e r i n g s o c i a l r o l e s r e p r e s e n t e d a r e t h o s e which w e r e played o u t w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e c o m i t a t u s , p r i m a r i l y t h o s e c a r r i e d o u t i n ceremonies of t h e h a l l .

As

d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 11, t h e webbe, o r l a d y of t h e h a l l , p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t d i p l o m a t i c r o l e i n weaving peace w i t h i n t h e c o m i t a t u s .

Her

words acd g h f t s encouraged t h e w a r r i o r s t o make good on t h e i r o a t h s t o a t t a i n g l o r y i n b a t t l e ( E n r i g h t 1988, 1996; F e l l 1984: 3 7 ; S k l u t e 1 9 9 0 ) . The w e b b e ' s o r i g i n a l f u n c t i o n p r o b a b l y i n c l u d e d t h e f o r e t e l l i n g o f t h e outcome o f b a t t l e ; i t i s s a i d Germanic women c a s t l o t s and r e a d d i v i n a t i o n s t o d e c i d e t h e expediency of w a r f a r e (Damico 1990: 159; ~ e m a n i a ) . From t h e La Tène p e r i c d , Germanhc warleaders m a i n t a i n e d sibyls o r seers t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l and t h e i r p o s i t i v e

p r o p h e s i e s i n f l u e n c e d t h e morale of t h e t r o o p s ( E n r i g h t 1996: 62)

.

The

c o n n e c t i o n between t h e w a r l e a d e r and t h e sibyl can be t r a c e d h i s t o r i c a l l y

f r o m t h e tirne o f Civilis and V e l e d a i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y AD, d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d d u r i n g which t h e Germanic comitatus came i n t o e x i s t e n c e ( E n r i g h t 1996: 9 3 ) . Strong mythic t r a d i t i o n s r e i n f o r c e t h i s c o n n e c t i o n : t h e goddess F r e y j a was s e e n a s t h e "wife" of t h e r e i g n i n g king i n S c a n d i n a v i a ; t h e Valkyries s e r v e d as g u a r d i a n s and c o n s o r t s t o t h e h e i r s of n o b l e families (Davidson 1993: 111; Davidson 1969a: 222; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) .

Given t h e u t i l i t y o f t h e p r o p h e t e s s i n t h e b i n d i n g , morale

125

b u i l d i n g and g o v e r n i n g of t h e comitatus, t h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e w a r l o r d / p r o p h e t e s s p a i r i n g (which p r o b a b l y came t o b e a m a r r i a g e union a s w e l l ) c o n t i n u e d as l o n g a s t h e warband s t r u c t u r e l a s t e d ( E n r i g h t 1996: 9 4 ) .

Evidence p r o v i d e d by O i d E n g l i s h h e r o i c p o e t r y c o n f i r m s t h e

s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e r o l e o f t h e l a d y of t h e h a l l , a s do t h e Maxims { a s shown above)

.

I n C h a p t e r III, a s e r i e s o f r i c h women's b u r i a l s were i d e n t i f i e d which may b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e wornen p o r t r a y e d a s t h e peaceweavers of t h e h a l l i n Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e ( F i g u r e 53).

What

f o l l o w s i s a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h o s e o b j e c t s which make up t h e webbe assemblage i n a n a t t e m p t t o r e v e a l t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e performance of t h e webbefs f u n c t i o n s as weaver, h e a l e r , sibyl a n d k e e p e r o f t h e h e a r t h and s t o r e s . The d r i n k i n g and f e a s t i n g r i t u a l s o f t h e h a l l a p p e a r t o be t h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t s which s e t t h e webbe-type b u r i a l s a p a r t from t h e g r a v e s of o t h e r Anglo-saxon

women.

A s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter III, t h e

webbe assemblage i s made up o f one o r more of e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :

a

weaving implement, a f e a s t i n g v e s s e 1 o r c o n t a i n e r , a g o l d b r a c t e a t e o r bracteate-type

p e n d a n t , and a n m u l e t .

Any weaving t o o l ,

s p i n d l e , s h e a r s , p i n - b e a t e r o r b a t t e n , may s t a n d

metonymically £or t h e r o l e o f weaver ( F i g u r e 54 i l l u s t r a t e s l o o m ) . However, i n t h e w&be

b u r i a l s , t h e y do n o t do s o s i m p l y a s a

t e c h n o l o g i c a l metaphor, though much of t h e Anglo-saxon womanvs power and p r e s t i g e d i d r e s u l t from h e r r o l e i n t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n and, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c a s e of t h e w e b b e , h e r a b i l i t y t o g i v e v a l u e d g i f t s o f c l o t h on h e r own b e h a l f

(Beowulf 1192-6;

Fe11 1 9 8 4 : 40-5;

~ l o s e c k i1989; 60; Owen-

Crocker 1986: 2 3 ) ; i n Germanic t r a d i t i o n , prophecy i s a l s o symbolized by t h e c a r r y i n g of weaving t o o l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e weaving b a t t e n o r t h e beam.

Wornen a t t h e loom a r e s a i d t o be working e f f e c t i v e magic, weaving

f e t t e r s that b i n d and t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g f a t e a n d e n s u r i n g t h e outcome o f b a t t l e ( B a r b e r 1994: 155; E n r i g h t 1996: 111, 113, 117; 1990: 6 0 ) . I n t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon p e r i o d , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o r e l a h r a t i o n of

s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e x t i l e s i n v o l v i n g expensive m a t e r i a l s was probably c a r r i e d o u t by women i n t h e h i g h e r c l a s s e s .

I n t h e r i c h e r households, s l a v e s

t r a i n e d t o do t h e work i n g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s w e r e s u p e r v i s e d by t h e l a d y It i s possible t h a t t h e prestigious

of t h e h a l l ( F e l l 1 9 8 4 : 4 0 - 1 ) .

weaving swords found i n e l i t e webbe b u r i a l s , t h o s e o f t e n converted from war-swords

o r shaped from bone o r i v o r y i n t h e form o f a sword, marked

t h e l a d y ' s a u t h o r i t y o v e r a group o f weavers, much a s t h e s m e weapon is c o n s i d e r e d t o mark t h e p r e s e n c e o f a man o f r a n k o r a u t h o r i t y i n t h e w a r r i o r g r a v e s ( F i g u r e s 32, 55)

.

Weaving was a heavy t a s k ; t h e weft t h r e a d s had t o b e b e a t e n v i o l e n t l y i n an upward d i r e c t i o n on warp-weighted was a l s o cornunal

looms ( F i g u r e 5 6 ) .

It

work, t h e t h r e a d i n g of t h e warp o n t 0 t h e beam a n d t h e

p a s s i n g of t h e s h u t t l e back and f o r t h sometimes r e q u i r i n g t h e coo p e r a t i o n o f a t l e a s t two women4'.

Well i n t o t h i s c e n t u r y ,

"European

women o f t e n s a n g o r c h a n t e d r i t u a l songs t o s e t t h e rhythm o f the e n d l e s s r e p e t i t i v e motions"

( B a r b e r 1994: 8 5 ) .

use of t h e pin-beater

Old Norse p o e t i c a l l u s i o n s t o t h e

speak o f it producing a humming sound d u r i n g

weaving much l i k e ''the a c t i o n of a p l e c t r u m on t h e s t r i n g s of a l y r e " ( F i g u r e 5 7 ) (Hoffman 1964: 3 2 0 ) .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t one o f

t h e most common ways o f e n c o u r a g i n g d i s s o c i a t i o n i s t h e u s e of rnonotonous

sound

-

t o induce t r a n c e hypnotically.

A slow, d r o n i n g c h a n t may a l s o

have t h e c o g n i t i v e e f f e c t of b l u n t i n g o n e ' s awareness o f t h e p a i n o f a c h i n g muscles and t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s p e n t , much t h e same b e n e f i t s a s a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o p e r i o d s o f "flow"

( C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i 1975, 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 6 ) .

The u s e o f r h y t h m i c c h a n t i n g o r d r h n g t o a c h i e v e a l t e r e d S t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is common t o t h e c i r c u m p o l a r r e g i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c l a s s i c f o m o f shamanism ( C h i l d and C h i l d 1992: 86-9;

Glosecki 1989:

1 0 ) ; t h i s method may have been used by Anglo-saxon women t o weave p r o t e c t i v e s p e l l s i n t o t h e c l o t h f o r t h e c l o t h i n g of t h e household ( E n r i g h t 1996: 1 1 8 ) o r p e r h a p s t o " i n s p i r e o r a n i m a t e t h e p r o d u c t

...and

draw a n a l o g i e s between weaving and t h e l i f e cycle of b i r t h , m a t u r a t i o n ,

d e a t h and decay" (Weiner, e t a l 1989: 3 ) -

It has been suggested t h a t

p e r h a p s t h e r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d c o n s u l t i n g women r e g a r d i n g w a r f a r e and f o r t h e w a r l e a d e r s l m a i n t a i n i n g a seeress was t h a t i t was man's r o l e t o f i g h t

and a womanls t o p r o t e c t him w i t h t h e magic t h a t was p e c u l i a r l y h e r s and n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o him o t h e r w i s e ( E n r i g h t 1998: 1 1 8 ) . A p o t t e r y v e s s e 1 from H a l l s t a t t shows a s c e n e w i t h one woman

s p i n n i n g , one weaving a t ' a w e i g h t e d loom, two w i t h t h e i r hands above t h e i r heads as i f dancing a n d a f i f t h f i g u r e h o l d i n g e i t h e r a l y r e o r a

frame f o r making t h e kind of p l a i t i n g c a l l e d sprang ( B a r b e r 1 9 9 4 : 8 7 ) . As e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y h a s p o i n t e d o u t , dancing, w i t h o r w i t h o u t

accompaniment, i s a common a d j u n c t t o e c s t a s y ( C h i l d and Child 1992: 86; E l i a d e 1972: 122-5,

160; G l o s e c k i 1 9 8 9 : 1 0 ) .

I n any e v e n t , t h e r e i s a n e n d l e s s v a r i a b i l i t y and r e l a t e d s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o both t h e p r o c e s s e s and t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e loom. Ethnography shows t h a t " c l o t h is a r e p o s i t o r y f o r p r i z e d f i b r e s and dyes, d e d i c a t e d human l a b o u r , and t h e v i r t u o s o a r t i s t r y o f c o r n p e t i t i v e a e s t h e t i c d e v e l ~ p m e n t (Weiner, ~~ e t a l 1989: 2 ) . a t t e n t i o n of power h o l d e r s ,

Cloth a t t r a c t s t h e

t h o s e who would "awe s p e c t a t o r s w i t h

s a r t o r i a l splendeur" o r s t r a t e g i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e b e a u t i f u l f a b r i c s

(Weiner e t a l 1989: 2 ) .

As c a n b e s e e n from l a t e r Anglo-Saxon s o u r c e s ,

c l o t h a c q u i r e s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e dornain o f b e s t o w a l (Fe11 1984: 4 6 ) .

The cloth-givers

on s u c h o c c a s i o n s g e n e r a t e

p o l i t i c a l power a s w e l l , c o m m i t t i n g r e c i p i e n t s t o l o y a l t y and o b l i g a t i o n

i n the f u t u r e .

I n many s o c i e t i e s where women monopolize a l 1 o r most of

t h e c l o t h p r o d u c t i o n , a s i n e a r l y Anglo-saxon

England, women g e n e r a l l y

have a l a r g e r Say i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , g i v i n g t h e c l o t h s t h a t t i e t h e l i v i n g t o t h e dead, t h e b r i d e r s f a m i l y t o t h e groom's f a m i l y , t h e p o l i t i c a l l y dominant t o t h e i r dependent c l i e n t s . They o f t e n p r e s i d e o v e r t h e a l l o c a t i o n of c l o t h a t major r i t u a l s .

As producers o f important

t e x t i l e s , women o f t e n i n f l u e n c e d e c i s i o n s a b o u t b e s t o w a l s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r rank.

Ethnographie e v i d e n c e a l s o shows t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f women

a s weavers o f v a l u a b l e t e x t i l e s can o f f s e t o r r e d r e s s t h e i r s u b j u g a t i o n a f t e r marriage and t h a t t h e magic i n weaving can be used t o warn o f f i n -

laws.

I n many w a r l i k e s o c i e t i e s , myths j u x t a p o s e t e x t i l e s and t h e s a c r e d

-

t r a d i t i o n s of w a r f a r e

a man's prowess i s confirmed i n b a t t l e , a woman's

by weaving an e l a b o r a t e garment ( B a r b e r 1 9 9 4 : 90, Weiner, e t a l 1 9 8 9 : 2 1 - 3 ) .

128, 149, 155, 210;

I n s o c i e t i e s where women a r e t h e main

p r o d u c e r s of c l o t h and c o n t r o l i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n ,

m t h e i r contribution t o

s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l l i f e is c o n s i d e r a b l e " (Weiner, e t a l 1 9 8 9 : 2 1 - 3 ) . I n Anglo-saxon

s o c i e t y , it is known t h a t b e s i d e t h e garments g i v e n

a s g i f t s w i t b i n t h e r i t u a l o f t h e c o m i t a t u s , t h e women produced wallhangings i n g r e a t numbers ( F e l l 1984 : 46) including the story-telling

.

These wall-hangings,

c l o t h g i v e n by B y r h t n o d ' s widow t o the

foundation a t E l y ( F e l l 1984: 4 6 ) , added t o the b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e h a l l , b u t a l s o t o t h e honour and fame o f w a r r i o r s i n t h e i r p u r s u i t of mard o r glory.

I n Beowulf, t h e w a l l s shone w i t h t h e g o l d brocade of woven w a l l

hangings, "and much t h a t was wonderful t o s e e f o r a l 1 men who gaze on such t h i n g s "

(Beowulf 994-6).

Anglo-Saxon wornen a l s o wove t h e standards

o r banners which were used t o mark t h e l e a d e r ' s p l a c e i n b a t t l e and t o mark h i s f i n a l r e s t i n g p l a c e .

Such o b j e c t s p o s s e s s e d r o y a l , ceremonial

and r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e (Davidson 1968: 354) a n d w e r e c o n s i d e r e d a p h y s i c a l symbol o f t h e warband, t h e f l a g round which t h e y would r a l l y i n b a t t l e and t h e emblem o f t h e i r group i d e n t i t y .

I t was a l s o a symbol o f

t h e i r luck and i n e f f e c t a group ' s o u l ' which c o u l d n o t be allowed t o f a 1 1 i n t o t h e hands o f t h e enemy w h i l e t h e warband s t i l l e x i s t e d ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 7 6 )

.

Gold b r a c t e a t e p e n d a n t s a r e i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e webbe Surials.

These g o l d d i s c s a r e a l m o s t always f o u n d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h

weaving t o o l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y weaving b a t t e n s , i n t h e r i c h b u r i a l s of a f e w

e l i t e women.

"These women may have had a s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e i r l o c a l

s o c i e t y t o judge from t h e i r monumental g r a v e s and t h e composition o f t h e i r grave goods"

(Magnus 1997: 1 9 5 ) . "This f e m a l e dominance s t a n d s i n

c o n t r a s t t o t h e mainly male m o t i f s of t h e iconography

...

of t h e bold

b r a c t e a t e s " (Magnus 1997: 1 9 5 ) ; however, s t r o n g r n e t a p h o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s e women's b u r i a l s between weaving and p r e s c i e n t powers of women have been confirmed by t h e d i s c o v e r y , i n womenls b u r i a l s on t h e C o n t i n e n t , of a s e r i e s o f b r a c t e a t e s b e a r i n g the l i k e n e s s of a goddess, who may have a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h Wodec's c o n s o r t , F r i g a , c a r r y i n g a weaving beam from t h e t o p o f a warp-weighted 1993: 4 0 ) .

loom ( E n r i g h t 1990: 70; Davidson

The s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e s e p e n d a n t s a n d the e x t e n t o f

t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n s have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s e v i d e n c e f o r a l o n g d i s t a n c e l i n k a g e w i t h i n t h e G e m a n i c world " i n which t h e worship o f a goddess and m u l e t s worn by women p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e " ( E n r i g h t 1990: 70; E n r i g h t 1996: 110-11,

117).

The imagery most common t o the b r a c t e a t e s c a n b e l i n k e d t o t h e c u l t o f W o d e n . B r a c t e a t e s b e a r i n g what i s b e l i e v e d t o b e ~ o d e n ' simage, a male head i n p r o f i l e , o r t h e image o f one o f h i s w a r r i o r f o l l o w e r s on h o r s e b a c k w i t h f l y i n g b i r d s overhead, have been found i n wornen's b u r i a l s a c r o s s Kent and on t h e C o n t i n e n t ( E v i s o n 1987: 51-5).

Other b r a c t e a t e s

show s c e n e s o f disrnemberment o r s h a p e s h i f t i n g , o r bear t h e f i g u r e o f a d a n c i n g man, a g a i n p o s s i b l y W o d e n o r o n e o f h i s c u l t p r a c t i t i o n e r s .

The

R i s e l y Pendant, one of t h e f i n e r Anglo-saxon p i e c e s , shows a Wodenesque f i g u r e who may be w r e s t l i n g w i t h , o r l i s t e n i n g t o , two b i r d s , p o s s i b l y Thought and Memory ( F i g u r e 5 8 ) .

The f i g u r e on t h i s p e n d a n t i s v e r y

s i m i l a r t o t h e man of t h e Finglesham b u c k l e p l a t e which h a s a l s o been i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e p r e s e n t i n g W o d e n o r o n e of h i s a d h e r e n t s ( F i g u r e 5 9 ) ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 70; Hawkes, e t a l 1965: 2 0 ) .

A U o f t h e s e b x a c t e a t e images h a v e s t r o n g t r a n s c e n d e n t a l rneanings, t h e h o r s e and b i r d s symbolic of a s c e n t ( i n t o t h e upper s p i r i t r e a l m ) o r f l i g h t ; s u c h symbolism i s widespread i n c u l t u r e s from s c a n d i n a v i a t o I n d o n e s i a ( E l i a d e 1972: 137, 296, 362 a n d 423; G l o s e c k i 1989: 7 8 ) .

The

d a n c i n g f i g u r e i s b e l i e v e d t o b e Woden i n e c s t a c y "having worked h i m s e l f i n t o a frenzy" i n order t o r i d t h e world of t h e monsters o f t e n d e p i c t e d

w i t h him (Magnus 1997: 194-8).

A b r a c t e a t e from Norway shows t h e

" e c s t a t i c god" w i t h "head thrown back w i t h a c u r l i n g b r e a t h s l i p p i n g o u t o f h i s mouth";

" t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s s e e n on many g o l d b r a c t e a t e s " ,

as

w e l l a s on t h e l a r g e r e l i e f brooches and "is thought t o i n d i c a t e t h e f r e e

s o u l of Woden" ( F i g u r e 7 ) (Magnus 1997: 1 9 8 ) .

A s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I I ,

t h e "Germanic p e o p l e s b e l i e v e d that humans a s w e l l a s t h e gods had two s o u l s ; one was -bound t o the body, t h e o t h e r was f r e e .

The f r e e soul

c o u l d l e a v e t h e body a s b r e a t h d u r i n g s l e e p , f e v e r o r h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , and v e n t u r e o u t s e e k i n g new knowleage o r t o f i g h t a g a i n s t e v i l " (Magnus 1997: 198).

Woden sought wisdom about t h e f u t u r e i n a s t a t e o f t r a n c e o r s e i d r

(Magnus 1997: 1 9 8 ) , a s k i 1 1 he i s s a i d t o have l e a r n e d from h i s c o n s o r t ,

F r z g a , who o r i g i n a t e d t h e d i v i n a t i o n ceremony o r s e a n c e (Davidson 1969b: 92; G l o s e c k i 1989: 9 7 ) ; t h u s , through t h e iconography o f t h e b r a c t e a t e s , t h e l i n k between t h e weaver women i n whose b u r i a l s h i s image i s found and

t h e a c t of prophesy i s f o r g e d . M t h o u g h Woden knew and used s e i d r t o f o r e s e e t h e f u t u r e , t o c a u s e d e a t h and m i s f o r t u n e ,

etc.,

t h i s p r a c t i c e remained t h e c o n c e r n of t h e

goddess and u n s u i t a b l e t o a man.

There is r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h i s kind o f

magic remained a feminine s p e c i a l t y and it i s conducted by female f i g u r e s i n I c e l a n d i c , Scandinavian and Germanic t e x t s who go from farm t o farm, c a r r y i n g a s t a f f o r weaving beam, r e v e a l i n g f o r t u n e s a n d p r e d i c t i n g t h e weather.

Music played an i m p o r t a n t - p a r t i n t h e s p o k a n a ' s e c s t a s y and s h e

was s a i d t o t r a v e l t h r o u g h s p a c e i n t h e form of an a n i m a l ; t h e Song s h e s a n g t o unlock h e r s o u l f o r q u e s t i n g could o n l y be Sung by a woman ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 97-100).

There i s an "apparent a s s o c i a t i o n o f

shamanizing w i t h women i n saga l o r e " ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 1 0 0 ) .

As i n many

c u l t u r e s , Germanic women were c o n s i d e r e d g i f t e d i n s u p e r n a t u r a l powers; most l i k e l y t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of women w i t h t h e s e i d r grew o u t o f t h i s e a r l y h i g h s t a t u s f o r Germanic wornen ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 1 0 0 ) .

B u r i a l s c o n t a i n i n g b r a c t e a t e s have a l s o been found w i t h r u n i c e n g r a v i n g s o r markings e i t h e r on t h e b r a c t e a t e s themselves o r on t h e back o f accompanying r e l i e f b r o o c h e s (Magnus 1997: 1 9 5 ) .

The magic o r s a c r a l

c h a r a c t e r o f t h e b r a c t e a t e s i s s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e s e r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n s which may b e s e e n t o " c o n n e c t t h e elite w i t h t h e gods" 194).

(Magnus 1997:

B r a c t e a t e s i n s c r i b e d w i t h t h e word l a u k o r l e e k , t h e name of a

p l a n t with purportedly invigorating properties is a f u r t h e r indication of t h e h e a l i n g and a m u l e t i c powers w i d e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e g o l d b r a c t e a t e form; t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of h e a l i n g w i t h d i v i n e power is w e l l known (Hines 1997: 3 9 2 ) .

Gold b r a c t e a t e s a r e n o t common, even i n e l i t e b u r i a l s , b u t when t h e y o c c u r t h e y a r e o f t e n found i n p a i r s , sornetimes i n combination w i t h g o l d b r a c t e a t e - t y p e p e n d a n t s which s h a r e many o f t h e same c o n n o t a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e p e n d a n t s made from p e r f o r a t e d Roman c o i n s b e a r i n g a ivoden-like male p r o f i l e ( E n r i g h t 1990; Davidson 1993: 37-45; 195; Chaney 1970: 38).

Magnus 1997:

I t is worthwhile t o n o t e t h a t a nurnber o f t h e

less w e l l - f u r n i s h e d women's b u r i a l s o f t e n i n c l u d e a b r a c t e a t e - t y p e

p e n d a n t , sometimes a p e r f o r a t e d c o i n , sometimes a Roman i n t a g l i o , and sometimes a n escutcheon from a b r o n z e f e a s t i n g bowl, which may be c a r r y s y m b o l i c c o n t e n t s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e b r a c t e a t e s and may be l e s s e x p e n s i v e v e r s i o n s 4 5 . The e s c u t c h e o n p e n d a n t s i n p a r t i c u l a r have a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e f e a s t h a l l and s o w i t h t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e w e b b e i n s u p e r v i s i n g t h e f e a s t ( D i c k i n s o n 1993: 5 1 ) .

Bracteate-type pendants

a r e o f t e n found t o g e t h e r w i t h what may b e s e e n a s t h e less p r e s t i g i o u s weaving t o o l s , t h e s p i n d l e w h o r l s , s h e a r s , combs, etc,

Such

s u b s t i t u t i o n s , i f t h a t i s what t h e y a r e , may i n d i c a t e t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f costume

-

or role

-

was being emulated.

A s s e t o u t i n C h a p t e r III, a m u l e t s a r e t h e t h i r d c l a s s o f o b j e c t s

which rnay b e s e e n t o be d i a g n o s t i c o f t h e webbe-type b u r i a l .

Amuletic

and h e a l i n g powers have been a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p i e c e s o f bone, teeth,

animal

c o w r i e s h e l l and f o s s i l m a t e r i a l s found i n Anglo-saxon women's

b u r i a l s a s w e l l a s t o s p i n d l e whorls and beads c o n s t r u c t e d o f t h e same

-

materials

m a t e r i a l s which d o n o t d i s i n t e g r a t e , m a t e r i a l s where t h e

s t r e n g t h o f t h e animal s p i r i t r e s i d e s ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 24-6).

Like

weaving implements, a m u l e t s a r e s t r o n g i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e a n i m i s t i c o r shamanic n a t u r e o f p r o p h e t i c power; t h e p i e c e s o f amber o r g l a s s and t h e c r y s t a l b a l l s which o f t e n form p a r t o f t h e w e b b e assemblage a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s r e s p e c t (Evison 1987: 98-9; 1989: 28-9;

Meaney 1931: 245-60,

Glosecki

2751, o f t e n regarded, a s t h e y a r e , by

t r a d i t i o n a l p e o p l e s a s a n outward s i g n o f shamanic power ( E l i a d e 1972: 47, 50-2;

Lommel 1967: 4 9 )

.

When rubbed, B a l t i c amber, t h e most

f r e q u e n t l y found a m u l e t i c s u b s t a n c e i n Anglo-saxon b u r i a l s , h a s an " e l e c t r i c power o f a t t r a c t i o n "

(Meaney 1981: 57-70)

used t o p u l l d i s e a s e from t h e ill.

which may have been

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which r e c o g n i z e d t h e

h e a l i n g , p r o t e c t i n g and d i v i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e o b j e c t s have l o n g acknowledged t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e c r y s t a l b a l l s found i n t h e b u r i a l s of e l i t e Anglo-saxon women (Arnold 1982: 64; D d c o 1990: 160; Meaney 1981: 95, 242, 248-60;

Owen 1 9 8 6 : 5 8 ) .

C r y s t a l b a l l s a r e commonly found i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o r n a t e p e r f o r a t e d , o r s i e v e , spoons ( F i g u r e 60.).

U s u a l l y l o c a t e d between t h e

knees of t h e buried i n d i v i d u a l , t h e s i e v e spoon and c r y s t a l b a l l most l i k e l y hung from a c o r d o r thong a t t a c h e d t o t h e w a i s t and s o w e r e always r e a d y t o hand ( F i g u r e 32)(Meaney 1981: 82-4).

Aside from t h e i r a m u l e t i c

q u a l i t i e s , t h e s i e v e spoon and b a l l may g i v e e v i d e n c e f o r o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e wornan's r o l e i n Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y .

I t has been s u g g e s t e d t h a t

t h e c r y s t a l b a l l s marked h e r p l a c e a s keeper of t h e h e a r t h t h e h a l l (Evans 1997: 9 3 ) ;

power a s a sibyl o r s e e r e s s .

-

t h e h e a r t of

it is a l s o possible they a r e tokens of her The s i e v e spoons a r e b e l i e v e d t o r e p r e s e n t

t h e womanrs " a b i l i t y t o serve e x p e n s i v e imported wine" o r some o t h e r

d r i n k , such a s mead o r b e e r a t t a b l e (Meaney 1981: 247-8) and s o l i k e l y s i g n a l h e r a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c e r e m o n i a l beverages and h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n h a l l d r i n k i n g r i t u a l . T h e i r o n spoons found i n l e s s well-furnished b u r i a l s may have s e r v e d a s i m i l a r purpose (Evison 1987: 1 1 8 ) and, i f so, p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r r o l e was

being emulated by wornen of lower s t a t i o n .

I n any e v e n t , p o t t e r y wine b o t t l e s have b e e n found throughout Kent and on t h e I s l e of Wight and i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s i e v e spoons i n Anglo-Saxon England were connected t o wine service (Meaney 1981: 8 6 ) . S i e v e spoons and c r y s t a l b a l l s were a l s o p o p u l a r w i t h t h e Germanic peoples of t h e C o n t i n e n t who had probably s e e n them i n u s e by t h e Romans; t h e " s t r a i n e r i s a well-known e l e g a n t domestic a p p l i a n c e i n Greece and

Rome, where i t was used f o r c l a r i f y i n g wine" (Meaney 1981: 86; a l s o E n r i g h t 1996: 1 0 6 ) .

Examples of such s t r a i n e r s are found i n Scandinavian

b u r i a l s as w e l l , o f t e n i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h d r i n k i n g s e r v i c e s and f e a s t i n g v e s s e l s (Meaney 1981: 8 7 ) .

There is a l i k e l y c o n n e c t i o n between t h e

s i e v e spoons and d r i n k s e r v i c e i n t h e h a l l ( E n r i g h t 1996: 106), a l t h o u g h cosmetic o r rnedicinal u s e s should n o t be r u l e d o u t (Evison 1987: 1 1 8 ) . Both c r y s t a l b a l l s and s i e v e spoons have been found i n Anglo-saxon women's b u r i a l s i n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d and it is p o s s i b l e t h a t they were markers of t h e woman's s e r v i c e i n t h e h a l l ,

of h e r r o l e i n t h e

p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o r n i t a t u s , somehow s i g n i f y i n g h e r p l a c e a s l a d y of t h e h a l l .

S i n c e t h i s r o l e would most l i k e l y have been slow t o

change, a d a p t i n g g r a d u a l l y w i t h t h e growth o f c e n t r a l i z e d government and t h e advent of C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e s e o b j e c t s and t h e p o s i t i o n t h e y s i g n i f i e d would have been r e t a i n e d i n t o t h e e a r l y ~ h r i s t i a np e r i o d . A comon f e a t u r e o f t h e group of r i c h female g r a v e s i d e n t i f i e d

h e r e i n , i s t h e number and v a r i e t y of brooches i n c l u d e d i n t h e b u r i a l s a l o n g with t h e o b j e c t s d e s c r i b e d above, a s w e l l as " t h e u n u s u a l l y high i n c i d e n c e of m e t a l f i n g e r r i n g s and a r m l e t s " ,

i n c l u d i n g " a r m l e t s of

134 t e x t i l e , b r o c a d e d w i t h g o l d t h r e a d w , a l s o p r e s e n t (Owen-Crocker 1986: 589)

.

E'urthermore,

a t l e a s t t e n o f t h e webbe-type

b u r i a l s a l s o contain

gold-brocaded headbands. T h i s "brocaded m e t a l would r e s e m b l e s o l i d g o l d " and " t h e e f f e c t o f t h e g o l d p a t t e r n a g a i n s t t h e c o l o u r e d b r a i d , p e r h a p s r e d , would b e s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e m e t a l j e w e l l e r y i n l a i d w i t h g a r n e t " p o p u l a r i n Kent a t t h e t h e (Owen-Crocker 1986: 5 9 ) .

The p r e s e n c e O-f

t h e s e g o l d c i r c l e t s and r i n g s f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e s t h e women i n t h e webbe b u r i a l s as t h e beaghroden,

ring-adorned,

p o e t r y (Beowulf 623, 1163; Owen-Crocker

peaceweavers o f t h e h e r o i c 1986: 5 7 ) .

Meanwhile, many o f t h e b r o o c h e s found i n t h e same b u r i a l c o n t e x t h a v e a n i m i s t i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e i r d e s i g n and o r n a m e n t a t i o n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e most common o f t h e zoomorphic b r o o c h e s ,

t h e s m a l l bird-shaped

predominant i n Kent ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) ( A r n o l d 1982: 9 4 ;

figures

O w e n C r o c k e r 1986: 2 8 ) .

The b i r d - f o r m h a s s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n s t o F r i g a , who w a s known t o t a k e on hawk form.

The small mask-decorated b u t t o n b r o o c h e s a r e a l m o s t

e x c l u s i v e l y E n g l i s h and t h e human-mask d e s i g n Woden i n s p i r e d (Evison 1987: 4 8 ) .

They are c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s q u a r e - h e a d e d

t h e F r woden-masks,

brooches w i t h

a n i m a l forms, and b i r d s h a p e s h i d d e n a m i d s t

i n t e r l o c k i n g d e s i g n s ; t h e s e human and zoomorphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s 2re a s s o c i a t e d with t h e " r o l e s and q u i s e s " o f t h e s h a p e s h i f t i n g shamanic god o f prophecy a n d h e a l i n g (Speake 1980: 84,92;

a l s o L e i g h 1990: 1 2 0 ) .

As

s u c h , t h e y c a r r i e d p o w e r f u l a m u l e t i c q u a l i t i e s , b e i n g " b o t h rnagical and decorative"

( S p e a k e 1980: 9 2 )

The animal-human special interest:

.

f i g u r e s which e m b e l l i s h t h e s e b r o o c h e s a r e o f

t h e y a r e c r e a t u r e s meant t o b e s e e n a s a n i m a l s f i r s t ,

and t h e n a s humans when viewed d i f f e r e n t l y .

They are "net meant t o b e

seen as having a n instantaneous dual personality" 122).

( F i g u r e 1 3 ) (Leigh 1990:

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h e s e f i g u r e s w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r r e f l e c t i o n o r even

m e d i t a t i o n ; they a r e i n any e v e n t , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e b e l i e f i n a form o f

metamorphosis a r g u e d f o r i n t h e g o l d b r a c t e a t e s ,

and t y p i f i e d by t h e

Germanic b e l i e f i n t h e " m y t h i c a l t r a n s f e r o f men i n t o animals" (Leigh 1990: 1 2 2 ) . The h i g h q u a l i t y o f t h e s e brooches may r e f l e c t t h e s e women's h i g h e r s t a t u s w h i l e t h e "symbolic c h a r a c t e r of t h e o m a m e n t a t i o n and h i g h e r d e g r e e of s t y l i z a t i o n

. ..

give t h e impression t h a t only those i n i t i a t e d

i n t h e r e l i g i o u s myth would u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e s i g n " - " t h e y may have f u n c t i o n e d l i k e s k a l d i c kennings" (Magnus 1997: 2 0 2 ) .

The women who wore

t h e s e brooches w e r e p r o b a b l y t h e wives of t r i b a l r u l e r s and may have functioned a s p r i e s t e s s e s

(Magnus 1997: 2 0 2 ) .

I n any e v e n t , t h e s e

brooches and t h e i r accompanying beads have a l s o been s e e n a s some o f t h e s t r o n g e s t i n d i c a t o r s of group i d e n t i t y

-

a function not readily

r e c o g n i z a b l e i n a n y o f t h e o b j e c t s found i n male b u r i a l s (Arnold 1990: 171). Keys, o r t h e l a r g e r l a t c h - l i f t e r s ,

a r e t h e f i n a l o b j e c t s found w i t h

r e g u l a r i t y a s a d d i t i o n a l i t e m s i n t h e webbe-type b u r i a l s ( F i g u r e s 6 1 ) . The p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e o b j e c t s i n Germanic women's g r a v e s has been i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n d i c a t i v e o f h e r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e hordarn, cyste and teag, t h e storeroom, 95).

c h e s t and small box ( F e 1 1 1984: 59; Meaney 1981:

P o s s e s s i o n o f t h e s e keys may r e p r e s e n t b o t h "economic c o n t r o l of

t h e household" a n d t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f s u p p l i e s f o r t h e t a b l e o r f e a s t h a l l ( F e l l 1984: 60). I f s o , t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n t h e webbe b u r i a l complex i s p a r t of an o v e r a l l theme o f r i t u a l f e a s t i n g s e e n i n t h e f e a s t i n g bowls, d r i n k i n g cups and s i e v e s p o o n s ; t h i s theme was a p r i n c i p a l f o c u s of t h e e l i t e Germanic l i f e s t y l e (Alkemade 1997: 183; Meaney 1981: 9 5 ) .

The l o r d ' s

t a b l e with i t s r i c h s e t t i n g and v e s s e l s was "a c a r d i n a l symbof o f s t a t u s " ( E n r i g h t 1996: 4 9 ) .

The s e a t i n g o r d e r a t table was l'a p u b l i c v i s u a l

s t a t e m e n t o f t h e h i e r a r c h y of t h e warband cornmunity" which e x p r e s s e d and renewed " t h e bond which j o i n e d a l 1 who a t e o r drank from i t " ( E n r i g h t 1996: 4 9 ) .

The h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d t a b l e w a r e w a s a v i s u a l s i g n of t h e

w e a l t h and s t a t u s of both t h e r u l e r and of h i s people.

The t a b l e s e r v i c e

w a s h i g h l y valued plunder, i t s l o s s a h u m i l i a t i o n t o t h e d e f e a t e d .

The

l a d y of t h e h a l l , l i k e t h e w i f e o f a freeman h e l d t h e keys t o t h e s t o r e r o o m s and was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e u t e n s i l s and ornaments o f t h e house.

H e r p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e t a b l e honoured t h e house and i t s g u e s t s .

From t h e sagas, w e l e a r n t h a t t h e way i n which t h e woman of t h e house p r e p a r e d t h e t a b l e r e f l e c t e d h e r o p i n i o n of h e r h u s b a n d l s s t a t u s and t h a t of h i s companions ( E n r i g h t 1996: 51)

.

The a s s o c i a t i o n o f women w i t h

service t o t h e table and thus t o a u t h o r i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o c o n t r o l of home and h a l l i s "thoroughly ernbedded i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e psyche of a l 1 segments o f Germanic s o c i e t y " ( E n r i g h t 1996: 5 3 ) . Many of t h e o b j e c t s i d e n t i f i e d above a r e found i n less r i c h graves; however, i t i s o n l y i n a few e l i t e b u r i a l s t h a t t h e e n t i r e complex i s b r o u g h t together4"

i n t h e r i c h webbe b u r i a l s found i n Kent, i n o t h e r

p a r t s o f Anglo-saxon England and on t h e Continent (Alkemade 1997: 183; E n r i g h t 1996: 104-10; 58).

Hawkes and P o l l a r d 1981: 351-62;

Owen-Crocker

1984:

The presence of t h e incornplete w e b b e assemblages i n t h e less well-

f u r n i s h e d b u r i a l s i s most l i k e l y t h e r e s u l t of an emulated l i f e s t y l e o r p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l r o l e and of a common Germanic i d e o l o g y c e n t r e d upon w a r r i o r i d e a l s , ornamentation o f t h e body and r i t u a l f e a s t i n g (Alkemade 1997: 183-4)

.

While t h e power held i n Anglo-Saxon s o c i e t y may have been e x e r c i s e d by men, many of t h e symbols o f t h a t power w e r e m a i n t a i n e d and a r r a n g e d by women, b o t h i n t h e h a l l and i n t h e home ( E n r i g h t 1 9 9 6 : 5 3 ) .

Their

m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e symbols of t h e w a r r i o r s o c i e t y c o u l d be b r u t a l l y d i r e c t o r s u b t l y p r o v o c a t i v e and must have been "even more p r a c t i c e d and p o i n t e d i n t h e e x c l u s i v e and h i e r a r c h i c s o c i e t y o f a w a r r i o r s o d a l i t y where t h e lord's w i f e must be p r e s e n t i n t h e h a l l r t ( E n r i g h t 1996: 5 3 ) . Germanic women f r e q u e n t l y m a n i p u l a t e d t h e concepts of honour, s t a t u s and shame i n a t t e m p t s t o i n f l u e n c e men's d e c i s i o n s and a c t i o n s and t h e i r p r o f f e r i n g of t h e cup of u n i t y , t h a t c o n t a i n i n g t h e d i v i n e mead of

i n s p i r a t i o n , was one of t h e most powerful i n s t a n c e s of such m a n i p u l a t i o n . Women who can "whet",

who can blame and provoke o r i n c i t e , can a l s o

p r a i s e and mediate and t h u s reduce c o n f l i c t w i t h i n t h e warband.

The Old

E n g l i s h r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e o f f e r e d cup, t h e baedweg, followed by p r a i s e and a d v i c e , a s i n Beowulf and t h e Maxims n o t e d above, " c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h t h e p o s i t i v e r o l e played by women of rank i n t h e small b u t h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t body o f t h e comitatus" ( E n r i g h t 1996: 56; a l s o Davidson 1993 : 8 6 , Russom 1988: 181-2).

While t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y i s marked by t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e r i c h l y furnished w e b b e b u r i a l s , t h e archaeological record f o r t h e seventh c e n t u r y d i s c l o s e s a d e c l i n e i n t h e o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e high s t a t u s female b u r i a l s and a growth i n t h e frequency of h i g h e r s t a t u s male b u r i a l s (Harke 1992a: 1 6 2 ) .

T h i s change may have b e e n a r e s u l t of t h e s p r e a d of

C h r i s t i a n i t y o r o f a growing c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of power (Harke 1992a: 165) which s l o w l y b u t s u r e l y a f f e c t e d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e comitatus and with i t , t h e r o l e s of t h e key w q n e d and w e b b e f i g u r e s .

m n e d Burials

The second " t y p e " of b u r i a l i d e n t i f i e d i n Chapter III i s t h a t of t h e e l i t e w a r r i o r , t h e wzpned ( F i g u r e s 52,

62).

Evidence from t h e O l d

E n g l i s h s o u r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e h e r o i c p o e t r y , shows t h e w a r r i o r r o l e was o f c h i e f importance i n a c u l t u r e where t h e comitatus o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o o d

a t t h e c e n t e r o f a l 1 c u l t u r a l , economic, p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , m a r t i a l and r i t u a l a s p e c t s o f t h e s o c i e t y working t o c r e a t e and d e f i n e a worldview ( E n r i g h t 1998: 309; Evans 1997: 2 ) .

The emphasis on w a r f a r e

and t h e warband s t r u c t u r e i s c l e a r l y e v i à e n t i n male weapons b u r i a l s where t h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s v a r i e t y i n t h e t y p e of o b j e c t s found than seen i n t h e w e h b e b u r i a l s .

Nevertheless,

given t h e n a t u r e of t h e

a r t i f a c t s t h e y c o n t a i n , t h e wapned and w e b b e b u r i a l s a r e complementary. The weaponry and f e a s t i n g v e s s e l s of t h e wzpned b u r i a l s a r e f u n c t i o n a l i y and m e t a p h o r i c a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e same r i t u a l e v e n t s of t h e h a l l a s a r e

t h o s e o b j e c t s found w i t h i n t h e webbe b u r i a l s .

The o b j e c t s i n b o t h t h e

wc.-rpned and webbe b u r i a l s a r e e x p r e s s i o n s of t h e i d e a l s of t h e w a r r i o r -

c u l t v a l u e s which governed the Anglo-saxon a r i s t o c r a c y .

Based on t h e

i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e o b j e c t s p r e s e n t i n t h e b u r i a l s , t h i s w a r r i o r c u l t rnay have been a shamanic c u l t o f Woden (Chaney 1970: 32, 35; Davidson 1 9 7 2 ; 1989; 1993; Richards 1992: 1 3 6 )

.

As o u t l i n e d i n C h a p t e r III, male b u r i a l s o f t h e Anglo-saxon p e r i o d g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n a t least a k n i f e and a buckle.

I t i s t h e n e x t most

commonly found o b j e c t , t h e s p e a r , which is t h e most d i a g n o s t i c o f t h e w a r r i o r i d e n t i t y (Arnold 1997: 9 7 ) .

A s a symbol o f Woden, t h e god of

w a r r i o r s , t h e s p e a r has long been regarded a s a s i g n of a w a r r i o r ' s d e a t h (Chaney 1970: 3 4 ; Davidson 1969b: 36; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 5 1 ) .

Judging from

t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of d a n c i n g male f i g u r e s on mernorial S t o n e s , helmets and t h e Finglesham b u c k l e , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s p e a r may have been c a r r i e d by w a r r i o r s engaged i n r i t u a l dance, p o s s i b l y i n inducement o f t h e s t a t e o f b a t t l e e c s t a s y which was a l s o Woden's g i f t 99)

.

(Davidson 1993:

A d d i t i o n a l weaponry i n t h e form of s h i e l d s , swords o r s e a x e s e x t e n d

t h e deceased's associations with t h e warrior ethos.

The more p o o r l y

f u r n i s h e d w a r r i o r b u r i a l s may c o n t a i n o n l y t h e b a s i c k i t i t e m s a b u c k l e and a s p e a r

-

-

a knife,

and a s i n g l e e a r t h e n p o t o r bowl. D e s p i t e t h e i r

paucity of furnishings, t h e s e b u r i a l s s t i l l contain t h e o b j e c t s necessary t o mark t h e d e c e a s e d w a r r i o r ' s r i g h t t o p a r t a k e i n t h e j o y s and r i t u a l s of t h e h a l l . The e l i t e wzpned b u r i a l s a r e rnarkec! by a g r e a t e r number n o t v a r i e t y o f a r t i f a c t s and by t h e i n c l u s i o n o f o b j e c t s o f b e t t e r q u a l i t y , f i n e r m a n u f a c t u r e and more e l a b o r a t e d e c o r a t i o n (Harke 1992a: 1 5 8 ) . I n t h e e l i t e b u r i a l s , o f t e n t h e k n i v e s a r e l a r g e r , sometimes w i t h i n l a i d b l a d e s ;

t h e b u c k l e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e c o r a t e d i n g a r n e t and c l o i s s o n é work, o r e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h zoomorphic f i g u r e s o r i n t e r l a c e . T h e swords found i n t h e s e b u r i a l s a r e most o f t e n p a t t e r n - w e l d e d , n i e l l o , cloissoné o r engraving.

t h e h i l t s decorated with

F r e q u e n t l y t h e s e swords are accompanied

by sword beads o r r i n g s which mark t h e deceased a s a w a r r i o r of r e n o m o r a s a l e a d e r o f men (Meaney 1981: 4-5,

68; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 1 0 6 ) .

Scabbard mounts and chapes a r e o f t e n e l a b o r a t e l y d e c o r a t e d w i t h Wodenmasks o r i n t e r t w i n e d animal d e s i g n s .

These weapons a r e found w i t h t h e

remains of i n d i v i d u a l s who w e r e o b v i o u s i y of l a r g e r and s t r o n g e r b u i l d t h a n t h o s e found w i t h o n l y s h i e l d o r s p e a r . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e t h e spear may be s a i d t o mark t h e p r e s e n c e of a w a r r i o r ,

i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e sword

marks a w a r r i o r of highelr rank, s t r e n g t h and p r i v i l e g e (Haxke 1992a: 157).

The s p e a r heads found i n t h e b e t t e r f u r n i s h e d wapned b u r i a l s a r e

often i n l a i d w i t h m e t a l l i c wixe d e s i g n s , sometimes i n t h e form o f t h e v i c t o r y o r g l o r y r u n e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e war god T y r o r t h e s w a s t i k a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e sky god Thunor (Davidson 1962: 127; Meaney 1981: 242).

The mark of t h e f r e e man, t h e s p e a r was borne t o t h e w a p e n t a c , the

c o u r t t o which one took, o r more probably where one showed o r shook, o n e ' s weapons (Brooks 1978: 83; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 1 1 6 ) .

At such

g a t h e r i n g s , t h e b r a n d i s h i n g of t h e s p e a r was p r o b a b l y a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e a c t i o n , t h e movements o f t h e s p e a r ernphasizing t h e words and becoming an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n t e n t i o n " .

Public

ceremonies i n v o l v i n g symbolic a c t i o n s with weapons w e r e a s t a n d a r d f e a t u r e of Germanic law and t h e means of making p u b l i c and a p p a r e n t t h e changes i n l e g a l s t a t u s , and t h e l e g a l judgements, recognized (Brooks 1978: 83)

.

t h a t the court

The Anglo-saxon w a r r i o r ' s s p e a r was

c o n s t a n t l y i n h i s hand, forming almost p a r t o f h i m when he was f i g h t i n g , h u n t i n g , t r a v e l l i n g , r a i d i n g , dancing, t r a i n i n g o r d i s p l a y i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e h a l l ; even a t rest, i t was always w i t h i n r e a c h .

A proud w a r r i o r

would probably n e v e r have t i r e d o f sharpening o r p o l i s h i n g t h e s p e a r he c a r r i e d ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 9 6 ) .

I n Old E n g l i s h p o e t r y , asc, a s h is synonymous w i t h s p e a r berend o r arsc bora meaning s p e a r - b e a r e r ;

spears, b a t t l e ;

asc plega,

a s c stede, t h e s p e a r - p l a c e

-

t h e aosc

t h e p l a y o r game of

o r b a t t l e f i e l d ; zsc r o f , one

famous f o r o r w i t h h i s s p e a r (Smith 1853: 7 ) and a warband s t a n d i n g f i r m , ash-wood i r o n topped s p e a r s h e l d c l o s e t o g e t h e r , s p e a r s (Brady 1979: 130-1;

an zscholt

-

a f o r e s t of

Beowulf 330, 1 8 3 4 ) . The term f o r a l e a d e r o r

prominent w a r r i o r , a champion, was frumgar,

f i r s t spear

-

t h e w a r r i o r who

s t a n d s i n t h e i r o n t l i n e of b a t t l e ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 1 1 6 ) . I n t i m e s o f feud, t h e speax which w i l l n o t w a i t f o r revenge i s t h e b o n g a r , the k i l l e r - s p e a r which w i l l n o t rest (Brady 1979: 1 2 9 ; Beowulf 2 0 3 1 ) .

.

A t the

end of t h e f i g h t i n g , t h e p o l e s which c a r r y t h e dead away from t h e b a t t l e a r e t h e d s c e a f t , t h e body p o l e s , t h e same s p e a r s which w e r e c a r r i e d i n t o t h e f i g h t (Brady 1979: 132; Beowulf 1638) . spear-bearer,

For t h e Anglo-Saxon

t h e s p e a r w a s an animate cornpanion, a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

r i g h t hand and a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e s e l f

-

a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i g n a l l e d by

t h e a p p e l l a t i o n spere-healf f o r t h e male s i d e of Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y ( F e l l 1984: 3 9 ) Q e . Unlike s p e a r s , s h i e l d s a r e r a r e l y t h e onLy weapon i n a w a r r i o r ' s grave; t h e y a r e u s u a l l y accompanied by o t h e r weapons,

a s p e a r , a sword o r

a s e a x (Dickinson and Harke 1992: 1 ) . The m a j o r i t y o f e a r l y Anglo-Saxon s h i e l d s a r e c i r c u l a r , w i t h a f l a t o r convex board and, on average, a b o u t sixteen inches i n diameter (Figure 63).

As w i t h t h e k n i v e s ,

it a p p e a r s

t h a t t h e r e i s some c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e age o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l b u r i e d

and t h e accompanying s h i e l d f s s i z e ; t h e l a r g e s t s h i e l d s w e r e b u r i e d w i t h mature i n d i v i d u a l s

(Harke 1990: 20-30).

The s h i e l d î s f u n c t i o n a s a

s t a t u s marker can a l s o be p e r c e i v e d from i t s v e r y rare i n c l u s i o n i n t h e b u r i a l s o f i n d i v i d u a l s below t h e age o f s e v e n t e e n t o e i g h t e e n y e a r s . There a r e only t h r e e such b u r i a l s known i n Anglo-saxon a r e s l i g h t l y unusual.

England and a l 1

The youngest b u r i a l , t h a t o f a c h i l d of about s i x

y e a r s , a t Westgarth Gardens, c o n t a i n e d an e x c e e d i n g l y s m a l l s h i e l d , p o s s i b l y a toy. The second youngest s h i e l d b u r i a l i s t h a t o f t h e c o f f i n b u r i a l of a youth of a b o u t f i f t e e n a t B r o a d s t a i r s 1 ( F i g u r e 6 4 ) .

This

e x c e p t i o n a l l y r i c h b u r i a l c o n t a i n e d a sword, s h i e l d , two s p e a r s , a b r o n z e bowl and some o t h e r s m a l l i t e m s i n c l u d i n g a c o i n , p l a c e d i n t h e young

man's mouth, o s t e n s i b l y f o r t h e payment o f h i s p a s s a g e i n t o t h e l a n d o f t h e dead (Harke 1992b: 68; W e b s t e r 1986: 1 2 7 ) .

The t h i r d u n u s u a l s h i e l d

b u r i a l , t h a t of a n o t h e r y o u t h o f a b o u t s i x t e e n a t ~ e r i n s f i e l dc o n t a i n e d a b u c k e t w i t h b r o n z e f i t t i n g s , a n o t h e r o b j e c t seldom found i n j u v e n i l e b u r i a l s (Harke 1992b: 6 8 ) .

However,

h e r e it s h o u l d b e r e c a l l e d t h a t

manhood o f t e n came e a r l y i n Anglo-saxon England ( E v a n s 1997: 119-120; Hooper 1989: 196) and t h e l a t t e r two b u r i a l s may j u s t a s e a s i l y have marked a c h i e v e d a s a s c r i b e d s t a t u s .

I n e i t h e r c a s e , t h e weaponry and

f e a s t i n g v e s s e l s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e b u r i a l s s i g n a l s t h e p l a c e t h e s e two young men h e l d i n a w a r r i o r s o c i e t y and t h e i r r i g h t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n hall ritual. Throughout t h e Anglo-Saxon p e r i o d , s h i e l d s w e r e made o f l i g h t w e i g h t woods s u c h as a l d e r , willow, p o p l a r and, of c o u r s e ,

i s w e l l known from Old E n g l i s h p o e t i c r e f e r e n c e .

t h e l i n d e n wood which

A l e a t h e r cover offered

p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t w a t e r , a s w e l l as a s u r f a c e f o r d e c o r a t i o n (Harke 1992c: 31-52).

Such d e c o r a t i o n "was p r o b a b l y n o t j u s t f o r d i s p l a y and

o s t e n t a t i o n ; it c o u l d have served a s e r i o u s p u r p o s e identification i n battle"

( H a r k e 1992c: 5 2 ) .

-

t h a t of

A l t h o u g h " p a i n t i n g is

extremely d i f f i c u l t t o prove i n t h e archeological record",

t h e r e i s some

w i t n e s s t o t h i s form o f d e c o r a t i o n i n t h e w r i t t e n s o u r c e s (Harke 1992c: 52; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 1 3 7 ) . i n Beowulf (232, 437-8),

" P o l i s h e d " and "yellow" s h i e l d s a r e mentioned

and T a c i t u s (Germania 6 ) r e f e r s t o c o l o u r s on

f i r s t c e n t u r y Germanic s h i e l d s .

The Romans d e c o r a t e d and p a i n t e d t h e i r

parade s h i e l d s i n a s p e c t a c u l a r fashion, while e l a b o r a t i n g t h e i r r e g u l a r s h i e l d s as w e l l t o provi.de f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f i g h t i n g u n i t s .

Red

p a i n t h a s been found on Danish s h i e l d t i m b e r and l e a t h e r and y e l l o w and b l a c k p a i n t on t h e s h i e l d s o f t h e Gokstad s h i p ( H a r k e 1 9 9 2 ~ :5 4 ) . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e Germanic Anglo-saxon w a r r i o r s a l s o marked t h e i r p l a c e i n b a t t l e i n s u c h f a s h i o n ( S m i t h 1853: 1 2 ) . F i g u r a 1 a p p l i q u é s o f f i s h , beaked quadrupeds, b i r d s and d r a g o n s a s w e l l as n o n - f i g u r a 1 g e o m e t r i c a p p l i q u é s w i t h a n i m a l - s t y l e d e c o r a t i o n

have been found on s h i e l d s a c r o s s Anglo-saxon England ( F i g u r e 6 5 ) ( H a r k e 1992c: 5 2 ) .

" A l 1 E n g l i s h examples a r e made of o r i n c l u d e p r e c i o u s m e t a l s

i n t h e i r d e s i g n " and t h i s g o l d , s i l v e r o r g i l t bronze i n d i c a t e s h i g h s t a t u s (Dickinson and Harke 1992: 2 7 ) , while t h e form o f t h e zoomorphic form o f many o f t h e a p p l i q u é s s i g n a l s a connection t o t h e c u l t o f Woden a s w e l l a s h a v i n g p o s s i b l e h e r a l d i c o r t o t e m i c a s s o c i a t i o n s (Evison 1 9 8 7 : 34;

~ o l l i n g t o n 1996: ' 132).

The " p r o t e c t i v e and symbolic" q u a l i t y of t h e

a p p l i q u é s was i n t e n d e d t o "quard t h e wearer from harm and g i v e hirn protection i n battle"

(Davidson 1965: 2 3 ) .

s t r a p and h a r n e s s mounts (Evison 1 9 8 7 : 32)

Often b i r d forms d e c o r a t e d

.

The s h i e l d l s d e c o r a t i o n

a f f o r d e d i t s owner an o p p o r t u n i t y t o express h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y as w e l l a s a c e r t a i n " p l e a s u r e i n [its] d i s p l a y " (Harke 1992d: 61-2).

I n t h e ranked

s o c i e t y o f Anglo-Saxon England, t h e s h i e l d p r o v i d e d a s u r f a c e f o r t h e o s t e n t a t i o u s and symbolic marking o f t h e s t a t u s , and rnost l i k e l y t h e r e p u t a t i o n o r mard, of i t s b e a r e r . The s h i e l d f s r o l e i n Germanic ideology and imagery i s emphasized by p e n a l t i e s imposed upon w a r r i o r s who l o s t t h e i r s h i e l d s i n b a t t l e ; a s T a c i t u s ( G e r m a n i a 6 ) t e l l s us, t h e l o s s of t h e s h i e l d was t h e Germanic

w a r r i o r s ' supreme d i s g r a c e .

According t o t h e custom o f many Germanic

t r i b e s , w a r r i o r s r a i s e d t h e i r new king o r w a r l e a d e r , t h e i r d u x , upon a s h i e l d t o p r o c l a i m h i s new s t a t u s (Harke 19926: 62; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 129).

Although t h e r e a r e no s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s n o t e d i n Anglo-Saxon

s o u r c e s , "the l i n k between t h e s h i e l d and r o y a l power i s expressed i n Beowulf (427-8,

610, 1866, 1972) where kings a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e

I s h i e l d r o f t h e i r p e o p l e and of t h e i r w a r r i o r s "

(Harke 1992d: 6 2 ) .

The

s h i e l d i s p e r h a p s t h e rnost c u l t u r a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t p i e c e of d e f e n s i v e equipment.

"Once t h e s h i e l d w a l l i s drawn up, by i m p l i c a t i o n a l 1 t h o s e

on t h e same s i d e of t h e w a l l a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s ' u s t , and a l 1 t h o s e beyond it a r e ' t h e m t " ( P o l l i n g t o n 1946: 129)

-

t h u s t h e l i n e between fyrd and

here, " f r i e n d " and "enemylf, i s made c l e a r q g .

"Unlike t h e s p e a r o r bow",

o r l a t e r t h e s e a x "which could a l s o b e

used i n h u n t i n g , t h e s w o r d f s only u s e w a s i n w a r f a r e " (Bone 1989: 6 5 ) . As such i t was

"a p o t e n t symbol of t h e aristocratie w a r r i o r c l a s s ,

marking i t s w e a r e r a s b o t h wealthy and a w a r r i o r " (Bone 1989: 65) . Swords of t h e Anglo-saxon p e r i o d were i n t e n d e d f o r s l a s h i n g , n o t thrusting.

The b a l a n c e of t h e b l a d e s made- t h r u s t i n g t i r i n g , b u t i t a l s o

enabled t h e s l a s h i n g blow t o i n f l i c t p o t e n t i a l l y d e v a s t a t i n g c u t s ; even a r e l a t i v e l y weak blow could cause damage. behind t h e blow,

With t h e power of a d r e n a l i n

swords could s h e a r t h r o u g h a m o u r and s k u l l s and t o a n

e x t e n t , t h e rnomentum of each blow c o u l d be used t o s t a r t t h e n e x t , e n a b l i n g a f l u r r y of blows t o t h e enemy (Bone 1990: 7 0 ) i n t h e f u r y of battle. The s c a b b a r d s which c a r r i e d t h e s e swords were o f t e n h i g h l y ornarnented, marking t h e s t a t u s and w e a l t h o f t h e b e a r e r , b u t a l s o c e l e b r a t i n g h i s b a t t l e prowess.

The l o w e r s c a b b a r d t i p was p r o t e c t e d by

a g i l t - b r o n z e chape (Bone 1989: 6 8 ) w h i l e t h e upper metal edging and t h e l o c k e t a t t h e mouth of t h e scabbard w e r e u s u a l l y h i g h l y o r n m e n t e d w i t h zoomorphic, i n t e r l a c e and Woden-mask d e s i g n s ( F i g u r e 66) (Davidson 1962: 91).

The weaponry of t h e Anglo-Saxon w a r r i o r was fashioned by t h e same

craftsrnen who made t h e j e w e l l e r y which a d o r n e d t h e women, a f i n e sword was as much p e r s o n a l adornment a s i t was a t o o l of war. At t h e same tirne, t h e opening i n t o t h e s h e a t h from which t h e sword was drawn a p p e a r s t o have been a p l a c e d e s e r v i n g s p e c i a l d e c o r a t i o n and a t t e n t i o n .

The Coornbe

scabbard i s i n t r i c a t e l y d e c o r a t e d i n n i e l l o work i n t h i s a r e a and a sword found a t Faversham has a t i n y b i v a l v e s h e l l , a srnall t h i n p i e c e of p u r p l e g l a s s and a s m a l l i n c i s e d f l i n t i n l a i d i n t o t h e mouth guard (Davidson, e t a l : 1 9 6 7 ; Meaney 1981: 2 8 ) .

Perhaps s u c h d e c o r a t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t t o

p r e - b a t t l e r i t u a l w e know of £rom t h e s a g a s .

I n Kormaks Saga, young

Komak i s t o l d n o t t a l e t t h e sun s h i n e o n t h e pomme1 of t h e sword, t h a t h e i s n o t t o b e a r t h e sword, u n l e s s h e is p r e p a r e d t o do b a t t l e ; he is

t o l d t o s i t a l o n e when f i r s t drawing t h e b l a d e , t o p u l l it s l o w l y from t h e s h e a t h , blowing on t h e b l a d e a s he p u l l s it f o r t h .

A l i t t l e snake

wi11 c r e e p from b e n e a t h t h e h i l t and h e i s t o l d t o t u r n t h e sword t o allow t h e snake passage.

When t h e young h e r o f a i l e d t o heed t h i s a d v i c e ,

t h e sword i s s a i d t o have groaned a s it came f o r t h from t h e s c a b b a r d , i t s l u c k broken.

The i d e a o f a s e r p e n t c r e e p i n g a l o n g t h e b l a d e a r i s e s

n a t u r a l l y o u t of t h e s e r p e n t i n e appearance of t h e pattern-welded b l a d e (Davidson 1962: 1 6 6 ) , b u t t h e i d e a remains t h a t t h e power of t h e sword was p r o p i t i a t e d w i t h i n t h e scabbard, w a i t i n g t o be p r o p e r l y awakened. Sorne swords a l s o c a r r y a r i n g a t t a c h m e n t , a s m a l l double l i n k o f metal r i v e t e d t o t h e pomel-bar

( F i g u r e 6 7 ) (Bone 1989: 65).

It is

b e l i e v e d t h a t s u c h r i n g s a r e a mark of d i s t i n c t i o n , "perhaps a t o k e n of s p e c i a l v a l o u r , p e r h a p s a mark o f l e a d e r s h i p " Davidson and Webster 1967: 2 2 - 3 ) .

[Davidson 1962: 181;

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t they were awarded

t o t h e sword, a s w e l l a s t h e man; r e f e r e n c e s t o r i n g swords i n Old Norse p o e t r y i n d i c a t e the r i n g was t h e mark o f a sword h e l d i n h i g h r e p u t e (Davidson 1962: 1 2 5 ) .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e r i n g s were a t t a c h e d t o

t h e "peace s t r i n g s " o r fridbond mentioned i n t h e Norse s a g a s which t i e d t h e sword i n t o i t s s c a b b a r d (Davidson 1962: 1 8 5 ) .

It i s a l s o p r o b a b l e

t h a t b e c a u s e o a t h s were o f t e n sworn on sword h i l t s o r on r i n g s , a s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n i s a c c e n t u a t e d i n t h e ring-swords P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 4 ) .

(Davidson 1962: 151;

Some swords have had t h e r i n g removed, i n d i c a t i n g

t h a t t h e y m a y have been p e r s o n a 1 t o o n e . o w n e r (Bone 1989: 65) and when t h a t p e r s o n ' s s e r v i c e t o a l o r d had ended, t h e y were removed. found w i t h o t h e r a t t a c h m e n t s a s w e l l :

Swords a r e

beads of amber, rock c r y s t a l ,

m e e r s c h a m o r g l a s s o r compound jewels of g o l d and g a r n e t c l o i s o n n é (Davidson 1962: 8 3 ) . I n many c a s e s , t h e r e i s no d i s s i m i l a r i t y i n s i z e , s h a p e and m a t e r i a l between t h e s e beads and t h o s e found and i d e n t i f i e d i n women's b u r i a l s a s s p i n d l e whorls (Meaney 1981: 194-6).

It appears t h a t

t h e s e b e a d s w e r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e s c a b b a r d o r pomme1 by l e a t h e r t h o n g s ( F i g u r e 6 8 ) ( D a v i d s o n 1962: 8 9 ) .

These sword b e a d s were p r o b a b l y

a r n u l e t i c , s i m i l a r i n m a t e r i a l , f o m and f u n c t i o n t o t h e a m u l e t s found i n women's b u r i a l s ; t h e y a r e q u i t e l i k e l y the " l i f e s t o n e s " o f t h e I c e l a n d

s a g a s which were t h e o n l y means o f h e a l i n g wounds i n f l i c t e d b y t h e sword t o which t h e y w e r e a t t a c h e d .

They c o u l d b e used t o "draw* p a i n and

s w e l l i n g from a wound, o r t h e y c o u l d be s c r a p e d and a p p l i e d t o t h e wound i n a more m e d i c i n a l f a s h i o n .

T h e s e s t o n e s a p p e a r t o have been a s o u r c e

of s t r e n g t h and h e a l i n g f o r t h e w a r r i o r who c a r r i e d them a s w e l l as t a l i s m a n s which e n s u r e d v i c t o r y i n b a t t l e t o t h e i r wearer 1962: 83, 181-3; Meaney 1981: 1 9 8 ) end o f t h e "peace s t r i n g s " ,

.

(Davidson

They may a l s o have swung from t h e

t h o s e c o r d s whose un f a s t e n i n g s y m b o l i c a l l y

b r o k e t h e p e a c e (Meaney 1 9 8 1 : 1 9 8 ) , b e f o r e t h e f i r s t blow was s t r u c k .

Ring swords a r e u s u a l l y much more s p l e n d i d l y d e c o r a t e d t h a n o r d i n a r y swords (Davidson and Webster 1967: 2 4 ) . The Coombe sword shows a c e n t r a l d e v i c e on i t s pommel ( F i g u r e 6 9 ) which i s c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e rnasks found on brooches of t h e same p e r i o d .

This d e v i c e is on t h e

f r o n t of t h e p o m e l , where i t c o u l d b e s e e n by a l l .

I n t h i s p o s i t i o n "of

g r e a t powertl, i t i s "an i m p r e s s i v e s i g h t w i t h i t s compelling stare and g l i t t e r i n g c o n t r a s t of sunken g o l d and m a t t e s i l v e r " (Davidson and Webster 1967: 2 5 ) .

"The f a c e h a s always been a powerful r e l i g i o u s

symbol" a n d "it i s n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e f a c e on t h e Coombe pommel b o r e some . . . pr o p h y l a c t i c o r l u c k - b r i n g i n g v a l u e " (Davidson and Webster 1967: 2 6 ) ; i t may a l s o have r e p r e s e n t e d t h e h e l p e r - s p i r i t of t h e w a r r i o r who

c a r r i e d t h e sword.

The symbol o f Thunor on t h e B i f r o n s pomme1 o c c u p i e s a

s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n on t h e h i l t which, a s w e have s e e n above, was r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e sword's g l o r y (Figure 7 0 ) .

Thus t h e sword r i n g s , t h e b e a d s ,

t h e r u n i c markings and o t h e r e m b e l l i s h m e n t s found on t h e pommel o r h i l t o f t h e swords may have s e r v e d a number o f p u r p o s e s , n o t t h e l e a s t of which was t o be c a r r i e d a s medals o f honour, marks of t h e w a r r i o r ' s mzrd o r weorp d i s p l a y e d where t h e y m i g h t be s e e n b y a l l . Swords w e r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e l i f e o f a man of h i g h r a n k from h i s b i r t h unto h i s death.

Swords were sometimes g i v e n t o a c h i l d a t b i r t h

w i t h h i s name (Davidson 1962: 2 1 1 ) , sometimes they were won i n b a t t l e , sometimes t h e y were t h e g i f t o f a l o r d (Brady 1979: 1 0 3 ) .

Sometimes a n

h e r e d i t a r y Eamily sword was removed from t h e f a m i l y grave-mound t o be o f f e r e d t o a new born s o n who was t o t a k e on t h e dead man's name and, i n

time,

i n h e r i t h i s w e a l t h a n d h i s " l u c k n (Davidson 1962: 213; Davidson

1993: 122; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 4 ) .

T h i s "luckw was sometimes " p e r s o n i f i e d

a s a s u p e r n a t u r a l female b e i n g whose f a v o u r and p r o t e c t i o n was passed on from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n w i t h t h e f d l y sword, a s i n h e r i t e d p o s s e s s i o n " ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) .

These g u a r d i a n h e l p e r s a r e o f t e n

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Wælcyrges who guided t h e w a r r i o r s i n b a t t l e (Davidson 1989: 22; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) and t h e w a r r i o r f s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l s was " p a r t l y f i l i a l , p a r t l y e r o t i c " a s t h e y were sometimes g u a r d i a n s , sornetirnes wives o f t h e h e r o g i v i n g b i r t h t o h i s c h i l d r e n (Davidson 1989: 20; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) .

These spirit-women appeared as

young and b e a u t i f u l maidens, c o v e r i n g a more s i n i s t e r a s p e c t t o which t h e y c o u l d change a t w i l l (Damico 1990: 177-180;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) .

The p a s s i n g on o f a f a m i l y sword i s o f t e n connected w i t h t h e mother's l i n e .

Germanic women were s a i d t o r e c e i v e a m from t h e i r

husbands a s wedding g i f t s which were t o be p a s s e d on t o t h e i r sons. Following a s i m i l a r custom from Scandinavia, t h e f a t h e r f s weapons were e n t r u s t e d t o t h e d a u g h t e r s o t h a t s h e could p a s s them on t o h e r c h i l d r e n . I n s u c h ways, t h e sword r e s t e d between g e n e r a t i o n s , w h i l e i n t h e s a f e k e e p i n g of a woman, a w a i t i n g t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n o f w a r r i o r s (Davidson 1989: 21; P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) .

I n t h e F r i s i a n t r a d i t i o n , an unsheathed

sword was c a r r i e d b e f o r e t h e b r i d e t o h e r new home, t h e p h a l l i c n a t u r e o f t h e symbolism i n v o k i n g E e r t i l i t y f o r t h e c o u p l e .

The Norse Sagas r e p e a t

t h e same symbolism; i n S c a n d i n a v i a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e sword a t t h e wedding i s s e e n a s an emblem o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g f a m i l y and i t s p r o s p e r i t y ; t h e s w o x d ~ spower i s b e l i e v e d t o b r i n g f o r t h "a new g e n e r a t i o n of h e a l t h y s o n s " (Davidson 1962: 152-6;

P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 45) t o t a k e up t h e sword.

Swords w e r e o f t e n p a s s e d on f o r g e n e r a t i o n s w i t h t h e g i f t of t h e sword o f t e n s i g n a l l i n g e n t r y i n t o a d u l t s o c i e t y ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 4 6 ) . A warrior could l o s e h i s glory

-

h i s sword o r h i s r e p u t a t i o n

-

by

being u n t r u e t o h i s word o r £ a i l i n g t o a c t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e e t h o s of t h e warband ( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 2 5 ) .

The w a r r i o r l s sword was b e l i e v e d t o

c a r r y h i s word; he swore h i s o a t h of l o y a l t y on i t s h i l t and agreements were f o r m a l i z e d i n i t s p r e s e n c e (Davidson 1962: 151; E n r i g h t 1998: 3 1 8 ) .

"A sword o f t h i s t y p e was c a l l e d a t t e s t a m e n t ' o r ' w i t n e s s l t o i t s b e a r e r ' s deeds and b e h a v i o u r " ( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 1 7 ) .

The sword was n o t

simply i n e r t m a t t e r ; it was a p a r t y t o t h e o a t h between t h e l o r d and r e t a i n e r and a w i t n e s s t o t h e f a i t h o f b o t h p a r t i e s ; i t s e r v e d a s a d a i f y reminder of t h e promise.

Should a w a r r i o r rnake a f a l s e b o a s t , h i s sword

would c u t him; s h o u l d h i s conduct be unworthy, h i s sword would f a i l him

i n b a t t l e ( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 1 6 ) .

I n a world where a v i t a l e s s e n c e f i l l e d

e v e r y c r e a t u r e , m o r t a l and d i v i n e , o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c , weaponry was a l i v e w i t h a kind o f energy, a n immediate " a n i m i s t i c powerlt, t h a t sometimes "approximated s e n t i e n c e " ( G l o s e c k i 1989: 55; a l s o E n r i g h t 1998: 326)

. Aimost e v e r y sword had i t s own name, e a c h i t s unique p e r s o n a l i t y

(Brady 1979: 1 0 4 )

.

A sword was t h e f i g h t i n g mant s gudwine, " b a t t l e

cornpanion" o r l l f r i e n d i n warl' (Beowulf 1810; Brady 1979: 1 0 3 ) ; i t was h i s c o n s t a n t e a x l g e s t e a l l a , "shoulder-companion" Riddle 7 9 ) .

(Davidson 1962: 155; Exeter

A s p e c i a l and p e c u l i a r l y i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d

between a man and b i s sword (Brady 1979: 1 0 3 ) . had w i l l s and c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e i r own.

Some swords seem t o have

They w e r e imbued w i t h a q u a l i t y

beyond t h e mere m e t a l , becoming t h e h e r o t s other self, a n e x t e n s i o n of h i s person; they p o s s e s s e d s k i l l s and a s e n s e of o b l i g a t i o n (Brady 1979: 104; E n r i g h t 1998: 315-20). vice versa.

A man's sword was a s good a s h i s word, and

A good man's sword could n o t f a i l ; a d i s h o n e s t man's sword

could n o t be t r u s t e d ( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 1 9 ) . T h e r i c h e r b u r i a l s sometimes c o n t a i n a seax a s w e l l a s a sword o r

an o c c a s i o n a l second s p e a r .

I n t h e more p r e s t i g i o u s wapned b u r i a l s ,

tweezers, c o i n s , d e c o r a t e d b e l t mounts o r s t r a p ends, s h a r p e n i n g steels, strike-a-lights

o r f i n g e r r i n g s may be found, a l 1 o f which were c a r r i e d

148 upon t h e p e r s o n and added t o t h e o v e r a l l o r n a m e n t a t i o n of t h e w a r r i o r ' s T h e r e i s more t o t h e s e o b j e c t s of p e r s o n a 1 adornment t h a n j u s t

body.

t h e i r p l a c e a s f u n c t i o n a l d r e s s items o r e t h n i c markers. world,

I n t h e Germanic

" t h e body may be s e e n a s t h e n a t u r a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e i n

contemporary human e x p e r i & c e

and a r e f l e c t i o n o f a p e r s o n ' s p o s i t i o n i n

t h e s u r r o u n d i n g worldw and " o b j e c t s connected w i t h t h e body a r e n o t mere symbols O £ s o c i a l s t a t u s , t h e y a r e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a p e r s o n ' s b e i n g , of

his/her fame and r e p u t a t i o n " (Alkernade 1997: 1 8 4 ) . I n t h e e l i t e Germanic lifestyfe,

" t h e body i s t h e c r u c i a l c o n n e c t i n g l i n k between t h e r e a l m s of

t h i n k i n g and doing:

e v e r y t h i n g t h e body d o e s

d r e s s e s up, f i g h t s , f e a s t s and s o on

-

-

when and where and how i t

i s g u i d e d by an o v e r a l l image o f

l i f e i t s e l f , i t s n a t u r e and c o n t i n u i t y " (Alkemade 1997: 184). The Eact t h a t many of t h o s e b u r i e d w i t h weapons were e i t h e r t o o o l d , t o o young o r t o o i n f i r m t o have borne arms (Harke 1992a: 1 5 3 ) a r g u e s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e w a r r i o r f i g u r e a s a n i d e a l , a s t a t u s a c h i e v e d by some, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e e a r l y p e r i o d , and a s c r i b e d t o others.

I t h a s been s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e w a r r i o r i d e n t i t y may have been

p a r t of a Germanic e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , o r the r e s u l t o f a myth o f c o n q u e s t o r i n v a s i o n emphasized a s h a r e d e t h n i c p a s t , v a l i a n t s e a j o u r n e y s ,

and

d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n c e s t o r s which s e r v e d t o p r o v i d e Germanic i m m i g r a n t s w i t h

a s e n s e of group u n i t y g i v e n t h e i r s i t u a t i o n a s a c o n q u e r i n g m i n o r i t y i n England i n t h e e a r l y Anglo-saxon p e r i o d (Harke 1992a: 154; 1997: 125; R i c h a r d s 1992: 1 4 7 ) .

Weapon b u r i a l s may, t h e r e f o r e , have i n a s e n s e been

p o l i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s , marking Germanic dominance o v e r t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n ( H a l s a l l 1998: 337; R i c h a r d s 1992: 1 3 4 ) .

Nevertheless,

the

weaponry b u r i e d i n t h e w p n e d o r w a r r i o r g r a v e s was s e l e c t e d f o r b u r i a l t o mark t h e w a r r i o r a s p e c t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s o c i a l i d e n t i t y i n p r e f e r e n c e t o other r o l e s (Harke 1989: 59; R i c h a r d s 1992: 136)

.

However,

it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e w a r r i o r i d e a l waç o r i g i n a l l y grounded i n

t h e h a r s h r e a l i t y o f warfare: p l o t F a t Dover,

"with i t s p r e p o n d e r a n c e of

male weapon g r a v e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e double g r a v e 96, c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e f a t a l r e s u l t s of a m i l i t a r y s k i r m i s h " ( E v i s o n 1987: 1 4 6 ) R e g a r d l e s s of t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , g i v e n t h e s t r o n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

role o f t h e warband, t h e wæpned b u r i a l s may s t i l l be s e e n as t h e g r a v e s o f t h o s e men who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e cornitatus s t r u c t u r e , i n r e a l o r i d e a l i z e d form (Arnold 1997: 178; H a l s a l l 1998: 331), and who s h a r e d t h e i d e o l o g y and v a l u e s y s t e m of t h e s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o u t of which had grown t h e r o l e s of b o t h Wepned and webbe.

I n t h e Germanic world,

"being

a w a r r i o r [was] n o t t o b e p u t on a p a r w i t h a c t u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n combat

-

warrior-culture

i s f i r s t and foremost a complex o f i d e a s about

t h e a p p r o p r i a t e behaviour" of t h e men i n s o c i e t y " (Alkemade 1997: 1 8 4 ) . F i n a l l y , t h e l a r g e bronze bowls o r p a i l s , s i l v e r o r b r o n z e bound b u c k e t s and f i n e l y blown g l a s s b e a k e r s o r palm cups a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e a s t i n g and d r i n k i n g r i t u a l s a r e t h e remaining o b j e c t s which d e f i n e t h e wspned o r w a r r i o r b u r i a l s (Harke 1992a: 1 5 2 ) .

The v e r y p o s s e s s i o n of

t h e s e o b j e c t s seems t o have been a s i g n o f e l e v a t e d s t a t u s and a marker of t h e d e c e a s e d l s r i g h t f u l p l a c e w i t h i n t h e c o m i t a t u s .

They r e p r e s e n t

h i s e n t i t l e m e n t t o t h e j o y s o f t h e h a l l , t h e rewards g i v e n from t h e g i f s t o l , h i s p r i v i l e g e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n o a t h - s a y i n g and h i s r i g h t t o t h e

Company o f h i s hearth-companions.

I t was i n t h e h a l l t h a t s o c i e t a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s were d e f i n e d and ' m a t e r i a l i z e d ' t h r o u g h t h e h i g h l y r i t u a l i z e d u s e and exchange o f m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s (Alkemade 1997: 184)

.

The most h i g h l y charged symbols o f t h i s l i f e , t h e weaponry and t h e v e s s e l s o f t h e t a b l e , were i n c l u d e d i n t h e f i n a l r i t u a l , t h e b u r i a l r i t e , t o accornpany t h e w a r r i o r i n t o t h e n e x t realm, t o t h e e t e r n a l f e a s t i n g of t h e Otherworld (Davidson 1993: 134).

Myth I m i t a t o n L ï f e

I t was i n t h e h a l l where l i f e and myth came t o g e t h e r ;

of t h e Germanic p e o p l e s was a h a l l o f e t e r n a l f e a s t i n g ,

the Valhalla

a p l a c e where t h e

g r e a t e s t w a r l o r d brought t o g e t h e r t h e b e s t w a r r i o r s , t h e f i n a l reward of

mara e a r n e d by d e a t h i n b a t t l e .

The h a l l r o l e s played b y t h e wzpned and

t h e w e b b e echoed t h o s e a t t r i b u t e d t o Woden and h i s f o l l o w e r s , t h e q u a l i t i e s admired i n t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s were emulated by t h e While Woden and t h e

w a r r i o r s and weavers of Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y .

E i n h e r j a r f e a s t e d , h i s c o n s o r t E r i g a and t h e Wzlcyrges g r e e t e d t h e a r r i v a 1 o f t h e . f a l l e n h e r o e s , mead horn i n hand, much a s t h e l a d y of t h e h a l l welcomed h e r l o r d and t h e members o f t h e comitatus w i t h i n t h e e a r t h l y f e a s t h a l l . The cup o f f e r e d by t h e Watlcyrge t o t h e f a l l e n h e r o e n t e r i n g t h e r e a l m of t h e gods c o n t a i n e d t h e d r i n k g i v i n g freedom £rom t i m e and m o r t a l i t y ; t h e cup t h a t t h e webbe o f f e r e d t o each w a r r i o r , as

she urged him on t o g r e a t deeds i n b a t t l e , h e l d t h e promise of i m o r t a l i t y should h e make good on h i s o a t h .

Given t h e l e g e n d s

s u r r o u n d i n g Woden, it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t l i q u o r , with i t s d i v i n e a s s o c i a t i o n s , may have been used t o b r i n g on t h e mantic t r a n c e and t h e s t a t e s of b a t t l e f u r y {Glosecki 1989: 6 9 ) .

J u s t as F r i g a , t h e weaving

goddess, gave t h e g i f t of prophecy t o Woden, t h e lady o f t h e h a l l o f f e r e d h e r counsel and f o r e t o l d t h e outcome of b a t t l e .

I n t h e imagery o f t h e

h a l l , t h e c o d i f i e d i d e o l o g y of t h e warband, t h e s o c i a l , moral and a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s o f t h e comitatus and t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y came t o g e t h e r t o c r e a t e and r e i n f o r c e meaning.

W 4 p m d und W d a h

-

C ~ o a s o w r sin ~

d

n

g

There is one l a s t phenomenon o f Anglo-saxon c u l t u r e which a p p e a r s worthy o f n o t e .

D e s p i t e what a p p e a r s a t f i r s t glance t o b e a s t r i c t

dichotomy between t h e s e x e s , a t l e a s t i n t h e b u r i a l record, upon c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n , a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e of f l u i d i t y i n symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and m e t a p h o r i c c a t e g o r i z a t i o n may be d e t e c t e d .

ALthough t h e Anglo-saxon

world was s e p a r a t e d i n t o spere-healf and s p i n e l - h e a l f , i n t o w a r r i o r s and weavers, o b j e c t s , terms and meanings a p p e a r t o have been f z e e t o move from one sphere o r healf t o t h e other.

For i n s t a n c e , weapons of war may become t o o l s f o r the c r e a t i o n o f

t e x t i l e s a s swords and s p e a r heads a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o weaving b a t t e n s o r s l a y s ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 7 0 ) .

As weaponry, swords and s p e a r s have s t r o n g

c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e w a r r i o r e t h o s and t h e male world o f warfare. Perhaps i t i s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t o o l s from one dominant technology t o t h e

o t h e r t h a t i s of r e l e v a n c e h e r e ,

f o r t h e weapons a r e n o t converted f o r

u s e by any o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s t h a t w e know o f .

P o s s i b l y through t h e same

metaphoric a s s o c i a t i o n s which l i n k w a r f a r e t o weaving, t h e s e weapons make t h e t r a n s i t i o n from one s p h e r e t o t h e other.

From t h e r i c h n e s s of t h e

b u r i a l s i n which t h e weaving b a t t e n s a r e found, i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e women who used them were o f h i g h e r s t a t u s , p o s s i b l y of t h e same c l a s s and a u t h o r i t y a s t h e w a r r i o r s who b o r e t h e swords i n t o b a t t l e .

As pointed

o u t above, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t swords w e r e t h e s i g n of a l e a d e r o r " o f f i c e r " who h e l d a u t h o r i t y o v e r o t h e r ; women who employed a sword as a weaving b a t t e n may have h e l d a s i m i l a r type o f a u t h o r i t y over a group of weavers, d i r e c t i n g t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of t h e t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n ( F e l l 1984: 40-1).

I n s u c h r e s p e c t s , t h e meanings a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e

p r e s e n c e of t h e sword may have been o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e .

I n a f u r t h e r e x p r e s s i o n o f t h i s convergence of meaning, t h e webbe o r peaceweaver of t h e h a l l performs a f u n c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e sword of t h e k i n g o r l o r d o f t h e h a l l -

Again a s mentioned above,

swords were c a l l e d upon t o w i t n e s s an o a t h of l o y a l t y o r a promise t o perform a deed of v a l o u r ;

t h e peaceweaver also s t o o d a s w i t n e s s t o t h e

o a t h sworn by a w a r r i o r o v e r t h e r i t u a l cup o f mead.

Both t h e l a d y o f

t h e h a l l and t h e l o r d ' s sword a c t a s a g e n t s on h i s b e h a l f , f o r g i n g l i n k s of l o y a l t y and o b l i g a t i o n between t h e members of t h e c o r n i t a t u s ,

Just as

t h e " o a t h - c a r r y i n g n a t u r e " o f t h e sword may be s e e n a s "an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f warband r e l i g i o n " ( E n r i g h t 1998: 3 2 6 ) , perhaps t h e same i n f e r e n c e may be drawn f o r t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e peaceweaver. Other o b j e c t s b e s i d e s swords and s p e a r heads moved from t h e w a r r i o r t s h a l f t o t h e w e a v e r ' s h a l f o f Anglo-Saxon

society.

Miniature

weapons, i n t h e forms of swords, s p e a r s , a x e s and s h i e l d s a r e o f t e n found

i n womenxs b u r i a l s .

It i s thought t h a t t h e s e o b j e c t s w e r e t a l i s m a n s o r

c u l t o b j e c t s ( F i g u r e 71)(Meaney 1981: 154-5). I c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e s e m i n i a t u r e s a r e e q u a t e d with t h e f u l l - s i z e d o b j e c t s which t h e y resemble ( D i c k i n s o n 1993: 5 1 ) .

Aside from t h e i r t a l i s m a n i c p r o p e r t i e s , i t i s

p o s s i b l e t h e y w e r e used by Anglo-saxon women t o perform e f f e c t i v e magic t o a i d i n a c h i e v i n g v i c t o r y i n b a t t l e ; i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t , given t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n "with masculine d a i l y l i f e " , a %ale

t h e y a c q u i r e d something of

p r o t e c t i v e n e s s l l which made them a p p r o p r i a t e a s p r o t e c t i v e a m u l e t s

f o r women (Meaney 1981: 159, 1 6 2 ) .

Such a meaning i s more r e a d i l y

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e s h i e l d a p p l i q u e s worn a s brooches o r t o t h e s c u t i f o r m b r o o c h e s and pendants which were worn o v e r t h e c h e s t , i n a rnanner s i m i l a r t o t h e c a r r y i n g o f a s h i e l d (Meaney 1981: 1621, t h a n i t i s t o t h e rnodels o f o f f e n s i v e weapons worn a t t h e w a i s t and r e a d y t o hand.

O b j e c t s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d meanings t r a v e l l e d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , from t h e weaver's h a l f t o t h e w a r r i o r r s h a l f , a s w e l l .

For

i n s t a n c e , sword beads and s p i n d l e w h o r l s a r e v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n form, s h a p e and m a t e r i a l ; it i s o n l y t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e male o r fernale b u r i a l i n which t h e y a r e found which has been used t o d e f i n e t h e i r purpose (Meaney 1 9 8 1 ) . distinction.

Without t h e b u r i a l c o n t e x t , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o make a

Many of t h e beads found i n men's b u r i a l s may have been

s p i n d l e w h o r l s o r p o s s i b l y t h e same beads women c a r r i e d a s m u l e t s . Again w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e rnovement o f meaning from t h e weaver's side t o t h e warrior's,

t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e r e v e a l s t h a t terms employed t o

r e f e r t o t h e p r o d u c t s o f t e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n were a l s o a p p l i e d t o t h e products o f t h e smith.

The t e c h n i q u e s used by t h e s m i t h i n manufacturing

weaponry and a m o u r w e r e d e s c r i b e d a s p a r t o f t h e weaving p r o c e s s .

Words

of t h e "garment" vocabulary, h r æ g l , pad, syrce and s c e o r p , were used i n cornpounds d e s i g n a t i n g war a t t i r e , r i n g m a i l o r c o r s e l e t s (Brady 1979: 111-3).

Terms such as net, seowed o r broden, f o r weaving, k n i t t i n g o r

b r a i d i n g , w e r e used t o i n d i c a t e a "woven b a t t l e garment", i n t e r w o v e n b y hands",

a n "army-byrnie

o r a b y r n i e " i n g e n i o u s l y [made] n e t sewn [ l i n k e d ]

153 by t h e s k i l l s of t h e s m i t h t l (Brady 1979: 113-5).

Such terrns r e f e r t o t h e

r i n g mail s h i r t s which were p a i n s t a k i n g l y c r a f t e d b y s m i t h s from t i n y m e t a l r i n g s , each r i n g i n d i v i d u a l l y l i n k e d t h r o u g h a n o t h e r and welded c l o s e d t o form a net o r weaving o f a m o u r f o r t h e e l i t e w a r r i o r .

In a

s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , t h e p r o c e s s of p a t t e r n - w e l d i n g a b l a d e , t h e b r a i d i n g of t h e s t r i p s of m e t a l t o g e t h e r , was l i k e w i s e compared t o t h e p r o c e s s of weaving, t h e brogdenmal b e i n g a b l a d e w i t h a woven p a t t e r n (Davidson 1962: 122-3;

1968: 3 5 6 ) .

The p a t t e r n s c r e a t e d on t h e sword b l a d e s w e r e

compared t o t h e p a t t e r n s of c l o t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e b e r r i n g b o n e p a t t e r n s of r i c h l y woven s i l k s o r brocades (Davidson 1962: 1 2 3 ) , y e t t h e swords were f a s h i o n e d i n t h e smithy by men, n o t a t t h e loom by women. It i s t h e t h r e a d s o f t h e s p i n s t e r , t h e "peace-stringst',

which hold

a sword i n t o i t s s c a b b a r d y e t i t i s t h e darod, t h e dart o r t h e s p e a r , which c a r r i e s t h e w e f t t h r e a d s a c r o s s t h e loom {Hoifman 1964: 3 2 0 ) . Old English v e r b weorpan5', t a k e n with a s p e a r .

The

" t o throw" o r " t o cast", r e f e r s t o t h e a c t i o n

I t c a n a l s o mean "to c a s t down" and i s r e l a t e d

e t y m o l o g i c a l l y t o wearp, o r w a r p ,

t h e l o n g t h r e a d s o f t h e loom which a r e

c a s t down and h e l d i n p l a c e by t h e loom weights.

The f l i g h t o f t h e s p e a r

forms t h e "image schemata" o r r e f e r e n t (Johnson 1987) f o r t h e l i n e marked by l e n g t h of t h e warp t h r e a d s .

Such images f i n d t h e i r p a r a l l e l i n t h e

Old Norse terms b l o d v a r p a n d i 6 v a r p which have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e image of a p i e c e of weaving i n which t h e l i n e s o f t h e sword-blade form t h e woof o r w e f t and t h e b l o o d o r v i t a l s of t h e s l a i n form t h e warf (Davidson 1962: 1 2 3 ) .

The image becomes more v i v i d when t h e sword i s

p i c t u r e d a s t h e w e a v e r ' s implement, t h a t used t o p a r t t h e t h r e a d s of t h e w e f t and " f o r c e i t s way t h r o u g h t h e blood o r v i t a l s o f t h e u p r i g h t w a r r i o r " (Davidson 1962: 1 2 3 ) . came t o g e t h e r ,

The imagery of weaving and w a r f a r e t h u s

t h e spere-healf and spindle-healf meeting on b a t t l e f i e l d

o f t h e loom a s a metaphor c r e a t e d i n t h e dominant t e c h n o l o g i e s o f t h e

t i m e and worked t o p r o v i d e a s t r i k i n g image of t h e l i v e s o f t h e w n e d and t h e webbe.

s.rmmary, Diacuaaion and Conclusion

From t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s , w e c a n deduce t h a t i n t h e e l i t e l i f e s t y l e of t h e Anglo-Saxons,

t h r e e aspects recurred:

rhe

emphasis on w a r r i o r v a l u e s , t h e p r e s c i e n t powers o f wornen, and t h e f e a s t i n g r i t u a l s of t h e h a l l .

Through t h e s e main themes much o f t h e

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n c a n be s e e n t o a r t i c u l a t e i n v a r i o u s ways: t h e m a n u f a c t u r e , d e s i g n a n d u s e of t h e o b j e c t s ; t h e l a y o u t o f t h e h a l l ; t h e b u r i a l r i t u a l ; and t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c and n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s .

The t h r e e

main themes w e r e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e b r i g h t and s h i n i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e p e r s o n a 1 aaornment of t h e two i d e a l f i g u r e s o f Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y , t h e wæpned and t h e webbe, t h e w a r r i o r and t h e weaver.

The o b j e c t s c o n t a i n e d

i n t h e wapned and webbe b u r i a l s were used by t h e Anglo-Saxons

" t o order

t h e i r world and d e f i n e t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a network o f r e l a t i o n s i n t h e s o c i a l , n a t u r a l and s u p e r n a t u r a l s p h e r e n (Alkemade 1 9 9 7 : 182) . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e s e o b j e c t s may a l 1 be s a i d t o b e s y m b o l i c a l l y , r n e t a p h o r i c a l l y and e x p e r i e n t i a l l y connected t o t h e s t a t e o f e c s t a c y a c h i e v e d d u r i n g b a t t l e and i n t h e weaving p r o c e s s .

The o b j e c t s used i n

b a t t l e and t h o s e employed i n weaving f u n c t i o n e d as i m p o r t a n t symbols t o

mark t h e mard of t h e w a r r i o r s and t h e p r e s c i e n t powers o f t h e women; t h e y were u s e d i n the r i t u a l s o f t h e h a l l t o e s t a b l i s h , e x p r e s s and r e i n f o r c e t h e w a r r i o r i d e a l s o f t h e t i m e which were e x p r e s s e d a s a p r e f e r e n c e f o r b r i g h t n e s s i n o b j e c t , p e r s o n and deed. The p r i n c i p a l themes w e r e also s u p p o r t e d by a v a l u e systern which encouraged s t a t e s of "flow" o r e c s t a c y .

P e r i o d s of "flow"

-

"the

h o l i s t i c s e n s a t i o n t h a t p e o p l e f e e l when t h e y a c t w i t h t o t a l involvement" ( C z i k s e n t m i h a l y i : 1975: 36) m a n u f a c t u r e of t e x t i l e s ,

-

occurred d u r i n g b a t t l e and i n t h e

t h e two key a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Germanic p e o p l e s .

The p u r s u i t o f m z r d v a l i d a t e d t h e e x e r c i s i n g o f b a t t l e s k i l l s and encouraged t h e w a r r i o r s t o t e s t t h e limits of t h e i r a b i l i t i e s .

Possibly,

t h e r i t u a l w a r r i o r c u l t d a n c e s d e s c r i b e d by Davidson (1989: 12), Magnus (1997: 194-8) and Arnold (1997: 153) worked t o i n d u c e a b a t t l e f r e n z y , w h i l e t h e d a n g e r of b a t t l e provided " t h e c l e a r and immediate feedback r e q u i r e d f o r a good flow a c t i v i t y " ( ~ z i k s e n t m i h a l y i1975: 8 9 ) . s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , t h e rhythmic n a t u r e o f

In a

t h e movements and sounds

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e weaving p r o c e s s would have p r o v i d e d t h e n e c e s s a r y inducernents t o a s t a t e of "flow" o r e c s t a c y n e c e s s a r y f o r prophecy and t h e working o f e f f e c t i v e magic. "Deep-flow" after the fact

-

e x p e r i e n c e s a r e t r a n s l a t i o n s o f g r e a t emotions made a s when t h e emotions o f b a t t l e were r e h e a r s e d and

r e f l e c t e d upon i n t h e s t o r i e s o f t h e h a l l .

"Flow i s p o t e n t i a l l y the most

c r e a t i v e , t h e most f u l f i l l i n g kind of e x p e r i e n c e " and "deep flow a c t i v i t i e s p r o v i d e s t r u c t u r e t o p e r c e p t i o n and a c t i o n f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f

time.

Such a c t i v i t i e s produce v i v i d e x p e r i e n c e s which can t r a n s f o r m and

g i v e meaning t o a p e r s o n ' s l i f e t f ( C z i k s e n t m i h a l y i 1975: 106). I n t h e c a s e o f t h e Anglo-saxon w a r r i o r s , s u c h "deep flow" a c t i v i t i e s may be found i n the ritual, praise,

Song, c a m e r a d e r i e and g i f t - g i v i n g of t h e h a l l , w i t h

t h e r e s u l t a n t s h a r e d communitas of t h e comitatus e x p r e s s e d i n t h e p o e t r y and p r o s e o f t h e tirne a s t h e " j o y s o f t h e h a l l " and r e p r e s e n t e d i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y i n t h e c o n c e p t of t h e h a l l i t s e l f , a s a p l a c e of light, peace and s a f e t y .

1. As C h r i s t i n e Fe11 (1984: 39) h a s p o i n t e d o u t , Anglo-saxon s o c i e t y w a s d i v i d e d , b y g e n d e r , i n t o h a l v e s : t h e s p i n d l e - h e a l f , and t h e spere-healf. The Anglo-saxons r e f e r r e d t o t h e m s e l v e s a s wzpned, o n e who b e a r s o r carries arms, and a s wifman, o n e who weaves. W i f m a n , which may b e a l s o t r a n s l a t e d a s "woman", i s t h e r e f o r e e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d t o weaver, o r w e b b e , i n Old E n g l i s h 2. For a d i s c u s s i o n o f a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s e x p r e s s e d i n m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e s , see ~ o m b r i c h ( 1 9 6 5 )

.

3. See Z o l l i f f e ( 1 9 6 2 ) f o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e argument i n f a v o u r o f J u t l a n d as p l a c e o f o r i g i n a s w e l l a s i s s u e s o f l a n d u s e i n England and on t h e C o n t i n e n t which h a v e b e e n u s e d as e v i d e n c e f o r t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e Jutes.

4. S e e a l s o Hawkes ( 1 9 6 1 ) and Hawkes a n d Dunning (1961) f o x a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f Germanic animal a r t . 5. Woden's name i s r e l a t e d t o t h e Germanic w u t meaning " h i g h m e n t a l e x c i t e m e n t , f u r y , i n t o x i c a t i o n o r p o s s e s s i o n " and t o t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n M r w h i c h h a s t h e s i m i l a r meaning o f " r a g i n g , f u r i o u s , i n t o x i c a t e d " ( D a v i d s o n 1969: 1 4 7 ) .

6. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , d e f i n i t i o n s a r e t a k e n from Bosworth and T o l l e r f s An Anglo-saxon ~ i c t i o n a r ~ I. n t h i s c a s e , t h e Old E n g l i s h m e n i s d e f i n e d as "mightft o r " s t r e n g t h " ; t h i s c o n c e p t is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Chapter IV. 7. I n o r d e r t o r e d u c e c o n f u s i o n over t h e ~ r e y j a - F r i g a - F r i g g c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e f o r m Friga is used h e r e a f t e r u n l e s s t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n a s p e c t o f t h e goddess i s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t e n d e d , i n which c a s e s h e is r e f e r r e d t o using t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n f o m , F r e y j a . From t h e s o u r c e s , it a p p e a r s t h a t F r i q a i s t h e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d s p e l l i n g used when r e f e r r i n g e i t h e r t o t h e Germanic o r t h e AngloSaxon i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e d e i t y (for i n s t a n c e , see Owen 19811, p o s s i b l y d u e t o t h e MnE s l a n g a s s o c i a t i o n s which h a v e become a t t a c h e d t o Frigg.

The E a r t h Mother f i g u r e s and t h e w a r r i o r g o d s s u c h a s Woden, i n a l 1 t h e i r i n c a r n a t i o n s , p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d from d i v i n e s t e r e o t y p e s which began i n t h e Bronze Age when a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d c u l t o f a god o f t h e s k y p r e v a i l e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s e a r t h and m o t h e r g o d d e s s (see Davidson 1969b; H u t t o n 1991: 277; N i l e s 1991: 1 2 8 ; see a l s o Gimbutas 1982 a n d 1991 a n d A r a b a g i a n 1984 f o r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s k y god and e a r t h mother f i g u r e s i n t h e Indo-European t r a d i t i o n ) . 8.

T y r and Thunor,

9. According t o Bosworth and T o l l e r ( 1 9 5 5 ) , wzl means s l a u g h t e r o r c a r n a g e b u t may a l s o r e f e r t o t h e d e a d b o d i e s l e f t on t h e f i e l d o f b a t t l e o r t h e b a t t l e f i e l d i t s e l f . The Wælcyrges o r "Choosers o f t h e S l a i n " d e c i d e d who would l i v e o r d i e i n t h e d a y ' s b a t t l e (Davidson 1969a: 2 1 1 - 2 2 2 ) . 10. Wqman o r wzpnedman means a "weapon-bearing p e r s o n " a n d wifman O l d E n g l i s h w i f o r w i f a , a l s o d e n o t e s woman b u t a "weaving person". i s e t y r r i o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o webbe o r weaver ( F e l l 1988: 3 8 ) . Webbe is a l s o of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y g i v e n i t s a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e compound freoduwebbe o r peaceweaver, a term

d i s c u s s e d i n some d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r s II and I V . Also worthy o f n o t e i s t h e Old E n g l i s h webbung which may b e used f o r a weaving, a c o n t r i v i n g p l o t o r a s p e c t a c l e - f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l metaphors i n c r e a t i n g and e x p r e s s i n g meaning w i t h i n Anglo-Saxon s o c i e t y (see Bosworth and T o l l e r 1 9 5 5 ) . 11. T h i s a p p e a r s t o have been t r u e t h r o u g h o u t t h e Germanic and S c a n d i n a v i a n a r e a s a t t h i s t i m e i n c l u d i n g F r i s i a . Words such a s w e d e were used t o d e n o t e s t a n d a r d l e n g t h s o f c l o t h (Hoffman 1 9 6 4 : 227-8)

.

12. The Anonymous L i f e of S t - Cuthbert t e l l s t h a t when C u t h b e r t was a boy of e i g h t , h e was a member of a band o f young boys who g a t h e r e d to t r a i n i n some s o r t of a c r o b a t i c s d u r i n g which "some o f them stood naked, with their h e a d s t u r n e d down u n n a t u r a l l y towards t h e ground, t h e i r l e g s s t r e t c h e d o u t and t h e i r f e e t l i f t e d up and p o i n t i n g skywards" ( C o l g r a v e 1956: 6 5 ) . T h i s a c c o u n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h T a c i t u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s k i l f u l d a n c e s performed by naked Germanic youths h a s been s e e n a s p o s s i b l e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e and t r a i n i n g o f a g e sets i n Germanic s o c i e t y (see Davidson 1 9 8 9 ) . I n a n y e v e n t , an e a r l y m i l i t a r y l i f e i s i n d i c a t e d f o r both S t s . C u t h b e r t and G u t h l a c . While h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t t e l l s us t h a t S t . C u t h b e r t gave up h i s sword upon e n t e r i n g Melrose Abbey, h i s t r a d i t i o n a l t i t l e Magnus Miles, r e f e r s t o b o t h h i s e a r l y l i f e and h i s warfare f o r Christ. Felix's L i f e o f st. G u t h l a c r e c o r d s G u t h l a c r s rise a s a young man t o t h e head o f a band o f f i g h t i n g men and h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a number o f b a t t l e s b e f o r e he gave up t h e swoxd i n Eavour o f t h e c r o s s ( C o l g r a v e 1 9 6 9 ) . 13. For i n s t a n c e , t h i s d u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s e x p r e s s e d i n l i n e s 113 t o 1 2 1 where t h e l o s s o f B y r h t n o d ' s s i s t e r 1 s s o n i s avenged by B y r h t n o d ' s burpegn o r p e r s o n a 1 c h a m b e r l a i n and a g a i n i n l i n e s 209 t o 225 where t h e young r e t a i n e r IElfwine t e l l s o f o a t h s o f l o y a l t y spoken o v e s t h e mead cup and d e c l a r e s h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o d i e f o r t h e man who i s h i s mag and h i s h l a f o r d , h i s kinsman and h i s l o r d ( M i t c h e l l and Robinson 1 9 9 2 : 241-252).

14. S e e a l s o Magennis ( 1 9 9 6 ) and Hume (1974) f o r d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e c o n c e p t of t h e h a l l and its i m p o r t a n c e . 15. According t o Bosworth and T o l l e r ( 1 9 5 5 ) , t h e Old E n g l i s b weccend means one who r o u s e s o r i n c i t e s .

16. T h i s compound s e t a p p e a r s f o u r t i m e s i n t h e corpus of Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , t w i c e i n Beowulf - once a s freoduwebbe and o n c e as fridusibb folca. I t a p p e a r s a s f r i d o w e b b e i n E l e n e and a s freobuwebban i n W i d s i t h ( S k l u t e 1990: 204-8). I t i s used t w i c e w i t t h e a d j e c t i v e fale meaning f a i t h f u l , t r u s t y , good, d e a r o r b e l o v e d . T h i s concept i s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Chapter IV. 17. According t o Bosworth and T o l l e r (1 955) t h e beot was a k i n d of b o a s t f u l speech, r i t u a l l y a p r o m i s e o r vow t o perform some a c t of courage o r bravery. The b e o t u s u a l l y i n c l u d e d an o a t h of l o y a l t y and d u t y t o t h e l o r d a s w e l l , sornetimes e x p r e s s e d i n t h e g e s t u r e o f a r i t u a l embrace o r t h e l a y i n g of t h e head and bands on t h e l o r d ' s knee as h e s a t i n t h e g i f s t o l ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 36-7). 18. See Meaney (1964) f o r t h e most i n c l u s i v e l i s t i n g t o d a t e o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s f o r Anglo-saxon England i n g e n e r a l and Arnold (1982) for a c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s i o n o f Anglo-saxon b u r i a l sites on t h e

I s l e o f Wight. 19.

See Wenham (1989) f o r one s u c h s t u d y .

20.

See a l s o Harke (1990) f o r f u l l d e t a i l s of t h i s argument.

21. Gale Owen-Crocker h a s n o t e d t h a t cornbs may have been used a s t o i l e t r y i t e m s o r weaving t o o l s and t h a t t h e same comb may have b e e n used f o r e i t h e r p u r p c s e ( p e r s o n a l communication, October 22, 1 9 9 7 ) . 22. Rosemary Cramp (1957: 63) n o t e s Chat b l a d e s manufactured t h r o u g h t h e p a t t e r n - w e l d i n g p r o c e s s w e r e commonly of a red-gold colour

.

23. T h i s tendency a g r e e s with t h e r e s u l t s o f B e r l i n and Kay's (1969) s t u d y of b a s i c c o l o u r t e r m s t h a t i d e n t i f i e d a r e g u l a r , c u m u l a t i v e o r d e r o f appearance o f c o l o u r terminology c r o s s c u l t u r a l l y . I n S t a g e 1 of t h e series set f o r t h i n B x i c Colour Terms, t h e l i g h t and d a r k d i s t i n c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . I n S t a g e II a d i s t i n c t i o n o f hue t a k e s p l a c e , w i t h ' r e d f b e i n g t h e f i r s t hue distinguished. Red i s t h e most s a l i e n t o f c o l o u r e x p e r i e n c e s t o t h e human eye, s t a n d i n g o u t i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r hues. A t t h e same l e v e l o f s a t u r a t i o n , r e d a p p e a r s b r i g h t e r o r more luminous t h a n o t h e r c o l o u r s . A s w e l l , a s p a t i a l e f f e c t known a s "chromatic aberrationtf brings red surfaces s u b j e c t i v e l y nearer t o the observer. S i n c e r e d i s , q u i t e simply, " t h e most c o l o u r t l , it takes t h e " f o c a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e c o n t r a s t of hue t o a c h r o m i c i t y ( l i g h t n e s s / d a r k n e s s ) a t S t a g e II. I n B a s i c Colour Terms S t a g e s III t o V, r e d is j o i n e d by g r e e n , yellow and b l u e , t h e modern "primary" c o l o u r s o r t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l " p r i m i t i v e s " . I n S t a g e s VI and V I I , brown, p u r p l e , p i n k and orange a r e added ( S a h l i n s 1977: 166-171). Thus, " t h e emergence o f b a s i c c o l o u r terms i n n a t u r a l languages f o l l o w s a n a t u r a l - p e r c e p t u a l l o g i c " ( S a h l i n s 1977: 1 7 1 ) . According t o t h e "opponent p r o c e s s t r t h e o r y of c o l o u r v i s i o n , t h e f o u r " p r i m i t i v e s " , t o g e t h e r w i t h b l a c k and white, a r e o r g a n i z e d through t h e n e u r a l p r o c e s s i n g o f c o l o u r s e n s a t i o n a s a complex of b i n a r y c o n t r a s t i v e p r o c e s s e s : red-green, blue-yellow, black-white. Thus b i n a r y c o d i n g i s a s t r u c t u r a l code based i n " b o d i l y " e x p e r i e n c e which r n a n i f e s t s i t s e l f a s " o b j e c t i f i e d thought" o r c u l t u r a l o r d e r ( S a h l i n s 1977: 170; a l s o Lakoff 1987: 25-6, 3 7 1 ) . While t h e p e r c e p t i o n of c o l o u r i s p h y s i o l o g i c a l , t h e a s s i g r n e n t of s i g n i f i c a n c e t o colour d i f f e r e n c e s is a c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n and i t i s t h e s e codes O £ s o c i a l , economic and r i t u a l v a l u e which c a r r y meaning, n o t t h e c o l o u r s themselves ( S a h l i n s 1977: 166-171). "What a c t u a l l y d e v e l o p s a t e a c h s t a g e i s n o t a new tem o r p e r c e p t u a l s u b s t a n c e but a new p e r c e p t u a l r e l a t i o n " and s o "we a r e n o t confronted with t h e cumulative recognition of s p e c t r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e m a n t i c c a t e g o r i e s , b u t w i t h he meaningful d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s i n s p e c t r a l terms" ( S a h l i n s 1977: 1 7 5 ) . Therefore, " c o n t r a s t is from t h e beginning and t h r o u g h o u t a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f c o l o u r terminology and c o l o u r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n " ( S a h l i n s 1977: 1 7 5 ) . The l i g h t / d a r k d u a l i s m of S t a g e 1 remains a v a i l a b l e f o r c u l t u r a l u s e i n more developed s y s t e m s . T h i s c o n t r a s t i s "perhaps u n i v e r s a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , and u s u a l l y syrnbolic o f fundamental o p p o s i t i o n s of t h e s o c i a l l i f e p u r e and unpure, l i f e and d e a t h , s a c r e d and p r o f a n e , male and female, e t c . " ( S a h l i n s 1977: 1 7 5 ) .

-

24. I t has been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t " t h e r e a r e no a l l u s i o n s i n t h e poem" B e o w u l f " t o o b j e c t s o r p r a c t i c e s which must be d a t e d l a t e r t h a n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y " (Davidson 1968: 3 5 9 ) . S i n c e n e i t h e r archaeology n o r l i t e r a r y s t u d y h a s produced any i n f o r m a t i o n t o b e l i e t h i s s t a t e m e n t , t h e u s e o f t h e poem h e r e a s a s o u r c e seems appropriate. 25. Q u o t a t i o n s from Beowulf a r e t a k e n from t h e Kiaeber e d i t i o n , w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n s t a k e n from Garmonsway and Simpson o r M i t c h e l l and Q u o t a t i o n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s of The Fortunes o f Robinson, a s n o t e d . Men a r e from Shippey. Q u o t a t i o n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e Maxims a r e from Shippey o r M i t c h e l l , a s marked. Q u o t a t i o n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s o f T h e B a t t l e o f Maldon a r e £rom M i t c h e l l and Robinson. A b r i e f r e v i e w o f t h e frequency o f words i n d i c a t i v e of l i g h t n e s s , b r i g h t n e s s , s h i n i n e s s , radiance o r l u m i n o s i t y shows t h a t b e o r h t , a p p e a r s 242 t i m e s i n t h e Old E n g l i s h corpus, s c i n a n o r scænan, a p p e a r s 200 t i m e s , t o r h t 85 t h e s , blican 56 t i m e s , g l z d 39 t i m e s , s c i e n e 39 t i m e s , s c i m a o r s c i m i a n 1 4 t i m e s and g l i s n i a n o r g l i t e n i a n once e a c h . A r e v i e w o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f words i n d i c a t i v e o f d a r k n e s s o r a n a b s e n c e o f b r i g h t n e s s shows t h a t s w e a r t a p p e a r s 7 9 t i m e s , S C . o r scadu 2 1 t i m e s and dLmm 1 9 t i m e s (Madden a n d Magoun 1967). 26.

A s Biggam ( 1 9 9 8 ) h a s shown, OE g r a g i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 27. c o n c e p t s such a s " v e n e r a b l e " and "fearsomew. A s w e l l , o t h e r OE words a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g r e y o r g r e y n e s s , such a s h a r , hasu and wylfen, a r e o f t e n s e m a n t i c a l l y connected t o a n c i e n t trees, f r o s t , i r o n , w a r r i o r s , s a i n t s and wolves.

28. The a d j e c t i v e mare, may be d e f i n e d as f m o u s , g r e a t , e x c e l l e n t , s p l e n d i d , s u b l i m e o r p u r e and t h e noun m a r d a s g l o r y , fame o r famous e x p l o i t . =rd, i t s d e r i v a t i v e s and compounds, a p p e a r s 283 t i m e s i n t h e Old E n g l i s h c o r p u s w i t h 9 of t h o s e o c c u r r e n c e s i n Beowulf (Madden and Magoun 1 9 6 7 ) . I t i s u s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p e r s o n s , (Beowulf, Hrobgar, Heremod, O f f a ) ob j e c t s ( a n heirloom sword and t h e h a l l mead c u p ) and t h e enemy, t h e rrarsh marauder Grendel (Beowulf 103, 129, 1023, 1046, 1715, 1767, 1952, 2405, 3 0 7 0 ) . Iirere o c c u r s a s w e l l i n numerous o t h e r s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e B i b l e ( f o r example, ~ e n e s i sA and B, Exodus and D a n i e l ) where it a p p e a r s i n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f "men", " l i f e " and t h e "day": The c o n c e p t o f merd was i m p o r t a n t t o Anglo-saxon t h o u g h t and i d e o l o g y and t h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e i s s h o m i n t h e f r e q u e n c y and c o n t e x t of i t s u s e w i t h i n t h e Old E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e .

29. B r i g h t n e s s , a p p e a r a n c e , b e a u t y , s p l e n d o u r and adornment a r e g i v e n a s meanings f o r w l i t e and fonn, f i g u r e , p r e s e n c e and countenance a s meanings f o r a n s y n . 30. Taylor (1990: 2 1 4 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t z n l i c ansyn may r e f e r t o an e x c e l l e n c e o r s u p e r i o r i t y o f p h y s i c a l form a s w e l l and t h i s i s i n keeping w i t h t h e i d e a s o f p o s t u r e o r c a r r i a g e o f f e r e d h e r e . However, t h e w l i t e o f Beowulf's ansyn g i v e s a s e n s e o f i n n e r b r i g h t n e s s v i s i b l e i n t h e form o r p r e s e n c e o f t h e man as w e l l , a s h i n i n g e x t e r n a l q u a l i t y i n d i c a t i v e of an i n n e r goodness o r g r e a t n e s s . T a y l o r (1990: 212) n o t e s t h a t t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of r a d i a n c e w i t h goodness i s of l o n g Indo-European t r a d i t i o n . 31. The word "charisma" i s used h e r e i n i n t h e s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l magnetism, e l e g a n c e and a t t r a c t i o n .

32. See T a y l o r 1 9 9 0 f o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Old E n g l i s h vocabulary f o r "beautyn. 33. Modern E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i s t a k e n from Garmonsway and Simpson ( 1 9 6 8 : 5 1 )

.

34. Modern E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i s t a k e n from Garmonsway and Simpson ( 1 9 6 8 : 5 8 )

-

35. See E n r i g h t ( 1 9 9 8 : 3 2 8 - 3 4 ) , Evans ( 1 9 9 7 ) and P o l l i n g t o n ( 1 9 9 6 : 5 2 - 5 ) f o r d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e w a r r i o r c u f t i n Anglo-Saxon England. 36. T o r h t o r t o r h t l i c may been b r i g h t , c l e a r , r a d i a n t o r g l o r i o u s a s w e l l a s s p l e n d i d , noble, i l l u s t r i o u s o r b e a u t i f u l . T i i r o r tir i s t h e name o f a r u n e and a god (Tir, T y r ) b u t a l s o means f a m e , g l o r y , honour and ornament. 37. I t is worthy o f n o t e t h a t w h i l e blied may a l s o be t r a n s l a t e d a s " r i c h e s " , p e r h a p s i n d i c a t i n g s o m e t h i n g o f t h e p r o f i t a b l e side O£ o r "breath" o r w a r f a r e , t h e word can a l s o mean "spirit" as well. Such a u s e c o u l d be i n d i c a t i v e o f s t a t e of e c s t a s y o r b a t t l e i n s p i r a t i o n which h a s been s e e n t o be a g i f t of t h e shamanic w a r r i o r god, Woden who i s o f t e n symbolized by t w c wavy l i n e s r e p r e s e n t i n g b r e a t h (see C h a p t e r I I ) . 38. Modern E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e n from Garmonsway and Simpson (1968: 25)

.

39. Modern E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e n from Garmonsway and Simpson (1968: 18) .

Modern E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e n from Garmonsway and Simpson ( 1 9 6 8 : 11).

40.

41. Modern E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e n from M i t c h e l l and Robinson (1998: 2 8 0 ) . 42. T r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h i s v e r s e Vary, however t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n remains c o n s t a n t . T h e v e r s i o n g i v e n h e r e i s t a k e n Erorn Bruce M i t c h e l l ( 1 9 9 5 )

.

43. The s w o r d ' s h i l t i s r e f e r r e d t o a s i t s g l o r y o r fame i n S o l o m o n and S a t u r n , and s a i d t o be a p l a c e f o r t h e c a r v i n g o f r u n e s . The h i l t which Beowulf d e l i v e r s t o Hrodgar a f t e r h i s f i g h t w i t h G r e n d e l ' s mother i s a l s o c a r v e d i n sorne f a s h i o n (Beowulf 1 6 7 7 - 9 8 ; Davidson 1 9 6 2 : 1 5 1 ; Menner 1 9 4 1 : 8 9 ) . 44. S e e Hoffman ( 1 9 6 4 ) and B a r b e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) f o r d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e weaving p r o c e s s , i t s t e c h n i q u e s and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f women i n t e x t i l e manufacturing.

45. S e e Owen-Crocker ( 1 9 8 6 : 5 6 ) , Evison ( 1 9 8 7 : 5 5 ) and D i c k i n s o n ( 1 9 9 3 : 51) f o r d i s c u s s i o n s of similarities i n symbolic c o n t e n t and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t l e s s e r - v a l u e d o r more cornmon o b j e c t s were s u b s t i t u t e d f o r more expensive o b j e c t s .

46. From t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d it appears t h a t a number of d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l r o i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r o l e of webbe, w e r e a v a i l a b l e t o wornen of t h e e a r l y Anglo-Saxon p e r i o d . Meaney (1981: 2 4 9 ) and Dickinson (1993:) have p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e i s u s u a l l y o n l y one g r a v e w i t h a l a r g e amulet bag c o l l e c t i o n p e r cemetery. These g r a v e s have been i n t e r p r e t e d as b e l o n g i n g t o t h e community h e a l e r , d i v i n e r o r "cunning woman" (Meaney 1981: 249; 1989: 10-12; Dickinson 1993: 5 4 ) . E n r i g h t (1996: 124) b e l i e v e s such graves mark t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e warband p r o p h e t e s s . However, it is argued h e r e i n t h a t t h e p r e s c i e n c e o f women and t h e r o l e o f such women w i t h i n t h e warband is b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e b u r i a l s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i d e n t i f i e d i n Chapter III as t h o s e o f t h e webbe o r weaver. 47. See Evans-Pritchard (1973) f o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f s p e a r symbolism i n a t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y .

48. Again, see Evans-Pritchard i n traditional societies.

(1973) f o r s i m i l a r weapon symbolism

As n o t e d i n Chapter 11, t h e fyrd i s t h e l o c a l o r home f o r c e , 49. t h e here, t h e enemy f o r c e .

50. Bosworth ana T o l l e r (1955) p r o v i d e t h i s d e f i n i t i o n and also show t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n .

REFERENCES

PrAnglo-Saxon

Sources

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xon Deitiee and Deity or Supernatural Being

Weekday/Feaet Day

Place Namee/Genealogy

Wodui/ûdin/Wotan nAll-Fathern the "hanged goda the creator god creator of diecord god of kinge, warriore god of battle M e t e r of disguise, shape ahifter smith or craitsrnan aka Crim, from OB g r i m a for mask or helmet replaced Tiw ruler of Valhalla

Nodenes drg Wedneeday

open land, hille, woode, primarily in Kent, Saxon Bseex, Heesex, and Anglian Mercia

the day for planting

Frey/Freyr/ fertility god poseible aeaociatfone wich fertility goâ, Zng may have ueurped some of Brryja's role Frlgg/Frcyja/Friga twin eister of Frey consort to Uodcn Queen of Heaven nrnietreas of the hawks* the 'weeping mothern goddees of love, childbirth and m r r i a g e f r i g OB noun meaning phyeical passion may be derived Crom her n a m

Sacrifice

spear, eagle, two ravens, and wolf, ail "Beaats of Battlen who fed on the dead and eerved as omene of battle to CM0 the eight-legged Slcipnir horse the serpent or dragon rggdrasill, the eacred aeh tree at the centre ot the world and the place of Woden'e self-sacrifice the runic symbol for aeh wavy symbol for breath mead of inspiration

runee, eecrete of m n i c writing, magic, wisdom, poetry, gaining of treaeures, horned Iielmeted figures, dancing male f igurea power of the breath statee of ecacaoy, battle or bcrserkr rage, ehamaniem cremation or paesage through Cire ritual separation of the 2nd or *Ireen eoul from the body Uxlcyrges or Valkyries his champione Einherjar

human eacrifice; execution by both etabblng and hanglng together eelf-sacrifice by jumping over cliff dead of b a t t h dedicated ta him especially thoae of higher rank in poeeibly the sacrifice of bulle, oxen or wild auroch made in hie honour horse sacrifice

horses, in particular, white horsee the confidante of the gode kept in sacred grovee ueed for predictione as mentloned in Germania rune of victory

rune of victory inscription gave objecte talismanic qualitiee myth hue Wrlcyrgc giving instructione for euch inscription on weaponry

human eacrifice reliable evidence only from the Continent

eymbol of the ewaetika worn lightning he created for luck, protection Mjollnir 8hort.handled throwing hamner llinked t o fertilltyl the World Scrpent, the whetetone, the eacred oak, pillars and pole8 of oak [poeeibly replaced eacred oak treee)

hamner amulets Cound in Kentieh women'e graves Hjollnir could cal1 the dead to renewed lire and in Sc tradition waa ueed to nhalloww the bride ewaetika on eword hilte, broochee, urne Thunor4e symbole found in both burials and c r e ~ t i o n a throughout England

Thunor ie said ta have claimed al1 thoee of lower rank, the mthrall-kindn, who tell in battle

mietletoe se symbol of hi8 death

poeeible mention in Beowulf and The Dream of che 4 w d

Vanir

Cullin burscl "golden brietledn boar boar symbole of fertility and protection, horsee, miraculoue ehip

boar an protectiva eymbol in poem Beowulf, on Benty Grange helmet, Inferlacing horee deeign comnon motif, ehip buriala

Vanir

a marvelloue necklace eymùol of the Barth Goddess golden boar, as symbol of Certility boar maska (worn in honour of the Mother of the Goda ae noted in Germanial wept tears of gold poseibly goddeee who welcomed women atter death

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

moetly in Saxon areas but also in Kent probably worshipped in grovee, meadows, fields eince m e t place names link him with OB leah meaning field

I Frig-dxg Friday

-

-

-

Thors dxg Thursday

I

Aseociatione

cult c o n t i m d by place as at Tysoe where namee horse figure is cut into the hi11 claimed as ancestor by the Baet Saxon king8 of Beeex may have once been acknowledged by all Saxon tribee --

I

Family

six of the eeven exieting Anglo-Saxon royal genealogiee trace descent f rom Woden legitimated thelr rule

Thunor/Thor/DoMcr a son of Wodcn god of the eky god of thunder, lightning and rain

Table I

I

evidence for a widespread cult

Ti w/Tyr/Tiwax aka Seaxnet or Saxnet older than Hodcn a sky god aupreme at one time god of war god of law and order "the valiant*

Bal dcr/Baldr .the bright one* son of Wodui and Friga

I

pernatural Beinge

no place names definitely linked with her although there are a few which are possible derivations in Ueseet and in Northumbria

-

-

-

-

-

foreknowledge/prophesy, prophesy of disaeter sexual love, ekill in magic, preecience IOermanic reepect for wisdom of w m e n well atteeted links with land of the dead and the undersea associations with Mother Goddeeeee mentioned by Bcde able L O taka on blrd form Uslryrars nr V u i e s

horee sacrifice boar said to be the meal at the final feast in Valhalla

in Scandinavian

tradition half those elain in battle belong to Frcyja

Table 2

Violence and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England

Sca:cs oj' C-Vafire Frequrnt. small scslc tb-artire. olxying certain rules oiconduc: (Endnntc or Ritual Ilàr). I

Pcriodic ourbunts ofserious. large scak coiiflicc. in opposition or Sccular M-'ar, or War of Conqucsr).

Rmsons for

CO usual

norms of bchax-iour (l'Von-Rrluai

~P>T

Rituai War

Es O rcssçd .A\-cnoing insuli. or injur-y a p n s r 3 pcnor. or hisrhcr iarni[y clan.

Prrrposc.~

'Rcal' Pressure for land and reso~~rces meam that popuixion musc bc kcpr dou-II. Limitcd tvar is a mcans of doing so.

Rituai wars hrivr nor raolved rcnsion:, completci\. or havc nor ïolvcd population pressure problem Occasiondi\- reiiqrous motive.

H.'o r

Ritusl War Solidarir~ within cian tribc kinqdonr. cnern!- or uuc-qroup dchncd .+cq uisi tion of critical rcsourcesPersonal aggrandisemznt :weaith . \\'x 3s P h , (Ica& CO:) Initiation for males. Personal aggrandisemcnr (prcsugc), Leaders brought foncard. Cornmunicacion bctween components of 3 policicd s?-stem.

Non-Rirual War

Rzsults of War Ricusl War Socio-economic purposes fulfilled. \\';idare and \\-r. veaving batten weapons -becore--> aiulets , jewellery weapns -becoie-.> cereionial objects amlets -becoie--> weapons ueaving tools -become-> anilets, syibols of propbecy swords and Rebbe -becaie--> oatb-witnesses

1

anilets/broocbes nyam

keys/chatelahe i

drinking vessels food containers

sieve spoon rings, bracelets, braid

.

due c

11

The Old English Light-Dark Axis

I1

White/Light

Grey

Table 10

Black/Dark I

b7ac hwi t

b

9ræg

beorht 7eoht scir

7

~

deorc dun sweart

hasu har

wann -

--

-

(after Barley 1974: 18, Fig 4)

Location of Old English Colour Words on t h e Hue Axis and on the Light-Dark Axis

(Barley 1974: 24, Fig 7)

Table 11

(1

1

The Old English Hue A x i s Corn~aredwith tkat of Modern Enqlish

purple

-.

baso

I

read

red

yel low

geo 7 O

green

grene

1

( a f t e r Barley 1974: 19, F i g 5 )

Table 12

07d Enqlish Colour Terms Showing Focus on fharac vistic o f "Briahtness"

Saturation amount o f grey in the colour, its vividness -

-

- -

"ashen" har "hoary"

grzg "grey"

hasu

wann

Lightness how "light" or "dark" the colour is

-

dunn "dingy"

fea7u "dusky"

"dark"

heaffhwit "half-white" dungrzg "dusky"

Table 13

-

- -

scir "bright" beorht "bright" torht "bright" scima "brightness" hador "brightness"

brunwann "dusky" aoscfea7u "ash-coloured"

Luster

amount of light seemingly reflected from the surface 7eoma "glearn" g7æd "shining"

b7ican "glitter" 7yman "shine" brun "having metallic luster"

Scintillation sparkling or twinkling spircan "sparkle" scimerian "shimmer" bleobrygd "scintillation" brigd "play of colour" bregdan "play of colour" tytan "sparkle"

(after Millward 1989: 108)

Genaanic Peoples of the Migration Age (c. 400-600 AD)

fig. 1 G k a n i c pcopla of the Migration Age (c. 400-600 AD)

(Godden and Lapidge 1994: n-p., Figure 1)

Figure 2

Figure 3

Southeastern England Showing Kent

O

-,

a 11L.1

,

( H i l l 1989: 137, Map 229)

IV. ee- CmtinentaZ 'amutets of stags ' antler ' rem. (1) FriesZanc?; (21 Sainte-Sabine on the C3te-d'Op

X n g s ton Kent, p a v e 142; m i m a 2 bone on bronze n x g .

(l/I)

.

f

1981: 1401 H g - IV)

IV. mt Kirystm Kent, omve 142; iuory Lead

(VI).

IV. oo Kinpton K e n t , 'ivory ' pendmtts: ( 1J p u v e 7; (2) g m e 177; (31 grave 297 ( l / l l .

Figure 6

Woden Hanging on the Tree, Yggdrasil

(Blum 1982: 10)

Figure 38 Mounted wurrior based on detail of a helmet plate /rom Afound 1 a! I-kndel, Sweden. The warrior is accompunied by two birds of prey (eugie and raven?) and h m o helmet sunnounted by an eagle v e s t on the 'wala'. -(

1%:

191, Fig 38)

Figure 9

"Dancing Warriorsn Plaque from S u t t o n Hoo Helmet

(Pollington 1996: 14, Fig. 2)

Wodenls Warriors, the B e r s e r k s

(Owen-Crocker 1986: 82, F i g s . 73 and 7 4 )

Frc. 53. Eiinmcllcd esculclreoiin of bowls, F a v e r ~ h m i .

,-(

;. Bronze pendant from grave r 38 ür FingIesharn. in the form of a hcad with a horned headdress with bird heads. Iength 2.5 cm (Oxford.Ashmolean Museum. Northbourne collectionL This piece is clearly related to the huckie friim grave r ) i Ino. r 1.

et al

lm:48, fig 7)

F i g u r e 13

Visual Ridàies

-

A n i m a l and Human Masks

ta)

(Leigh 199: .122, Fig 8)

F i g u r e 14

~nqlo-Saxon Bird Brooches and Decorative Forms

??hl

~~ 1955:

21, mate U n , fig 3)

rh Hrooch in the'quoit' style from Sem. Kent rnid-~thcrntury. diametcr 8.5 cm (British Museum1. The signitirancc of such brcmches is debütrd. Though thc lorm and style are probabiy of Scdndinüviari origin. the craftsmanship has a Roman pedigree.

swastika, T-Rune, Whirling D i s c , Lightninq Flash Markings

Swastika (Thor's Hammer) and T-Rune ( "G,lory'' Rune) ( P o l l i n g t o n 1996: 2 9 , F i g 91

Swastika and Whi rlincr D i s c (Meaney 1 9 8 1 : 242, Pig Vf1.f.3)

Lightning Flashes and S w a s t i k a s (Meaney 1981: 243, Fig VI1.d)

F i q u r e 16

Horse Motifs and Interlacinq Horse Designs

(Pollington 1996: 21, Fig 8 ) Fiaure 17 Mark of T y r , t h e T-Rune,

on Spear at Holborough, Kent

(Meaney 1981: 242, F i g VII.F.1)

Side Panel of the F r a n k s Casket ( 3 Hooded Figures a t Right)

(Smith 1993: n.p.,

P l a t e -1)

Figure 19

Front Panel of the F r a n k s Casket (Weland Scene a t Left)

Figure 20 Valkyrie Guiding Warrior's Spear

(Pollington 1996: 13, Fig 1)

Figure 21

End Panel of t h e Franks C a s k e t (a Valkyrie in her "terrible aspecttt meeting one O £ the followers of Woden at L e f t )

( S m i t h 1993: n . p .

Plate VII)

207

Figure 22

Artistls Rendering of an Anglo-Saxon H a l l

(Longworth and Cherry 1986: 137-138, Figs 72 and 7 3 )

Figure 23

"Conqruence" Between Fernale Burials, Holywell Row

Figure 6.13-

Sector 1 female graves:

congruence,

Figure 6-14. Sector 2 female graves:

ccngruence,

-

Figure 6.15. t

Sector 2 , female c~ryve11:

aàdition. I

F i q u r e 24

"Congruence" Between Male B u r i a l s , Holywell Row

F i g u r e 6.16,

Male graves 4 (sector 1) and 29 (sector 2 ) .

F i q u r e 6-17. Sector 6 male graves:

Figure 6.18.

Sector 3 m a l e graves:

(Pader 1982: 121)

conwence.

substitution.

Figure 2 5

P o s i t i o n of S h i e l d Bosses in Anglo Saxon Burials

head end i

left

right

foot end

(Harke 1992: '65, Fig 4 5 )

Figure 26

nCongruencen Between Male B u r i a i s , Buckland at Dover

(Evison 1987:

Figure 27 P o s s i b l e L i v e Burial, Buckland at Dover

(Evison 1987: 3 4 4 )

Figure 28 "Congruencen Between Female Burials, Buckland at Dover

(Evison 1987: 337, 3 4 0 )

F i g u r e 29

"Conaruence" Between Male and Female B u r i a l s

Buckland at Dover (Evison 1987: 3 4 0 )

Holywell Row (Meaney 1981: 25)

Wée~nedB u r i a l :

Grave 2 6 , Chessell Down

FIGURE 21 ChesseIl Down, pian of grave 26, not to s a l e (from Isle of bïght Record Office hI.41, fol. 3)

(Arnold 1982: n . p . , Fig 21)

Fiqure 31

Runic and Rune-Like I n s c r i p t i o n s

(Meaney 1981: 2 4 4 , F i g VI1.e)

Figure 32 Webbe B u r i a l :

Grave 4 5 , Chessell Down

FIGLXE 22 Chesseli Doun, pl not to scale (from S 1868, pl. W11I)

(Arnold 1982: n-p., Fig 2 2 )

ave

Bead T y p e s frorn t h e Isle of Wight

(Arnold 1 9 8 2 : F r o n t s p i e c e )

Figure 34

Bronze Pail f r o m Grave 45, Chessell Down

1 Rim D. 17.5m; H.9.9cm

I

(Arnold 1982: n.p.,

Fig 10)

Fiaure 35

Anqlo-Saxon Blown Glass Claw Beaker and Cone B e a k e r

(Evison 1987: n.p.,

F i g s 13 and 14)

Sieve Spoon and Crystal Ball, Grave 45, Chessell Down

PLATE 1 Chessell Dom grave 45: a) gold thread (45xiv); b) mounred rockcrystal ball(45ii.i); c) perfofonted silver spwn

(Arnold 1982: n.p.,

Fig 11, Plate 1)

LLL

Figure 37

223

Square-Headed Brooches, Grave 4 5 , Chessell Down

PLATE 2 Chessell D o u n grave 45: e),f), g) iniaid square-hcaded brooches (45ix, x, xi); h) inlaid equal-armed brooch (45w);i) inlaid disc brooch (45xiii);j) silver ring (45xMii)

g

(Arnold 1982: n.p.,

Plate 2)

Figure 3 8

Square-Headed Brooch With Opposed Animal Heads Showing Eye on Upper B o r d e r

(Arnold 1982: n.p.,

Fig 2)

Figure 39

Masks or Faces on Button Brooches Dover Grave 4 8 , Chessell Dom Graves 7 and 89

vison 1987: 298, Fig 27; Arnold 1982: n - p . , Figs 5 and 18)

F i g u r e 40

Disc Brooches Showing Beaded R i m and " L i g h t and Shade" E f f e c t

(AirnoLd 1 9 8 2 : n - p . ,

F i g 13; Evison 1987: 390,

Plate II)

Fiqure 41

Equal-Armed Brooch, Grave 4 5 , Chessell Down

!-4rnold 1982: n.p.,

Fig 13)

Figure 4 2

Kingston Brooch, Garnet-Inlaid Cloisonné

(Campbell 1982:47)

Figure 4 3 D i s c Brooches w i t h Reserve N e i l l u r e Borders

(Evison 1987: 40, Fig 7 )

Figure 4 4

Examples of Notching B

I

11 t: 111

I 1

a.45

1

Ho.?

Bi3

H o1

1

Ho.'

Mil

Cr.,

1

Sc.2

Ku l

Rods

1 Cross section of the Made. m e numbers whlch identifythe individual rods conespondto mose In fig. 2.below.

2. Face of finished blade sbowlng four top pattern rods. edge wapped oround tlp.

Plate Ill. ûetdl of bundle of cote rods before ~8idlnQ. The center punch marks are visibie.

(Engstrom, et al 1989: 3)

Pat tern-Welded Sword Blade

(Engstrom, et al 1989: 2, Plate 1)

E'igure 4 7 Seaxes Decorated with Incised Lines,

Grooves and Meta1 Inlay

The Sem

O CAS

C

Figs. 6.76.11 Fig. 6.7 Seax with infaid Ettes, Hong L n r , London. Fig. 6.8 Sem mlh inlaid i-tion, Thomrs, London. Fig. 69 Seaxes Mlil grooved dtcoration /rom Landon: 9.1. Tharn~s~ Buffmscu:9.2. T h m e s , LYundnuor~;9.3. M u r . of London, C 727. Figs. 6.10, 6.11 T b searcs wilh romplex iniaj. Wirkm Borrhwrr, Essex, and River Our, Camdntfgc.

(Gale 1990: 77, Figs 6.7-6.11)

F i a u r e 48 B a l l s Made from Ouartz C r v s t a l

( K e n t i s h Crystal B a l l s , Liverpool Museum,

photo b y K . Adema)

Figure 4 9 Rock Crystal Whorls and Beads

m m

I1I.o

Ernscoto W m i c k s . ; rock-

. G e 22; rockcrystat whort ( Z / l J .

L i t t Z e WiZbraham C d s . ; rock-crystal beads and whorZs I I / l ) . (Meaney 1981: 79, Fig III)

Fiaure 50 " B r i a h t CUDS" in T r a n s l u c e n t Blown G l a s s

(Evison 1987:400 Plate 8)

Figure 51

Woven Tabby and Twill Patterns Broken Lo zenge

~will

tabb y

112 t w i l l

1 -1- I 1- 1- 1- 1-71 -11 I~=-ÏI-~I= -1 - ~ ! r l k li k~i T l 1 1- 1- r- [-j&l -IL=-Ji-i!+-&q-iL 1 01--1-1 LI I- 1-,I- 1-1I- i--I II-(=I 1 z I z -1I=I- 1- 1-I I1

-tI-'I-'1---4/-1-'

~k&-jL-i' -&d, klI A

~ ~ l

plain twill' 2/2 broken twill

il--

T T h I 212 broken w e f t chevron

twill 2/2 lozenge twill

(Hoffman 1964: 240, F i g 90)

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8

- Knife

- Buckle

- Spear - Sword - Shield

- Appliques - Vessel

- Container

- Knife - Beads - Keys/Lifters - Weaving Tools - Awlets 6 - Brooches

1 2 3 4 5

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

- Vessel - Container - Spoan/Ball - Bracteates - Bracelets - Rings - Gold Braid

Figure 5 3

Pxtis1Ifs R e n d e r i n g

-

Anglo-saxon Webbe or Weaver

W e B b e or "Weaver"

(drawingbyBruceWalker1998)

Warp-Weighted Loom Similar to t h a t used by Anglo-Saxons

Figo 62. O l d draiuing of the F a o e s c loom shown in Fig. 64.

(Hoffman 1964: 138, Fig 62)

N M K . Copenhageri.

Fiqure 55

Sword-Shaped Weavinq Battens Made from Bone and Ivory

Fig. 113. Sword &atm

of iron

cuirh a i i d e i i

h a d e . modem. NF, Oslo.

Fig. 114. Stuord buter of whak bone frorn the F m o u - N M K , Copcnhogm~.

(Hoffman 1964: 283, Figs 113 -116)

Figure 56 - " f i

Woman Weavinq at Warp-Weighted Loom Shown Beating W e f t Threads i n t o p o s i t i o n

(Hoffman 1964: 47, Fig 14)

Figure 57

Scandinavian Pin-Beater of Whale Bone

Fig. 61. Pin beater of w h d e bone. N M I , Rqkjauik.

(Hoffman 1964: 140, Fig 61)

Figure 58

Risely Pendant with Woden F i g u r e Between Two Creatures

(Hawkes, et al 1965: 22, F i g 3)

Figure 59

Finglesham Buckle With Horned Figure Carryinq Two Spears

Fig.

1.

The m m in the hmned helmn on a bucrhlFingieshmn, Kent. grave 95. Sua& 23.

,date from

(Hawkes, et al 1965: 18, F i g 1; n . p . , P l a t e IV)

244

Fiaure 60

C o n t e n t s of Grave 4 , Sarre, Kent Crystal B a l l , Sieve Spoon, Brooches, B r a c t e a t e s and Bell Beaker

(Campbell l982:28)

245

Keys, L a t c h - L i f ters and "Girdle-Hanqers"

V j Bronzeddle-hrmgers,pmb&ZysynrboZickeys: (1-21 Little WiZbraham Ccmbs. ; (3) Searby Lincs., w i t h s i d e via; (41 Favershm c. Kent; 15) ButweZZ Cambs., grave 25; (61 R a n h a m Essex; a22 (1/21

-

(Meaney 1981: 180, Fig V-jj)

F i g u r e 62

Artistls Rendering

-

Anglo-saxon Wapned or Warrior

Wpned or "W a r r i o r (drawing by Bruce W a l k e r 1998 )

F i g u r e 63 Early Anglo-Saxon Shields a s shown on the Franks Casket and i n ~ e c o n s t r u c t i o n

(Dickinson and Harke 1992: 4 4 , F i g 32; 72, F i g 4 7 )

Figure 6 4

\

Coffin B q r i a l of a Youth of About F i f t e e n at B r o a d s t r i r s 1 f

S k i e l d Appliqués with Animal-Style ~ e c o r a t i o n

Tert Figure 5 a Shield appliqué, Dover 93/10d b Shield appliqué, Mucking grave 600 c Shield appliqué, Thames at Bames. Scale 111

(Evison 1987: 33, Fig 5)

Upper Edge of Scabbard w i t h Woden-Mask Design in R e S e ~ eNiello Work, Grave '16, C h e s s e l l D o w '

(Arnold 1982: n.p.,

Fig 17)

Figure 67

(Evison 1987:' 272, Fig 1)

Anglo-Saxon Manuscript I l l u s t r a t i o n - of Sword Beads Hanging from Thongs at Hilt

S Deuils of the remptauons oflerd Christ by the Devil. fmrn a mloured dnwing in a mid-elmenth ccnzury manuscript (British Libnr).. Corion AlS. *Iibcrius C \-1. fol. iov).

(Dodwell 1982: 28, Fig 5)

Sword from Coombe, Kent Showing Central Mask-Like Device on Pomel Similas to that Pound on Brooches

no. 3

COOMBB, KENT Fro~tnewolrrrmd,d d t u i h d p o m m t l d (pp. ~ 16ff.). Sc. 1

(Davidson 1967: 14, Fig 3 )

SYmbol of Thunor on the Bifrons Sword Pomme1 o r "Glory"

U1.d

B i f r o n s Kent, grave 39; rnatching sword-ponmeZ and beZt-plates ' Z i g h t n i n g ftashes ' and swaçtikas (1/1).

"th

(Meaney 1981: 24, Fig Vï1.d)

Figure 71

Miniature or Mode1 Weapons Found in Kentish Women's Burials

V.b

Mode2 weapons mrd biZZ-hook frm Faussettts Kentish sites; n m in Liverpool h e m . -

(Meaney 1981: l5O,, Fig V. 6)

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