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Palaeolithic Culture and Society in Nile River Valley Ryuzaburo TAKAHASHI* This paper presents the overview on the study of Middle Palaeolithic cultures and Late Plaeolithic cultures alongside Nile River Valley from Sudan to Upper Egypt. After the Nubian salvage campaign, many Palaeolithic assemblages were found within the context of the Nile silt sediment that gave them correct age. Many prehistoric investigation shed new light on the Palaeolithic cultures and societies there. Many fruits of the research deserve special attention because they not only offer excellent data on Plaeolithic assemblage there but also they give us some important clue to understand social condition in the Palaeolithic age. Keywords: Middle Palaeolithic, Late Palaeolithic, subsistence activities, Mining pit, severe conflict
Introduction A very clear picture of Palaeolithic culture of Nile River Valley has been put forward in 1960' by the foreign research teams, mainly American and Poland Combined Expedition. Until then, main academic concern was to make chronological framework from scattered materials found on the surface of the river terrace by comparing relative elevation (Vignard 1954, Sandford 1958). Egyptian Palaeolithic culture was believed to be more or less stagnated and retarded than any other country in Near East and Europe where typical blade technology developed. People believed that Egyptian Palaeolithic was culturally blind alley without any innovation and influence from outside, developed indigenous culture. Some author referred that Neanderthal like human being were lingering alongside the Nile River Valley at Late Palaeolithic age whereas in Europe and Near East old type of people was replaced by newly arrived anatomically modem human equipped with new stone knapping technology (D.Garrod 1960). After Unesco Salvage campaign to rescue cultural heritage in Nubia, Palaeolithic studies developed drastically by foreign research teams. Extensive field work downward from Aswan to Esna was conducted mainly by combined
*
Professor. Waseda Universitiy
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expedition of SMU team and Poland Science Academy. New lithic assemblages so far unknown were discovered in abundance packed in Old Nile silt. One of the most important discoveries was the Upper Palaeolithic type of assemblage based on true blade technology that altered the old hypotheses mentioned above.
I. Middle Palaeolithic Culture Early Palaeolithic culture in Egypt are not wellknown in details. Acheulean implements were collected on the terrace of Nile River Valley (Currely 1915, Sandford 1958). The most eminent and important example are discovered at Kharga Oasis where many Hand axes were recovered in Tufa deposit (CatonThompsen 1952). Also at Dakhra Oasis, many Hand axes were recovered (F. wendorf 1970). It must be assumed that good environmental condition encouraged Homo Erectus to go into the Sahara at that time. However, rich materials were recovered from Middle Palaeolithic age sites in Egypt as well as in Sudan (Fig.1 ). Near Luxor, at the East end of the plateau, steep cliff arise directly from lower desert. In the western mountain area and on lower promontory, many Middle Palaeolithic implements are scattered on the surface of the ground without being covered by sand deposit. So it is very easy to find out Palaeolithic sites, without excavation. Middle Palaeolithic sites are tremendously found on the surface of the area. We, member of Waseda University Archeological expedition had general surveyed Middle Palaeolithhic sites in 1974 near Malkata site that are famous for King Amenophis 3rd palace and related monuments. About 10 (Loc.A-Loc.J) sites Were visited and collected stone implements and analyzed (Fig.2). Each site located on the top and hillside slopes of the promontories that were formed under the plateau. The most indicative site named Loc.A and Loc.B site are intensively collected and small area was excavated at Loc.B site in 1984. All the lithic assemblages are divided into 3 categories according to tool types and tool size, technological point of view. II. Lithic industries and tool assemblages found around Luxor At Loc.B site, 3 spacial concentrations of stone implements and debitages are discriminated. Each differs in size, maximum size is 80m in diameter at Loc.B-1 and minimum size is 20m in diameter at Loc.B-3. Details of site information should be referenced on our formal report (Takahashi et al 1986). Three categories of lithic industry group divided at Loc.B site are as follow. A Group: (Fig.3: 1-19) A relatively massive stone tools made of Levallois technique, composed of 4
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Palaeolithic Culture and Society in Nile River Valley
other because they shared common microenvironment or not. However when we met some trace of ancient fights and struggle, latter would be supported correct. At Wadi Kubbaniya, young male skeleton was excavated buried in the ground. He was believed to have been killed by the bladelet found in his abdomen (F. Wendorf and A.Close 1986, 1990). Before his death, it also turned out that he got injured twice. When he had been stabbed by spear in his arm, the remnant of broken spear was retained in it. Another example were more direct and tragic. At Jebel Sahaba 117 site, a few kilometer upstream from Wadi Haifa. The site is famous for its misery cemetery. About 40% of the dead are estimated to have killed violently regardless of age and sex (F. Wendorf 1960, F. Wendorf and A.Close 1990). Some were presumed to have stabbed their bodies by spear or arrow. Some were broken their arms by club blowing. Sever inter group conflicts are indicated. When seen from the head orientation analysis and posture of the dead, there seem common disposal of the bodies shown (Fig. II). They were sniped regardless of age and sex by enemy. Sniper might attack families in the night or early in the morning. Severe and merciless murder often might occurred almost every occasion. Conclusion Palaeolithic cultures and societies of the Nile River Valley can not be talked about without referring to ecological situation that Nile River and its environment offered. At Middle Palaeolithic, people exploited the riverine resource, and when climate was amenable people advanced into the inland environment for hunting big games. It must be deserved attention that Middle Palaeolithic people extracted their raw materials for stone implement production from mining pits which are the oldest example in the world. Further investigation will enhance the possibility that many mining pits would be found even inland on the plateau. Many Late Palaeolithic sites are known alongside the Nile River Valley. Late Palaeolithic people are believed to have sifted their habitat from place to place after a few days subsistence activities. On the contrary, as Wadi Kubbaniya sites indicate, year round activities would be supposed that in summer people fished many fish (catfish etc) and mammals as well as reptile and in winter waterfowl and migratory bidrs (Wendorf, F. and R. Schild 1989). People are believed to have developed high level of social structure against the background of rich resource that Nile Valley offered. At Jebel Sahaba 117 site near Wadi Haifa, Late Palaeolithic cemetery (Qadan) was explored to reveal Vol. XLIII 2008
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some unified social regulation as the mortuary plactice on the dead regardless to age and sex. Social leader are presumed from the evidence that at Tushka 8905 site some hom-cores of wild cattle (Bos. Primigenius) were discovered to put on some human burials as if they were grave markers. Bitter competition and severe conflicts between social groups were indicated by the fact at Wadi Kubbaniya and Jebel Sahaba 117 site, many arrow heads or stone points were found shoot in human bodies, in some case stuck in bones. Some relation between bitter competition and conflict among the social groups and wild cattle as well as appearance of some social leader might be understood relevant to social complexity. Bibliography Anderson, J. E. 1968: "Late Paleolithic Skeltal Remains from Nubia," in F. Wendorf (ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Dallas, 996-1038. Butler, B. H. 1968: "Appendix II: Cut Marks on Bones," in F. Wendorf (ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Dallas, 1028-1 040. Butzer Karl, W. and Carl L. Hansen 1967: "Upper Pleistocene Stratigraphy in Southern Egypt/' in D. Clark and A. Bishop (eds.), Background to Evolution in Africa. Caton-Thompson, G. 1946: "The Levalloisian Industries of Egypt," Proceedings of Prehistoric Society, vol. 12, no. 4. Caton-Thompson, G. 1952: Kharga Oasis in Prehistory, London. Caton-Thompson, G. and E. W. Gardner 1934: The Desert Fayum, London. Clark, J. D. 1980: "Human populations and cultural adaptations in the Sahara and Nile during prehistoric time," in The Sahara and the Nile, Rotterdam. Clark, J. D. 1982: "The Cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age," in J. D. Clark (ed.), The Cambridge History ofAfrica, Cambridge. Clark, J. D. 1988: "The Middle Stone Age of East Africa and the Beginnings of Regional Identity," Journal of World Prehistory, vol. 2, no. 3. Close, A. E. 1980: Loaves and Fishes: The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya, Dallas. Close, A. E. and F. Wendorf 1990: "North Africa at 18000 BP," in C. Gamble and 0. Soffer (ed.), The World at 18000 BP, Vol. 2. Currely, C. T. 1913: Catalogue Genera/e des Antiquites Egyptiennes du Muse de Caire, Stone Implement, Cairo. Debono, F. 1981 "Prehistory in the Nile Valley," in J. Ki-Zerbo (ed.), General History of Africa, UNESCO. Ferring, C. R. 1975: "The Aterian in North African Prehistory," in Problems in Prehistory: North Africa and The Levant, Dallas. Garrod, D. A. E. 1970: "Primitive Man in Egypt, Western Asia and Europe in Palaeolithic Time," in I. E. S. Edward (ed.), The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 1, Part 1, Cambridge. Guichard, J. and G. Guichard 1965: "The Early and Middle Paleolithic of Nubia: A Preliminary report," in F. Wendorf(ed.), Contribution to the Prehistory ofNubia, Dallas. Huzayyin, S. A. 1938: "The Place of Saharo -Arabian Area in the Paleolithic Culture - Sequence of the Old World: A Synoptic Review of Recent Data," Bulletin de 1'/nstitut d'Egypte, Tome
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XX. Huzayyin, S. A. 1941: "The Place of Egypt in Prehistory," Memo ires de I 'Institut d 'Egypte, Vol. 43. Hester, J. and P. Hohler 1969: "Prehistoric Settlement Pattern in the Libyan Desert," in University ofUtalz Papers in Anthropology 92, Nubia series 4, Salt Lake City. Kadomura, H. 1986: Environmental Fluctuation in Africa, in Souzou no Sekai No.51 (in Japanese) Shougakukan Lubell, D. 1974: "The Fakhurian: A Late Paleolithic Industry from Upper Egypt," Geological Survey ofEgypt, Paper No. 58. Marks, A. E. 1968a: "The Mousterian Industries ofNubia," in F. Wendorf(ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Dallas. Marks, A. E. 1968b: "The Khormsan, An Upper Pleistocene Industry in Sudanese Nubia," in F. Wendorf(ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Dallas. Marks, A. E. 1968c: "The Hal fan Industry," The Prehistory ofNubia, Vol. 1, Dallas. Paulissen E. and P. M. Vermeersch 1987: "Earth, Man and Climate in the Egyptian Nile Valley During the Pleistocene," in A. E. Close (ed.), Prehistory ofArid North Africa, Dallas. Peer, P. V. 1991: "Interassemblage Variability and Levallois Styles: The Case of the Northern Afrian Middle Palaeolithic," Journal ofAnthropological Archaeology, vol. 10 no.2, 107-151. Phillips, J. L. 1972: "North Africa, the Nile Valley, and the Problem of the Late Paleolithic," Current Anthropology, Vol. 13, No. 5. Phillips, J. L. 1973: "Two final Paleolithic sites in the Nile Valley and their external relations," Papers of Geological Survey of Egypt, 57, Cairo. Smith, P. E. L. 1966: "The Late Paleolithic of Northeast Africa in the light of recent research," American Anthropologist, 68-2. Smith, P. E. L. 1967: New Investigation in the Late Pleistocene Archaeology of the Kom Ombo Plain (Upper Egypt)," Quaternaria 9. Stems, F. H. 1917: "The Paleolithic of Eastern Desert," Harvard African Studies I, Varia Africana. Takahashi, R. 1985 Report of the Archaeological investigation of Middle Palaeolitic site in . Luxor,Egypt. Bulletin ofOkayama Orient Museum. Vo.4 (in Japanese) Takahasahi, R. 1986 Middle Palaeolithic Sitse on the Pediment, in Malkata South-Report of Palaeolithic sites around Luxor, Egypt, Research Committee of Ancient Egypt of Waseda University. (in Japanese) Takahashi, R. 1990 Middle Palaeolithic Culture in Egypt, Tama Kouko, No.20 (in Japanese) Takahashi, R. 1991 A Late Palaeolithic Industry at Loc.B-3 site near Luxor, Egypt and its Chronological Corelation to Nubia and Upper Egypt, in Bulletin of the School of Literature, Arts and Cultural Studies Takahashi, R. 1993 Mortuary Practice and Society in Late Palaeolithic Age in Nile River Valley, in Bulletin of the School of Literature, Arts and Cultural Studies vol.3 No.I Department of Liberal Arts, Kinki University Takahashi, R. 2000 Egyptian Palaeolithic Sites and Paleo-Environment, Didding the Egypt: Various fields of Archaeological Science, Sympogium of"University and Science" No.14 (in Japanese) Takahashi, R. and J. Nagasaki 2001 Investigation of Palaeolithic Sites on the top of the Hill, in Abu-Sir South (I), Institute of Egyptology in Waseda University. (in Japanese) Takahashi, R.and M. Aoki 2006 Stone Implements, in Abu-Sir South {H), Institute of Egyptology in Waseda University Vol. XLIII 2008
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Vermeersch, P. M. 1978: ELK.AB II. L 'Eikabien, Epipaleolithique de Ia Vallee du Nil Egyptien. Venneersch, P. M. 1990: "Middle to Upper Palaeolithic Transition: the Evidence for the Nile Valley," in P. Mellars (ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans, Edinburgh. Vermeersch, P.M., E. Paulissen, G. Gijselings, M. Otte, A. Thoma, P. Van Peer and R. Lauwers 1984: "33000-year Old Chert Mining Site and Related Homo in the Egyptian Nile Valley," Nature, Vol. 309, 342-344. Venneersch, P. M. et al. 1995: "Palaeolithic Chert Mining in Egypt,", Archaeologia Polona, vol.33, 11-30. · Venneersch, P. M. et al. 2002 Palaeolithic Quarrying Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt Pierre M.Vermeersch(ed.) Leuven University Press Wendorf, F. 1968a: The Prehistory of Nubia, Vol. 2, Dallas. Wendorf, F. 1968b: "Site 117: A Nubian Final Paleolithic Graveyard Near Jebel Sahaba, Sudan," in F. Wendorf(ed.), The Prehistory ofNubia, Dallas, 954-994. Wendorf, F. 1968c: "The Cultural Materials at Site 8905," "Site 117: A Nubian Final Paleolithic Graveyard Near Jebel Sahaba, Sudan," in F. Wendorf(ed.), The Prehistory of Nubia, Dallas, 864-953. Wendorf, F., R. Said and R. Schild 1970: "Egyptian Prehistory: Some New Concepts," Science, Vol. 169. Wendorf, F. and R. Schild 1975: "New explorations in the Egyptian Sahara:• in F. Wendorf and A. E. Marks (eds.), Problems in Prehistory: North Africa and the Levant. Wendorf, F. and R. Schild 1976: Prehistory ofNile Valley. New York. Wendorf, F. and R. Schild 1980: Prehistory of the Eastern Sahara. New York. Wendorf, F. and R. Schild 1986: The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya, Vol. 1, The Wadi Kubbaniya Skeleton: A Late Paleolithic Burial From Southern Egypt, Dallas. Wendorf, F. and R. Schild (A.E.Close ed.) 1989: The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya, Vol. 2, Southern Methodist University Press. Wendorf, F. and R. Schild et al. 1977: "The Prehistory of Dakhra Oasis and adjacent Desert," Polska Akademia Nauk Institut Historii Kultury Materialalnei.
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