Positive Psychology and the Body [PDF]

C h a pt e r 1

Positive Psychology and the Body

L earning O bjectives As positive psychology continues to make leaps and bounds in terms of scientific advancement and understanding, the focus on the importance of the body within optimal physical and psychological functioning

is still lagging. The opening chapter has two goals: (1) to introduce positive psychology and the concept of flourishing and (2) to reflect upon the role of the body and embodiment for holistic optimal functioning.

Topics include • A brief introduction to positive psychology

• Introduction to the body

• Hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives of flourishing

• Embodiment and its place in positive psychology

• The concept of flourishing

• Body awareness

• Controversies within positive psychology

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Chapter 1  Positive Psychology and the Body

Mock Essay Questions 1 Critically discuss the concept of flourishing in relation to happiness. 2 In what ways can positive psychology become a more embodied discipline?

A brief introduction to positive psychology

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ositive psychology is defined as the ‘scientific study of virtue, meaning, resilience and wellbeing, as well as evidence based applications to improve the life of individuals and society in the totality of life’ (Wong, 2011: 72). Positive psychology has traditionally focused on strengths, rather than weaknesses, while enabling individuals within normal and clinical populations to be at their best. Originally, positive psychology was considered an ‘umbrella term’ ‘for the study of positive emotions, positive character traits and enabling institutions’ (Seligman et al., 2005: 410). With exponential development and continued funding, the positive psychology movement has done wonders in terms of what it set out to achieve in the short space of time it has been around (Wong, 2011). The next section will give a general overview of the major research areas within positive psychology, the current critiques of positive psychology and highlight the undervalued role of the body within the discipline area.

Happiness and wellbeing Although not the entirety of the discipline, a majority of research in positive psychology focuses on happiness and wellbeing. Contemporary positive psychology has two major theoretical viewpoints on happiness and wellbeing: hedonic and eudaimonic (Lent, 2007; Seligman, 2002). Hedonic wellbeing focuses on pleasure and satisfaction and is more widely researched as subjective wellbeing (SWB) (Satisfaction with life + High levels of positive affect + Low levels of negative affect; Diener et al., 1985). Eudaimonic wellbeing is defined as ‘happiness and the good life in terms of achieving one’s full potential’ (Carr, 2011: 362) and focuses on concepts such as meaning, enlightenment, purpose and growth. However, the main focus of research within positive psychology has been within the hedonic tradition, with early researchers even calling positive psychology ‘hedonic psychology’ (Kahneman et al., 1999). The original emphasis on happiness stemmed from Seligman’s work on ‘authentic happiness’ which posited that individuals could adopt one of three lifestyles which they could choose for their own sake: the pleasurable life (positive emotions), the engaged life (flow) and the meaningful life (purpose).1 There has recently been considerable debate within the area of positive psychology regarding the importance and differences between hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing (e.g. Kashdan et al., 2008; Waterman et al., 2008; Tiberius and Hall, 2010), however researchers within the eudaimonic tradition of positive

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psychology argue that these concepts are indeed two distinct entities (Linley, 2009; Carr, 2011).

Think about it . . .

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ow much do you already know about positive psychology? If you are new to the discipline, what are your assumptions of the area?

In a critical overview of the positive psychology movement, Wong highlighted the inconsistency of language and terminology adding two more ‘types of happiness’, beyond hedonic and eudaimonic, including: ‘prudential happiness’ which focuses on active pathways to happiness and includes concepts such as engagement and flow; and ‘chaironic happiness’ which stems from unexpected and even tragic circumstances (suffering to enlightenment). Most recently, ‘halcyonic happiness’ was presented at the inaugural Canadian Positive Psychology conference (Gruman and Bors, 2012) as a new type of happiness and defined as ‘the serene and contented acceptance of life “as it is” with no ambitions of acquisition, accomplishment, or progress towards goals’ (Gruman and Bors, 2012). Ultimately, this theory argues that there is a form of ‘in the moment’ happiness that differs from both hedonic and eudaimonic states.

Think about it . . .

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hat do you think of the new proposed ‘types of happiness’? How do you think they are similar/different to each other?

Flourishing versus happiness It could be argued that ‘flourishing’ is the new buzzword within the positive psychology movement. The word flourish originally comes from the Latin word flor (flower) and is synonymous with growth and development (either from a biological or psychological perspective). Flourishing is currently divided into three main models: the Mental Health/Dual Continua Model/MHPP (Keyes, 2002; 2005; 2006), Mental health spectrum (Huppert, 2009) and the newest model, Wellbeing Theory (PERMA) (Seligman, 2011).

The Dual Continua Model of Health Keyes’ Mental Health/Dual Continua model of flourishing considers flourishing as mental health, where individuals ‘thrive, prosper and fare well in endeavours’

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(Keyes and Michalec, 2009; Michalec et al., 2009: 393). The main condition of this theory is that the absence of mental illness does not imply the presence of mental health. In order to assess whether someone is flourishing or not, this mental health model utilizes a diagnostic measurement tool that classifies three sets of mental health symptoms: 1 Functional Psychological wellbeing (PWB) (Ryff and Keyes, 1995) (Selfacceptance, Personal growth, Purpose in life, Environmental mastery, Autonomy and Positive relations); 2 Functional Social wellbeing (Keyes, 1998) (Social acceptance, Social growth, Social contribution, Social coherence and Social integration); and 3 Emotional Wellbeing [Subjective wellbeing (SWB) (Diener, 2000)] (Positive affect and Satisfaction with life) (adapted from Keyes, 2002). Individuals are considered flourishing when they score ‘high on one of three scales in emotional wellbeing and have high levels on six of the 11 scales of positive functioning’, (Michalec et al., 2009: 393). ‘Languishing’ is defined as low levels of wellbeing including feelings of emptiness, stagnation and feeling hollow. Languishing, although not considered a mental disorder, can still negatively affect an individual. Individuals are considered languishing when they score low levels on six of the 11 scales of positive functioning. Overall, this mental health model has several classifications of mental health, which range from low to high (see Figure 1.1).

Mental illness and languishing

Pure mental illness

Pure languishing

Moderately mentally healthy (neither flourishing or languishing)

Completely mentally healthy (flourishing)

Figure 1.1  Complete mental health model classifications of an individual’s wellbeing (adapted from

Michalec et al., 2009: 393)

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In a large scale study, Keyes (2002) found that ‘in adults between the ages of 25 and 74 (n = 3  032), 17.2 per cent fit the criteria for flourishing; 56.6 per cent were moderately mentally healthy; 12.1 per cent of adults fit the criteria for languishing and 14.1 per cent fit the criteria for DSM-III-R major depressive episode (over the past 12-month period)’ (p. 207). The most important finding was that ‘the risk of a major depressive episode was two times more likely among languishing than moderately mentally healthy adults and nearly six times greater among languishing than flourishing adults’ (p. 207). Thus, Keyes concluded that languishing might be as debilitating as major depression. Further benefits of flourishing included fewer days off work and fewer reported limitations to daily life (Keyes, 2002).

The Mental Health Spectrum Felicia Huppert at the Cambridge Wellbeing Institute has taken a slightly different approach to flourishing. The Mental Health Spectrum model takes a population-based approach to improving wellbeing, rather than an individual focused prevention/ treatment model (Huppert, 2005; 2009). Huppert and So (2011) define flourishing as the exhibition of three set of core features (positive emotions, engagement and meaning) and three of six additional features (self esteem, optimism, resilience, vitality, self-determination and positive relationships). Huppert argues that in order to increase the total number of those who are flourishing, we need to take on a more epidemi­ ological approach to understanding changes in mental illness prevention and treatment. Figure 1.2 demonstrates what Keyes argued in his model of flourishing: that there are a considerable number of individuals who are moderately healthy and a small number of flourishing/languishing individuals. The key to moving more into the ‘flourishing’ state could be achieved by reducing the mean number of symptoms in a population. Even small shifts in the population mean can have a significant effect on reducing prevalence

%

Mental disorder

Languishing

Moderate mental health

Flourishing

Psychological resources Figure 1.2  The mental health spectrum (Huppert, 2005)

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Mental disorder

Languishing

Moderate mental health

Flourishing

Psychological resources Figure 1.3  Effect of a small shift in the population mean on the mental health spectrum (Huppert, 2005)

of mental disorders. Thus, as the mean drops in symptoms, more individuals will move right across the spectrum towards flourishing (as seen in Figure 1.3).

PERMA In 2011, Seligman published a new book, Flourish, which created a departure from a previous focus on authentic happiness theory which is largely associated with Hedonia. Seligman created ‘wellbeing theory’ (WBT), consisting of five elements (PERMA), which he argues people will choose for their own sake. Each one of the five elements has been found to enhance wellbeing and be intrinsically motivating and quantifiably measurable. These elements include: Positive emotions Stemming from the original theory of the ‘pleasant life’ Seligman kept in positive emotions as he argues it is a ‘cornerstone of WBT’, however, happiness and satisfaction with life are now simply elements of this component, not the final goal. Engagement Similar to the above element, engagement remains within the new WBT as it fits the criteria as above and is a staple in leading to a flourishing life. Relationships This element surrounds the importance of ‘other people’ and the crucial role they play in our ability to flourish. Meaning A former happiness theory component, meaning remains in WBT and covers the sense of purpose and belonging as well as serving something higher than yourself. Accomplishment This new component encompasses individuals who engage in the ‘achieving life’, focusing on success, achievement and most of all mastery. Seligman further states that these elements contribute to, but do not singularly define, wellbeing. By including both hedonic and eudaimonic components to

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wellbeing theory, Seligman created a more holistic perspective to optimal functioning. Seligman (2011) argued that flourishing could be the missing theoretical backbone to all of positive psychology, as the majority of positive psychology topics and applied programmes aim to enhance an individual’s levels of flourishing. Researchers are currently devising a tool to measure flourishing as operationally defined by PERMA.

Critiques of positive psychology The original dichotomous thinking in which positive psychology commenced isolated itself from a holistic view of human potential. In order to create something ‘new’, the discipline set out an agenda to enhance wellbeing within the normal population and stick to the ‘positive’ side of life. This overemphasis on the benefits of happiness, positivity, etc. was, and is, short sighted, especially as research has continually shown the potential for enlightenment and growth through adversity. Over time, this onesided perspective has lessened somewhat, with the area broadening its focus and recognizing the complexity of human emotions and experiences (Wong, 2011). Thus, throughout the course of the book, we will review the research on both hedonic and eudaimonic happiness from the connections with, use of, and manipulations to the body. The chapters are a collection of work from all areas of academia including anthropology, history, sociology, biology and of course, psychology. Thus, now that we have revisited the major theoretical models of happiness, wellbeing and flourishing, the aim of the next section is to introduce the body from a phenomenological and sociological perspective, delving into the concept of embodiment and its role in positive psychology.

Introducing . . . the body The body is more than simply another machine, indistinguishable from the artificial objects of the world, it is also the vessel of the individual’s sense of self, his most personal feelings and aspirations, as well as that entity to which others respond in a special way because of their uniquely human qualities. (Gardner, 1993: 235–6)

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e all have bodies we use every day to engage with ourselves and the outside world. These bodies come in all shapes and sizes and perform functions ranging from the mundane to the marvellous. We will also vary from person to person, age to age, in how conscious we are of this body (Nettleton and Watson, 1998). It will be impossible to cover all research and theory on the body in this chapter, however, I hope that you will seek out the works of these authors below to start you on your own journey to becoming more ‘embodied’.

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Understanding the somatopsychic side to flourishing Just as the mind (psyche) can influence the body (soma), the term somatopsychic posits that the body can have a reciprocal effect on the mind. Dorothy Harris was a pioneer in the research area of physical activity and wellbeing and offered a somatopsychic education rationale for physical activity (Harris, 1973). Harris argued that there was support for both the psyche and soma directional influence on each other and the relationship was (and remains today) a complex mandate that argues for more focus on the ‘prepotency of the soma over the psyche’ (p. 6): ‘Is it possible that physical activity which stresses the somatic functions can produce a sense of psychological wellbeing and a positive psychological response in much the same way that altering the psychic state can effectively alter the somatic condition in a positive way?’ (Harris, 1973: 6). This concept of the body influencing the mind is not new. Ancient Greeks used to attribute certain psychological disorders (e.g. depression) to imbalances of elements situated within the body (the four humours – black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood) (Compton and Hoffman, 2012). Since Harris’s earlier work, we have substantial evidence from a range of disciplines (e.g. biology, physiology, sport sciences) to support the Mens-sano en corpore sano (healthy body = a healthy mind) claims (Compton and Hoffman, 2012). Full and optimal functioning goes beyond cognitive health and must focus on the need for optimal physical functioning on overall flourishing (Loehr and Schwartz, 2001; 2003).

Embodiment Some of us only live ‘above the shoulder’, engaging in the stresses and strains of daily life with a neglect for the welfare of what lies below our neck (Siegel, 2010). Embodiment is understood as ‘the felt sense of being localized within one’s physical body and references the lived immediate experience of one’s own body’ (Mehling et al., 2009: 2). Ultimately, how we experience our physical self can in turn influence our ability to experience wellbeing. Humanistic psychologists have been researching the concept of embodiment for decades. Embodiment states that the body is central in our everyday experiences (Howson, 2005). Embodiment in social psychology focuses on ‘the assumption that thoughts, feelings and behaviours are grounded on bodily interactions’ (Meier et al., 2012: 1). Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1962) focused on the experiential side to having a body and claimed that how people experience having and using their body is not physical but phenomenological. Merleau-Ponty claimed that we are all embodied and that therefore all human perception is embodied: ‘we cannot perceive anything and our sense cannot function independently of our bodies’ (Nettleton and Watson, 1998: 9). Thus, it is argued that the body is involved in both constructing and being constructed by our reality. By recognizing this as such, we are able to delineate between ‘having a body, doing a body and being a body’ (Nettleton and Watson, 1998: 11).

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Types of bodies

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Merleau-Ponty posited that there were two different types of bodies: the subjective body is our body as-it-is-lived. This is the body that engages with the world but is one that we are not conscious of and we take it for granted. The subjective body is what Merlean-Ponty (1962) and Leder (1990) called the habitual body or the ‘taken-forgranted’ body.2 The objective body, on the other hand, is the body that is known by the ‘Other’ and can be observed and objectified (Gil-Rodriguez, 2012).

Phenomenology Phenomenology is ‘the science of experience’ (Langdridge, 2004: 274) and was philosophically conceived by Edmund Husserl in the late 1800s (Ashworth, 2003). His objective was to alter the positivistic view of searching for the ‘real truth’ behind the account, and simply take the subjective experience as reality. Husserlian’s phenomenology deals with the theory of ‘the reduction’, which simply states that the researcher must attempt to bracket (ignore and cut off any preconceived ideas/notions/hypotheses before they begin to investigate) themselves from their presuppositions and interpretations and see the phenomenon in its true state (Finlay, 2008). In its totality, the goal is for the researcher to achieve transcendental subjectivity by way of bracketing their previous intuitive knowledge of science, their life world and attitudes. Heidegger identified problems with the reduction and eventually created the second branch of phenomenology, hermeneutics, which goes beyond the descriptive and searches for meaning within human experience, either known or unknown to the participant themselves (Lopez and Willis, 2004). Hermeneutics puts particular emphasis on interpretation, or ‘being-in-theworld’, which states that any interpretations and understandings of the lived experience are a direct result of our previous and present selves (thoughts, knowledge, understandings) and being-in-the-world (Finlay, 2008). The important thing for a phenomenologist is to be aware of and transparent of these biases and to ‘question and provoke our pre-understanding’ (Gadamer, 1975 as cited in Finlay, 2008: 9).

Similar to Merleau-Ponty, O’Neill (1985) posited that we exist of five bodies: ‘The world’s body, Social bodies, the Body politic, Consumer bodies and Medical bodies’ (as cited in Frank, 1990: 133–4). These bodies have been utilized as a resource within organizations and cultures. Frank (1990) on the other hand, felt that there were four distinct bodies: the medicalized body, which focuses on the body and its relationship with socially constructed practices of illness and disease; the sexual

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body, which looks at sexuality across cultures; the disciplined body, which practises regimented fasting, extreme work and power; and the talking body which expresses its conceptualization of its own reality. Frank (1990) saw these bodies to represent the active and passive capacities of the body in both health and illness. In addition, he proposed that these bodies also include the intellectualized ‘academic imaginations of the body’, which eventually cause us to become less sure of what the body actually is.3

Embodied emotion Our consciousness and our subjective experience are very much linked to our physical embodiment. Indeed, early research into emotions posited that emotions were the result of perceptions of physiological changes and not necessarily related to our cognitive appraisal of the event. The James-Lange somatic theory proposed that physiological changes within our bodies force us to interpret these changes, thereby feeling associated emotions and producing behaviour (Passer and Smith, 2006). The major component of their theory is that the physiological component happens first, signalling to the person what is going on (James, 1879; 1890). For example, we cry (physiological), and then we know/interpret that we are sad (emotion). A major criticism of this theory is the fact that different emotions can produce the same physiological responses (e.g. humans cry when sad and when happy). Cognitive appraisal theory stated that emotions arise from our cognitive appraisal of the situation as having either a negative or positive effect. This appraisal therefore results in us experiencing what we would call emotions. The Canon-Bard theory of emotions argued that both the body and the cognitive appraisal of the situation happen at the same time (Cannon, 1929, as cited in Passer and Smith, 2006). Since then, Damasio offered further extension of the James-Lange theory stating that it is the body that helps us ‘shape the decision’ about what to do in situations, rather than shape the experience of it. With the advancement of drugs and medical interventions, we are seeing that the link between body and emotion may be that the body acts as an ‘amplifier’ rather than a ‘generator’ of emotions (Kringelbach, 2009).

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ocial psychology researchers would argue that emotions in particular are integral to notions of embodiment (Lupton, 1998a, b). Our bodies can betray us and signal to others what we are feeling (embarrassment = blush; cold = goosebumps). Furthermore, we tend to represent our feelings with verticality, such that happiness feels like being high off the ground; sadness feels (and is constructed) as being low. Can you think of any other examples where you have noticed this embodied use of emotions in psychology?

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Body awareness

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Body awareness

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imilar to the concept of embodiment, body awareness is defined as the ‘attentional focus on and awareness of internal body sensation’ (Mehling et al., 2009: 1). Traditionally, body awareness has been utilized as a marker of maladaptive functioning within chronic pain, depression and other medical arenas positing that patients can become obsessed with or overwhelmed by tuning into their bodily sensations. However, recent research has started to look at the benefits of body awareness and the ability to recognize subtle changes in somatic sensation, especially when used in the management of pain. The current scales used measure body awareness on four dimensions (Mehling et al., 2009): a perceived body sensation (this refers to a person’s ability to identify body sensations and internal cues as well as subsequent physiological states both positive and negative); b attention quality (this refers to a person’s propensity to engage with the sensations or ignore them. These dimensions also include the person’s perceived sense of self-efficacy when attending to the sensations and are able to reflect in a mindful and non-judgemental fashion); c attitude (this refers to a person’s trust in their ability to correctly identify and trust inner sensations which then lead to adaptive decision making); d mind-body integration (this refers to a person’s ability to recognize sensations in emotions and their overall perception of being embodied versus disconnected to their own physical self). Interoception is a person’s perception of the physical sensations caused by their internal organs – e.g. heart, autonomic nervous system (ANS) – in relation to emotions. Within psychology, interoception has been deemed the ‘sixth sense’ (Siegel, 2010), where after sight, sounds, taste, smell and touch, we have a ‘visceral sense’ which is the ability to ‘perceive the internal state of the body’ (p. 272). There is preliminary evidence linking the ability to have interoceptive body awareness and the right anterior insula, with potential changes due to meditative practices (Mehling et al., 2009). The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is responsible for linking body emotions, attention and social awareness and plays a role in our ability to feel embodied (Siegel, 2010).4 We can utilize several approaches to enhance body awareness such as yoga, exercise, etc. (Mehling et al., 2009) and these are discussed in more detail in Chapter 11.

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Physical self-concept Physical self-concept is a domain of global self worth and consists of four sub domains, including: sport competence, attractive body, physical strength and physical condition. Fox developed the physical self perception profile (PSPP), which measures physical self-worth on five subscales: 1 Sport competence (sport)  This encompasses a person’s subjective perceptions of their sporting and athletic ability as well as their confidence in the sport environment. 2 Physical condition (condition)  This domain encompasses the subjective perceptions of an individual’s fitness levels, stamina and overall physical condition in addition to their confidence in exercise settings. 3 Body attractiveness (body)  This encompasses a person’s subjective perceptions of physical attractiveness, confidence in their appearance and their ability to maintain said appearance. 4 Physical strength (strength)  This encompasses a person’s subjective perceptions of their muscle strength and development. 5 Physical self-worth (PSW)  This encompasses a person’s subjective perceptions of their overall satisfaction with their physical self. Physical self-concept was created in order to broaden the concept of self-esteem theory and its links to activity participation and is assessed via the 30-item Physical Self Perceptions Profile (Fox and Corbin, 1989).

A history of the body in society

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e know that we have a brain – a material and physical organ that is situated on the top of our body and encased in a skull. However, what is this material organ’s relationship to the mind (consciousness)? Does it create it? Does it reflect reality? Are they separate entities? For hundreds of years philosophers have struggled with the mind/body problem (Andreassi, 2007). Indeed, the connections between a thinking brain and this material brain is thought to have been first recorded as far back as 3000 BC (Carson et al., 1988, as cited in Andreassi, 2007). Plato introduced the idea that both mental processing (consciousness) and the soul were located in the brain. The thesis that the body (brain) and the soul (mental events) were separated started the concept of dualism. Aristotle, on the other hand, went on to declare that passions, emotions and these mental or spiritual events were located in the

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heart. The main difference between Aristotle’s and Plato’s stances were that Aristotle believed that the body and the soul were actually one – a theory known as monism. Commonplace throughout contemporary medicine and psychology (Passer and Smith, 2006), monism (the foundation of empiricism) maintains that the mind and body are one, holding no separate spiritual proprieties: what we think and feel is a direct result of physical reactions in the brain. Rene Descartes was one of the most influential writers and philosophers of all time. His mechanistic theoretical conceptions of our world and what makes it work were influenced by his previous occupation in mathematics (Frost, 1962). In the seventeenth century, he devised Cartesian Dualism where he differentiated between two different substances which work together – the physical and the mental. Descartes believed that there were two kinds of substances in the world, body and mind, and these were completely independent of each other (Andreassi, 2007). The body, therefore, comes second and separate to the mind, which houses our sense of self (Howson, 2005).

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f, for example, something was to happen to your body that altered your physical form, do you think your sense of self would change? Cartesian dualism would argue that it wouldn’t as the two are separate. Do you agree with this? Why or why not? (Howson, 2005).

In the early 1900s, somatic psychology was arguably created by Wilhelm Reich, who endeavoured to reunite the body and mind through therapy. The area of somatic psychology takes on experiential and gestalt perspectives, recognizing that life is a series of embodied interactions. Foucault’s later work on the body and its social construction in society changed the way we think about the body as a ‘nonentity’. Foucault argued that the body was often a site for political violence, ‘violently constructed in order to legitimate different regimes of domination’ (e.g. prisons, asylums, clinics; Davis, 1997: 3; Foucault, 1978, 1979). In addition to the relationship between the body and power, Foucault tackled the history of sexuality and the body as well as a new reflection on the body as a project of study (Frank, 1990). In the 1980s, Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences challenged the traditional view of the time: that there was one form of intelligence and this was measureable by standardized IQ tests. One of these multiple ‘intelligences’ was bodilykinaesthetic intelligence, which posits that individuals can possess abilities in which they are able to utilize their body in two ways: ‘control one’s body motions and to handle objects skilfully’ (Gardner, 1993: 206). Dance is considered one of the most exclusive forms of ‘mature bodily expression’ (p. 222) with acting, athletics and

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inventing as other major examples of body kinaesthetic intelligence. These activities have a complexity of negotiating both the muscular system and neural systems, making it an art to maintain timing and control over the body at the opportune times. Gardner claimed that mastery over the body as well as desire for grace and beauty in movement have been present since the ancient Greeks, where the human body was considered ‘beautiful, a worthy and loved partner with the soul-mind’ (p. 233). Gardner further contended that we wouldn’t be here on earth now if it wasn’t for the body intelligence of our ancient prehistoric ancestors. In the early 1990s there was a surge of body-related research, books, academic journals and attention to the role of the body in social and psychological functioning (also known as the ‘body craze’; Davis, 1997: 1). A considerable amount of feminist and social research on the body and its role in creating the self in society came from this era. Humanistic psychologists have also been researching the concept of embodiment for decades, with a focus to ‘examine somatic influences and the fundamental role played by states of the body in the ability to attain and especially to sustain a positive frame of mind’ (Resnick et al., 2001: 5). Today, there seems to be a renewed interest in the body in the social and clinical psychological disciplines (Keenan, 2001a) as well as public policy (Orbach, 2009; 2012; YMCA, 2012). Unfortunately, we have an increasingly negative relationship with the body (Orbach, 2012), with an increase in aesthetic procedures (BAAPS, 2011), negative body image (Impett et al., 2011; YMCA, 2012), eating disorders across genders (Orbach, 2012) and self harming (Favazza, 2011). The body is well and truly ‘Dysappearing’ (Frank, 1995; Stam, 1998).

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ne social barometer of how we are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with our bodies and ‘decoporealised’ (Mehling et al., 2009: 3) is the yearly statistic on elective plastic surgery. The British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (BAAPS) 2011 stats showed an average 5.7 per cent increase in numbers of procedures completed from 2011 to 2012. Male surgery continues to account for 10 per cent of all cosmetic surgery procedures, meaning women still account for 90 per cent of all cosmetic surgical procedures. Why do you think elective plastic surgery is on the rise? Are you surprised by the stats? Why or why not?

In contemporary society, some researchers argue that bodies no longer represent how we fit into the social order, but are the means for self-expression, for ‘becoming who we would most like to be’ (Davis, 1997: 2). Especially in

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today’s society, we have taken on the body as our own little ‘identity project’ (Giddens, 1991, as cited in Davis, 1997) and we manipulate it to look younger, thinner, prettier – controlling what we can. Some researchers would argue that we treat our bodies much like a car: ‘to be repaired, maintained or enhanced’ (Finkelstein, 1991, as cited in Davis, 1997: 2). Researchers argue that it may be because of this it is becoming increasingly difficult to ‘be happy’ in our bodies due to societal changes and pressures on appearance (Orbach, 2009; Walter, 2010). Overall, a negative body image can have a devastating effect on a person’s development of self-concept (Goldenberg and Shackelford, 2005), with lowered levels of physical self-esteem found to induce higher rates of depression and anxiety (Roberts et al., 1999).

Think about it…

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ow do you react to magazines and media that have been ‘photoshopped’? Do you still compare yourself to these impossible-to-reach ideals? How do you reconcile this dichotomy between real and illusory bodies?

The body and positive psychology – taking a holistic perspective

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s you have seen, the current happiness and flourishing theories within positive psychology do not include or allude to the body and its role in optimal human functioning. If we are indeed embodied creatures who rely on the body to engage and interact with the outside world, it seems impossible and indeed naive to continue a discipline so detached from the body and its facilitation in hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing. The tides appear to be changing with researchers such as Suzanne Segerstrom, Barbara Fredrickson and Dacher Keltner recognizing the extent of the disconnect between body and mind as well as the advent of positive psychophysiology (Chapter 2), positive neuroscience (Chapter 3) and positive health (Chapter 5). Indeed, the 3rd World Congress on Positive Psychology will include one of their highlighted conference themes as ‘healthy body/healthy mind’. This is an incredible jump from the previous neglect of the body within positive psychology and offers hope for a change from a cognitive monopoly in theory and interventions to a more holistic, embodied approach. In conclusion, positive psychology stands to gain a significant amount by incorporating a more embodied approach to wellbeing. Positive psychology talks about

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Chapter 1  Positive Psychology and the Body

human satisfaction and dissatisfaction but not the embodied experiences of human functioning. Overall, this book will aim to demonstrate how becoming aware of, reconnecting with and treating the body in a positive way will inevitably set us up for success and flourishing over time.

Summary Reflecting on the learning objectives you should now understand flourishing and the history behind the body in psychology. More specifically, you should know: ■■

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Flourishing is the new focus of positive psychology with several theoretical perspectives and models. PERMA is Seligman’s new model and can act as a backbone for all positive psychology concepts and programmes. Psychology has had a long relationship with the body and is currently having a ‘come-back’ in social and clinical psychology. Body awareness is the ability to recognize sensations within the body and utilize them as information for adaptive purposes. The body plays an important role in our ability to experience hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing.

Suggested Resources http://www.uel.ac.uk/psychology/programmes/postgraduate/positive-msc.htm For access to information regarding the MAPP course at the University of East London, UK, please log on and view details. http://www.sas.upenn.edu/lps/graduate/mapp/ This website will bring you to the new research on PERMA model and you can also take part in validating their new PERMA measurement tool. http://www.cambridgewellbeing.org/ This link will bring you to The Wellbeing Institute, run by professor Felicia Huppert, located at Cambridge University.

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Measurement Tools

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Measurement Tools Flourishing Scale (Diener et al., 2009)

Directions Below are eight statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1–7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by indicating that response for each statement. 7  Strongly agree 6 Agree 5  Slightly agree 4  Neither agree nor disagree 3  Slightly disagree 2 Disagree 1  Strongly disagree ____ I lead a purposeful and meaningful life ____ My social relationships are supportive and rewarding ____ I am engaged and interested in my daily activities ____ I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others ____ I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me ____ I am a good person and live a good life ____ I am optimistic about my future ____ People respect me

Scoring Add the responses, varying from 1 to 7, for all eight items.

Interpretation and review The possible range of scores is from 8 (lowest possible) to 56 (highest possible). A high score represents a person with many psychological resources and strengths (Diener et al., 2009). The Flourishing scale encompasses several concepts that are argued to exist within human flourishing (e.g. positive relationships, optimism, competence and meaning). This scale was originally conceived as the ‘Psychological Wellbeing Scale’, however, the researchers have since changed the name to encompass the wider theoretical concept of flourishing as well as better reflect the items (Hefferon & Boniwell, 2011).

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Chapter 1  Positive Psychology and the Body

The Body Awareness Questionnaire (Shields et al., 1989)

Directions Listed below are a number of statements regarding your sensitivity to normal, non-emotive body processes. For each statement, select a number from 1 to 7 that best describes how the statement describes you and circle the number next to the right of the statement. Not at all Very true of me true of me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7    1. I notice differences in the way my body reacts to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 various foods.    2. I can always tell when I bump myself whether or not 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 it will become a bruise.    3. I always know when I’ve exerted myself to the point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 where I’ll be sore the next day.    4. I am always aware of changes in my energy level when 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I eat certain foods.    5. I know in advance when I’m getting the flu. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7    6. I know I’m running a fever without taking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 my temperature.    7. I can distinguish between tiredness because of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 hunger and tiredness because of lack of sleep.    8. I can accurately predict what time of day lack of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sleep will catch up with me.    9. I am aware of a cycle in my activity level throughout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the day. *10. I don’t notice seasonal rhythms and cycles in the way my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 body functions.   11. As soon as I wake up in the morning I know how much 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 energy I’ll have during the day.   12. I can tell when I go to bed how well I will sleep 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 that night.   13. I notice distinct body reactions when I am fatigued. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7   14. I notice specific body responses to changes in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the weather.   15. I can predict how much sleep I will need at night 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 in order to wake up refreshed.

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Notes

  16. When my exercise habits change, I can predict very accurately how that will affect my energy levels.   17. There seems to be a ‘best’ time for me to go to sleep at night.   18.  I notice specific bodily reactions to being over hungry.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scoring This is a summative scale. Note: * indicates a reversed scored item.

Interpretation and review Although there have been several published studies using the BAQ which report means and SDs, the authors do not have cut-off scores that would indicate high or low body awareness. The BAQ is used to conduct research in which groups of people are participating and is not meant to be a diagnostic tool to determine whether an individual person has high or low body esteem. In a large review of the current scales utilized to measure body awareness, the BAQ was found to be the strongest of 12 different instruments. Although the scale does not include all aspects of body awareness, it is the most widely used within both research clinical practice and has good levels of reliability and validity. Again, the authors strongly stress that this tool is not to be used for diagnostic purposes.

Notes 1 This has since been reformulated into Wellbeing Theory (Seligman, 2011) which is discussed in detail below. 2 This concept relates to dys-appearing (Leder, 1990; Frank, 1995) which we discuss in Chapter 6. 3 Sociologists have further identified and researched the presence of the following types of bodies: the discursive body, the material body, the individual/social body, the physical body, the communicative body, the somatic body, the corporeal body, the uncertain body, the naturalistic body, the socially constructed body and the comodified body (see Howson, 2005: 8). 4 Researchers have found that the ACC is responsible for physical pain in the brain and also mediates that pain that is felt when we experience social rejections.

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