Proceedings - American Translators Association [PDF]

American Translators Association The Voice of Interpreters and Translators

56 thAnnual

Conference November 4–7 • 2015

Hyatt Regency • Miami, Florida

Proceedings

American Translators Association The Voice of Interpreters and Translators

Proceedings of the 56th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association November 4-7, 2015 • Miami, Florida

Copyright©2015 American Translators Association

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher.

No editorial intervention was undertaken unless absolutely necessary and only if the production schedule allowed.

Table of Contents Seminar SEM-G: Teach Your Text to Strip: Take It Off, Take It (Almost) All Off, Marcia Riefer Johnston ..................................................................... 1

German G-5: Ticken die Deutschen anders? Understanding the Idiosyncrasies of Doing Business in Germany, Tatjana Dujmic | Karen Rückert ................. 4

Independent Contractors IC-11: Client Satisfaction Surveys for Freelance Translators, Michael Farrell ............................................................................................ 11

Korean K-3: "Naturalizing English" Translations from Korean, Paul B. Gallagher | Sarah McWatters ....................................................................... 17

Language Services Companies LSC-7: LSP Metrix: How to Map a Path to the Next Level of Organizational Maturity, Hélène Pielmeier ....................................................... 29

Language Technology LT-5: Solving Terminology Problems More Quickly with IntelliWebSearch, Michael Farrell.......................................................................... 32

Portuguese P-3: ANACpedia: Online Dictionaries for Aviation Terminology in Portuguese, English, and Spanish, Fernanda Alves e Silva ............................. 36

Spanish S-3: Manual de dialectología hispánica: castellano versus español, Andre Moskowitz ............................................................................... 52 S-14: Issues in Recorded Media Translations of Colombian Spanish, Anthony Rivas ................................................................................ 177

Science & Technology ST-5: Vaccines: Past, Present, and Future, Tapani Ronni..................................................................................................................... 197

Translation T-3: Transcreation and Translation for Marketing, Gabriela Lemoine ..................................................................................................... 207

T&I Industry TI-6: Translation and Language Skills: Giving You the Professional Edge, Kathleen Stein-Smith ................................................................ 216

TEACH YOUR TEXT TO STRIP: TAKE IT OFF, TAKE IT (ALMOST) ALL OFF Marcia Riefer Johnson Why I Talk about Tight Writing We all use too many words. In and of itself, cutting unhelpful words (or sentences, or paragraphs, or whole chapters or blog posts) doesn’t make writing good. But it always makes writing better. One reason to care about conciseness is money. Extra words carry dollar signs— especially if your company publishes in multiple languages. If you tighten before you translate, you can save staggering amounts of money. As Val Swisher, author of Global Content Strategy: A Primer, says, when you tighten your sentences, you achieve “the ultimate trifecta: cheaper, better, faster translations.” The “cheaper” part of that trifecta comes down to simple math. This spreadsheet example shows how I tightened a sentence from the book Death in the Afternoon, written by Mr. Minimalism himself, Ernest Hemingway. His sentence has 17 words: “Write when there is something that you know; and not before; and not too damned much after.” Remove four words, and you increase the sentence’s impact without losing any meaning or sacrificing sonorousness. More impressively, at least from a business point of view, this kind of edit reduces translation cost. At 25 cents per word per language (a common translation rate), cutting these four words reduces the cost of translating this sentence into 25 languages by $25.

Not impressed? Scale up to 10,000 sentences. (That’s how many you’ll find in a typical Harry Potter novel. Many websites contain far more.) Reduce each sentence’s word count by this same percentage, and you save $250,000.

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If your company delivers lots of translated content and tightens its text by even ten percent, it can save millions—or tens of millions or hundreds of millions—every year. Whether you’re a writer or a strategist who works with writers, imagine the raise you’ll justify when you routinely save your employer or clients this kind of money. Resources to Download • Translation-savings spreadsheet (Numbers version) https://www.dropbox.com/sh/z2fobxm0tdk0akh/P4ha4CGA3U • Translation-savings spreadsheet (Excel version) https://www.dropbox.com/s/0b408646pmuqeij/Marcias word-count-reduction exercise.xlsx But Money Isn’t Everything Even if you don’t care what it costs to produce and maintain unnecessary words, you care about losing readers. Concise means readable. Concise means comprehensible. Concise means efficient. No reader—no customer—abides bloat. In any language. When you lose readers, when you lose customers, you lose. My Favorite Tightening Technique Want to know my favorite tightening technique? Dump these words—unless you need them. That’s it. Simple and surprisingly powerful. If you’ve seen my “Write Tight(er)” presentation (http://writing.rocks/write-tighter-presentation/), you’ll recognize this as my “Dump These Words” list (https://www.dropbox.com/s/oga9mrrrmqrxf1n/Dump these words%E2%80%94Marcia Riefer Johnston.pdf). • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

weak be-verbs (is, was, were, will be, have been, am, are) -ly words (& other vapid adverbs) very, such, so (& other empty intensifiers) not, no (& other negative words) the fact that just begin to, try to, tend to, in order to period of time in light of, in spite of, in terms of (& of in general) proverbial different (as in many different, 36 different) particular verbiage any other verbiage* or unneeded words that you can pitch

*Verbiage includes redundancies of all kinds—and redundant phrases surround us. See my blog post, “The Annals of Redundancy Annals” (http://writing.rocks/annals-of-redundancy-annals/) which is now available in book form with illustrations: You Can Say That Again: 750 Redundant Phrases to Think Twice About (http://writing.rocks/buy-book/).

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Don’t Let It Be You may have noticed that I bolded the top bullet in the list above. If you do nothing else, eradicate most be-verbs, and you dramatically tighten and strengthen any English text. I’ve developed a number of resources on this one tip—see my page “Be and Me” (http://writing.rocks/be-verbs/). Don’t miss the Be-Verb Song, sung with panache by Benjamin Kjos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ph9NYynxTkk. Try it Want to practice your concise-writing skills? Play a game with me. Every week, I post a “Tighten This!” Challenge Sentence (http://writing.rocks/tighten-this-index-challengequestions/) and announce the previous week’s winners. Join us! Meanwhile, watch for be-verbs in your English text before you translate. You may be … I mean, the results are … I mean, you (and your translators) will love the results.

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TICKEN DIE DEUTSCHEN ANDERS? IDIOSYNCRASIES OF DOING BUSINESS IN GERMANY (FOR EXPERIENCED FREELANCERS) Tatjana Dujmic TD Translations Karen Rückert Karen Rückert Legal Translations Abstract: Do you work with direct clients in Germany or do you envisage doing so in the future? Are you familiar with the business and legal frameworks there? Did you know, for instance, that it is illegal to send marketing emails to businesses in Germany without their prior consent? This is a must-attend session for anyone thinking of marketing to German businesses. The presenters will explain the implications of the EU Opt-In Directive, outline best acquisition and business practices, and share their industry and freelance experience of what German business clients expect to ensure that you hit the ground running.

1.

THE GERMAN MARKET

Why do Business in Germany? As a translator working into or out of German, Germany is an obvious market of choice, irrespective of where your freelance business is located. Germany has a strong economy, there are many producers and manufacturers and the translation requirement is high. However, the German market has a very particular make-up and in order to successfully do business in Germany, it is important to understand how the market works. Business Structure and Social Aspects In contrast to the US, where businesses tend to be either large or small, in Germany the Mittelstand is “the backbone of the economy” and very common. According to some information found online at www.make-it-in-germany.com,“more than 99 percent of German companies are SMEs. In absolute figures, that means more than 3.6 million companies, providing more than 60 percent of all jobs in Germany”. By common definition, a typical German Mittelstand company has a staff of up to 249 and a maximum sales volume of EUR 50m (although some definitions state the staff figure at up to 500). The whole Mittelstand concept also has social aspects, e.g. these companies also contribute to the economy by training skilled workers (apprenticeships) in the German dual education system for skilled workers/employees. Management Structures and Business Processes Usually Mittelstand companies are characterized by a very close relationship between the company and the management, not lastly because these companies are predominantly familyowned. Mittelstand companies are consequently managed differently to corporations. This is important information to keep in mind when contacting a potential client because company structures have a direct effect on company processes. Since Mittelstand companies are certainly large enough to have translation requirements but often not large enough to need or to justify their own dedicated in-house translation departments, Mittelstand companies make ideal target clients for freelance translators.

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Whom to Contact Contrary to what you may have heard before and which may apply to companies in other countries, the person to contact at German companies, particularly Mittelstand companies, will not be in purchasing. The purchasing department has one goal and one goal only and that is to minimize costs. You may later have contact with the purchasing department if company policy is to send out purchase orders to their service providers but the person to contact in the first instance about your translation services will be the responsible person in the relevant department and/or the secretaries or assistants. Never underestimate or be dismissive of secretaries and assistants. They usually have a lot of power as they are the ones sorting out offers, etc. for their bosses and your treatment of them will inevitably feed into how positively they report back to their bosses about you. In many of the smaller companies, the managing director is the one who makes all, or at least most, of the decisions, especially regarding approved suppliers. Client Education Since most people in Germany speak a good or at least passable level of English, many short communications as well as longer documents are often written by members of staff directly in English or translated by secretaries in-house. When marketing to German companies, part of your job will therefore also be to convince them of why it is a good idea to outsource translation work to a professional translator. Also bear in mind when pointing out mistakes on websites or in marketing materials that it may have been the GM’s wife or daughter who translated it! The Translation Market The German translation market is made up of large agencies, small boutique agencies and freelancers like anywhere else. In Germany a particular peculiarity is that there is no native speaker principle. Translators trained in Germany translate and are trained to translate in both directions. If, as is common standard practice in Anglo-American countries, you only translate into your native language, be prepared to explain this to potential clients together with the advantages which ensue from this unidirectional practice, and ensure that you have a process in place for dealing with requests for translations in the other direction. JVEG and Beeidigung In Germany there is a piece of legislation called the JVEG which stands for the Gesetz über die Vergütung von Sachverständigen, Dolmetscherinnen, Dolmetschern, Übersetzerinnen und Übersetzern sowie die Entschädigung von ehrenamtlichen Richterinnen, ehrenamtlichen Richtern, Zeuginnen, Zeugen und Dritten (Justizvergütungs- und -entschädigungsgesetz – JVEG) and which sets out the rates applicable to translations commissioned by the courts and certain authorities. The JVEG is available online and is a useful reference point for information on rates. In Germany documents which are translated for submission to court need to be certified by a sworn translator (e.g. a translator who is beeidigt/vereidigt/ermächtigt). To become a sworn translator you may have to pass an exam and/or go through an application procedure depending on the federal state concerned and your qualifications and experience. If you intend to look for translation work in these areas it will be useful to become a sworn translator or work in partnership with a sworn translator based in Germany.

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Once you have decided that the German market is for you, it is time to devise your marketing strategy taking account of both mentality and expectations as well as legal aspects. In order to ensure that your marketing does not fall on deaf ears, it is important to understand key aspects of the mentality of your chosen market. Mentality gives rise to certain expectations and it is these expectations that it is important to address when marketing to direct clients.

2.

MENTALITY AND EXPECTATIONS

The Importance of Qualifications One of the most important things to note about Germany is the importance of training and qualifications. This may sound obvious. However, since almost everyone in Germany has a qualification of some description, even supermarket cashiers, if you do not have one, even if you do have many many years of experience, which we translators know is just as good and perhaps even better than a qualification on paper, you will struggle to prove your credibility to German clients. Qualifications on paper are your best way in and the best way to pique a potential client’s curiosity in the first instance. In Germany, you will be competing with “Diplom-Übersetzer”, “staatlich geprüfte Übersetzer” and translators with MAs. However, since many managers, company owners and lawyers did their MBAs and LL.Ms abroad, foreign qualifications, far from being sneered upon, could give you the required edge and make you stand out. Risk Adversity and Credibility In business, Germans are extremely risk adverse: it takes time to gain their trust. You will be required to prove yourself. However, clients tend to be very loyal and “once you’re in, you’re in”. They are interested in a long-term partnership where reliability is an absolute. It is therefore important to make sure that you can keep any promises you make and that you do not go over the top in your marketing. You will need to provide proof that you can do what you say you can do. In addition to qualifications, clients will be looking for evidence of your experience, testimonials from reliable sources, a professional website and a professional image. Quality über alles Quality is extremely important in Germany. This is good news for highly specialized freelancers because clients who demand but also appreciate quality are also generally prepared to pay very good rates for careful and precise work. Offering low rates and trying to undercut the competition is not a good marketing strategy in Germany as low rates suggest that you are not good at what you do and make you look unprofessional. Remember that German clients are looking for reliable and sustainable professional partnerships and not to save money at every turn. “I can English” Since English is taught in German schools as a compulsory subject throughout education and often beyond, it is true that the vast majority of businesspeople in Germany speak at least a passable level of English – and they know it. They also often believe that their English skills are better than they actually are. As such, you will need to be prepared to provide proof that you can add value with your service. You will need to persuade and demonstrate to

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potential clients that you are a qualified expert. Do not leave them thinking they could do it themselves. Formality, Respect and Efficiency German business is marked by very formal behavior. This is a sign of respect for both sides. You should expect to remain “per Sie” with the vast majority of your clients. Your business communication should be restricted to business talk and should be formal, polite and to the point. Say what you mean. There is no such thing as being “too direct” in Germany. Base your marketing on facts and leave out anything flowery or intangible. Punctuality is important in all areas of life in Germany. Germans are efficient and expect efficiency. Make sure that you make it clear when you will be delivering your translation or when you intend to contact a potential client and make sure that you do what you say you will when you say you will. Now we have an overview of the German market, company structures and mentality and expectations you may be itching to start firing off e-mails to those potential clients. However, we advise that you read on. In addition to understanding the market and client expectations, it would be wise to consider a few legal aspects before devising your marketing strategy or firing off those e-mails.

3.

LEGAL ASPECTS

E-mail may be the cheapest and easiest way of contacting potential clients in the twenty-first century. However, cold e-mail prospecting is actually prohibited by law in the EU. Although anyone based outside of the EU may not fall under the remit of the legislation, it is important to bear EU law in mind when devising your marketing strategy. You may not need to worry about being taken to court over cold e-mail marketing but since clients in the EU are aware of their rights, firing unrequested e-mails off to all of your prospects is not going to make a good first impression. Legislation Comparison US CAN SPAM Act and the EU Opt-In Directive Under US law direct marketing e-mails can be sent to anyone without their consent until they opt out. The only requirement is that each e-mail must contain opt-out instructions and a valid sender address. Under the EU Opt-In Directive, by contrast, direct marketing e-mails may only be sent to persons who have given their prior consent. They must have already opted in. E-mail messages must also contain opt-out instructions and a valid address. They must also contain the full name of the company, the place of registration of the company, the registration number of the company, the address of the registered office and the VAT number, where appropriate. The fundamental difference between the US and the EU therefore is that in the EU e-mail marketing is prohibited apart from in highly specific cases. The German Unfair Competition Act also prohibits advertising by e-mail where there is no prior consent, i.e. where the client has actively signed up to your newsletter. Consequently the following are not permitted in Germany: a) Sending e-mails to a list of potential customers you have found on the internet !

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b) Sending e-mails to potential customers to find out whether they would like to receive such e-mails in future c) The “opt-out” procedure whereby newsletters are sent out without prior consent until the recipient opts out. Since cold e-mailing is out as a marketing strategy on the basis of the legal implications and does not fit with the mentality and expectations discussed above either, it is necessary to devise a different marketing strategy for the German market that takes everything we have learned so far into consideration. In the final section of our presentation we will now share some ideas and tips from our own experience of working in and marketing to the German market which we hope will help you do business successfully with German clients.

4.

TIPS AND IDEAS FOR YOUR OWN MARKETING STRATEGY

Business Terms Restrict the information in your quote to plain facts. Do not include irrelevant information. This is not the place to blow your own trumpet. If you have been asked for a quote, you have already won over the client. Make it professional and to the point. Do not be afraid to ask for decent rates. Germany has set price tables for lawyers and tax advisors and the JVEG sets out rates for services provided to the courts and certain authorities. If any of these are relevant to your target industry, it is advisable to take a look at these and to use them to help you decide your rates. Remember that it is best to compete on quality and not on price. In Germany, it is customary to charge for translations on the basis of a line rate (even the JVEG uses it). A standard line usually contains 55 characters including spaces. However, charging by the word, line, project, hour, ST/TT is equally possible. We advise that you adapt to what is normal for clients in the industry you are targeting. Direct clients do not usually care how you quote. They simply want to know what the bottom line is. Quoting a project price or an hourly rate is therefore also possible. Clients will be used to the concept of charging on the basis of the time spent from their graphic designers/marketing consultants, tax advisors/accountants, etc.. Payment by bank transfer is what German companies are used to. Checks are not accepted in Germany. If you regularly do business with German clients it may be worthwhile having an account in Germany. When you are quoting, consider whether to quote in € or $ and the implications of hedging. PayPal is not regarded as a professional mode of payment and your client may take some convincing to use this method. It should not be a problem for US nationals to open a bank account in Germany with the bigger banks as long as the account is solely for business purposes. This will be the case especially when the bank has subsidiaries in the US that can take care of the formalities. However, there may be different regulatory and legal requirements, so be sure to look into these. The EU Payment Directive provides for a payment term of 30 days unless otherwise agreed. Using a payment term of 14 days rarely meets with objections and payment tends to be swift. For cases of non-payment there is a collection procedure in Germany called the Mahnverfahren. This is fairly straightforward but you may need to commission a German lawyer.

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Using T&C makes your business look professional and it allows you to provide quotes on an ad hoc basis without having to include all of your terms in each individual quote. If you are already using T&C it would be advisable to have them in German as well. Make sure you send them with your quote and refer to them in your quote. In our experience they are usually accepted. T&C are your opportunity to set out your payment terms, your procedure for revisions and amendments as well as other aspects such as choice of law and payment terms. Having T&C drawn up by a lawyer avoids legal problems further down the line. Marketing If you intend to do business with German clients, it is definitely advisable to have a German version of your website. Although your potential clients may speak a passable level of English, they will still look for a German version of your website. German websites must include your name and contact details. As a US-based service provider, you may not need to do this, but be aware that the first thing German clients will look for as a sign of credibility will be these details so it is worth including them. In Germany the legal information page (Impressum) is mandatory. Information products which you offer to your customers to download from your website are a great way to enhance your credibility. They act as evidence that you know your field and if they contain information which is useful for your potential clients they will have a reason to keep returning to your website or to print out your information product. This is excellent advertising without you having to market yourself directly. Anything with real value is likely to lie around on a potential client’s desk for much longer than a simple marketing flyer would. Since marketing by e-mail is out, marketing by post is a good strategy for Germany. It costs more but it is worth the extra money and effort providing that you have already made contact with the business you are interested in and already know that there is some interest in your services. Ensure that your marketing materials are content-based and not full of marketing speak only. Remember that in Germany hard facts are what matter. Marketing material should be high-quality. The advantages of marketing by post include the fact that marketing by post is legal, your letter will not get dismissed as spam, it will not get accidentally deleted or lost and it is unlikely to be thrown away by the gatekeeper if it looks like it is relevant and high quality. Information in paper form tends to lie around longer than e-mail attachments which are quickly forgotten. It also shows that you have made an effort and are serious about what you do. Clients A good place to find potential clients are the AHKs or German American Chambers of Commerce: www.ahk-usa.com. Xing is a social media platform similar to LinkedIn but Germany-based. The advantage of Xing over LinkedIn is that you do not have to already know the person to connect with them. However, you should always find a reason to connect with the person and use it in your connect request message. Xing is useful because you can use the search function to search for particular functions within particular industries. It is a good way of researching prospective clients. It is helpful to make contact with prospective clients to gauge their interest before sending off marketing materials by post. If you have not been able to determine the best person to contact

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at your prospective client by looking at their website or making contact via social media, the best thing to do is to call the company in question. Remember not to be dismissive of secretaries and assistants. They may have more influence than you think. If you are a native speaker of English, it is a good idea to specifically target clients who place value on the native speaker principle. Remember that in Germany translators translate in both directions, being a native speaker of English could be your USP. Not every client will want or need this service but those who do tend to be prepared to pay. Be prepared to have to educate prospective clients, to justify yourself and to explain to the client why they should be willing to invest in a top-quality translation into a language they also speak a bit of. This is a particular problem with English in Germany where almost everybody (thinks they) speak good English and thinks they could do the translation themselves if only they had the time. Miscellaneous Becoming a specialist gives you the best opportunity to flaunt your qualifications and experience and become a trusted expert in your field. It is much easier to market specialist translations services because it is easier to identify your target clients if you serve a niche market. Consider professional association membership also in Germany (BDÜ). This will not only enhance your credibility in Germany but also works as a great advertising tool. Clients consult the BDÜ online database and BDÜ colleagues also consult the BDÜ database on behalf of their clients if they are asked for the name of someone who translates into a particular language or in a particular field. More information can be found at www.bdue.de. Find colleagues in Germany who compliment your services to cooperate with. For instance, if you translate from German into English, find a German native speaker who translates in the other direction. Colleagues offering the same service as you but who are located in a different time zone can also be helpful for rush jobs or high volume documents. You may also like to form a working cooperation with a German colleague who is a sworn translator for the event that you are asked to translate a document which needs to be certified and stamped. The BDÜ database is a good place to research colleagues. This can be found at www.bdue.de. We hope that in this presentation we have given you some insight into the German market and what marketing to the German market entails as well as some useful tips which you will be able to put into practice when devising your own marketing strategy. We wish you every success in the German market.

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CLIENT SATISFACTION SURVEYS FOR FREELANCE TRANSLATORS Michael Farrell Freelance technical translator and transcreator, untenured lecturer at the IULM University (Milan, Italy), and qualified member of the Italian Association of Translators and Interpreters (AITI) Abstract: During an unusually slow period, the speaker sent out a satisfaction questionnaire with the goal of bringing his services more in line with his clients' requirements. The research he conducted on this type of survey to choose the right questions to ask gave him a totally new perspective on how his clients perceive the quality of his services. The speaker will discuss the kinds of questions typically asked and how appropriate they are to the translation industry. He will then explain the purpose of each question he actually chose, the answers he received, and the conclusions he drew from the survey results. 1.

INTRODUCTION

While wondering why my workflow had suddenly come to a halt during an unusually slack period in October 2011, I hit on a way of finding out if my clients had been shopping around for cheaper or better language service providers elsewhere without actually asking them the rather embarrassing question straight out. With the declared aim of offering services more in line with my clients' requirements, I became perhaps the first professional freelance translator in the world to send my clients a satisfaction questionnaire. The research I did in order to understand the thinking behind this kind of survey and choose the right questions to ask gave me a totally new perspective on how my clients perceive the quality of the services I offer. Although most of the replies to the survey questions were fairly predictable, some of the answers were perhaps a little surprising. 2.

AIMS AND INCLUSION CRITERIA

2.1 UNDECLARED AIMS What I was really aiming to do was to discover if my clients were still my clients, find out if they had gone out of business, and remind them I was still on the market. It was also a way of giving my working day a purpose, rather than just twiddling my thumbs until work arrived. 2.2 DECLARED AIMS The true purpose of a client satisfaction survey is to see if your services are in line with your clients' needs and identify priorities for improvement. Satisfied clients typically become loyal clients. Therefore finding out what it is that satisfies them can help your business succeed. 2.3 INCLUSION CRITERIA I decided to include all my Italian clients that had given me at least one translation job to do since 1 January 2009. Translation is my core business amounting to 62% of my occupational earnings in 2010. Italian clients accounted for about 93% of my professional income in the same

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year. By excluding the non-Italian clients, the sample was more uniform and there was no need to translate the questionnaire into English. Examining other client satisfaction surveys available on the Internet, I was initially surprised to find that they are very often not anonymous. This is probably so that certain critical issues regarding only particular clients may be tackled in a specific way. 3.

RESEARCH

3.1 JUMP START To save time I checked the Web to see if there were any model or existing surveys I could adapt. I first looked for surveys performed by Italy-based freelance translators, but found none. Consequently I widened my search to include freelance translators who had written their surveys in English, and still found none. At that point, I opened up to include translation agencies and came across a few surveys in Italian and several in English. However, on close analysis, the kind of things asked by translation agencies were inappropriate for freelance translators. For instance, many of the questions concerned the interaction between the client and the Project Manager. Generally speaking, I found that the type of questions asked by freelancers working in other professional fields were more appropriate to my situation. 3.2 SURVEY TECHNOLOGY There are a lot of websites that give hints, tips and advice on designing client satisfaction surveys. There are also several freely available articles and papers on the subject written by experts. Many websites provide survey hosting services, some of them free of charge. However I chose to set up my own form written in ASP with an underlying MS Access database. 4.

EXPERT APPROACH

Since I was unable to find a suitable model to base myself on, I had to start almost from scratch by taking a basic theoretical approach, beginning from an analysis of the service lifecycle. With this approach, the questions to ask emerge naturally from careful consideration of each stage of the cycle. 4.1

SERVICE LIFECYCLE

Fig. 1 Service Lifecycle.

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4.2 PRE-PURCHASE The questions relating to the pre-purchase stage are not strictly satisfaction-related, and regard how my clients found me and which of my services attracted them. 4.3 PURCHASE PROCESS The purchase process questions concern the response time to requests for quotes and information and the clarity of my replies. 4.4 USE During service use, clients turn their attention to punctuality and the service provider’s ability to respond to urgent requests. 4.5 PERCEIVED QUALITY The perceived quality involves the service provider’s ability to understand and meet expectations and find effective solutions, as well as the clients’ opinion of the price and whether they would recommend the service provider to others. 4.6 STARTLING REALIZATION As a consequence of this research, I began to realize that clients have a far more complex idea of “quality” than I had previously imagined. Clients consider aspects such as response time and clarity of quotes and information, punctuality and capacity to respond to urgent requests, ability to understand and meet expectations, price, and skill in finding effective solutions. I had been more concerned with the accuracy and linguistic quality of translations (which can be partially equated to ability to find effective solutions) and – to some extent – punctuality. I began to wonder if I had been neglecting certain aspects of quality that are important to my clients. One way to find out was to perform a client satisfaction survey. So at this point my declared aims began to become as important to me as my undeclared ones. 4.7 THE “FOOT-IN-IT” QUESTION - FAIR PRICE I did not feel happy about asking the question about service price. It seemed fairly obvious to me that my clients would be tempted to say I was too expensive in the hope I would drop my rates. However, studying other questionnaires of this type, I discovered that some surveyors mitigate this risk by emphasizing the relationship between price and service quality. In other words they do not ask if the price is fair, but if the price-quality ratio is fair. 5.

QUESTIONS AND RESULTS

For full details of the results, please refer to the specific page on my website listed in the webography. I will limit myself here to a general analysis. Fifteen clients took part (38.5%), who together accounted for 73.2% of my translation income during the period covered by the survey. The questionnaire asked for personal data (name of company, name of respondent and their role or function within the company), general information (non-satisfaction-related questions) and my clients’ level of satisfaction with my services (the satisfaction survey itself).

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5.1 PERSONAL DATA Although the survey was written in Italian and addressed to Italian clients, about half the respondents gave their job titles wholly or partially in English. Two people wrote their last names in the “role or function within the company” field, which shows that some people automatically expect there to be separate fields for their first name and their family name, so much so that they do not actually read the form. 5.2

GENERAL INFORMATION

5.2.1 HOW DID YOU FIND MICHAEL FARRELL? When assessing the amount of work I had received in the various different ways, it became immediately clear that not giving different weights to the responses according to how much work each client had provided during the three-year survey period would lead to a distorted picture of the importance of each channel. On the basis of this, I decided to calculate both weighted and non-weighted results for all the other items too. The response to this question showed just how important “word of mouth” and networking is in Italy (85.49% by workload). However due to lack of foresight when wording the question, I was unable to establish how much work came through client-to-client contacts and how much through colleague-to-colleague networking. The only other channel of any importance was having a personal website (12.01% by workload). 5.2.2 WHAT SERVICES HAVE YOU ASKED MICHAEL FARRELL TO PROVIDE? The fact all the respondents asked for translation was not surprising since it was one of the inclusion criteria. The results also showed that clients tend to underestimate the creative aspect of the work (transcreation = 1.48% by workload) and do not have a clear understanding of what localization is. As a result of this, I have decided to emphasize the more creative services in my range, including by registering the domain name “transcreate.it” and renewing my website. 5.2.3 WOULD YOU RECOMMEND MICHAEL FARRELL TO OTHER COMPANIES/PEOPLE LOOKING FOR TRANSLATION AND LANGUAGE SERVICE PROVIDERS? This is actually a satisfaction-related question (perceived quality), but since it requires a yes/no answer, rather than a score, it was tidier to include it in the general information section of the questionnaire. All respondents answered yes. 5.3

LEVEL OF SATISFACTION

5.3.1 RESPONSE TIME TO REQUESTS FOR QUOTES/INFORMATION ABOUT THE SERVICE This was the first question with a response scale. The average was calculated by assigning a score of five points to very satisfied, four to satisfied, three to fairly satisfied, two to not very satisfied and one to dissatisfied. All respondents were satisfied with the response time to requests for quotes/information, and the average was very close to “very satisfied” (4.83 by workload).

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5.3.2 CLARITY/TRANSPARENCY OF QUOTES/INFORMATION All respondents were satisfied with the clarity of offers and almost all were very satisfied (4.99 / 5 by workload). Complete clear information is an ethical obligation. e.g. see Article 22 of the AITI (Italian Association of Translators and Interpreters) Code of Practice. 5.3.3 PUNCTUALITY OF TRANSLATION/SERVICE DELIVERY All respondents were satisfied with the punctuality of the delivery of the finished job, and the average was very close to “very satisfied” (4.96 / 5 by workload). Besides the accuracy and linguistic quality of the translation, I have also concentrated on this aspect in the past. 5.3.4 ABILITY TO RESPOND TO URGENT REQUESTS All 14 respondents who had sent urgent requests were satisfied. Eight of them (8 out of 14 = 57.14% of clients, 61.34% by workload) were very satisfied. There is not very much I can do to improve this: I have a family and a life, and I cannot do miracles. 5.3.5 ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND AND MEET EXPECTATIONS All respondents were satisfied, and more than half were very satisfied (62.58% by workload). In any case, it is a good idea to find out exactly what clients expect, and this survey itself is effectively a first step in that direction. 5.3.6 ABILITY TO FIND EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS TO LANGUAGE PROBLEMS All those who considered their jobs posed language problems were satisfied with the solutions I found. I was rather upset to discover that 48.06% of my clients (by workload) do not believe the jobs they give me pose particular problems. 5.3.7 USEFULNESS OF ANY TRANSLATOR'S NOTES PROVIDED All respondents were satisfied. I consider the notes to be a fundamental part of the service I provide and I am very pleased they are appreciated. 5.3.8 QUALITY/PRICE RATIO OF THE SERVICE All respondents were satisfied. It is, of course, human nature to want to pay less and get the same level of service. 6.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

There is no doubt the results are broadly positive. Although it was possible to leave specific comments for almost every item, only two clients wrote something, making only general positive remarks. It is natural to wonder whether not responding to the survey in itself is a statement of dissatisfaction (56,3% of clients/less than 25% by workload). However, if natural client attrition is taken into account, together with the fact that several clients who did not complete the form sent new jobs after the close of the survey, this would not appear to be the case. No one chose to complain when they received the questionnaire.

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6.1 LESSONS LEARNT I now have a totally new perspective on how my clients perceive the quality of my services. From the clients’ point of view, the concept of quality is more complex than I had hitherto realized. Luckily, despite all, I do not seem to have been doing such a bad job, but I am now more aware of what I am doing and – hopefully – less likely to dissatisfy my clients. Shortly after launching the survey, work picked up again. 6.2

HOW RELIABLE ARE THE RESULTS?

“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics” (Mark Twain). The study population comprised 39 clients. The sample size was the number of replies I received (15). When calculating the margin of error, the confidence level, which is a measure of how sure we can be that the truth really lies within the confidence interval (the result ± margin of error), is normally taken as 95% by convention. If we feed these data into the usual statistical formulae, the margin of error for this survey turns out to be 20.11%. This is very large, but luckily the responses leaned so heavily in one direction that - in most cases - this margin is unable to transform a positive result into a negative one. As any statistician would confirm, you need a proportionally very large number of responses to get a small margin of error when the study population is so small (only 39 clients). 6.3 WHAT I WOULD DO DIFFERENTLY NEXT TIME I sent the survey announcement out only once, with no reminder. If I had calculated the potential margin of error before conducting the survey, I would have sent various reminders to increase participation and improve the reliability of the results. I would also define the channels work arrives through more precisely. I have recently done a lot of work on defining the different kinds of service I offer more clearly (“simple” translation vs. transcreation). I am still not sure how to make some clients understand that translation is not always a piece of cake. 6.4 CONCLUSION Despite its defects, from which I hope the attendees will learn, I feel it was an entirely positive experience from all points of view. 7.

WEBOGRAPHY

Farrell, M (2011). Client Satisfaction Survey. www.transcreate.it/satisfaction-survey/

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“NATURALIZING” ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS FROM KOREAN Paul B. Gallagher, pbg translations, inc. Sarah McWatters, freelance Abstract: Subtitlers of Korean dramas work quickly and are prone to SL (source-language) interference, resulting in unnatural or incorrect English translations. Based on realistic examples, the presentation will explore common translation traps, identifying patterns and appropriate solutions in the lexical, syntactic, and pragmatic (cross-cultural) areas. Audience participation is encouraged. Note: This presentation is designed to be interactive. Accordingly, we cannot predict what questions or comments will be received or precisely how we will respond. The text that follows represents our prepared remarks. “Naturalizing” English Translations from Korean 여러분 안녕하십니까. 저는 Paul B. Gallagher 입니다. 제 친구 박사라씨입니다. Good afternoon. I’m Paul B. Gallagher, and my colleague is Sarah McWatters. [joint bow] 죄송하지만 전 한국말을 잘 못합니다. 영어로 하겠습니다. 한국말은 박사라씨가 도와 주겠습니다. I’m sorry, I don’t speak Korean well. I will present in English. Sarah will help on the Korean side. We have assembled a presentation that we hope will be both enlightening and entertaining. Everyone please make sure you have a copy of the handouts. My expertise is in writing and editing English, which I have been doing for 30 years as a professional translator, and also for many years before that as an undergraduate and graduate student. My personal motto, and that of my company pbg translations, inc., is “Translations That Read Like Originals.” In other words, I believe a translation can be both accurate and faithful to the original without sounding like a translation. Our objective today is to explore the traps laid by the Korean language for the unwary translator, and find ways to create natural-sounding English without sacrificing accuracy or fidelity. We chose drama subtitles because the translators who produce them work very fast and do not have the luxury of pondering their choices or doing much research. Their English subtitles have proven a very fertile soil for the characteristic traps we were seeking.

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Popularity of K-Dramas Moreover, K-dramas have become very popular around the world, because they’re well-written and well-acted, and foreign viewers often need subtitles to fully grasp the content. 70000 60000 50000 40000 Imports($10k) 30000

# of Episodes

20000 10000 0 2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Although I am very interested in the Korean language, I must still count myself as a beginner (초보라고요). I have a masters’ degree in linguistics, and I know enough of the structure of the language that I can recognize and understand the patterns that produce the characteristic Korean>English translation errors. Although Sarah has been very helpful, it is possible that I may not have learned very well, so any errors I might make in Korean are this poor student’s fault. I would like to be very clear that Sarah’s invaluable contribution made this presentation possible. If not for her, I would have made so many errors transcribing and understanding the Korean source texts that I would earn an “F.” She also deserves recognition for designing and organizing the beautiful slides you are about to see. Finally, I would like to thank you, our audience participants, for the help you are about to provide. 잘 부탁드립니다. Comparative Features of English and Korean Like English, Korean is a rich and subtle language with a long history; this is why I fell in love with it. But as you know, these two languages are very different in how they organize their speakers’ thoughts into clauses and sentences. English puts the verb before the object and uses prepositions, while Korean puts the verb after the object and uses postpositions. This

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fundamental difference, more than anything else, causes problems for the translator. Other major differences include the attention English pays to number and the attention Korean pays to levels of respect, but these create far fewer problems for our subtitlers. SVO vs. SOV prepositions vs. postpositions attention/indifference to number (sg./pl.) indifference/attention to social hierarchy modifying clauses/relative clauses 별에서 온 그대/My Love from the Stars Another tricky feature is the way the two languages create modifying clauses and combine clauses into sentences. When Korean says something like 별에서 온 그대, Star-from Coming You (the title of a popular drama), the translator must first completely reorganize the constituents into “you who came from star” before the polishing that we call “naturalizing.” Should we say a star, or the star, or the stars? Star alone will not do. Two Kinds of Beauty Before we proceed, a quick note on value judgments. As I said a moment ago, both languages are rich and beautiful in their own ways. But when we discuss our polishing strategies, I will often say that this or that proposed technique or strategy or image is “wrong.” Please understand that I mean it “doesn’t work in English.” Strategies that work fine in Korean, that may even be considered beautiful or prestigious, may be “wrong” in English, but they are not wrong objectively. Korean is not wrong to do things as it does. English: Germanic roots, hybridized with French, heavy borrowing from Latin, Greek Korean: Altaic(?) roots, heavy borrowing from Chinese (and recently from English) Fox Rain/Sun Shower For example, I may say that fox rain is wrong in English as a translation of 여우비 because no English speaker will understand it. We naturally say sun shower. In the same way, 해소나기 would be wrong in Korean. To each its own. Everyone please make sure you have a copy of the handouts. In each section, there are a few “test cases” without answers that we will discuss, followed by additional examples with answers supplied. You’re welcome to ask questions about those, of course, but we want to focus on the best examples, the ones at the top of each section. Konglish Let’s begin with a quick warmup on Konglish. As you know, Korean has recently borrowed a lot of English words, but the Koreans don’t always use them the way English speakers do. The subtitler or translator must avoid these traps, substituting appropriate English equivalents rather than the tempting English cognates.

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핸드폰 (hand phone?) → cell phone (UK mobile) 아파트 (apart?) → apartment 오피스텔 (officetel?) → studio apartment 나이트 (night?) → nightclub 룸살롱 (room salon?) → gentleman’s club 피시방 (PC 방) (PC room?) → Internet café 노트 (note?) → laptop 베란다 (veranda?) → porch, balcony 스펙 (spec?) → qualifications, résumé 아이덜 (idol?) → celeb 스킨십 (skinship?) → physical contact, physical intimacy 쿨! (cool?) → OK, deal, all right 화이팅! (fighting?) → good luck, go for it, break a leg, go get ’em! Now let’s turn to the major categories of errors that give our subtitlers the most trouble. Misplaced Adverbs The first one I’d like to look at is the misplaced adverb. Sometimes these are just awkward, and sometimes they actually change the meaning. Occasionally, they’re incomprehensible. English is happy to place adverbs at the end of the sentence, after the verb, and in such cases the stacking order is SVO, manner, place, time. On the other hand, when we place them at the beginning, the order is reversed: time, place, manner, SVO. The common thread is that adverbs of manner like to be close to the verb, and adverbs of time are perfectly happy looking on from a distance. One-word adverbs in cases like 공부 열심히 하다 = study hard don’t seem to create a lot of trouble, but adverbial phrases and clauses do. Here are three examples: 1) 따님이 사라지고 난후 전화를 건 남자의 몽타주입니다. After your daughter disappeared, this is the likeness rendering of the man who called. → This is the artist’s rendering of the man who called after your daughter disappeared. 2) 차에서 발견 됐을때, 그 사진을 꼭 쥐고 있더래요. When he was found in the car, they said he was clenching that picture. → They said when he was found in the car, he was clutching that picture. 3) 첫날부터 늦게까지 고생 많으셨습니다. From the first day, good job on the hard work till late at night. → Good job working hard till late at night right from your first day. In number 1), the subordinate clause after your daughter disappeared has been separated from the main verb called, so the English speaker naturally tries to attach it to the nearest verb, is, and that makes no sense.

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In number 2), the subordinate clause when he was found in the car has been separated from the main verb was clutching, so the English speaker naturally tries to attach it to the nearest verb, said, and that is misleading. In number 3), the adverbial phrase from the first day has been separated from the verb working hard, so the English speaker wonders whether it applies to the compliment overall (from the first day, I thought you were doing a good job…). This one’s a bit tricky because there’s an implicit main clause, I think…. The common trap here is that the subtitlers correctly reorder the constituents in the main clause, but forget to relocate the adverbial or subordinate clause, thus allowing it to become separated from its target. 혹시, 설마 Better as Modal Verbs The next category of errors I’d like to look at is the sentence adverbs 혹시 and 설마, which are often translated directly with words such as perhaps but usually work better in English as modal verbs or with happen to. 4) 혹시 애들 연락처는 모르십니까? Do you perhaps know the kids’ contact information? → Would you happen to know the kids’ contact information? 5) 혹시 베란다에서 뛰어 내린거예요? Did he perhaps jump off his veranda? → Could he have jumped off his balcony? 6) 설마 류정국한테 그 주사를 놓게 한거야? Did you perhaps have Ryu Jung Kuk inject the vaccine? → Could you have had Ryu Jung Kuk inject the vaccine? → You didn’t have Ryu Jung Kuk inject the vaccine, did you? 7) 그날 함께 근무했던 사람이, 혹시, 김석규씨였나요? That day, was the person working with you perhaps Kim Seok Gyu? → Could the person working with you that day have been Kim Seok Gyu? The first case, number 4), illustrates such a standard construction, would you happen to know…, that I would call it a cliché. Number 5) is a more typical translation with could conveying the sense of uncertainty. We could also use might here. Note that 베란다 is usually not veranda in American English—it’s almost always porch (at ground level) or balcony (on higher floors). In number 6), we have several options for 설마. I’ve given two options: the straightforward version with could, and a tag-question version. The straightforward version conveys uncertainty about the accuracy of the guess, while the version with the tag question focuses more on the speaker’s hope that he is wrong.

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Number 7) illustrates both 혹시 and the misplaced adverbial that day, which has been separated from working with you. Negative in First Clause Carries Over to Second Clause The next category of traps for the subtitler is compound Korean sentences where the first clause is a negative (뭐뭐뭐말고) and the main clause is the positive alternative (뭐뭐뭐해라, 하자, etc.). Unlike the Korean negative, which points backward only to the first clause, the English don’t points forward, and can easily be extended to the second clause. 8) 당황하지 말고, 통화를 길게 끌어주세요. Don’t be alarmed and draw out the call as long as possible. → Don’t be alarmed, draw out the call as long as possible. 9) 그건 불법이 아니라 편법. That isn’t illegal, but expedient. → That’s not illegal, it’s expedient. 10) 자동차 관리법에 걸려가지고 괜히 세금 물지 말고, 교체해요. Don’t get caught needlessly by the vehicle maintenance law and hurry up and change them. → Don’t get caught needlessly by the vehicle maintenance law, hurry up and change it. In the first case, number 8), a police officer is giving advice to someone about to take a call from a kidnapper. If we use and, the English listener extends the negative to the second clause, hearing don’t be alarmed and don’t draw out the call…. There are several options that are more natural in English: 1) Omit the word and, as we have done here and in number 10); 2) Substitute the word instead, which doesn’t work in number 8) or 10) but does in number 9); 3) Rephrase the first clause to eliminate the word not: Remain calm, and draw out the call…. Sometimes it’s correct to extend the negative to both clauses: Don’t tell me the answer and spoil the fun. Don’t tell me the answer, or even give me a hint. Don’t tell me the answer, (and) don’t even give me a hint. [said by a puzzle fan who wants to find the answer himself] Periphrastic Constructions with There Is/Are (1) The next class of awkwardnesses [wink] is the overuse of there is/there are when it’s not needed. Sometimes the subbers use it for possession (누구에게 있다 없다), and sometimes for impersonal constructions where English would naturally find and use a person as subject. English is very fond of active, personal constructions—we like people to make things happen. Passive, impersonal constructions are possible [wink], and there are times when they are just what the text needs, but in general they come across as bland, flaccid, and ineffective—like a dish without spice.

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11) 여기서는 남는게 시간이거든요. [in prison] Because there is nothing but time in here. → Because I have nothing but time in here. 12) 영천구 가양로 34, 사무실 안에서 여성의 비명소리가 난다는 신고가 들어왔다. From Yeongcheong District, address 34 Gayang Road, there was a report that there was a scream by a woman. → From 34 Gayang Road, Yeongcheong District, we have a report of a woman screaming. 13) 불행히도, 세상에 영원히 감추어질 진실은 없더라고요. Unfortunately, there aren’t any truths you can hide in this world. → Unfortunately, you can’t hide any truths in this world. 14) 저 하나 궁금한게 있는데요. There is something I’m curious about. → I’m curious about something. The first case, number 11), is a good example because logically the situation is one where the speaker has no control, not even influence. But even so, English prefers the active, personal construction. “It’s all about me.” In number 12), the police investigating a case are central, so the speaker wants to describe things from their perspective, not as outside observers. He and his colleagues are actively managing the situation: collecting information, analyzing it, selecting strategies, etc. In number 13), the speaker is quoting someone giving advice about how the world works. Here, the adviser describes the world from the perspective of the person navigating it, and makes that person the subject. And finally, in number 14), the speaker is actively seeking information. Whether you use be curious or wonder, the sentence must revolve around the speaker’s search. If you look at textbooks on writing for English speakers, they are relentless in stressing the importance of active, dynamic sentences. A person made something happen, it didn’t befall him. We grab our readers by the lapels and force them to heed us. We don’t even say 내 말 잘 들어 (heed my words), we say 날 잘 들어 (heed me). Periphrastic Constructions with There Is/Are (2) Here are a few more examples, focusing on the personalization of possession. In these, we want to make the person the active possessor, not a passive recipient. 15) 나같은 여자에게도 청순한 마음이라는게 있었구나 알게됐거든요. I found out that for even a woman like me there is an innocent heart too. → I found out that even a woman like me has an innocent heart too.

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16) 이정수에게 공범이 있다면 가능할 수도 있겠죠. If there is an accomplice to Lee Jeong Su, that might be possible. → If Lee Jeong Su has an accomplice, that might be possible. 17) 상점마다 CCTV 가 없거나 있어도 삭제가 됐어. The stores either don’t have any CCTV and if there were any, the footages were erased. → The stores either don’t have any security cameras, or if they did, the footage has been erased. We can sometimes use the construction for someone + there is something: There is a place for me in this company. With reason: There’s no reason for me to go all the way to Taiwan when I can buy it here. But these are not cases of possession, where have is strongly preferred. Even though Lee Jeong Su doesn’t own his accomplice, the relationship is close enough to possession that we prefer have. Streamlining (1) Nonnative speakers, and natives who are rushing to do a lot of translation in a short time, will often produce longwinded sentences that can be expressed better in more concise forms. Here are a few examples. 18) 밤만되면 공장을 지켜야 된다고, 잠도 못자고 그랬대요. When it became night they said that he was unable to sleep saying that he had to protect the factory. → They said he couldn’t sleep at night because he had to protect the factory. 19) 조사해 본 결과, 용의자 이동우와 피해자들과의 연관성은 제로예요. After investigating, the correlations between the culprit Lee Dong Woo and the victims are zero. → Investigation has revealed no correlation between the suspect Lee Dong Woo and the victims. 20) .. 부검은 불가능해 보이지만. … that it seems like an autopsy is impossible. → … that an autopsy seems impossible. 21) 물 흐름성 익사가 분명하구요. It’s definite that it’s water inhalation drowning. → It’s definitely water inhalation drowning. In the first case, number 18), we have a misplaced adverb—the inability to sleep belongs with the subject he, not with the speaker describing the situation. In number 19), the draft translation captures the time sequence of events, but neglects the causation that English speakers like so well. In number 20), English prefers to integrate seems into the main clause as an auxiliary verb, rather than create a nested clause. In number 21), English converts it’s definite into an adverb, eliminating the need to nest clauses.

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Streamlining (2) 22) 나 감기 아닐지도 몰라 It may not be that I have a cold. → I might not have a cold. → Maybe I don’t have a cold. 23) 이렇게까지 관심을 갖는 이유가 뭔가? What’s the reason that you’re taking this much interest in it? → Why are you taking so much interest in it? 24) 대체 그림을 남기고 사라진 이유가 뭘까요? What might the reason be for leaving the paintings and disappearing? → Why might she have left the paintings and disappeared? In number 22, there are two ways to eliminate the nested clause. Numbers 23) and 24) illustrate an especially common error: the reason that (Korean 이유) instead of the simple why. We found a lot of these in the rough subtitles. Although this construction is grammatical in English, it’s much rarer than the corresponding constructions in Korean. Miscellaneous (1) Finally, here are a few miscellaneous corrections I thought noteworthy. How would you solve them? 25) 여기가 어디라고 너 지금. Do you know where this place is? → Do you know where we are? 26) 잔돈은 됐어. I don’t need any change. → Keep the change. 27) 좋은 일에 쓰겠습니다. I will use it for good things. → I will put it to good use. Number 25) is another case of personalizing a situation. Numbers 26 and 27) are just everyday clichés.

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Miscellaneous (2) 28) a) 맞는거 같은데. a) It seems like it is. a) I think so.

b) 저도 그렇게 생각했어요. b) I think the same as well. b) I think so, too.

29) 나 저쯤에 세워줘. Stop the car over there for me. → Drop me off over there. 30) 찜질방 갈 돈도 없어. 오늘도 굶었는데. I don’t have money to go to the sauna. I had nothing to eat all day. → I can’t afford to go to the sauna. I had nothing to eat all day. Number 28) (both examples) is another case of personalizing a situation. Number 29) is an everyday cliché; we state the purpose more explicitly. Number 30) is an everyday cliché. Miscellaneous (3) 31) 설명해주세요. 그 약 왜 필요한건지. Please explain. Why is it that you need that medicine? → Please explain. Why do you need that medicine? 32) 저기에 누구랑 있는거냐고요. Who are you in there with? → Who do you have in there with you? 33) a) 한달 전부터 고장이라.. a) It’s been broken since a month ago… a) It’s been broken for a month…

b) 비워둔지 꽤 됐는데. b) It’s been quite a while since it’s been empty. b) It’s been empty for quite a while.

Number 31) is just streamlining. Number 32) is another case of personalizing a situation. In both versions of number 33), English has several ways of expressing -부터 and -까지. For example, we often want to say how long where Korean would say 언제부터 or 언제까지. The subtitlers often translate these phrases too literally. Miscellaneous (4) 34) 아무것도 모르는 눈치였어요. It seemed as though she knew nothing. → She seemed to know nothing.

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35) 아저씨, 사람 찾아주는 사람이지? Ajusshi, you’re someone who finds people right? → Mister, you find people, right? 36) 애들한테 믿음을 줄려고 무슨 수작 부린거야? Did she use some tricks to earn trust from the kids? → Did she use some tricks to gain the kids’ trust? Number 34) is personalizing again. Also note the placement of seems to avoid nesting clauses. Number 35) is streamlining. Number 36) is a vocabulary issue—earn suggests that the trust was deserved, but gain does not. In the context (as suggested by tricks), the speaker is discussing a woman who deceived the kids, so she did not deserve their trust. Miscellaneous (5) 37) 왜 그렇게 생각하지? Why do you think that way? → Why do[n’t] you think so? 38) a) 너 왜 이래? [disheveled] a) Why are you like this? a) What happened to you?

b) 손은 왜이래? [bandaged] b) Why is your hand like this? b) What happened to your hand?

39) 그새끼 가만두지 않을꺼야. I am not going to leave that bastard alone. → I will not leave that bastard alone. In number 37), both the positive and negative are possible, depending on the preceding context. For example: He’s not coming. Why don’t you think so?

vs.

He’s coming. Why do you think so?

In number 38), the correct translation depends on the surrounding context. If the speaker is complaining about the listener’s behavior, then of course Why are you being/acting like this? is entirely appropriate, as in the T-Ara song 왜 이러니? In number 39), will is more forceful, more determined. Miscellaneous (6) 40) 야 잠깐. 너 지금 장난하냐? Just a minute. Are you joking right now? → Just a minute. Are you kidding me?

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41) 아까는 저 때문에 많이 속상하셨죠? You were very upset because of me earlier, right? I made you very upset earlier, didn’t I? 42) 아, 팔 아파 죽겠네. Ah, my arms hurt to death. Ah, my arms are killing me! 43) 뮤지컬은 다음에 보자. Let’s watch the musical next time. Let’s see a musical another time. In number 40), 지금 doesn’t really contribute any temporal meaning; its main function is as an intensifier. In this sense it is often shifted to the end of the sentence (뭐 하는 거야 지금!?). The English progressive is present enough for our purpose, and right now is overkill. Number 41) is another case of the explicit statement of causation. Then once we make I the subject, the tag question flows naturally. Number 42) illustrates everyday clichés in both languages. In addition to this one, English can also say to be dying of something: I’m dying of thirst/curiosity/etc. Number 43) illustrates the tricky see/watch distinction—although watch is usually appropriate for intentional activities, see is more common when speaking of attendance at concerts and other entertainment events. Also, next time is too specific in English; we would normally be vague (나중에). Conclusion Well, I hope this has been fun. For me, this is easy because English is my native language and I’ve been writing and editing for a long time. But if you’re Korean, I hope we’ve given you some things to watch for that will be helpful. Thank you very much to all our audience participants, without whom this would not have been possible. In the time remaining, are there any more questions or comments? Our prepared remarks and handouts are available from the ATA website. You can also download the PowerPoint presentation from http://tinyurl.com/Naturalizing1 or http://tinyurl.com/Naturalizing2.

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LSP METRIX: HOW TO MAP A PATH TO THE NEXT LEVEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL MATURITY

Hélène Pielmeier Common Sense Advisory, Inc.

Abstract: What makes a language service provider more evolved than another? To enable suppliers with a culture of excellence to distinguish themselves, CSA Research developed a model to assess the organizational maturity of LSPs. Instead of chanting “quality, service, and price,” providers will learn how to make a more substantive statement about their evolved state. They can learn to map out a practical path to progress to a more advanced maturity stage characterized by fewer failures, predictable results, and higher profitability.

How do language service providers compare against each other? LSPs come in all shapes and sizes, yet no single element determines how evolved companies are. Although revenue is frequently used in comparisons, it alone is not enough of a metric to benchmark what a company is capable of delivering. The resulting variability begs for structure and clear definition, so CSA Research undertook the project of creating LSP MetrixTM, a capability maturity model for language service providers. It describes the journey that LSPs go through as they move from one stage of maturity to the next (see Figure 1). Note: CSA Research defines LSPs as translation and interpreting vendors consisting of two or more full-time employees. The LSP Metrix model does not address the maturity progression of freelancers.

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Understanding how LSPs actually work and learning what drives their growth goes beyond the theoretical value of building a maturity model. Such a model enables all stakeholders within and outside the language services industry to better understand the dynamics driving the language service business and the ability to respond to fundamental issues such as price pressure or technology usage. Thus, instead of chanting “quality, service, and price,” LSPs can leverage the model to make a more informed and understandable statement about how evolved they are as outsourcers of translation, interpreting, or localization. They can also map out a practical path to progress to a more advanced maturity stage characterized by fewer failures, predictable results, and higher profitability. The CSA Research Metrix model comprises 70 factors grouped under five dimensions: 1) business model, 2) business direction, 3) business development, 4) service delivery, and 5) resources. LSPs assessing their performance will determine which stage they’re at for each of the five dimensions, their average stage factoring all five dimensions, and their “baseline” stage. Based on our years of research and many interactions with LSPs, we define the baseline or operational stage of the company as the lowest stage level reached on any dimension. For example, even if an LSP performs at a high level on four of the five dimensions, but very low on the remaining dimension, that single low score defines the company’s baseline maturity stage. Why? An imbalance in operations drags down an LSP’s operations even if it shows much more advanced signs of maturity in other dimensions. We have found that the benefits of achieving a higher Metrix stage in one area are usually erased when another area operates at a lower maturity stage.

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Let’s take an example of how to evaluate a sample factor from business development dimension: the organizational model of the sales function. Who does the selling? Is it the owner, salespeople with experience selling language services, career salespersons from another field, or even recent graduates? How many people are on the team? What structure is in place in terms of team management, role distribution, and territory distribution? At LSPs at Stages 0 and 1, owners do all the selling, often with no more sales skills than a passion for language and company knowledge. Hiring the first salesperson usually occurs at Stage 2. Due to lack of experience with “hunting,” several false starts or outright failures are common. As the sales team grows, it still reports to the owner who manages them directly. At Stage 3, LSPs have the basic structure of a sales team with a dedicated manager. They begin to clearly define territories and responsibilities. By Stage 4 and 5, LSPs have large sales teams with several layers of management and clear roles. However, exceptions exist. LSPs that do all their business through a retail translation or ondemand interpreting site do not need a big salesforce to support growth. Instead, they need to show up very high on search engine rankings. What that means is that some LSP types have to analyze and modify certain factors for their individual situations – rating themselves more harshly on some to counterbalance rating themselves more softly on others. Either way, it is important to note that no single factor brings down the maturity assessment of an LSP. Another rating consideration is technology and standards adoption. The adoption of translation management systems and of certifications such as ISO 9001 or ISO 17100 might elevate the maturity of some LSPs whose business processes may otherwise may not be at the described maturity stage. These precipitators can give a biased view of the true performance of the organization. In those cases, an LSP benchmarking itself or a buy-side vendor manager should review the rationale behind the element: Does the company strategically exhibits the behaviors around that function or process or just uses it at a tactical level? The reality of the fragmented LSP market is that the large majority of vendors fall in Stages 0 and 1. Not every LSP can, will, or should reach Stage 5. And from those that move ahead, many choose to stay at Stage 3 – a phase characterized by the full control of operations and processes. LSPs should determine the value of reaching that next stage against the effort needed to progress to that next step. This includes reviewing elements such as profitability, growth, cash flow, or client satisfaction. Ultimately, the plan to move to the next stage and the ability to execute on that plan matters more than the current stage. To do that, companies should conduct a baseline assessment of their LSP Metrix stage by auditing the 70 factors in the model, looking at documented processes but also talking to various staff members about actual practices. They can then use the information to fix the areas that drag them down. LSPs should work on filling these gaps and only then outline a plan to what needs to be done to reach the next stage. Thereafter, they need to perform regular re-assessments of their maturity. Such reviews allow stakeholders to validate progress as well as areas that regressed due to common causes such as leadership changes, new service offerings, or drops in production capacity.

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SOLVING TERMINOLOGY PROBLEMS MORE QUICKLY WITH INTELLIWEBSEARCH Michael Farrell Freelance technical translator and transcreator, untenured lecturer at the IULM University (Milan, Italy), and qualified member of the Italian Association of Translators and Interpreters (AITI) Abstract: Without a time-saving tool, checking terms entails copying words to your Windows Clipboard repeatedly, opening your browser, opening the most appropriate online resources, pasting terms into search boxes, setting search parameters, clicking search buttons, analysing results, copying the best solutions back to the Clipboard, and then returning to your working environment and pasting in the results. This session examines some typical search problems translators face, looks at how they can be solved with a touch of "search engine theory", and explains how IntelliWebSearch can be used to save settings and perform searches literally at the press of a keyboard shortcut. 1.

HOW DID INTELLIWEBSEARCH COME ABOUT?

I wrote IntelliWebSearch for my own personal needs: I am a freelance translator and not a professional software developer. I designed it to solve a specific problem I had. I was translating a set of syllabuses for degree courses from Italian into English. The documents boiled down to a few introductory paragraphs followed by a list of various laws and theories of physics and mathematics. It was obviously extremely important to use the most standard name for each law and theory. So I found myself doing literally hundreds of terminology checks per page, which is of course extremely time-consuming. I quickly realized that I needed to find a way to semiautomate the terminology search process in order to complete the translation in a reasonable time and for my own sanity. So I immediately started looking around for a tool, but surprisingly I could not find anything similar to what I needed on the market. 2.

TERMINOLOGY RESEARCH BEFORE INTELLIWEBSEARCH

Without IntelliWebSearch, I had to select the term to look up in my translation environment and copy it to my PC Clipboard. It was then necessary to launch my browser and open the search engine, online dictionary or online encyclopaedia I wanted to use, sometimes a different one for each term or even several for the same term, if I was cross-checking. After that I had to paste the term into the search box in the web page, edit the search string if necessary, set the search parameters, click on the “search button” and wait for the result page to load. Seeing all this, one word comes immediately to mind: macro. However I could not write a MS Word macro because I was using the translation environment tool Déjà Vu X. So I chose an application-independent macro language that runs on Windows and compiled the script as a free-standing tool.

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3.

TERMINOLOGY RESEARCH WITH INTELLIWEBSEARCH

With IntelliWebSearch, the term search process becomes much simpler. You need to start, as before, by selecting some text in your favourite translation environment. Then you have to press Ctrl+Alt+B. You can of course change this shortcut key to anything you like. This calls up the IntelliWebSearch search window, where you can edit the search string if need be. For instance, you may want to add another keyword or change a plural to a singular. You then have to click the icon/button corresponding to the search you want to perform. If you do not want one of the icons/buttons displayed, you can always change the group (searches may be organized into groups). The icons/buttons may correspond to search engines, online encyclopaedias and online dictionaries, or even local dictionaries and encyclopaedias on CD-ROM or your hard drive. They may even correspond to the same search engine configured several times with different advanced settings and parameters. After selecting an on-line resource, your browser is launched and your chosen search engine, dictionary or encyclopaedia appears with your search results. If you choose a local resource instead, your local dictionary or encyclopaedia result window opens. 4.

DIRECT SEARCH SHORTCUTS

A particular search can also be done even more rapidly using a direct shortcut key. You start in the same way by selecting some text in your translation environment. However you then press a previously assigned shortcut key to skip the IntelliWebSearch search window entirely and display the results directly in your favourite search engine, online dictionary, online encyclopaedia or local resource. Obviously, to do this, each search configuration must be associated with a different shortcut key. 5.

RETURN SHORTCUT

The Return shortcut is a shortcut key used to copy any text selected in your browser or local dictionary to the Clipboard and return to your translation environment. The text may then be pasted into your translation environment using the usual Clipboard paste methods. In Version 3, you may set an optional command (single keystroke) which is simulated immediately before leaving the browser or local dictionary with the Return shortcut (e.g. Alt+F4 to close the application). In Version 5, you can set this command to close the same number of browser tabs as IntelliWebSearch has opened up to that moment, to close the browser or local dictionary entirely or to send any series of keystrokes. In Version 5, you may also set an optional command (series of keystrokes) which is simulated immediately after returning to your translation environment (e.g. Paste).

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6.

GROUPSEARCH/PLURISEARCH

6.1.

VERSION 3

PluriSearch is a set of any number of searches, freely chosen from all those saved in the program (Search Settings Window), that may be launched almost simultaneously using a direct shortcut key (Ctrl+Alt+Shift+B by default). GroupSearch is a button on the Search Window that launches all the searches belonging to a particular Group almost simultaneously. There is a maximum of ten searches in any given Group and GroupSearch cannot be launched using a direct shortcut key. The number of Groups is also limited to a maximum of five. 6.2.

VERSION 5

A Group is a set of any number of searches, freely chosen from all those saved in the program (All Items Group), that may be launched almost simultaneously using a button on the Search Window (GroupSearch) or a direct shortcut key. In other words, there is absolutely no difference between GroupSearch and PluriSearch in version 5. In fact, when you upgrade from version 3, a new Group is created in version 5 called Pluri, which contains all the searches you had associated with PluriSearch in version 3. There is also no limit to the number of Groups and GroupSearches you can set up. 7.

HOW DOES THE TOOL KNOW WHICH SEARCHES I WANT TO DO?

Version 3 comes with a New User’s Starter Pack of settings for over 80 search engines, dictionaries and encyclopaedias in various languages. Hopefully there is something useful for everyone. When you install version 5, on the other hand, it will ask you if you want to convert your old version 3 settings or download a New User’s Starter Pack, which will be different according to the source and target languages you choose. So it will only include settings that might be useful to you. There is also a settings database on the IntelliWebSearch website with an even greater number of search configurations and resources. Version 5 is able to load search configurations from the website directly from inside the tool itself. If you cannot find the settings you need, you have to write them yourself. It takes a few minutes, but only needs doing once. In any case, there is also a Wizard to help you.

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8.

STEP-BY-STEP WIZARD/QUICK WIZARD

The Wizard is designed to guide you in setting up new searches with on-line dictionaries, encyclopaedias and search engines. Version 5 features two Wizards: the Quick Wizard for simple sites, where all you have to do is type in a keyword and hit the search button, and the Step-By-Step Wizard for complex sites, where you have to set parameters before you launch the search (e.g. source and target languages). 9.

LOCALIZE AS YOU GO

IntelliWebSearch Version 3 comes with user interfaces in English, Catalan, Czech, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish, thanks to the help of volunteer localizers. IntelliWebSearch Version 5, on the other hand, is probably the first program in the world users can localize into their own language as they use it. Just press F7 when one of the windows is open and start localizing. Alternatively you can export/import all the interface messages in XLIFF format and localize them in your favourite localization/translation environment tool. 10.

WHERE CAN I FIND INTELLIWEBSEARCH?

IntelliWebSearch has its own website (www.intelliwebsearch.com). You can also follow IntelliWebSearch on Facebook, Twitter and other social media, and there is even a peer-to-peer users’ group on Yahoo! Groups. 11.

ONLINE HELP

If you have any problems, online help is available: just press F1 when any IntelliWebSearch window is active, or choose help from the tray icon menu. 12.

FREEWARE

IntelliWebSearch version 3 is freeware, but not open source. Version 5, released on 27 July 2015, is commercial software. The freeware version will continue to be available from the website, although it is no longer developed. 13.

WEBOGRAPHY

Farrell, M. (2015): “Comparison between version 3 and version 5”, IntelliWebSearch, www.intelliwebsearch.com/version-5/upgrade/

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ANACPEDIA: ONLINE DICTIONARIES – AVIATION TERMINOLOGY IN PORTUGUESE, ENGLISH AND SPANISH Fernanda Alves e Silva National Civil Aviation Agency – ANAC/Brazil Abstract: The National Civil Aviation Agency – ANAC/Brazil is the aviation authority responsible for aviation regulation and inspection in the country. English is the language of aviation. Brazil speaks Portuguese as the official language, what leads aviation professionals to use both English and Portuguese in their daily work, searching for translations and definitions to develop their duties appropriately. Spanish is also very used in Brazil as the country is located in South America where the majority of the states speak Spanish. A terminological resource involving these three languages is then needed and useful for different students and professionals, such as aviation personnel, translators and teachers, to name just a few. For this reason, ANAC has developed a free source of research available at http://www2.anac.gov.br/anacpedia/, composed of Portuguese, English and Spanish dictionaries, first presented for the ATA public during the 52nd annual conference in 2011, when ANACpedia was available for ANAC personnel only. In this paper, I intend to focus on the most recent improvements, especially in what concerns the design of a unified corpus, the use of software for concordance researches and frequency of occurrences of terms and the classification of terms in subareas. I will also indicate future intentions for the establishment of conceptual relationships between entries, selection of textual proofs, use in specialized discourse and publication of a monolingual aviation dictionary in Portuguese, an English-Spanish/Spanish-English dictionary and a list of aviation acronyms in Portuguese. Statistics of online accesses will be briefly presented. 1.

INTRODUCTION

The subject of this article has to take into account the context in which it belongs, that is the Brazilian civil aviation regulation and inspection, under ANAC’s responsibility. The Agency’s mission and vision are to ensure all Brazilians safety and excellence in Civil Aviation and to be a reference for Civil Aviation safety and development worldwide. Our values: We seek to return the investment of our main shareholder: the society. We reject the intervention of any interest other than the public interest. We perform our duties with the highest level of ethics and transparency. We value people and meritocracy. We encourage innovation. We are proud to work at the Brazilian Civil Aviation Agency. Aviation is our passion. ANAC deals with a variety of areas within aviation, the principal ones being Airport Infrastructure, Operations, Air Services, Economic Regulation of Airports, Airworthiness and International Relations.

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The Linguistics Office of the Training Branch, under the Department of People Management, is responsible for ANACpedia and it develops other activities involving languages as well, such as aviation English courses and evaluations of proficiency in Spanish and English. The Linguistics Office was presented with the challenge of developing a free, online terminology resource, which could offer aviation terms and acronyms with equivalents in other languages, definitions, synonyms and other linguistic information considering the needs of a variety of different users within the aviation area and, statistics proved later on, from outside the aviation world. In this paper, I will focus on the most recent improvements developed by the staff in consonance with the needs of ANACpedia users and on the enrichment of information available with the use of a software for automatic extraction of linguistic and terminological data. Statistics of accesses through the Internet will be briefly presented, especially with emphasis on the variety of users from different regions of the world. In addition, I will present future intentions such as the publication of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and a list of acronyms in Portuguese. 2.

BACKGROUND

2.1

ANACpedia in 2011

ANACpedia was available on the Intranet of the Agency in 2011 and on the Internet in 2013. During the 52nd American Translators Association Annual Conference, in Boston, 2011, ANACpedia was presented and I talked about the staff involved, motivation, methodology of work, linguistic information researched, intended technical cooperation agreements, dictionaries and number of entries. Staff was composed of language professionals and librarians. The main motivations in the beginning were to standardize translations of aviation terms from English and Spanish into Portuguese, for use in daily translation activities, and to standardize definitions. Relations between terms, presence of contexts of use and the use of tools for carrying out corpus linguistics research, for example, were not the focus. Information available at the time involved equivalent terms in Portuguese, definitions and bibliographical sources. Arrangements for a technical cooperation agreement with a Brazilian university were initiated, but not concluded. Dictionaries and entries available in 2011: English-Portuguese/Portuguese-English: 1900 terms; SpanishPortuguese/Portuguese-Spanish: 1700 terms; Acronyms in English: 2370. 3.

ANACPEDIA IN 2015

ANACpedia has been available on the Internet since 2013. The staff managing the dictionaries today is also composed of a language professional and a librarian, counting with three trainees who study Languages and/or Translation at the university. Although chiefs of sectors within ANAC have tried to expand the team, no professionals in the area of languages, linguistics or translation were hired.

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A partnership with the Brazilian Department of Airspace Control started in 2014. A great part of recent researches and improvements has been developed due to the work performed by ANAC and DECEA in partnership. The difference regarding the method of researching terms, acronyms, definitions, equivalents and other relevant information if we compare studies developed in 2011 and researches developed nowadays is that we have structured a corpus for each language involved – Portuguese, English and Spanish – and have been using them through a software for automatic extraction of information. We can say that we have been using a methodology subsidized by corpus linguistic research emphasizing the search for relations between terms, between acronyms and between terms and acronyms, proofs of use and classification of entries in subareas of the major aviation area. The group is prioritizing researches for enrichment of dictionaries and list of acronyms available in place of increases in the numbers of entries. Currently, the English-Portuguese/PortugueseEnglish dictionary has around 4000 entries; the list of aviation acronyms in English has around 4000 acronyms; and the Spanish-Portuguese/Portuguese-Spanish dictionary has around 2000 entries. New dictionaries and a list of acronyms are also under development and the staff intends to publish them this year: an English-Spanish/Spanish-English dictionary containing around 740 terms; a Portuguese dictionary with around 2900 terms; and a list of aviation acronyms in Portuguese with around 380 entries. 4.

TECHNICAL COOPERATION AGREEMENT – DETAILS

In November 2013, the team was contacted by two Translators of the Brazilian Department of Airspace Control who were highly interested in working together with the group for providing terminological data related to air space control, area in which they are specialists. DECEA Translators informed that similar initiatives were started within the Department, but interrupted due to a variety of factors. Professionals from ANAC and DECEA noticed that a partnership for developing terminological researches and products would be very appropriate and useful. This way, the now called ANACDECEA working group for ANACpedia has started to meet on a regular basis since February 2014 and the parties intend to sign an official Technical Cooperation Agreement. The aforementioned working group has been participating in very productive weekly meetings during which professionals review terminological data available, research related (RT) and new terms, discuss about technical matters as to solve doubts or to send them to specialists for resolution and elaborate and discuss about adequate classification of terms in subareas, among other things. All the information researched during meetings is gathered and recorded in terminological records for future inclusion in ANACpedia products by ANAC.

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5.

TERMINOLOGICAL RECORDS

ANAC-DECEA working group for ANACpedia structures the results of the weekly work in documents in Word format called terminological records. They aim at recording information discussed and validated during the meetings (or data to be researched in the future) in order to be included in ANACpedia by ANAC personnel, who control the software for terminology management. Terminological records are precious sources of information as background on the discussions, validations and doubts are registered. They are preferably structured in accordance with the order in which information will be included in ANACpedia, considering the possibilities offered by the terminology management software used by the team. 6.

CORPUS

ANACpedia team has structured three corpora, one for each language involved: Portuguese, English and Spanish, composed by at around 27 million words. It is important to mention that, especially for the English language, a great number of sources available on the market, such as aviation dictionaries, glossaries, lists of terms and lists of acronyms have been used, but are not included in the electronic English corpus for obvious reasons. ANACpedia corpora is composed of a great variety of sources of research, in special publications of: the Brazilian civil aviation authority (ANAC); the Brazilian aeronautical authority; the International Civil Aviation Organization – ICAO (a specialized United Nations Agency for aviation); international aviation authorities (FAA, JAA, EUROCONTROL, JEPPESEN, Aviation Authority of Australia etc.); and the aeronautical products industry. Technical documents used in daily activities, the Internet and interactions with specialists have been largely used as sources of information. ANAC and airspace control publications are available on the Internet, at http://www2.anac.gov.br/biblioteca/biblioteca2.asp and http://publicacoes.decea.gov.br/, with the exception of publications classified as restricted. 7.

SUBAREAS

Subareas can be briefly defined as specific areas hierarchically subordinated to a major area, which, in our case, is aviation. Subareas have been researched, defined, listed, and included in ANACpedia so we can classify terms and acronyms according to their frequency in the contexts of use. The classification of entries in subareas of aviation enrich the dictionaries considerably and improves the quality of results for users, helping them to understand definitions and concepts better. Subareas were not always present in ANACpedia. Although we had a kind of internal classification since the beginning, we had not made subareas available for users until 2014, as it

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is a very hard task to determine and define subareas for entry classification, especially considering aviation as a complex field. The team found that, although this is a very complex work, it was necessary to consolidate some subareas even to help the team to take decisions about synonyms and contexts, for example. An entry may have different meanings according to the subareas where they may occur. The statement of Bononno (2000, page 651) supported the decision taken by the group: “Conventional technical dictionaries, at least the better ones, often provide labels to indicate the field of application or domain for a headword.” For a better development of our research, we have developed a list of subareas and a definition for each of them. We understand that a definition for each subarea included and prepared based on dictionaries and other sources, helps the work of classification of terms and acronyms. 8.

CORPUS LINGUISTICS RESEARCH

Since the first use of AntConc software (Concordance), it was possible to identify how useful results the software would offer. It was noticed that immediate results would open up new possibilities for researches on related, narrow (NT) and broader terms (BT), proofs of use and subareas, to name just a few. In this item, I will detail two examples: one showing the improvements on a term resulting from the use of AntConc; and a term researched with the use of the automatic extraction tool since the beginning. Terms used as examples in English and Portuguese are aerodrome/aeródromo and cockpit voice recorder (CVR)/gravador de voz na cabine de comando. 8.1

Aerodrome/aeródromo

The term aerodrome is presented in the English-Portuguese dictionary with the following information: definition, source, two additional notes, subarea and the equivalent term in Portuguese – aeródromo, as can be seen below.

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Picture 1 – aerodrome Considering aerodrome a term widely used in aviation, we can affirm that there is a variety of related terms linked to aerodrome, which are not listed in the term record available for users, as a software for automatic research was not used at the time. Neither related terms nor proofs of use in real contexts, broader terms or narrow terms, for example, were available. If we look at picture 2, which shows part of the research using AntConc (Concordance), we notice that the software offers a list of related and narrow terms for aerodrome, and this considering only a small part of the results.

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Picture 2 – AntConc (Concordance) results for aerodrome (RT, NT) Picture 3 below shows proofs of use of the term aerodrome, in real contexts, offered by AntCon (Concordance).

Picture 3 – AntConc (Concordance) results for aerodrome (proofs of use)

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For aeródromo, equivalent in Portuguese for aerodrome, conclusions are the same. The original research indicated a definition, a source, three additional notes, a subarea and the equivalent term in English (aerodrome). However, neither related terms nor proofs of use in real contexts, broader terms or narrow terms, for example, were available. If we consider aeródromo one of the most used terms in aviation, the lack of information aforementioned does not enrich data available for users. The next picture shows aeródromo available for users before the use of an automatic tool for linguistic research.

Picture 4 – aeródromo The following illustration shows the possibilities of related terms and narrow terms offered by AntConc (Concordance) for aeródromo.

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Picture 5 – AntConc (Concordance) results for aeródromo (RT, NT) Picture 6 below shows proofs of use of the term aeródromo, in real contexts, offered by AntCon (Concordance).

Picture 6 – AntConc (Concordance) results for aeródromo (proofs of use)

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8.2 Cockpit voice recorder (CVR)/gravador de voz na cabine de comando Cockpit voice recorder (CVR) was researched in the English and Portuguese corpora for inclusion in ANACpedia and so the automatic research made it possible the gathering of important terminological information: definition, sources, two additional notes, proof of use, subarea, related term and the equivalent in Portuguese – gravador de voz na cabine de comando, as below.

Picture 7 – AntConc (Concordance) results for cockpit voice recorder (CVR) The term flight data recorder was found as related to cockpit voice recorder (CVR) in the corpora, and so the staff proceeded to researches on the RT.

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Picture 8 – AntConc (Concordance) results for flight data recorder (RT) When searching for information about the RT flight data recorder, we found two synonyms: black box and data recorder, which originated the information shown in the next two pictures.

Picture 9 – AntConc (Concordance) synonym for RT flight data recorder

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Picture 10 – AntConc (Concordance) synonym for RT flight data recorder For gravador de dados de voo, equivalent in Portuguese for cockpit voice recorder (CVR), the richness of information resulting from the search using AntConc (Concordance) can be listed as well: synonym, definitions, sources, subarea and related term.

Picture 11 – AntConc (Concordance) results for gravador de dados de voo

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The same way that happened during researches on cockpit voice recorder (CVR), the term gravador de voz na cabine de comando was presented in the Portuguese corpus as RT of gravador de dados de voo, this way leading to another semantic relation, improving information available.

Picture 12 – AntConc (Concordance) results for gravador de voz na cabine de comando (RT) It can be concluded that researches with the use of a software for automatic extraction of data proved to be richer, more efficient and effective, as they do not only provide information promptly, but also lead the researcher to establish linguistic and semantic relations between terms, between acronyms and between terms and acronyms. The mentioned relations improve the quality of the terminological product in consonance with its main objective: to offer users the most comprehensible information as possible. 9.

STATISTICS

Since January 2014, statistics of accesses have been monitored as we aim at verifying access rates in different periods. In addition, we would like to know the origin of accesses, that is, from which countries users have been accessing ANACpedia. Other specifications such as geographical regions in Brazil and Internet browsers used may also be monitored. Based on the statistics available, we are positively surprised as the number of accesses surpassed the expected. The variety of countries accessing the dictionaries and list of acronyms was also a good surprise as it corroborates that ANACpedia is an useful tool for a varied audience, especially aviation professionals and translators in many countries, not only in Brazil.

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Picture 13 shows the total number of accesses (13.752) from April 29 to August 12, 2015, access per page and time spent on each specific web link.

Picture 13 – number of accesses from April 29 to August 12, 2015 The next pictures show part of the Google Analytics statistical search for countries that accessed ANACpedia from March to April 2015. It is important to mention that in only one month, users from twenty different countries accessed the dictionaries and list of acronyms.

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Picture 14 – countries that accessed ANACpedia from March to April 2015

Picture 15 – countries that accessed ANACpedia from March to April 2015

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10.

FINAL REMARKS

ANACpedia allows endless possibilities for the development of actions, activities, works, new dictionaries and databases, ontologies, classification systems, domain trees, etc., not to mention academic studies on the project. Therefore, given the numerous possibilities, it is important to plan actions in order to set priorities, while considering results in the medium and long term. As next steps, the team intends to develop a monolingual dictionary in Portuguese, a list of aviation acronyms in Portuguese, and two bilingual dictionaries: an English-Spanish/SpanishEnglish and a French-Portuguese/Portuguese-French dictionary. In addition, continuous review and improvement of dictionaries and list of acronyms available is constant in our daily activities for quality assurance. The celebration of Technical Cooperation Agreements is also desired. 11.

REFERENCES

1. ANAC’s Training Web Page https://sistemas.anac.gov.br/capacitacao/ in August 6th, 2013. 2. ANAC’s Web Page http://www2.anac.gov.br/portal/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?sid=330 in August 5th, 2013. 3. ANTHONY, Laurence. AntConc (Windows, Macintosh OS X, and Linux): build 3.4.3. Tokyo: Waseda University, september, 17th, 2014. Available in: http://www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc/releases/AntConc343/help.pdf Acess on: July 24th, 2015. 4. BONONNO, R. Terminology for translators: an implementation of ISO 12620. Meta, XLV, 4, 2000. 5. BRASIL. Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil. ANACpédia. Available in: http://www2.anac.gov.br/anacpedia.

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MANUAL DE DIALECTOLOGÍA HISPÁNICA: CASTELLANO VERSUS ESPAÑOL Andre Moskowitz*

Palabras clave: Variación lingüística, dialectología hispánica, sociolingüística, castellano, español.

Citas emblemáticas a modo de epígrafes esotéricos o prolegómeno La lengua Castellana que, por usarse en la mayor y mejor parte de España, suelen comúnmente llamar Española los extranjeros, en nada cede a las más cultivadas con los afanes del arte y del estudio. Real Academia Española, 1739, Diccionario de la lengua castellana (Diccionario de autoridades). Se llama lengua castellana (y con menos propiedad española) la que se habla en Castilla y que con las armas y las leyes de los castellanos pasó a la América, y es hoy el idioma común de los estados hispanoamericanos. Andrés Bello, 1847, Gramática de la lengua castellana destinada al uso de los americanos. A nuestra lengua, la más elegante y sonora, la más armoniosa de las modernas, le ha tocado su época de infortunio bajo la influencia de la irrupción neológica; y es el galicismo la plaga que, desfigurando el moderno castellano, ha marcado la peor de sus decadencias. Marco Fidel Suárez, 1874, Anuario, Tomo I, Academia Colombiana de la Lengua. No queráis llamar lengua española a la lengua castellana, frase malsonante y rara vez usada por nuestros clásicos, que siempre se preciaron de escribir en castellano. Tan lengua española es la castellana como la catalana y la portuguesa. Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, 1880, La ciencia española.

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Pero hay muchos que nos combaten por razones de patriotismo, y es preciso decirles que los galleguistas no queremos más que una cosa: que el gallego, sino en lo oficial, sea, por lo menos, tan español como el castellano. Y con esto ya queda dicho que no somos separatistas, porque si separatismo viene de separar, separatista será el que no quiera que el gallego sea también un idioma español. Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao, 1931, Sobre la lengua gallega (Intervención en las Cortes Constituyentes, p. 47). La expresión, repetida desde antiguo, “español, o más propiamente castellano”, y sobre todo, el que durante doscientos años la Academia haya dado al idioma en los títulos de sus libros el nombre exclusivo de castellano ha llevado al ánimo de muchos profesores y gente de pluma la idea de que el uso de estos nombres se tiene que decidir desde los conceptos de lo correcto y lo incorrecto. Y no son pocos los que, alternando ambos nombres en la conversación, tienen el cuidado de escribir sólo castellano por más propio. En unos esta disposición es no más que sentida; en otros llega a ser razonada. Desde que la Academia ha dejado castellano por español algunos maestros y profesores enseñan a sus alumnos que español es lo más correcto; otros, ultraacademicistas, piensan que la Academia se ha salido en esto de la ortodoxia, y siguen prefiriendo castellano como lo más propio. Amado Alonso, 1943, Castellano, español, idioma nacional. Unas enmiendas proponen este despojo inmediato: son las que piden que se suprima netamente el término «castellano» y sea sustituido simplemente por el término «español». Otras enmiendas proponen el despojo más lentamente: son las que piden que al término «castellano» se una el término «española». Pero no nos engañemos; si se declaran sinónimos en la Constitución ambos términos, la desaparición, más o menos próxima, del término «lengua castellana» será un hecho. Los argumentos en favor de despojar al pueblo castellano de la denominación que es su orgullo, a nuestro entender, no justifican tal despojo. Es cierto que en la creación de la lengua castellana han intervenido aportaciones de todas las lenguas habladas en la Península, y, por tanto, también del portugués, como lo es que también ha recibido aportaciones del árabe, del francés, del italiano e incluso de las lenguas precolombinas de América. Pero, ¿es que un fenómeno parecido no se da en todas las demás lenguas que se hablan en España y que se hablan en el mundo? Es cierto que la lengua castellana se habla hoy en toda España, pero este no es argumento suficiente para modificar su denominación, porque no olvidemos que se habla por muchos millones más de personas, en territorios que un día fueron de España. Los ciudadanos españoles que hablan castellano van en camino de ser muy pronto sólo el 10 por ciento de los ciudadanos de todo el mundo que hablarán castellano, especialmente en América; no lo olvidemos. Entonces, ¿por qué no llamar a la lengua castellana, ya desde ahora, lengua hispano-americana? La solución que se propone es la solución mediocre, es quedarse a la mitad del camino. […] Pero, ¿es que alguien pretende, por ejemplo, que la lengua inglesa se denomine lengua británica porque se habla en toda la Gran Bretaña?

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Es cierto que en muchos departamentos de filología del extranjero se la denomina lengua española, pero mucho más cierto es que aquí, en el territorio de España, la inmensa mayoría de los ciudadanos la denominamos lengua castellana desde hace siglos. ¿No sabemos, por tanto, atenernos aquí al uso continuado y general del término castellano, y no al que puedan utilizar los departamentos de filología del extranjero? ¿Debemos, pues, en la Constitución subordinarnos a lo que hacen las universidades extranjeras? Se han presentado textos históricos del ayer en favor de la supresión del término castellano, pero todos sabemos, no vamos a olvidarlo, que pueden presentarse aquí tantos o más que dicen lo contrario. Finalmente, esta enmienda, tal como hizo ya observar en las Cortes Constituyentes de 1931 el escritor mallorquín Gabriel Alomar, es una enmienda fomentadora del separatismo. Por esto su aprobación será aplaudida por los separatistas de Cataluña, como creo que lo será por los de Euskadi y de Galicia. Esta enmienda propone oficializar lo que desde siempre han hecho los separatistas de Cataluña al denominar a la lengua castellana lengua española, oponiéndola así a la lengua catalana, como oponen España a Cataluña. Senador Josep Benet i Morell, 1978, Cortes / Diario de Sesiones del Senado / Comisión de Constitución, Sesión número 3, celebrada en Madrid, el martes, 22 de agosto de 1978. En la discusión de la Constitución republicana de los días 17 y 18 de septiembre de hace unos cuarenta y siete años, un grupo de intelectuales quiso sustituir «castellano» por «español», pero, tras las votaciones, se mantuvo en el texto de la Constitución republicana la expresión «lengua castellana». Todos nos esforzamos para hacer una Constitución que en el referéndum puedan votar afirmativamente todos los pueblos que integran el Estado español, y esto porque en ella vean reconocidos sus legítimos derechos. Y han de saber Sus Señorías que, respecto al problema de las lenguas nacionales, no castellanas, todos somos extremadamente sensibles, debido a la represión a que estas lenguas y culturas han estado sometidas durante estos largos años de la Dictadura franquista. La expresión «el español es la lengua oficial del Estado» no ayuda, sino todo lo contrario, al respeto y convivencia entre los pueblos de distintas lenguas y culturas del Estado. En una Constitución española, en la que quepamos todos, han de tener cabida todas las lenguas y culturas, y no puede una de ellas, aunque sea numéricamente la más hablada y goce de los privilegios del poder y de los medios de comunicación social, dominar por extensión y confundir su ámbito con todas las demás. Reconocemos que el castellano es una lengua hablada por más de 300 millones de personas, con una indiscutible incidencia, importantísima, en la cultura universal, pero pedimos que reconozcan Sus Señorías que, pese a todas estas características que nos enorgullecen, no es nuestra lengua. La presencia de los Senadores catalanes en esta Cámara no tendría sentido si no fuera integradora, en busca de una armonía entre los pueblos del Estado. La modificación emprendida por la Comisión e incorporada al dictamen rompe esta armonía y puede tener graves efectos desintegradores en el futuro. Senadora Maria Rúbies i Garrofé, 1978, Cortes / Diario de Sesiones del Senado / Sesión Plenaria número 33, celebrada en Madrid, el martes, 26 de septiembre de 1978.

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Para todos los hombres y mujeres de nuestra lengua, la experiencia de pertenecer a una comunidad lingüística está unida a otra: esa comunidad se extiende más allá de las fronteras nacionales. Trátese de un argentino o de un español; de un chileno o de un mexicano, todos sabemos, desde nuestra niñez, que nuestra lengua nacional es también la de otras naciones; y hay algo más y no menos decisivo: nuestra lengua nació en otro continente, en España, hace muchos siglos. El castellano no sólo trasciende las fronteras geográficas sino las históricas, se hablaba antes de que nosotros, los hispanoamericanos, tuviésemos existencia histórica definida. En cierto modo, la lengua nos fundó o al menos hizo posible nuestro nacimiento como nación. Sin ella, nuestros pueblos no existirían o serían algo muy distinto a lo que son. El español nació en una región de la península ibérica y su historia, desde la Edad Media hasta el siglo XVI, fue la de una nación europea. Todo cambió con la aparición de América en el horizonte de España. El español del siglo XX no sería lo que es sin la influencia creadora de los pueblos americanos con sus diversas historias, psicologías y culturas. El castellano fue trasplantado a tierras americanas hace ya cinco siglos, y se ha convertido en la lengua de millones de personas. Ha experimentado cambios inmensos y, sin embargo, sustancialmente sigue siendo el mismo. El español del siglo XX, el que se habla y se escribe en Hispanoamérica y en España es muchos españoles, cada uno distinto y único, con su genio propio; no obstante, es el mismo en Sevilla, Santiago, La Habana. No es muchos árboles, es un solo árbol pero inmenso, con un follaje rico y variado, bajo el que verdean y florecen muchas ramas y ramajes. Cada uno de nosotros, los que hablamos español, es una hoja de ese árbol. ¿Pero realmente hablamos nuestra lengua? Más exacto sería decir que ella habla a través de nosotros. Los que hoy hablamos castellano somos una palpitación en el fluir milenario de nuestra lengua. […] La lengua es más vasta que la literatura. Es su origen, su manantial y su condición misma de existencia; sin lengua no habría literatura. El castellano contiene a todas las obras que se han escrito en nuestro idioma, desde las canciones de gesta y los romances, a las novelas y poemas contemporáneos; también a las que mañana escribirán unos autores que aún no nacen. Muchas naciones hablan el idioma castellano y lo identifican como su lengua maternal; sin embargo, ninguno de esos pueblos tiene derechos de exclusividad, y menos aún de propiedad. La lengua es de todos y es de nadie, ¿Y las normas que la rigen? Sí, nuestra lengua, como todas, posee un conjunto de reglas, pero esas reglas son flexibles y están sujetas a los usos y a las costumbres: el idioma que hablan los argentinos no es menos legítimo que el de los españoles, los peruanos, los venezolanos o los cubanos. Aunque todas esas hablas tienen características propias, sus singularidades y sus modismos se resuelven al fin en unidad. El idioma vive en perpetuo cambio y movimiento; esos cambios aseguran su continuidad, y ese movimiento, su permanencia. Gracias a sus variaciones, el español sigue siendo una lengua universal, capaz de albergar muchas singularidades y el genio de muchos pueblos. […] El lenguaje está abierto al universo y es uno de sus productos prodigiosos, pero igualmente por sí mismo es un universo. Si queremos pensar, vislumbrar siquiera el universo, tenemos que hacerlo a través del lenguaje, en nuestro caso, a través del español. La palabra es nuestra morada, en ella nacimos y en ella moriremos; ella nos reúne y nos da conciencia de lo que somos y de nuestra historia; acorta las distancias que nos separan y atenúa las diferencias que nos oponen. Nos junta pero no nos aísla, sus muros son transparentes y a través de esas paredes diáfanas vemos al mundo y conocemos a los hombres que hablan en otras lenguas. A veces logramos entendernos con ellos y así nos enriquecemos espiritualmente. Nos reconocemos, incluso, en lo que nos separa del resto de los hombres. Estas diferencias nos muestran la increíble diversidad de la especie humana y simultáneamente su unidad esencial. Descubrimos así una verdad simple y doble: primero, somos una comunidad de pueblos que habla la misma lengua y segundo, hablarla es una 4 55

manera, entre otras, de ser hombre. La lengua es un signo, el signo mayor de nuestra condición humana. Octavio Paz, 1997, Primer Congreso Internacional de la Lengua Española, celebrado en Zacatecas (México) del 7 al 11 de abril de 1997. Los lingüistas también preferimos aplicar castellano a la modalidad del español de Castilla. Sin embargo, hay quien prefiere llamar castellano a la lengua general, por razones muy distintas: en Castilla, sin ir más lejos, lo prefieren porque es la denominación histórica y tradicional; en las áreas bilingües de España prefieren también castellano porque provenía del vecino Reino de Castilla, ya que, una vez constituida España como nación, las demás variedades también pudieron considerarse como españolas; en América del Sur se usa castellano por tradición y porque español se identifica exclusivamente con España. En fin, existen muchas razones que explican una y otra preferencia. Los andaluces […] consideran que su modo de hablar no es “castellano” —es decir, de Castilla— sino una modalidad del español. En cualquier caso, español y castellano pueden utilizarse como sinónimos. Francisco Moreno Fernández, 2009, La lengua española en su geografía. El español, o con mayor certeza, el castellano pese a la necia postura de la RAE, como las otras lenguas romances, es la consecuencia del desarrollo independiente del latín hablado, o latín vulgar, que desde el siglo III, tras el desmembramiento del Imperio romano fue divergiendo de las otras variantes del latín que se hablaban en las distintas provincias del antiguo Imperio, dando lugar mediante una lenta evolución a las distintas lenguas neolatinas. Rodolfo Marcial Cerrón-Palomino, 2010, >> no es castellano, sino español).» || «Creo que las preferencias han cambiado mucho en estos últimos 15 años, en consonancia con la globalización. Me parece que el uso de español es importado, personalmente me resisto a usarlo.» || «En primaria y secundaria – Lengua; en la universidad y los institutos terciarios – Lengua Española. Creo que para nombre de la asignatura las preferencias han cambiado. Creo recordar que para la generación de mis padres, el nombre de la asignatura se conocía como Castellano o Español. Para el nombre del idioma [en cambio] las preferencias siguen siendo las mismas.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado: como resultado de la globalización y procesos migratorios existe una tendencia en el habla a referirse como español, mientras que en ámbitos socioeducativos y culturales se mantiene en el Cono Sur 100 151

castellano». || «Se prefiere decir español, término considerado más internacional que el de castellano. Cuando estaba en la escuela primaria y secundaria, se usaban los dos términos, aunque luego se empezó a preferir el español. Les pregunté a mis hijos, por ejemplo, y ellos también se refieren al idioma como español, no castellano.» || «En mi primaria y secundaria, se decía Castellano. Mis hijos, ya cursaron Lengua.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Hace 30 años la asignatura era Castellano. Ahora se llama Lengua.» || «No sé – me parece que español se usa un poco más [ahora]. Se ha estado empezando a introducir español, posiblemente por el hecho de enseñar español como lengua extranjera.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Yo recuerdo que en mi infancia se hablaba castellano, pero últimamente se prefiere decir español. Tal vez sea influencia de la globalización, se usa mucho lo que se escucha en la televisión y allí hay mucha influencia de otros países y de traducciones. Por otro lado, entre profesionales, me parece una discusión académica. Como la abreviatura de número, que ahora lleva un espacio n. °, como si ese espacio fuera muy importante.» || «Es probable que [las preferencias] estén cambiando [debido] al influjo de la TV, pero no me consta. En todo caso, sigue diciéndose castellano.» || «No podría aseverarlo con certeza, pero tengo la sensación de que, debido a la globalización, utilizamos más el término español aun en Argentina». || «Las preferencias han cambiado cuando el contexto es la asignatura o materia. Siguen siendo las mismas cuando el contexto corresponde a la vida cotidiana. Tal como consigné más arriba, los cambios en el contexto educativo o de formación profesional se pueden reconocer a través de los lineamientos curriculares tanto del Ministerio de Educación de la Nación como de la Dirección General de Escuelas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Esos documentos luego son adoptados por las provincias y terminan de instalarse a través de los textos didácticos (manuales, antologías, guías para el aula, etc.) que publican las editoriales especializadas y que siguen a pie juntillas esas directivas ya que, de lo contrario, pierden el mercado escolar.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado. A partir de la globalización, el término español vino a suplantar con mucha más frecuencia al término castellano en el lenguaje cotidiano y no tanto. [El fenómeno ocurre hasta en el lenguaje algo formal]. (No solo la gente común ha cambiado el término sino también los círculos que manejan el idioma de manera más profesional: estudiosos de la lengua, literatos y demás). Se escucha el término castellano en personas de edades avanzadas, ya que antes era el término que se utilizaba.» || «He observado que, posiblemente por influencia del inglés, se usa cada vez más español y cada vez menos castellano». || «Siguen siendo las mismas. No podría afirmarlo categóricamente, pero si bien se sigue hablando de castellano, me parece que de un tiempo a esta parte, sobre todo en Buenos Aires, está aumentando el uso de español. Me inclino a pensar que es porque cada vez más gente habla inglés y tiende a usar calcos de ese idioma; por ejemplo, “escenario” por scenario, “bizarro” con el sentido de bizarre, y tantos otros.» || «Bueno... Hice una encuesta a mis amigos y familiares de Argentina, porque yo cambié de castellano a español hace unos 25 años. La encuesta confirma lo que dije antes, un 70% cambió a español y un 30% sigue diciendo castellano. La diferencia se ve sobre todo en la orientación de la educación y en la edad (aunque muchos adolescentes me dijeron castellano, ¡me sorprendió!). Los profesionales de la lengua o de la educación, todos dicen español. Muchos otros dicen español por la influencia de la computación: como dice Windows: español de Argentina. En la secundaria, hoy, hablan de español.» Argentinos – siguen siendo las mismas (9 en total): «De tus propuestas, en Argentina usamos más castellano que español sin lugar a dudas. De todos modos, tanto los estudiantes como los profesores no usan ninguna de las dos, sino que se refieren a la asignatura como Lengua (a veces Lengua y Literatura, según el plan de estudios). No creo que haya cambiado este uso.»

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Chilenos – las preferencias han cambiado (13 en total): «Las preferencias han cambiado. Se observa que idioma español gana terreno, en especial por la televisión internacional. Castellano es el término más utilizado; español va ganando terreno.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado (a Lenguaje).» || «El cambio que empieza a detectarse es por influencia de la internet, pues daría la impresión que el nombre más común en el mundo es español, ya que en páginas de internet de los EE.UU. dicen español. Pero aún esto se aprecia apenas en internet, no en asignaturas, libros o idioma hablado.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Me inclino más por esta alternativa. Si ha habido un cambio en los últimos años, es muy leve, pero me inclino a pensar que se está más abiertos en Chile a entender y utilizar además la forma español cuando se utiliza el lenguaje formal, por ejemplo en los noticieros de la TV. Sin embargo, parece ser predominante la forma castellano para el nombre de la lengua.» || «El nombre de la materia sí ha cambiado de Castellano a Lenguaje y Comunicación, cuando terminó la dictadura. Se ha ampliado [con el término] Lenguaje, los ramos se han ampliado más en general.» (Ramo = ‘curso, materia’). || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Lo comentado antes, se intenta cambiar en los colegios y escuelas, para usar Lenguaje en vez de Castellano, pero no se usa *Español.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Ahora se usa más español para la lengua, antes más castellano. Que yo sepa, la materia sigue siendo Castellano.» || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Han habido varios intentos de reforma educacional desde que dejé el colegio. Y recuerdo que mi hermana con quien tenemos 10 años de diferencia tuvo un nombre diferente para la asignatura.» (Esta encuestada había indicado, en su respuesta a la pregunta del Capítulo 2, que cuando terminó el colegio en el 94, el curso se llamaba Castellano pero después, en el 2000, pasó a llamarse Lenguaje y Comunicación). || «Ha habido un cambio en el nombre de la materia. Se llamaba Castellano y con la reforma educacional hace unos años pasó a llamarse Lenguaje.» || «Ha habido una tendencia a favor de usar el término español [en vez de castellano] para referirse al idioma. Además, la asignatura se llamaba tradicionalmente Castellano, pero hace unos diez años se cambió por Lenguaje.» || «Ha cambiado y se ha empezado a hablar de español». || «Las preferencias han cambiado. Cada vez hay más conciencia de las diversas autonomías (con sus respectivos lenguajes) que hay en España. Es por esto que se está usando más el concepto [de] castellano.» (Este encuestado también mencionó, al contestar la pregunta sobre los nombres de las materias, el cambio diacrónico de Castellano → Lenguaje). Chilenos – siguen siendo las mismas (4 en total): «No he notado, con respecto a esto, ningún cambio diacrónico en particular. En Chile decimos la clase de Castellano y también hablo castellano. En otros países de Latinoamérica he visto más usado español que castellano.» 4.6

Observaciones y preguntas del autor

Si este tipo de estudio se hubiera realizado hace 100 años, en 1914-1915, ¿qué resultados habría arrojado? ¿En aquel entonces los encuestados de México, Centroamérica, las Antillas de habla hispana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador y Uruguay habrían contestado de igual manera que en el presente estudio, a saber, que dicen y escriben en forma abrumadoramente mayoritaria hablo español / la traducción al español? ¿O sus respuestas habrían sido muy distintas, con muchas más respuestas de hablo castellano / la traducción al castellano? ¿Habría sido tan alta la incidencia de encuestados de España, Perú y el Cono Sur (a excepción de Uruguay) que hubieran contestado al revés, o sea, que dicen y escriben hablo castellano / la traducción al castellano o “de ambas formas”? Se pueden plantear preguntas similares en cuanto a los nombres de las materias que se enseñan en los diferentes niveles de estudios.

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¿Y qué del futuro? De aquí a 100 años, en 2115, ¿cómo será el panorama lingüístico en cuanto al uso de los términos castellano y español? ¿La palabra español, en el sentido de nuestra lengua, tendrá todavía más adeptos que ahora, incluso en las zonas como la España bilingüe, Perú y la mayor parte del Cono Sur, donde la presencia de castellano es actualmente considerable? ¿O dichas zonas se mantendrán firmes en su empleo de castellano, o hasta lo incrementarán, ya sea por razones políticas, en el caso de España, o por promover y aferrarse a su propia cultura, en el caso de los países suramericanos correspondientes? Otra pregunta hipotética es la siguiente: ¿Qué ocurriría si Cataluña y las otras comunidades bilingües de España se hicieran Estados independientes y soberanos? En ese caso, ¿continuarían las personas catalanas, vascuences, gallegas, etc. prefiriendo mayormente el término castellano? ¿O una vez constituido estos nuevos Estados ya la palabra español podría referirse en ellos a la lengua principal del Estado español sin causar resquemores? O sea, catalán, idioma y Estado, allí; gallego, idioma y Estado, allá; y español, idioma y Estado, acullá; cada cual por su lado. Juntos —en la Península— pero no revueltos.

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ANEXO I El uso del término castellano en otros contextos El tema Pregunta del cuestionario: Si ha indicado que no usa o rara vez usa el término castellano ni para la asignatura ni tampoco para la lengua de los 500 millones de hablantes, ¿existe algún contexto en el que utilice la palabra castellano? Si lo hay, por favor indique en cuál. Observaciones de los encuestados Nota: En el caso de las personas interpeladas de la España bilingüe, y de las de Venezuela, Perú, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina y Chile, relativamente pocas contestaron esta pregunta debido a que la gran mayoría indicó que usa el término castellano/Castellano para referirse a la lengua y/o a la materia. Por lo tanto, procedía que no respondieran a esta pregunta. Españoles de zonas monolingües: «Usaría la palabra castellano cuando me refiero a algún hecho histórico o a alguien de Castilla y León o Castilla La Mancha». (Granadina) || «Sí, uso el término castellano para denominar a la persona que habita en Castilla o algo típico de la región o también cuando me refiero a la lengua española en su sentido histórico». (Madrileña). || «En Cataluña dicen castellano, no español. Quizá en Galicia también. Cuando viajo allí o hablo con amigos de esa zona, digo castellano.» (Almeriense que había indicado que usa el término Lengua para la materia y español para la lengua). || «No uso castellano en ningún contexto». (Madrileño). || «[Uso la palabra castellano] solo como gentilicio de Castilla o en referencias al castellano antiguo». (Madrileña). || «Claro, [podría usarlo] en las comunidades bilingües españolas y en los países del Cono Sur donde la gente dice castellano». (Aragonés). || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] no lo uso habitualmente, pero tampoco lo evito radicalmente». (Madrileño). || «A veces cuando estoy en Cataluña [uso la palabra castellano]». (Madrileño). || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] No, a veces lo habré usado. Pero generalmente solo uso español.» (Toledana). || «No, tengo especial cuidado en no usar castellano, español es más universal». (Madrileño). || «Como te comentaba antes, si converso con colegas sudamericanos y me parece que alguien se va a ofender si uso español, hago autocensura y uso castellano, pero no es un término que me salga con naturalidad». (Madrileña). || «Sí suelo utilizar la palabra castellano para referirme a lo relacionado con Castilla, pero raramente para la lengua. Por otro lado, aprecié al llegar a Galicia un uso de castellano para referirse a todo ‘lo que no es gallego’, donde yo veía castellanos, asturianos, extremeños, andaluces, etc. A mí me decían que era “castellano”, cuando yo más bien me reconocía como manchego.» (Manchego que vive en Galicia desde hace 15 años). || «[Usaría la palabra castellano] cuando no me queda más remedio que hablar con algún gilipollas socialista, catalanista o imbéciles en general. Siento infinito que las peculiaridades regionales, históricas y políticas de mi país, le estén dificultando el correcto entendimiento de la situación “literario-escolástico” de sus estudios. No puedo contestarle brevemente, ni siquiera con un conocimiento completo, a sus últimas preguntas. En realidad, hoy en día existe un galimatías de leyes, reglamentos, y competencias en los (¡fíjese que digo los!) ámbitos educacionales, dependiendo de la región o autonomía y sus respectivos encargados políticos, que varios cursos de la “Política educacional en España en los últimos cincuenta años”, no serían suficientes. De verdad, no sé cómo ayudarle a entender la supina imbecilidad de nuestros políticos y sus adláteres pseudo-intelectuales, pero quizá si se imagina un país dividido en diecisiete comunidades autónomas, más dos ciudades independientes, y de ellas 104 155

cinco “históricas” desde el punto de vista cultural (Cataluña, Valencia, Baleares, Vascongadas y Galicia), aliñadas [alineadas] con siete partidos políticos dominantes y diversas entidades culturales de derechas, izquierdas, ultras de ambos bandos y progres, empezará a vislumbrar la dificultad de contestar a sus preguntas de una manera racional y honesta. Creo que, en amor de una opinión subjetiva, yo definiría la situación del español (para mí el nombre más correcto) como una mezcla de cultura de tercera división con políticos corruptos y gente a la que le importa todo un bledo.» (Madrileño; gilipollas, voz malsonante, vulgar y despectivo = ‘tonto, de poco valor o de poca importancia’; se usa como insulto; progre = ‘progresista’ en lenguaje coloquial). Españoles de zonas bilingües: «Poquísimas veces uso el término castellano. Quizás sólo preciso el término en contextos referidos a las distintas lenguas españolas, para diferenciarlo del gallego, catalán, euskera, etc...» (Encuestada que nació en Zamora pero se crió en Bellvitge, en las afueras de Barcelona). || «En contextos históricos, por ejemplo, [se usa el término castellano], o cuando decimos en castellano tenemos muchos tiempos verbales, cuando estamos hablando entre hispanohablantes, no hablando con extranjeros, aunque también se puede dar el caso, pero menos». (Vascuence). || «Uso el término castellano para explicar la cuestión del nombre de las lenguas a mis estudiantes de lingüística. [En otros contextos, uso el término español].» (Gallega). || «[Refiriéndose a la palabra castellano] no, nunca la uso, a no ser cuando hablo con mis nietos de su asignatura, porque si digo Lengua Española no lo reconocen. [Uso el término español] en todos [los contextos], en general.» (Catalana). || «Nunca uso castellano, salvo si hablo en gallego. En ese caso, a veces me refiero a ese idioma como castelán.» (Gallego). || «Sólo utilizo el término español para referirme a la lengua o asignatura en presencia de personas que vivan en EE.UU., y no siempre, porque es el término que ellos utilizan más habitualmente». (Vascuence). || «[Uso el término español] para referirme a los ciudadanos del Estado español». (Vascuence). || «En contextos académicos. En la USC [Universidad de Santiago de Compostela] el idioma oficial es el gallego. Para indicar cuando no damos la clase en esa lengua se ha tendido, en los últimos años, a utilizar castellano más que el término español. Es una cuestión de “políticamente correcto”.» (Gallega). || «Como he indicado, habitualmente uso la palabra español, o incluso lengua hispana (para referirme a la lengua común de los países de habla hispana). Sólo utilizo castellano para distinguir dentro de España la lengua española común de otras lenguas españolas de ámbito territorial regional (como por ejemplo la lengua gallega u otras).» (Gallega). Mexicanos: «Sólo usaría [el término] castellano para algo o alguien de Castilla». || «En el habla común, a veces se utiliza esta palabra para hacer énfasis, por ejemplo: Esta gente no entiende castellano, pero es en casos muy particulares y poco frecuente.» || «[Solamente uso el término castellano] cuando explico la diferencia [entre español y castellano]». (Encuestado que había dicho que “el castellano es una variante del español.”). || «Nunca [uso el término castellano]». || «[Podría usar el término castellano] cuando tengo que especificar que me refiero al español que se habla en España y no al de América Latina, aunque también puedo decir español peninsular ya que, en rigor, castellano sólo se referiría a uno de los “acentos” que se escuchan en España». || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] No. Lo usaría únicamente para el dialecto de la región de Castilla. Únicamente algunas personas de ascendencia española o españolas de nacimiento utilizan este término en la parte del centro de México.» || «Ninguna. [No hay ninguna situación en la que yo use el término castellano]. Español es el término más usado y entendible.» || «Únicamente [usaría el término castellano] para referirme al español antiguo, el que se hablaba antiguamente en España. Siempre que me refiero al idioma o a la enseñanza del mismo utilizo la palabra español.» || «Diría que solo al referirme a un 105 156

originario de Castilla, España. Pero eso no ocurre con mucha frecuencia...» || «Quizás hablando con un español peninsular [usaría el término castellano]. Cuando era un niño, una maestra (muy anciana) se refería a hablar en castellano cuando nos pillaba usando palabras de la calle o slang de “la onda”. Mi madre también nos reñía si nos oía usando ese tipo de lenguaje (vulgar). Nos decía no hables como un patán.» || «Castellano casi no se usa en referencia al idioma; español es la forma que usamos para referirnos a nuestro idioma. En México existe el apellido Castellano y Castellanos y en el contexto de la literatura, se habla de la castellana de esta mansión, en referencia a una persona terrateniente y rica. Y sobre todo, lo he visto así, en femenino pero nunca en masculino.» || «No lo utilizo, pero si lo hiciera haría referencia al español antiguo, el que hablaban los españoles antes de la conquista de América». || «No. [No uso el término castellano en ningún contexto].» Guatemaltecos: «Realmente casi no se escucha el vocablo castellano. La asignatura en la escuela primaria es Idioma Español. Cuando se traduce, decimos: Traducir del inglés al español. La palabra [castellano] sí es conocida, pero poco usada.» || «Castellano, originario de Castilla». || «Durante mi etapa de estudios universitarios, escuché a algunos profesores (a quienes llamamos catedráticos universitarios) llamarle castellano al idioma español. Cabe mencionar que ellos eran catedráticos extranjeros, de origen cubano, colombiano y algunos de origen español que me impartieron cátedra. Cuando se estudia Lingüística y Filología se hace la aclaración que antes se le llamaba castellano a lo que hoy llamamos español.» || «No hay [ningún contexto en que use el término castellano]». || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] algunas veces lo he escuchado para referirse a una asignatura, por ejemplo, Idioma Castellano, [pero] raras veces se utiliza. Creo que las personas que leen más o se relacionan con otros países lo usan. En los países latinoamericanos, considero que se usa más español.» || «[Refiriéndose a la palabra castellano] No la utilizo. Mi concepto es que se usa para denominar el lugar de origen de Castilla.» || «Lo he utilizado rara vez en un contexto universitario». || «No, no la usaría nunca». || «No, no se ocupa esa palabra». (Ocuparse = ‘usarse’). || «Cuando se dirige a un indígena se le preguntaría ¿hablas castellano? Porque no entienden la palabra español.» || [La siguiente observación fue en respuesta a mi pregunta sobre si la anterior descripción era cierta o no]. «No, de ninguna manera. En nuestra cultura sería una falta de educación preguntarle a un guatemalteco indígena si habla español. Y, además, si se le pregunta si habla castellano, se va a quedar en las nubes.» || «Personalmente, casi nunca [usaría el término castellano] porque nosotros lo reconocemos como [refiriéndose a] los originarios de España, entonces implica los del reino de Castilla, o de Castilla y Aragón. Ellos son los que hablan castellano.» Salvadoreños: «[Usaría el término castellano] para referirme a los habitantes y nacidos en Castilla». || «[No uso el término castellano] para nada». || «[Usaría la palabra castellano] haciendo referencia al lenguaje que hablan en Castilla, en España». || «Es entendible [castellano] pero es extraño». || «No, siempre se usa el español». || «Casi nunca [utilizo el término castellano], excepto que quisiera hacer algo bien diferenciado de España, o para evitar repetir la misma palabra». || «El castellano es el español original». Hondureños: «Castellano… no se usa mucho esa palabra». || «[Refiriéndose a la palabra castellano] Pues para mí no es común usarla. La usarán tal vez… que la usan la usan, pero no es común.» || «Nunca usamos el término castellano, no sabemos, ¿cómo lo vamos a usar? ¿Castellano y español no es lo mismo?» || «No, nunca la he usado yo, castellano. Esa palabra no se usa en Honduras.» || «No, casi no la usamos». || «No, castellano no se usa». || «No, nunca». || «Castellano es el idioma más correcto que hay, el español más perfecto. Por ejemplo, aquí en Honduras tenemos muchos nombres para el machete: corvo, colín, 106 157

guarizama, guapota, según el tamaño y la forma. Pero la mera palabra castellana es machete.» (La mera palabra = ‘la verdadera palabra, la palabra misma, la palabra en sí’). Nicaragüenses: «Por castellano entiendo el idioma o lengua originado en Castilla, España». || «[Usaría el término castellano en un] ambiente más formal». || «[El término castellano] lo uso solo para indicar el idioma del cual deriva nuestro español. Generalmente el término castellano es usado poco a mi criterio personal.» || «Castellano únicamente se utiliza cuando se hace referencia al origen de la lengua. No lo he escuchado en otro contexto, ni yo lo utilizo. Algunas personas suelen asociar al castellano (en referencia a la persona o la cultura) con el español, eso sí lo he escuchado. Es un vocablo poco usado por no decir en desuso.» || «Cuando hablamos del castellano de los españoles establecemos esa diferencia. También cuando nos referimos a la pureza o puristas de la lengua en el contexto académico, se habla de los puristas del castellano, o el origen del castellano. Cuando queremos sonar muy cultos, decimos: estoy hablando en castellano, y usamos las palabras más escogidas para expresar algo.» || «[Se usa el término castellano] solamente para la enseñanza del origen de los idiomas en mi experiencia». || «Creo que en el único contexto en que la utilizaría es para referirme a las personas oriundas de Castilla». || «[Castellano es un término que] no lo utilizamos en lo absoluto; es un término no utilizado pero sabemos que es nuestro idioma. Español es nuestro idioma.» || «Castellano es el viejo español que se hablaba en España en el siglo XV». || «Para mí el castellano es algo como más antiguo, más especializado, como más de raíz, como la derivación o el origen de las palabras. El castellano es como así, fijo, donde se originó todo, como un punto de partida. Es mi sentir.» || «Castellano, ay, pues, fíjese que usualmente no lo uso». || «Para nosotros, castellano se refiere al español de España». || «Lo adecuado, lo correcto sería castellano, pero lo común es español. Castellano, no lo usaría.» Costarricenses: «Actualmente, castellano quizá aparezca esporádicamente en el discurso escrito». || «Prefiero utilizar el término español latino para hacer la diferencia entre el español de España y el nuestro. Solamente si aún así la otra persona no entiende, utilizo el término castellano.» || «[De usar el término castellano, sería] para diferenciar el español latinoamericano del europeo». || «Me parece que en ninguno [en ningún contexto usaría el término castellano]. Castellano [se usa] principalmente para referirse al uso del idioma español en España.» || «No lo utilizo realmente. Desde mi punto de vista solo he escuchado a los españoles referirse a la lengua como castellano.» || «En lo personal yo no utilizo el término castellano para referirme en ningún contexto. Pero seguramente se debe utilizar ya que es una palabra que personas en un ámbito profesional utilizarían.» || «Únicamente [utilizo el término castellano] para referirme a la forma de español que usan en España». || «Me parece que [no utilizaría el término castellano] en ninguno [en ningún contexto]. [Pero el término castellano se usaría] principalmente para referirse al uso del idioma español en España.» || «Es peculiar, pero a veces tiendo a usar el término castellano para referirme al idioma que hablan en España que aunque es español, el concepto castellano también incluye su distintivo acento». || «En Costa Rica el uso normal y común de la palabra castellano es casi nulo. Creo que [se usa el término castellano] para diferenciarlo en el contexto específico donde se hace referencia a personas que hablan catalán, por ejemplo.» || «Hmmm… tal vez [se usaría el término castellano] si se está hablando de las lenguas propias de España». || «Casi nunca [uso el término castellano]. Solo al conversar con otros lingüistas.» Panameños: «Casi nunca utilizo la palabra castellano a menos que esté hablando con alguien de Europa». || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] yo no lo uso en ningún contexto». || «Con la gente que no es de mi país usan a veces castellano». || «No sé en qué contexto lo usaría». || «Muy poco. No sé en qué [contexto lo usaría].» || «No sé ni qué es castellano». || «En ninguna 107 158

situación. Español se usa más, español.» || «Nosotros no usamos esa palabra [castellano]». || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] no lo he usado». || «No estoy consciente de ninguno [de ningún contexto en que usaría el término castellano]». Cubanos: «Uso castellano cuando me interesa que alguien sepa que es correcto este término para denominar nuestro idioma. Pienso que es bueno utilizarlo indistintamente con el de español, que se conozca éste.» || «[Usaría la palabra castellano para referirme a un] natural de Castilla». || «[Se usa castellano] para definir la lengua; [se usa español] para definir la ciudadanía». || «Solamente [usaría castellano] cuando estoy hablando en un contexto histórico. Castellano casi no se utiliza; español es lo común.» || «Solo [usaría castellano] para explicar por qué se puede usar. Actualmente ni alumnos ni maestros usan castellano.» || «Sopa castellana». || «Solo [se usaría el término castellano] al referirse en temas de historia medieval a Castilla como origen de la lengua o haciendo referencia a Cervantes únicamente. Castellano es la antigua forma de referirse al idioma español.» || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] Si lo usáramos sería en algún contexto muy formal para expresarnos culturalmente al lenguaje como tal, pero, como le digo, sería en un ambiente muy profesional. Español es la palabra que usamos generalmente.» || «[Se usa el término castellano] cuando se quiere poner énfasis en el origen del idioma, o porque el interlocutor así lo pide para ser más exactos o nacionalistas (debido a las diversas nacionalidades históricas en España)». || «[No hay] ningún contexto que recuerde en estos momentos [en donde utilizaría el término castellano] con la excepción de decirle a Andre Moskowitz si lo uso o no. :-)» || «En ninguno. [En ningún contexto usaría el término castellano].» || «[Utilizo castellano] cuando quiero señalar la pureza, la normativa de algo dicho o escrito. Es algo así como decir en inglés que algo es kosher.» (Kosher, en este contexto = ‘propio, ortodoxo’). || «[Existen] muchos [contextos en que usaría la palabra castellano], por ejemplo, los entresijos del castellano. Si dijera “del español” pudiera interpretarse “de un ciudadano español”; por tanto, no procede.» (Este encuestado había indicado que usa el término español tanto para la materia como para la lengua y aquí dijo que existen “muchos [contextos]” en que usaría castellano, pero solamente dio un ejemplo, los entresijos del castellano). Dominicanos: «No uso [el término] castellano, pero cuando una persona no entiende [le digo]: ¿En qué idioma tú quieres que yo te hable?, ¿en castellano? (como un español más profundo).» || «[Usaría castellano] si hablo con catalanes». || «Yo no ocupo esa palabra, [bueno, quizás] para hablar de la historia, del origen del idioma… Lo siento así como una expresión rancia. Pero ya lo que nosotros hablamos aquí en América es muy distinto.» (Ocupar una palabra = ‘usarla’). || «Normalmente nosotros los dominicanos usamos [el término] español. Pero se puede decir háblame en castellano, o sea, háblame claro, sin rodeos, sin palabrería, sin hablar de muchas cosas.» || «[Refiriéndose a la palabra castellano] No la ocupamos, quizás para referirnos a donde proviene. [También en el caso de] háblame en castellano que significa ‘háblame claro’.» || «El término castellano como que no es muy frecuente, a menos que se trate de una historia de España o algo semejante, como en un curso de historia de la lengua española, se puede usar el término castellano». || «Usaría el término castellano en una frase como: ¿Tú me estás hablando en qué idioma? ¿en castellano? Es un ejemplo.» || «[Uso la palabra castellano] cuando me refiero al que es de Castilla». || «[Utilizo el término castellano] para hacer referencia al español ibérico». || «Aunque tal vez no sea muy consistente, por lo general considero castellano al español de España». Puertorriqueños: «Tal vez [usaría la palabra castellano] cuando hablara de dónde se origina, pero rapidísimo cambiaría la palabra a español». || «A veces [uso la palabra castellano] con la familia chilena por parte de mi esposo o cuando voy a Chile». (Puertorriqueña casada con 108 159

chileno). || «Cuando lo diferencia del castellano, de Castilla, o cuando lo confundía con el catalán». || «Reconozco la palabra castellano como sinónimo de la palabra español, solo que aquí en Puerto Rico no es común usarla». || «Solo [usaría el término castellano] como variante de español para evitar la repetición». || «[Refiriéndose al término castellano] Habrá uno que otro que lo use, pero por lo general no». || «Pocas personas (quizás en círculos más eruditos o literarios) utilizan dicha palabra [castellano] para denominar el idioma que se habla en España, no necesariamente el que hablamos a nivel regional o latinoamericano. Están tratando de ser puristas en ese aspecto. Es probable que los individuos que utilicen la palabra castellano para referirse al idioma sean percibidos como esnobistas por una persona común y corriente. Quizás no venga al caso, pero en Puerto Rico tenemos personas cuyo apellido es Castellano o Castellanos.» || Solo usaría la palabra castellano para referirme a trabajos efectuados por otros países y solo cuando se habla de documentos escritos. Es raro oírlo en cuanto a la lengua hablada.» || «En España utilizo castellano [en otros países de habla hispana uso el término español]». (Encuestada que vivió cuatro años en España). || «Mi experiencia es que es muy poco común que alguien diga castellano. Tal vez en un caso en que alguien diga algo difícil de comprender y su interlocutor le responda con la expresión Háblame en castellano.» || «Claro, [usaría el término castellano] para referirme al dialecto hablado en la zona de Castilla. También, en sentido lato, para referirme al español de la Península porque esta fue la variante que se impuso en esta zona de España.» || «[El término castellano] solo [se usa] como adjetivo refiriéndose a las provincias de Castilla la Vieja y Castilla la Nueva». || «No [no existe ningún contexto en que use el término castellano]». (Hubo dos encuestados puertorriqueños que dieron esta misma respuesta: “No”). Venezolanos: «Hablo de castellano cuando tengo la fortuna de hablar acerca del origen y evolución del español». || «El término castellano es poco usado para referirse al idioma, al menos que no se trate de la asignatura de la escuela primaria y secundaria». (Al menos que = ‘a menos que’). || «Cuando estoy en clase puede que utilice los términos como sinónimos ya que los alumnos que inician sus estudios superiores en la UCV [Universidad Central de Venezuela] tienden a usar más el término castellano». (Encuestada que había indicado que prefiere la denominación español). Colombianos: «La voz castellano solo se ve como gentilicio de la región de Castilla en España o el habla de esa región, también como referencia cuando se enseñaba Castellano (es decir antes de los 60)». || «En la universidad donde trabajo, le llaman Lengua Castellana y allí debo llamarla así». || «No utilizo castellano en ningún contexto, dado que el uso de español es más comprendido en contextos internacionales». || «Rara vez [se utiliza el término castellano], en algún estudio de literatura medieval o del Siglo de Oro». || «No lo utilizo, aunque entiendo que en España se prefiere esta denominación, castellano, para resaltar la existencia de las otras lenguas en ese país, como el catalán y el gallego, por ejemplo». || «Casi siempre uso la palabra español [pero] cuando hablo de cursos de Español en el contexto escolar del siglo XIX hablo de castellano porque era lo que se encontraba registrado en los documentos». || «Solo he visto que escriben la palabra castellano cuando mencionan el idioma en las películas. Yo no uso la palabra castellano. Según yo, ni se usa la palabra castellano o si se usa es como el equivalente al español. Español se usa tanto para hablar de la lengua como para las asignaturas en colegios.» || «Casi nunca uso el término castellano. Supongo que lo usaría como gentilicio para los que son de Castilla, pero aún así, creo que me inclinaría más por decir, esa persona es de Castilla... Castellano es la lengua considerada oficial en la constitución política de Colombia. Y seguramente [es el] término usado para denominar la asignatura de lengua española en los colegios hispanoamericanos de Colombia. Los colegios hispanoamericanos son los lycée français españoles en Colombia.» || 109 160

«¿Castellano? Ya nunca… bueno, cuando se ve la historia de Castilla y la historia del español.» || «En la actualidad, en ninguno. [No uso el término castellano en ningún contexto actualmente].» (No indicó si en el pasado lo había usado). || «Ninguno. [No usaría el término castellano en ningún contexto].» Ecuatorianos: «Castellano, no, no lo usamos». || «Para mí el castellano sería la estructuración de una oración, cómo se estructura una oración larga o corta, y el español es lo que estamos hablando, cómo se habla. Castellano [es] como materia, estructuración o forma. Español [se refiere] a la manera de hablar y comprenderse.» || «No usaría el término castellano». || «En muy raras ocasiones uso la palabra castellano para remarcar el carácter castizo de alguna palabra o expresión, en contraposición de influencias de otros idiomas». || «Sobre todo uso castellano y no español cuando me voy a referir a las distintas lenguas de España (que —hasta donde conozco— son castellano, catalán, gallego y vasco), o si quiero resaltar que me refiero a mi idioma hablado o escrito de manera más correcta o más formal». || «Se dice háblame en castellano cuando se quiere hacer un énfasis. Necesita que la persona hable algo de lo que usted tiene conocimiento, o usando palabras más simples para comprender lo que dice. [De lo contrario, se utiliza el término español para referirse a la lengua].» (Encuestada que había indicado que en su país se usa el término Castellano para referirse a la materia, pero que castellano para referirse a la lengua, poco). || «Actualmente en Ecuador las personas mayores de 55 o 60 años utilizan Castellano para referirse al lenguaje o asignatura». (Encuestado que había indicado que usa español para la lengua y Lenguaje o Lenguaje y Castellano para la materia). || «[Uso el término castellano] para identificar a las personas que viven en Castilla pues allí nació nuestro idioma». || «No recuerdo [que exista ningún contexto en que usaría el término castellano]». Peruanos: (En este estudio, ni una sola de las personas encuestadas del Perú contestó esta pregunta porque prácticamente todas usan el término castellano, ‘lengua’, y/o Castellano, ‘materia’). Bolivianos: «En las escuelas nos enseñan a decir castellano». || «Yo utilizo [el término] castellano muy poco porque siempre [uso] español, pero [castellano] es otra forma de decir el idioma». || «Casi no digo hablar castellano. Se puede usar español también.» Paraguayos: «Depende de la persona con quien esté hablando. Si la persona usa castellano, yo también lo hago. [Si no, uso español para referirme a la lengua].» (Encuestada que había indicado que usa el término Castellano para referirse a la materia). Uruguayos: «Como decía antes, [uso castellano] en entornos de más formalidad». || «Únicamente [uso castellano] como gentilicio del ciudadano de la Provincia de Castilla». || «No recuerdo emplear esa palabra [castellano]. Me hace recordar a Castilla y Castilla la Vieja, pero esto es un conocimiento adquirido por haber estudiado lingüística.» || «Prácticamente no utilizo la palabra castellano». || «No, nunca lo uso. [Nunca uso el término castellano].» || «En conversaciones con alguien de España lo he utilizado. Estuve seis meses en Barcelona y recuerdo que no caía muy simpático que hablara de español refiriéndome a lo que ellos se referían como castellano.» || «Hoy [castellano] se usa para hacer referencia al español de España, o más específicamente al español de Castilla que en algún momento se consideró el español “más puro”. Algunas veces se usa el término castellano en un sentido más amplio en documentos oficiales en los que de todos modos se usa un lenguaje más arcaico que no necesariamente refleja el uso cotidiano de la población. También se usa para describir el idioma oficial del Uruguay, en cuyo caso hace referencia a sus orígenes de colonia española, 110 161

si bien la Constitución del Uruguay no hace indicación de una lengua oficial. En una legislación reciente se establece que la lengua oficial del Uruguay es el español, el portugués de Uruguay y la lengua de señas, con el fin de integrar las últimas dos a la educación en un futuro.» || «No puedo pensar en ningún contexto en que [castellano] se use en materiales originarios de mi país». || «No, nunca uso castellano, en ningún contexto». || «No, generalmente no uso el término castellano, ni tampoco lo usan las personas de mi entorno. Siempre uso el término español.» || «Nunca la uso, en ningún contexto. Si quiero elevar el nivel de lengua de algún trabajo escrito puedo llegar a usar lengua española en vez de idioma español (que me suena como más infantil, porque así le llaman en la escuela), pero nunca uso palabras de la familia de castellano.» || «A veces se puede escuchar castellano, como en la traducción al castellano, por ejemplo, en medios de prensa, lo que en mi opinión personal puede responder a la voluntad de ese hablante (no especialista en cuestiones de lengua) de querer demostrar que sabe de lo que habla, que utiliza los términos que supone “correctos”, emplea cultismos, etc. La mayoría de las veces que se usa castellano me parece que se debe a la influencia del uso habitual en Argentina, pues allí sí se usa castellano para la materia y para la lengua. Además, de los tres grandes mercados editoriales de traducciones (España, México, Argentina), en los libros traducidos que provienen de Argentina se lee traducido del castellano por…, lo cual influye en el habla del periodista que, por ejemplo, comenta esa obra en periódicos, radios, etc. Dado que entre Montevideo y Buenos Aires existe mucho flujo de personas que va y viene, es posible que muchos uruguayos empleen castellano por ser lo que se escucha en la Argentina.» || «[Se usa el término castellano] como chiste, cuando alguien dice algo que no se entiende y uno contesta: hablame en castellano». (Nótese el uso del voseo). || «No. [No existe ningún contexto en el que utilice la palabra castellano].» Argentinos: «Cuando alguien se refiere a alguna forma correcta de dirigirse en nuestra lengua, se dice en buen castellano, tal cosa significa tal otra, o bien para mencionar otras lenguas españolas como el gallego, catalán, euskera. En todo lo que se refiera a referencias de épocas antiguas, más bien tendemos a decir castellano y no español. No diríamos nunca, por ejemplo, que los latinoamericanos hablan *castellano. Mucho menos identificaríamos a los diferentes idiomas latinoamericanos como castellano de México, por ejemplo. Además, castellano nos remonta a la región de Castilla, y el deficiente nivel de historia impartido en las escuelas hace que las nuevas generaciones ni se enteren, y hablen simplemente de español por referencia a España.» || «Yo particularmente no uso castellano en ningún contexto (¡rara vez tengo que referirme al idioma que se usa en Castilla!)». || «[Refiriéndose a castellano] lo uso pero en determinadas ocasiones». || «Ninguno [en ningún contexto], salvo para hablar de la lengua de Castilla». Chilenos: (En este estudio, ni una sola de las personas encuestadas de Chile contestó esta pregunta porque prácticamente todas usan el término castellano, ‘lengua’, y/o Castellano, ‘materia’).

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ANEXO II El uso del término español en otros contextos El tema Pregunta del cuestionario: Si ha indicado que no usa o rara vez usa el término español ni para la asignatura ni tampoco para la lengua de los 500 millones de hablantes, ¿en qué contexto(s) utiliza la palabra español? Observaciones de los encuestados Nota: En general hubo pocas personas interpeladas que contestaron esta pregunta porque de la mayoría de los países la gente sí emplea español y/o Español en el contexto de la lengua y la asignatura, respectivamente. Por esta misma razón, no la contestó ninguna persona encuestada de México, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panamá, Cuba, la República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, y Uruguay, y relativamente pocas de la mayoría de los demás países, a excepción de Perú, Paraguay, Argentina y Chile. Español de zona monolingüe: «[Uso español] en EE.UU. o América Latina, en el contexto de la globalización». (Madrileño). Españoles de zonas bilingües: «[Uso el término español] en contexto docente, en mis clases, aquí en los Estados Unidos, traducción de Spanish cuando converso y hablo con mis estudiantes de español». (Catalán). || «Nunca uso el término español». (Catalán). Salvadoreño: «Solo uso el término español en el contexto de nacionalidad, de España». Venezolana: «[Uso el término español] para referirme al idioma que hablan en otros países, especialmente en Estados Unidos (el español de Estados Unidos). [No diría el *castellano de Estados Unidos].» Colombiana: «Me crié entendiendo que español era el gentilicio de los habitantes de España». (Esta persona había indicado que, para referirse a la lengua, prefiere usar el término castellano al de español). Ecuatorianos: «En Ecuador decimos castellano, en USA español». || «[Uso español] sobre todo cuando me refiero a mi idioma aquí en Estados Unidos. En Ecuador uso español o castellano prácticamente como sinónimos.» Peruanos: «[Sobre cuándo usaría la palabra español] Cuando quieres identificar a una persona de España. Es español / española. Cuando hablas sobre un producto: este producto viene de España o es español.» || «[Usamos español] cuando hablamos con otros hispanos, no peruanos». || «En academias donde se imparte lenguas se dice idioma español, igualmente para referirse al lenguaje empleado por los españoles». || «Considero y reafirmo que el término español ha tomado más auge en la forma de referirse al idioma, e identificar de mejor manera la lengua. Esto considero [que] también va quedando atrás cuando en un mundo globalizado por internet prolifera más el término español que castellano. Por ejemplo, si estando frente a un dispositivo móvil, o una computadora, se trata de elegir el idioma, para configurar o ver una página web las opciones dicen traducir a: español, no dice al 112 163

*castellano, y eso va quedando como un lenguaje de uso.» || «[Refiriéndose al término español] lo uso principalmente para designar a los ciudadanos del Reino de España». || «[Utilizo el término español] cuando hablo con algún extranjero [con alguien que no es peruano]». || «[Uso/usaría el término español] para referirme a lo que hablan los pobladores de España, o cuando me refiero a alguna obra clásica de la literatura española. Lo uso rara vez cuando hay que determinar sobre todo fuera del país en un lugar no hispanohablante. Me refiero a evitar la confusión que podría existir en una persona no hispanohablante, que no usa normalmente o desconoce el término castellano, la pregunta natural de un no hispanohablante es si hablas español y si a esa respuesta se contesta sí, yo hablo castellano, merecería una explicación, que podría llevarnos al contexto de otro idioma o lengua, no siendo esto cierto por todo lo anteriormente expuesto. En cambio, si por ejemplo aquí en mi país, Perú, le preguntas a un quechuahablante (lengua nativa) si aprendió a hablar la lengua general, lo más probable es que diga que sí, ellos hablan castellano. Del mismo modo, se ha generalizado el contexto en la comunicación virtual, como la que en este momento tenemos tú y yo, a través del correo electrónico, si buscamos el indicador de idioma de la pantalla, lo más probable es que encontremos como opción, español de España, y español de las Américas. Aunque esto suene redundante, se refiere al hecho específico del origen de la lengua, y a los cambios y transformaciones que recibe en cada lugar donde se ejecuta como lengua viva.» Bolivianos: «Más que todo se usa español cuando uno está fuera de ese ámbito; [en ese caso] decimos español y más que todo cuando estamos aquí entre otros latinos». (Boliviano que vive en Estados Unidos). || «[Utilizo el término español en un contexto] oral». Paraguayos: «Si le digo a un americano que traduzca al castellano, quizás se confunde, por eso depende con quién uno esté hablando; diría español para que le quede más claro». || «Para referirse al idioma que hablan en España [se utilizaría el término español]». || «Casi no se usa la denominación español, muy poco». || «Cuando es de España la persona [yo usaría español]». || «Da lo mismo pero, como le digo, se usa más castellano». || «[Uso español] en los Estados Unidos, cuando hablo con personas de América Central, el Caribe o con personas que aprendieron el idioma en los Estados Unidos». || «[Utilizo el término español] cuando se debe dar una explicación acerca del idioma/lenguaje a una persona extranjera o fuera de la región (Cono Sur: Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Paraguay). Español en general y en su forma literal se usa como gentilicio.» Argentinos: «Como dije antes, cuando me desempeño como profesional de la lengua (traductora, intérprete), uso español, porque español es el término más usado». || «[Uso español] para designar la nacionalidad de un hombre o como adjetivo: una novela española, un abogado español». || «Como decía, frente a hablantes no argentinos, sobre todo en el extranjero y siempre con los colegas de la cabina “española”». (Encuestado que es intérprete). || «[Uso español] cuando algo se refiere al país España (habitantes, comidas, arquitectura, etc.)». || «Uso español para referirme a la variedad regional utilizada en España. O sea, para mí el término general (y lo propongo como tal) es castellano, porque en la actualidad ya no alude a país alguno, mientras que español debería reservarse para el castellano español.» || «[Uso el término español] en EE. UU.». Chilenos: «Desde que vivo en los Estados Unidos prefiero usar español porque es el término que se usa aquí». (Encuestado que había indicado que usa el término castellano/Castellano tanto para la lengua como para la materia). || «[Uso el término español] cuando me refiero a subtítulos de films o traducciones de libros. [Si no, uso castellano].» || «[Usaría el término español] para diferenciarlo del inglés en Estados Unidos, [y] para darme a entender con 113 164

inmigrantes de otras naciones como México y Centroamérica». || «Usaría el término español en conversación o escrito en caso de que mi interlocutor no fuera de mi país y notara que ese es el término de su preferencia para referirse al idioma. En comunicación con otros chilenos, sonaría un poco extraño, aunque sería comprensible.» || «[Uso español] como adjetivo, para referirme a lo proveniente de España». || «[La palabra español se usa] en términos muy formales u oficiales, sólo al referir el lenguaje usado por toda Hispanoamérica o tal vez en algunos institutos de idioma con avisos para extranjeros, por ej. se habla español o aprenda español». || «[Se usaría el término español] para referirse a algo o alguien de esa procedencia, también lo uso cuando le digo a un extranjero (estando yo fuera de Chile) qué idioma hablo yo, porque muchas veces no entienden cuando uno dice castellano; también en el ámbito laboral solo en situaciones formales. Ejemplo: ...Ud. debe presentar traducción al español de los documentos...» || «Se usa español pocas veces para referirse al idioma, pero por ejemplo hablando con un extranjero... español. Entre chilenos se refiere más bien a una persona de España, o lo que habla esa persona (¡que es un acento bastante diferente al chileno!).»

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COLOFÓN La Real Academia Española: ¿una necesidad o una necedad? Hay quienes defienden a la Real Academia Española (RAE) y a su hija, la Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española (ASALE), afirmando que no sólo es conveniente sino imprescindible contar con esta autoridad lingüística porque sería peligroso y contraproducente para el futuro de la lengua que existieran diferentes normas, y que si cada cual escribiera como le diera la real gana, como se le pegara la regalada gana, o como le roncara, sería como volver al feudalismo. Pero, a pesar de estar bien difundida esta noción, o más bien, precisamente por estarlo, aquí voy a esgrimir varios argumentos, tanto endógenos como exógenos, que la pondrán en tela de juicio. Al considerar la cuestión de si la RAE es necesaria o superflua, nos centraremos específicamente en temas ortográficos. ¿Por qué la ortografía y no el léxico o la gramática? Primero, porque muchas de las deficiencias de los diccionarios académicos ya han sido ampliamente expuestas, especialmente las del Diccionario panhispánico de dudas o DPD (RAE 2005) y del Diccionario de la Real Academia Española o DRAE (llamado ahora, en su vigésima tercera o vigesimotercera edición, la del 2014, el Diccionario de la lengua española o DLE). Segundo, porque la sintaxis del español culto apenas varía dialectalmente y porque relativamente pocas personas leen la Nueva gramática de la lengua española (RAE 2009), un armatroste, armastrote, armatoste, armatostre o mamotreto que consta de 4000 páginas. Y, tercero, porque no quiero que este ensayo sea muy extenso. La RAE nunca ha sido capaz de imponernos el léxico que hemos de usar ni tampoco los significados que les atribuimos a las palabras que empleamos —son demasiado variados y rebeldes como para que alguien los sujete— y apenas tiene caso intentar imponernos la sintaxis del lenguaje culto y formal, porque sobre ella ya estamos todos fundamentalmente de acuerdo. Pero donde la Academia se ha obstinado en fijar un límite, en pintar su raya (como dicen en México), es con la ortografía: la RAE siempre ha considerado que su manera de escribir las palabras en determinado momento es la única correcta y aceptable y nunca ha tolerado desacato alguno, aun cuando, de la noche a la mañana, cambia su norma ortográfica desdiciendo la anterior. Así, sólo (‘solamente’) fue durante siglos la grafía “correcta”, pero a partir del DPD (RAE 2005), y luego reafirmada con la Ortografía (RAE 2010), la Academia la tildó de “incorrecta” y sólo quiso aceptar solo. Después, con la publicación del DLE, se amilanaron y se retractaron un poco, pero sin dar su brazo a torcer completamente, indicando que “Cuando hay riesgo de ambigüedad con el adj. solo, puede escribirse sólo” (RAE 2014: 2034). La RAE insiste, además, en que haya una estricta concordancia entre grafía y pronunciación y, en caso de ser imposible tal correspondencia, porfían en que la palabra se escriba en bastardilla. Por consiguiente, suelen rechazar o desaconsejar palabras como whisky, gin, jeans, marketing, smoking y diesel, y aceptar o preferir güisqui, ginebra, tejanos/vaqueros, mercadotecnia, esmoquin y diésel. Con respecto a este último vocablo, cabe notar que los académicos incluso tienen el descaro, la concha, de insistir en que sólo usemos la grafía con tilde del combustible, diésel, aun en el caso de aquellos que lo pronunciamos dísel y lo escribimos diesel. No está claro si han tomado esta postura porque quieren imponer su variante, la minoritaria, y aplastar la otra, la mayoritaria, o porque viviendo allá arriba en su torre de marfil ignoran la existencia de la forma mayoritaria, diesel. Pero cualquiera que sea el motivo, sea por prepotencia o por ignorancia, su proceder es netamente vergonzoso dado 115 166

que desmiente y desacata el uso de centenares de millones de hispanohablantes que ni decimos ni escribimos diésel. ¿Qué quieren que hagamos? ¿Que nos “rectifiquemos”? Al parecer simplemente quieren que nos freguemos, nos amolemos o nos jorobemos. En todo caso, se supone que lexicógrafo que se ufana o se duerme se lo lleva la corriente, pero se sospecha que estos camarones académicos seguirán haciendo estas marrufias, muy campantes, por otros 300 años más, a menos que les llamemos la atención, les exijamos un mejor trato y reclamemos un rendimiento de mayor calidad en sus obras de consulta. Son muchísimas personas hispanohablantes cultas a quienes les importa un comino, un cacahuate, un cinco, un corno o un pito que a veces falte dicha bendita concordancia entre grafía y pronunciación y no sienten necesidad alguna de escribir siempre en letra cursiva palabras como las siguientes: • • • • • •

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ballet. La propuesta de la RAE de fomentar el uso de la grafía balé fue un fracaso total. ¡Qué paliza —qué vergueada— se llevaron ahí los académicos! blazer. Si los académicos creen que toda la gente culta lo va a escribir bléiser están delirando. boom. ¿Acaso vamos a escribirla bum o bun? ¡Qué va! boutique. Casi todo el mundo sabe que esta palabra se pronuncia como si se escribiera butíc. brandy. Si con tal de no tomar o beber una botella de brandy los académicos se empeñan en emborracharse con brandi o coñac es asunto suyo. cabaret y carnet. ¿Quién dijo que hay que escribirlas cabaré y carné? ¿Los de la RAE? Well, to heck with them! If I’m going to use a gallicism, I want it to look and taste like one! It should be clean, clear, natural, organic and algae fed. Why should I have to use genetically modified gallicisms like cabaré, carné, balé, buqué, duvé and Chevrolé? Because some curmudgeons in Madrid and their Latin American lackeys say so? What’s the point? What if what I want in these cases is the real McCoy? What if I’m not in the market for some cheap knock-off like balé that anyone who’s ever gone to the ballet (and maybe plenty who haven’t) knows full well is a phony? Whatever happened to “Tradition, tradition!” as Zero Mostel would say? Y si de veras se quiere que viva la tradición, esto exige el uso de ballet y cabaret, no de *balé y *cabaré. (El lector quizás se pregunte por qué me he pasado al inglés en este apartado y la respuesta es sencilla: a la postre me dio por expresar algo en mi lengua materna, aunque fuera una sola cosita). collage y cottage. ¿Colaje y cotaje? No, por favor, obligarnos a esto sería un castigo cruel y poco usual. cookie. Que la RAE se atreva nomás a proponer galleta para el uso informático, a ver cómo le va. cover (‘suma que hay que pagar para entrar a un cabaret, discoteca, club, restaurante, etc., aparte de lo que se cobra por la comida o la bebida’; se pronuncia como si se escribiera cóver). elite. La grafía élite está bien para los que la pronuncian [E-li-te], perfecto, pero… ¿aun a los que la pronuncian con dos sílabas en vez de tres, [e-LIT], les vamos a exigir que la escriban élite? ¡Qué absurdo! fan. Si todo el mundo dice fans y pins, ¿por qué tratar de obligarnos a escribir fanes y pines? ¡Estas formas en plural terminadas en -es son un invento académico y los académicos lo saben! ¿A quién engañan? ¿Quién dijo que el hecho de que se diga flanes y crines significa que es necesario decir fanes y pines? ¡Pura paja! 116 167

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film. La forma preferida por la Academia, filme, apenas ha pegado. Dejemos que película y film convivan en paz sin que nos compliquemos la vida. flash. Flas ha tenido tan poco éxito como balé. jacuzzi. Difícilmente yacusi, bañera de hidromasaje, bañadera de hidromasaje o tina de hidromasaje le quitarán el puesto a jacuzzi. No friegue. jumper. El DPD aconseja “adaptar siempre la grafía a la pronunciación”, y como ejemplo pone y afirma que “quien pronuncie [jerséi] escriba jersey, quien pronuncie [yérsei] escriba yérsey y quien pronuncie [yérsi] escriba yersi”, pero hasta la fecha la corporación no se ha atrevido a recomendar que quien pronuncie [JUM-per] escriba júmper, quien pronuncie [YAM-per] escriba yámper, y quien pronuncie [YOM-per] escriba yómper. Quizás en un futuro no lejano a la RAE se le ocurra salir con esta joya y nos diga que de ahora en adelante así debe ser, o, quién sabe, a lo mejor opta por no convertirse en el hazmerreír de las que usan jumper. kung fu. No, momentito, muchas personas cultas la escriben sin guión. La Docta Casa insiste en que se escriba kung-fu, pero, total, a cada vez más personas les vale lo que piense y pontifique la RAE. De insistir en una grafía fonética o castellanizada también podríamos escribirla kunfú. lager (‘tipo de cerveza’, se pronuncia como si se escribiera láguer). mail. Aunque pertenecen a diferentes registros, las palabras mail, email, y (mensaje de) correo electrónico conviven; emilio y correl, propuestas por algunos, al parecer ya murieron, si es que de veras habían nacido. Sospecho que estas últimas dos voces eran, en términos relativos, más bien inventos o fantasías de apenas unos cuantos. mall o shopping (‘centro comercial’). Parece que en algunas partes también le llaman shopping center. Como gringo que soy, me hago bolas con todo esto porque para mí un shopping center no es lo mismo que un shopping mall. manicure. Sí, también manicura, pero los que usan esta forma en vez de aquella son una minoría de los 500 millones. mouse. Ver a continuación. nylon. Quien crea que toda persona instruida escribe nailon o nilón se equivoca. paparazzi. Es prácticamente el mismo caso de jacuzzi, ver arriba. ping-pong. La existencia de las formas pimpón y tenis de mesa no han erradicado ping-pong y difícilmente la eliminarán. ring. Esta grafía es válida tanto para el sonido como para el cuadrilátero, mal que a los académicos les pese. También existen otras voces onomatopéyicas similares como cling, clong y clang. ¿Acaso las vamos a obligar a convertirse en clines, clones y clanes? No, ¿cómo van a creer? No conviene. rock. La RAE propone rocanrol, la gente de a pie sigue usando rock (pero es lógico que la grafía del derivado roquero se haya castellanizado). sexy. Aunque quizás no quieran admitirlo, hasta los académicos se dan cabal cuenta de que sexy es más sexy que sexi. shock. Es chocante que el DPD afirme que la “existencia de la voz española choque hace innecesario el uso del anglicismo shock” dado que choque no siempre capta la idea de shock, ni corrientazo tampoco. show. La definición del DPD en donde esta voz se tilda de “anglicismo innecesario” es todo un show. ¿Por qué la riqueza de nuestra lengua se ve amenazada si al acervo de las palabras espectáculo, función, gala y exhibición, etc. se le agrega show? No entiendo. ¡Que convivan y las usemos todas! Así la riqueza y el repertorio incrementan, no disminuyen. 117 168

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spray. ¿Atomizador, pulverizador, rociador? Si estas palabras alguna vez tuvieron de verdad pegue, han sido completamente “pulverizadas” por spray. También sabemos que aerosol, palabra propuesta por la RAE para evitar el anglicismo, no es lo mismo dado que hay muchos sprays que no son aerosoles y el aerosol es una clase específica de spray. En algunas variedades del idioma se usa también la voz chisguete en el sentido de spray. Podemos mortificarnos, contorsionarnos y ponernos de cabeza a fin de evitar el anglicismo en cuestión, pero… ¿para qué? ¡Dejémonos de tonterías! Ya a estas alturas la mera palabra es spray (aunque se pronuncie [es-PRAY]). tablet. Se pronuncia [TA-blet]. El DLE no consigna tablet, pero sí incluye la siguiente acepción de tableta: “4. Dispositivo electrónico portátil con pantalla táctil y con múltiples prestaciones”. Parece que los académicos quieren tapar el sol con un dedo, pues para muchos hispanohablantes esto se llama tablet: Voy a regalarle una tablet a mi hijo, para su cumpleaños. En fin, el uso se impone y no creo que vaya a triunfar tableta. La tableta suena a pastilla que uno tiene que tomar. Como que no suena bien decir: Voy a regalarle una tableta a mi hijo, para su cumpleaños. (¡Qué clase de regalo! ¡una pastilla!). telemarketing. ¿Si se llamara mercadotecnia telefónica acaso nos cabrearía, calentaría, encabronaría encachimbaría o encojonaría menos? whisky. Ver a continuación. ying-yang. A la forma yinyan como que le falta sazón. ¿De veras queremos quitarle las g a ying-yang y, de paso, despojarlo de su exotismo? ¡No, no lo creo!

¿Por qué los hispanohablantes porfían en escribir este tipo de voces en letra normal a pesar de las censuras y condenas ardientes y vehementes de la RAE? No le hacen caso porque no las consideran palabras “extranjeras”, sino parte integral del lenguaje, o de su lenguaje, lo que viene a ser lo mismo. Si para los académicos las palabras anteriores son odiosos extranjerismos crudos y no adaptados (al grito de «¡no son español, carajo!»), allá ellos, porque quienes los emplean, suelen usarlos sin ningún remordimiento ni tampoco ningún afán de “adaptarlos”. ¿Para qué —pensarán— si ya son parte de la lengua? Más vale que los miembros de la Academia se acostumbren a semejante “conducta impropia” porque no parece que vaya a desaparecer. También cabe preguntar por qué es necesario separar y señalar a las palabras que lucen o actúan de manera diferente, que no se portan exactamente como el dios castellano supuestamente manda. ¿Para ayudar a los hispanohablantes a pronunciarlas? No, no es eso, porque ya todo el mundo sabe cómo pronunciar flash, mouse y marketing y los que se hacen el manicure saben muy bien que esta voz se pronuncia con tres sílabas, como si se escribiera maniquiur. De todos modos, escribir este tipo de voces en letra itálica tampoco nos ayuda a decirlas correctamente. ¿Por qué las palabras —al igual que las personas— no pueden convivir en paz, sea cual fuere su origen, aspecto, raza, etnia, religión y orientación o identidad sexual? ¿Por qué tanto temor a lo foráneo, por qué tanto afán por marcar la otredad? Al fin y al cabo, todos somos personas y todas son palabras. Me doy cuenta de que sería ingenuo afirmar que todas las voces han sido creadas iguales, pero por lo menos no deberíamos dividirlas en dos categorías: las “castizas” y “autóctonas”, por un lado, y las ajenas e indocumentadas, por otro, porque la verdad es que los idiomas, al igual que nosotros, son inherentemente mestizos e híbridos y no tiene caso hacer distinciones de este tipo. El español no es un idioma 100% fonético por más que a los académicos les gustaría que así fuera, y no es posible deportar a todos los extranjeros y extranjerismos que se niegan a usar ropa criolla; lo queramos o no, forman parte de nuestro paisaje desde hace siglos. 118 169

Mirando hacia adentro, es decir, dentro del español, vemos que aun teniendo a la RAE al mando, hay mucha variación y normas diferentes y la misma Academia ha renunciado a la idea de imponer, en todos los aspectos, una norma única, siendo la de Castilla y la parte norte-central de España la que siempre había pretendido imponernos. Por otra parte, la variación que existe a veces es arbitraria, abigarrada y caótica —algunos escriben y dicen remolacha, y otros betabel, betarraga, beterraga o veteraba— y en otros casos es más sencilla, ordenada y acatadora de pautas: por ejemplo, el que algunos escriban whisky y otros güisqui, algunos gin and tonic y otros yin y tónic, y hasta puede haber por ahí personas que salgan con la puntada de llamarlo ginebra y tónica… ¡cosa que a la RAE probablemente le encantaría si no fuera tan tirada o jalada de los pelos! Tampoco es probable que, sin la existencia de la RAE, nuestra lengua degenere en dialectos completamente incomprensibles entre ellos, ni es cierto que con la RAE los países compartan una misma norma. Antes bien, son 20 normas nacionales, algunas bastante divergentes frente a otras. Si miramos hacia afuera, porque también conviene tomar nota de lo que sucede en otras lenguas y no enfrascarnos únicamente en la castellana, vemos que en portugués e inglés tampoco hay una sola manera de escribir las palabras: algunos hablantes de aquel escriben ação, contato y ótimo, y otros acção, contacto y óptimo; de modo similar, algunos angloparlantes escriben honour, analyse, centre y cheque, y otros honor, analyze, center y check. A veces este tipo de variaciones gráficas existe porque las palabras se pronuncian de distinta manera en las diferentes variedades del respectivo idioma, y a veces no responde a distintas pronunciaciones sino a tradiciones diversas. Surjan las variaciones en inglés y portugués por los motivos que sean, lo cierto es que en estas dos lenguas internacionales no hay una sola norma y la ausencia de academias que las rijan no ha resultado en situaciones de caos. Muy al contrario. Al igual que nosotros, los de habla portuguesa e inglesa tienen su diversidad dentro de la unidad, pero sin que les haga falta ninguna bendita academia. Se ha dicho que las comparaciones son odiosas, pero a veces son igualmente ineluctables. Al contemplar los países donde se hablan las tres lenguas en cuestión, se observa una importante diferencia psicológica entre naciones como Brasil, Australia y Estados Unidos, por un lado, y Cuba, Colombia y Perú, por otro: a las personas de aquel grupo de países jamás se les ocurriría aceptar que su ex amo colonial —perdón, ¿ahora debo escribir examo?— les dictara sus prácticas y usos lingüísticos. Y no lo tolerarían independientemente de que el mandato viniera directamente de una “real academia” del antiguo poder colonial, o bajo capa de una “asociación de academias” armada para encubrir la verdadera situación asimétrica, a fin de hacer de cuenta, por medio de una supuesta cámara de representantes, que existe democracia en vez de dictadura. En este aspecto fundamental, la mayoría de los países hispanoamericanos, al faltar a su deber de elaborar sus propios diccionarios integrales, ortografías, gramáticas, guías de estilo, etc., reconocen tácitamente la hegemonía de la RAE y, a los casi 200 años de su independencia geopolítica, no han logrado establecer su independencia lingüística. Considerando ahora un par de ejemplos concretos en español, vemos que la tradición en Hispanoamérica es escribir/decir mouse y whisky, mientras que la tendencia en España —una quizás un tanto forzada y moldeada por la RAE— es escribir ratón y güisqui (esta última tal vez no tanto). Las formas “castizas” o “fonéticas” no sólo resultan raras a la mayoría de los hispanoamericanos (y también a algunos españoles), sino, además, algo cómicas. ¿Decirle ratón al mouse? ¿Escribir whisky con gü, güisqui? Está bien que así lo digan o lo escriban los españoles, desde luego ellos (y todos) tienen un derecho inalienable de hacerlo, pero ¿cómo

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se le ocurrió a la RAE intentar imponer a los americanos las formas peninsulares con entradas malolientes como las siguientes del DPD? ratón. Calco semántico del término inglés mouse, que se usa, en informática, para designar el pequeño dispositivo mediante el cual se maneja el cursor de la pantalla de la computadora u ordenador: «Basta con tocar una tecla o, mejor aún, mover el ratón, para que el ordenador vuelva a su situación de trabajo» (Mundo [Esp.] 26.1.97). La existencia de este calco hace innecesario el uso en español del término inglés. güisqui. Adaptación gráfica de la voz inglesa whisky (o whiskey, en su denominación irlandesa y americana), ‘licor obtenido por destilación de ciertos cereales fermentados’: «Encendió un cigarrillo mientras esperaba un café y un segundo güisqui» (Rossetti Alevosías [Esp. 1991]). […] Aunque sigue siendo mayoritario el uso del extranjerismo crudo —que debe escribirse siempre con resalte tipográfico—, la adaptación güisqui ha ganado terreno y resulta preferible, pues permite evitar los errores frecuentes que se cometen al intentar reproducir la grafía inglesa. ¿Preferible la adaptación güisqui? Para los que estamos acostumbrados a escribirla con w, la grafía con g de preferible no tiene nada. ¿Innecesario el término mouse? Lo que sobra aquí es una entidad que pretende indicarnos cómo debemos expresarnos. ¡Innecesaria será la RAE! ¡Que nos ahorre sus consejos, su pedantería y sus pretensiones de superioridad moral y de supuesta lógica lingüística! Para la gran mayoría de los hispanohablantes el mouse es el aparatito y el ratón, el animalito. Bien puede ser que ambos compartan aspectos de forma o apariencia, pero para los hispanoamericanos siguen siendo dos cosas bien distintas, e intentar imponer el uso de ratón (‘mouse’) no va a lograr ni que las dos se confundan ni que el anglicismo quede desterrado. A los académicos que así lo piensan se les zafó un tornillo o se les corrió una teja. La grafía güisqui no parece haber ganado mucho terreno y, fuera de España, casi ningún terreno; y si alguno ganó se debe sin duda a la campaña para imponerla realizada por la RAE y no a causas naturales de evolución lingüística. También molesta sobremanera que en las dos entradas citadas anteriormente las únicas oraciones que se presentan, «Basta con […] mover el ratón» y «[…] mientras esperaba […] un segundo güisqui», sean, en ambos casos, de fuentes peninsulares y de aquellos ejemplos que respalden la preferencia académica por ratón y güisqui. Así, en vez de ser honestos y plantearnos una visión equilibrada de los temas, los académicos recurren a la alevosía al intentar callar y enterrar los millones de ejemplos de mouse y whisky que son tan legítimos y dignos de tener en cuenta como los con ratón y güisqui de Mundo y Alevosías de Rossetti, respectivamente. ¡Qué manera de tergiversar los hechos y desvirtuar la realidad! Con esto los de la Docta Casa demuestran que son capaces de valerse de cualquier ardid a fin de promover su campaña lingüística, pisoteando y ninguneando a los usos lingüísticos de quienes sean. El intento de engaño es vergonzoso, pero más penoso aún es que en lugar de aventarle o zumbarle tomatazos podridos a la Academia por este sainete chapurreado y mal montado, la gente le haya prodigado laureles y vítores aclamándola como si fuese el mismo Salvador. ¡Cómo duele! Al igual que ocurre en nuestro idioma, en las otras lenguas policéntricas (como francés, inglés, alemán, etc.) los hablantes que son parte de una misma comunidad lingüística suelen entenderse a la perfección y, los que no, a menudo tienen que esforzarse por aprender el otro código, lograr comprenderlo y hacerse entender. Imaginarse que tal esfuerzo no es necesario, o que una academia —o “asociación” de ellas— puede lograr la unidad lingüística a nivel 120 171

panhispánico (“diversidad dentro de la unidad”), aunque esta sea sólo superficial, y creer que dicha organización es imprescindible para mantenerla es un espejismo, una ilusión óptica, una quimera, que ya a estas alturas a nadie debería engañar. ¿Acaso —o a poco— hemos olvidado en qué siglo estamos? Aunque Andrés Bello y Rufino José Cuervo quizás lo hayan creído en el XIX no significa que tengamos que seguir tragándonos el cuento ahora en el XXI. ¡Desechemos esa superchería, esa rémora, y deshagámonos de ella de una buena vez! Parte del problema estriba en que los caballeros andantes de la Docta Casa y de sus sucursales americanas suelen ser muy tercos y se han atrincherado tanto tras sus gruesas murallas, profundos fosos, y tajante autoridad que derrumbar las primeras, drenar los segundos y tragarse la tercera les va a costar trabajo. Tienen tanta fe en el brillo de sus armaduras y yelmos, en el filo de sus espadas y en la enjundia de sus mazas, que retractarse y reintegrarse a la sociedad civil les va a resultar difícil, aunque en ello pusieran el empeño y de veras quisieran rehabilitarse. Pero es sólo un lado de la moneda. El problema mayor está en que los hemos malacostumbrado haciéndoles la venia —o la caravana— y tolerando su altivez con todo y rabietas, cuando lo que tendríamos que haber hecho, cada uno a su manera, era ¡mandarlos a la fregada, a bañar, a moler agua o a pastar chirotes, o bien a freír buñuelos, espárragos, mondongo, monos, niguas, papas o tusas! El que no lo hayamos hecho desde el inicio, ya en el siglo XVIII, cuando los primeros académicos se reunieron a crear la RAE, o por lo menos en el XIX al nacer las naciones independientes de Hispanoamérica, tampoco justifica que continuemos aguantándolos hasta el día de hoy. ¡Basta! Los miembros de número de la RAE se consideran imprescindibles y harán todo lo posible por tener la sartén —nosotros— por el mango, pero no debemos dejarnos llevar dócilmente, como ovejas de la grey. Desde luego, el buen pastor de la Academia no desea pasar a la historia como un estadista magnánimo que supo ceder el timón a estudiosos de la lengua más ilustrados, flexibles, científicos, de mente abierta y de criterios independientes. Su actitud es más bien la de un dictador que se niega a embolsarse o embolsillarse de un totazo la mayor parte del erario público y dejar el país en quiebra justo antes de embarcarse y replegarse a Mónaco, para vivir con tranquilidad sus años dorados en la Costa Azul, sino que declara, desafiante, “a mí sólo me sacarán muerto”. Si nadie reclama, si nadie se subleva, el poderío y las campañas de publicidad de la Academia son más que suficientes para asegurar que continúe detentando el cetro y vistiendo la corona. Lo que hace falta, para no tener que seguir aguantándola y acatando sus decretos, es que surjan editoriales que sean capaces de elaborar diccionarios integrales independientes que se muestren claramente superiores a los de la RAE para, de esta forma, comerle el mandado a la Docta Casa y vencerla en su propia cancha. Imaginémonos un mundo de habla hispana en donde cada país, incluida España, lograra publicar diccionarios, gramáticas y ortografías de primera línea, de manera tal que cada nación pudiera hacer el siguiente tipo de proclamaciones al mundo: «Miren, señoras y señores, aquí en estas obras se plasma nuestro estándar nacional, con las variaciones más frecuentes que existen en nuestro país; estas obras describen el lenguaje que las personas consideradas razonablemente cultas en nuestro país suelen usar y aceptar. (Por supuesto, el diccionario también consigna nuestros usos populares más frecuentes). Se trata de un estándar esbozado por nuestros estudiosos nacionales independientes. Tómenlo, déjenlo, estúdienlo y apréndanlo, si gustan y les conviene, pero no nos vengan con el cuento de que nuestro estándar es incorrecto

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porque la Real Academia Española indique tal o cual cosa, porque bajo ningún concepto lo vamos a aceptar. ¡Eso se acabó!» Si eso ocurriera, si los pueblos declararan su emancipación lingüística, destituyendo y despojando de autoridad, en sus respectivas tierras, a la Real Academia Española, así como a sus compinches o contlapaches de la “Asociación”, y si respaldaran este pronunciamiento con obras de consulta originales y de alta calidad, muy pronto la RAE se tornaría tan obsoleta e irrelevante como hace siglos se volvieron las academias de las lenguas italiana y francesa, academias cuya influencia sobre el uso en esas dos lenguas hoy día es casi nula. Y así se rompería el yugo y pasaría a mejor vida una tiranía que con mano férrea se ha ejercido sobre los hispanos desde hace tres siglos y cuyo mandato tendría que haber sido desplazado ya en los 1820, con la independencia de la mayoría de las colonias de Hispanoamérica. Una vez que esto se logre, que la Docta Casa quede, a los ojos del público, como una gran mansión deteriorada y venida a menos allá arriba en el Montecalvo y que apenas tenga relevancia para los hispanohablantes, ya no habrá vuelta de hoja, pues en lugar de recurrir a las obras de la RAE, el público preferirá consultar y tener en cuenta lo aportado por nuevas guías sobre el idioma, fuentes más realistas, sutiles, científicas y descriptivas que las académicas.

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NOTAS *Andre Moskowitz trabaja como traductor e intérprete de inglés y español desde 1985 y forma parte del plantel de intérpretes del Tribunal de Inmigración de San Francisco, California (Estados Unidos) desde 1997. Es traductor certificado por la American Translators Association en tres combinaciones lingüísticas: español-inglés, inglés-español y portuguésinglés. También es intérprete de español/inglés certificado por los tribunales federales de los EE.UU. y por los estatales de California. En 1988 recibió el título de maestría en traducción (español e inglés) del Graduate Center de la City University of New York (Nueva York, EE.UU.) y en 1995 obtuvo su segunda maestría, en español (rama de lingüística), de la University of Florida (Gainesville, Florida, EE.UU.). Sus áreas de interés son la lexicografía hispánica, la dialectología léxica del español, así como la relación entre estas y la traducción y la interpretación del español. Sobre estos campos versan la mayoría de sus publicaciones. Esta más reciente sale en línea en los Proceedings of the 56th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, congreso celebrado en Miami, Florida, EE.UU. del 4 al 7 de noviembre de 2015. 1

Quiero dar las gracias a todas las personas encuestadas que con paciencia y gentileza me brindaron su tiempo y conocimientos sobre la lengua. Deseo agradecer, especialmente, a Patricia Aguilar de Malpartida (peruana), Laura Marcela Castiblanco y Rafael Saavedra (colombianos), Rosalía Susana Lastra Barrios (mexicana), Clary Loisel (estadounidense), Carlos Mora Campos (costarricense), Libushe Moskowitz (ecuatoriana), Susana Rodríguez Barcia (española), y Débora Simcovich (argentina), por haber leído y comentado borradores de este trabajo, o partes de él. Cada una de estas personas aportó su propia visión y perspectiva sobre la lengua y de sus observaciones, anotaciones, correcciones y sugerencias he aprendido muchísimo. Sus ideas mejoraron el texto, enriquecieron su contenido e hicieron que el trabajo quedara más pulido, coherente y completo. Desde luego, soy el único responsable de cualquier error, imprecisión, exageración, indiscreción, chabacanería o ramplonería que esta obra contenga.

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BIBLIOGRAFÍA ACADEMIA COLOMBIANA DE LA LENGUA (1935): Anuario. Tomo I. (1874-1910). Bogotá (Colombia): Imprenta Nacional. ALONSO, AMADO (1943): Castellano, español, idioma nacional / Historia espiritual de tres nombres. Buenos Aires (Argentina): Editorial Losada. ÁVILA MARTEL, ALAMIRO DE (1981): Andrés Bello / Breve ensayo sobre su vida y su obra. Santiago (Chile): Editorial Universitaria. BELLO, ANDRÉS (1847): Gramática de la lengua castellana destinada al uso de los americanos. Santiago (Chile): Imprenta del Progreso. BENET

MORELL, JOSEP (1978): Cortes, Diario de Sesiones del Senado, Comisión de Constitución, Sesión número 3, celebrada en Madrid, el martes, 22 de agosto de 1978. Páginas 16-17 (1660-1661 de la publicación original): . I

CERRÓN-PALOMINO, RODOLFO MARCIAL (2010): 17 de febrero de 2010. Lima (Perú): . GRASES, PEDRO (1964): Antología de Andrés Bello. Caracas (Venezuela): Editorial Kapelusz. JAKSIĆ, IVÁN (2001): Andrés Bello / Scholarship and Nation-Building in Nineteenth-Century Latin America. Cambridge (Reino Unido): Cambridge University Press. MENÉNDEZ Y PELAYO, MARCELINO (1880): La ciencia española. Algunas de sus mejores frases: . MORENO FERNÁNDEZ, FRANCISCO (2009): La lengua española en su geografía. Madrid (España): Arco / Libros. MOSKOWITZ, ANDRE (2011): «Manual de dialectología hispánica: verbos variables» en Proceedings of the 52nd American Translators Association Annual Conference. CDROM. Del 26 al 29 de octubre del 2011. Boston, Massachusetts (Estados Unidos): American Translators Association. — (2013): «Manual de dialectología hispánica: verbos variables II» en Proceedings of the 54th American Translators Association Annual Conference. CD-ROM. Del 6 al 9 de noviembre del 2013. San Antonio, Tejas/Texas (Estados Unidos): American Translators Association. PAZ, OCTAVIO (1997): Primer Congreso Internacional de la Lengua Española, celebrado en Zacatecas (México) del 7 al 11 de abril de 1997: REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA (2005): Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (DPD). 1a edición. Madrid (España): Santillana Ediciones; en línea: . 124 175

— (2009): Nueva gramática de la lengua española. Madrid (España): Espasa Libros. — (2010): Ortografía de la lengua española. Madrid (España): Espasa Libros. — (2014): Diccionario de la lengua española (DLE). México (México): Espasa Libros – Editorial Planeta Mexicana. RODRÍGUEZ CASTELAO, ALFONSO DANIEL (1931): Sobre la lengua gallega (Intervención en las Cortes Constituyentes, p. 47): . RÚBIES I GARROFÉ, MARIA (1978): Cortes, Diario de Sesiones del Senado, Sesión Plenaria número 33, celebrada en Madrid, el martes, 26 de septiembre de 1978. Página 10 (2924 de la publicación original): .

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ISSUES IN RECORDED MEDIA TRANSLATIONS OF COLOMBIAN SPANISH Professor Anthony T. Rivas Curriculum Development and Language Specialist, National Center for Interpretation, University of Arizona/Tucson Abstract: “Issues in Recorded Media Translations of Colombian Spanish” seeks to review some dialectal features of what we can generally describe as Colombian Spanish that may be difficult to either translate or interpret, as the case may be, for professionals who are not familiar or have little familiarity with the Spanish spoken in this Northern South American country. This paper does not examine technical aspects of recorded media, since this area is beyond the author’s expertise, but rather, it focuses on the semantic issues inherent to the aforesaid variety of the Spanish language that may come up either on recorded media or in conversational speech. 1.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Tony Rivas has been a presenter at different professional translator/interpreter conferences for many years. He is certified by both The American Translators Association (ATA) and The National Translator Certification Service, holding certifications to work as an interpreter in the United States, California and Florida courts. Mr. Rivas is also a member of The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC), holding classifications of A in the Spanish and English languages respectively. Tony is staff at the University of Arizona’s National Center for Interpretation, teaching both webinars and classroom workshops for his institution, being core faculty at the annual summer institute of court and medical interpretation held by the National Center for Interpretation at the University of Arizona/Tucson. In addition to being a full ATA member, Rivas also belongs to The American Association of Language Specialists (TAALS) and the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators. Tony has authored and co-authored several publications for the University of Arizona, including but not limited to Interpretapes–Medical Edition, 2nd Edition: Five Doctor-Patient Medical Consultations, Medical Interpretapes, and The Spanish Talking Manual. Anthony has also written and presented at ATA, NAJIT and CFI conferences on legal translation and dialectal speech involving the English and Spanish languages. The author has traveled extensively throughout Colombia, having visited and stayed temporarily in Cali, Palmira, Cartagena, Medellín, Bogotá, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, and Cúcuta. His former wife of five-years is a native of Palmira, a city just a few kilometers away from Cali. Mr. Rivas was born in Camagüey, Cuba, and he is a citizen of both Spain and his native country.

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2.

ON COLOMBIAN DIALECTAL REGIONS

Colombia is the one given Hispanic American nation enjoying the highest number of dialectal regions. These are not necessarily listed in order of importance. Linguistic technical terms are avoided as much as possible, since this glossary is targeted to translation and interpretation professionals, being especially beneficial to court interpreters. The Andean Dialect The Pastuso or Andean Dialect is spoken in the Southwest Area of Colombia, bordering with Ecuador and sharing many of its speech sounds and words with the northern varieties of Ecuadorean Spanish. Speakers of the Andean Dialect usually pronounce differently the “ll” in “calló” (“calió”) and the “y” in “cayó” (“cayó”,) as traditionally done in Castilian Spanish. In some locations, the “strong /r/,” as that in “carro,” is pronounced like an /s/, the speaker´s vocal chords´ sounding while the tip of his/her tongue points upwards towards the front of the palate, similar to Costa Rican Spanish. The Atlantic Coast/Caribbean Dialect The Atlantic Coast or Caribbean (“costeño”) Dialect is spoken on Colombia´s Atlantic Coast. Many of its features, such as those of the Spanish spoken mainly in City of Cartagena (Department of Bolívar) as well as in the City of Montería (Department of Córdoba), and to a lesser extent, that spoken in the City of Barranquilla (Department of Atlántico,) match those of Caribbean Spanish, specifically Cuban Spanish. The /s/ sound in syllable-final position is pronounced similar to a US English /h/ sound at the beginning of a syllable (such as the the /h/ sound in “home.”) In “El vallenato es música de la Costa,” the /s/ in “es” and that in “Costa” would sound something like a US English “h” (es = eh/Costa = Cohta.) The “golpea’o” feature is the gemmination or consonant-sound assimilation (becoming phonetically like or speech soundwise) of (liquid consonants) [r] and [l], in syllable final position, to the speech sound that starts the next syllable, for instance, “caldo” [kál-do] is the so-called standard Spanish, [kád-do] is “golpea’o;” “calco” [kál-ko] is the so-called standard Spanish, [kák-ko] is “golpea’o,” “gordo” [gór-do] is the so-called standard Spanish, [gód-do] is “golpea’o.” Gemmination or assimilation of speech sounds [r] and [l] is distinctive of some geographical areas of Western Cuban Spanish (City of Havana, Province of Havana, and Matanzas), and since many Cuban immigrants are native speakers from these three parenthetical locations, this speech-sound feature is attributed by non-Cuban Spanish speakers outside of Cuba to all speakers of Cuban Spanish. Nothing could be further from the truth. However, some Colombian Atlantic Coast speakers sound “more Cuban like” than their other “costeño” counterparts. The “golpea ´o” phenomenon is heard from Sabanalarga down south to the Department of Cordova, covering the southern half of the Department of Atlantico, the northwestern area of the Department of Bolivar, the western area of the Department of Magdalena, the northern coastal areas of the Departments of Chocó and Antioquia (the stress is on the “ó” not on the “i”,) and the Departments of Sucre and Cordoba in their entirety. It does not manifest itself in the Departments of Guajira, Cesar (the stress is on the “á”,) on the North and East ends of the Department of Magdalena or the northern half of the Department of Atlantico. While some authors claim that the “golpea´o” feature is also heard in Puerto Rico, this is not actually the case, as Puerto Ricans can easily detect Cuban speech on the basis of [r] and [l] assimilation or gemmination to the speech sound that begins the following syllable because this speech-sound feature is not indigenous to Puerto Rican Spanish. One of the

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phonological features distinctive of Puerto Rican Spanish is the conversion of speech sound [r] into [l] in syllable final position, for instance, “perdón,” [per-dón], standard, [pel-dón], Puerto Rican Spanish; “Carmen” [kár-men], standard, [kál-men], Puerto Rican Spanish; “carta” [kár-ta], standard, [kál-ta] Puerto Rican Spanish. The Cundiboyacense Dialect The Cundiboyacense Dialect mostly prevails in the Departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá. Either “sumercé” or “su merced” (some of the historical predecessors of “usted,” see Cervantes´s Don Quixote ) is used as the formal second-person singular pronoun. The "ustedeo" is widespread in this area, meaning that “usted” is used in informal speech, the way “tú” and “vos” are used in other dialects of Colombia and other countries. Except for Panama, in which the “tú” form of informal address is used, “vos” is used at least in Nicaragua, Honduras and other Central American nations, as well as in the Departments of Valle del Cauca, Antioquia, Risaralda, Caldas, and Quindío, together with Argentina. In the rest of Hispanic American nations and Spain “tú” is used as the informal form of address. It should be noted that some older speakers in the Cuban Provinces of Camaguey and Ciego de Ávila may use “vos” in informal speech, but as a result of the political change in 1959 and interprovincial population changes, the “voseo” has practically become lost in Cuba. The Chocó or Pacific Coast Dialect Allegedly influenced by African languages brought by slaves to the New World, this dialect is spoken in both the Department of Chocó and throughout Colombia´s Pacific Coast. Typically, /s/ in syllable-final position is often pronounced as [h] or omitted. The pronunciation of /s/ as [h] in syllable-final position is also prevalent in Colombia's Atlantic Coast Dialect, Panama, Caribbean Spanish, the Canary Islands, and some areas of Andalusia. The complete omission of /s/ in syllable-final position is also heard in Dominican Spanish and in some dialects of easternmost Cuba. In Colombia´s Pacific Coast Dialect, word-final /n/ is rendered as an “n” pronounced with the back of the tongue touching the back of the roof of the mouth (the velum,) as it mostly happens in Cuban Spanish. The /d/ is replaced by /r/ in some words, and syllable-final /l/ and /r/ are often merged with or assimilated to the following consonant (“Carmen” would be “Cammen”) in a way similar to the speech in some areas of Western Cuban Spanish, as discussed above. The Eastern Plains or Llanero Dialect This dialect is spoken on the eastern plains of the country from the Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Andes) up to and into Venezuela. It is notably influenced by indigenous languages with specific different intonations on the Colombian and Venezuelan sides. The Opita Dialect In general, the Opita Dialect is spoken in the Departments of Tolima and Huila, mostly in the central and southern areas of the Magdalena River Valley. This dialect is presumed to manifest a heavy influence from indigenous languages. Noted for its slow cadence and singular intonation, the “zeta” (z) and the “ese” (s) are pronounced like an (ese), thus, speakers would pronounce “caza” and “casa” in the same manner, as it happens in all Hispanic American and Canary Island dialects as well as in certain Andalusian dialects. “Usted” is applicable to friends, family and strangers (or “vusted,” a historic predecessor of “usted,” in some rural areas.) This generalized use of the “usted” form of address is referred to as “ustedeo,” and it is also used in Venezuela´s

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State of Táchira. “Tú” is becoming the norm in many young people, and the use of “vos” is either minimal or non-existent in this dialect. The Paisa Dialect Spoken in the Colombian Coffee Belt (the “Eje Cafetero”), the Paisa Dialect became spread in the early 19th Century from Antioquia to other nearby areas as settlers from the preceding region moved to and became established in the now Departments of Quindío, Risaralda, and Caldas. From a culinary standpoint, these three departments and the current Department of Antioquia share the same dishes which are the hallmark of this area, one of them being the well-known “bandeja paisa” (Paisa Tray), usually comprised of white rice, big red kidney beans, pork rinds, a steak or finely ground beef, a fried egg, an “arepa” (a type of Indian corn bread) and at times a piece of avocado. All of these departments are collectively referred to as The Old Caldas (“El Viejo Caldas). The people who speak the Paisa Dialect pronounce speech sound /s/ as Northern and Central Spaniards do, it being referred to as a “thick” /s/ (“`ese´ espesa”.) Paisa Dialect speakers use “vos” instead of “tú” in informal speech. This dialect has a reputation for having quite a number of clever sayings (“¡Ave María, pues!” – Holy Mother of God! etc.) The Island Dialect Spoken in the Islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, all located in Colombia´s Caribbean Area, this dialect is comprised of Caribbean Spanish mixed with English language intonation. The Rolo or Bogotá Dialect The Colombian dialect spoken in the capital city of Bogotá is referred to as the Cachaco or Rolo Dialect. Bogotanian Spanish is the “standard prestigious” regional variety probably because of its “traditional Spanish” speech sounds, such as conservation of syllable final /s/, preservation of speech sound /d/ in the “–ado” suffix, and maintenance of the traditional distinction between the /y/ “cayó” and the “ll” (“eye”) in “calló,” pronounced “calió” in Bogotanian Spanish. It is worthy of note that in practically every dialect of Spanish, “cayó” and “calló” are pronounced the same /”cayó.”) This last trait is also present in the Pastuso or Andean Dialect. The Santanderean Dialect By and large, this dialect is spoken in Northeastern Colombia, in the Departments of Santander and Norte de Santander, bordering with Venezuela. As noted for the neighboring Cundiboyacense High Plateau and Venezuelan State of Táchira, the “ustedeo” (see the preceding explanation) is used extensively. The Valluno Dialect The Valluno Dialect is spoken in the Valley of the Cauca River between the Western and Central Highlands. The “voseo” (“vos” instead of “tú,” together with its applicable verb forms) is used in Cali, the capital city of the Department of Valle del Cauca. Valluno has many of its own words and expressions alien to all other Colombia Dialects. A typical Valluno greeting is "¿Q'hubo vé, bien o qué?" Also, as it happens in Medellín, "¿sí o no?" is usual when seeking agreement or as a crutch term. In Valluno, thong sandals are “chanclas,” and a bag (“bolsa” in the rest of Colombia) is called “chuspa,” a Quechua-language word. By the way, one of the meanings of

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“bolsa” is “dummy” or “stupid” in the Valluno Dialect. Its standard Spanish-language meaning of “bag” coexists with “chuspa” in this Colombian dialect. Parlache (Colombian Youth Slang) Parlache is urban slum youth slang originally from Medellín, Department of Antioquia. It sprang forth from Medellin slum neighborhood (“comunas”) youth slang, and then it became augmented by suburban youth slang from the cities of Bogotá, Cali, Barranquilla, Pereira, and Bucaramanga, whose individual dialectal regional speech varies from one to another. Initially, it was a type of underworld slang. Nonetheless, Parlache has spread to high and middle class urban youths. It has also influenced informal speech of other areas of Colombia as a result of its inclusion on the media. Peculiarities of Colombian Dialects As strange as it may sound, amongst lower and mid socioeconomic level speakers, husband and wife could refer to each other as “mijo” ( my dear boy) and “mijita” (my dear girl) respectively. On the other hand, sons may be called “papito” (daddy) and daughters “mamita” (mom), all of the preceding being terms of endearment. Colombian Spanish shares a distinctive feature of Cuban Spanish, also heard in Costa Rican Spanish, this being the usage of diminutive suffixes “ico-“ and “-ica“, instead of the most frequent “–ito” and “–ita,” with stems ending in “t” (patico.) This diminutive suffix can also be applied to adjectives and verb gerunds, for instance, “corriendo” ("running,") “corriendito” ("scurrying"); it is additionally applicable to adverbs—for instance, “ahora” ("now,") “ahorita” ("right now"), and prepositions, “cerca a” ("next to",) “cerquita a” ("right next to"). Note the usage in Colombia of dialectal prepositional variant “cerca a” instead of the standard “cerca de.” Diminutive endings can be used in both a noun and an adjective within the same phrase. Compare “un tinto caliente” ("a cup of hot coffee,") with “un tintico calientico” ("a nice cup of hot coffee.") The suffix –ío enhances the amount meant; for instance, carro (car), carrerío (row/line/bunch of cars.) The following is a short glossary of Colombian Spanish that might be helpful when encountering the colloquial speech and slang used in recorded media or by some witnesses in legal proceedings. 3.

SHORT GLOSSARY OF COLOMBIAN REGIONAL/DIALECTAL SPEECH

A a carga montón - messy, half-baked, sloppy a la lata - a lot, a ton a medias cañas - tipsy abrirse - to split (to leave) adelantar - to perform, carry out, conduct, effect; to undergo afán - hurry afanarse - to worry; to hurry aguacate - cop, pig (police officer)

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ahorita - now, this minute ají - grease (bribe); hot sauce ala - dude, guy, pal, girl etc. [variant of ola, vocative usage] alentarse - to get back on your feet ( to recover from an illness) alistar - to get ready alita - (see ala) amá - mom amañador - cozy amañarse - to get used to, to feel at home andén - sidewalk antejardín - front lawn, front yard, front area (of a house or building) antibala - bulletproof apá - dad aparato - ki, key [kilogram, drug slang] apartado aéreo - post office box aporrear - to slip (accidental fall). arepa - arepa (roll made with ground corn) arepa - dull arepa - lezzie, lez, lesbo arepear - to engage in lesbian sex argolla - wedding band, wedding ring; ring argollerismo - one-sided deal; opportunism argollero - opportunist arma de dotación - service weapon (law enforcement) aromatizar - to season arrecharse - to go beserk arrecho- horny (desirous of sex); tough (difficult); spicy, hot (in reference to food) arrimarse - to come over, to drop by asadero - chicken bar-b-que grill (eatery) aseador - cleaning or maintenance person atropellado - victim (noun), abused (adjective) AUC - paramilitary forces (Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia - United Self-Defense Forces) automotor - motor vehicle autoparte - spare part (car) azarar - to worry azaro - worry, concern azul - traffic cop azul bruma - dark blue B bacán, bacano, bacana - someone or something cool, kind, friendly. bala - "bala" plantain (plantain seasoned with oil and garlic) baldado - bucketful balina - ball bearing (car) bandera - (see “boleta”) bareto - joint (marijuana cigarette)

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barra - a grand (one thousand Colombian pesos) basuco - cocaine paste [akin to crack cocaine, but not the same thing, it is also smoked, then, Colombian crack.] boleta (depending on the region, but mostly the following)- tacky, ordinary, cheap, nasty, corny. bomba - gas station; balloon (children´s type) botadero - garbage dump botar corriente - to piss in the wind brazalete - arm band (used by the paramilitary forces as well as the FARC and ELN guerrillas.) brilladora - floor-polishing machine brutal- super cool, really awesome buitrón - stack burgomaestre - mayor burundanga - scope (scopolamine, a synthetic version of a naturally occuring deliriant found in Belladona and Datura plants. It is given by criminals to their victims to rob them, etc.) buscapersonas - beeper busero - bus driver, jitney driver buseta - jitney buso - turtle neck sweater C cachaco - Bogotanian; person from Bogota and nearby areas; good-mannered; snappy dresser; Bogotanian speech (Bogotanian Spanish) cacharrería - novelty shop caer - to drop in on somebody, to pop in cagar or joder to tease, to mess with something or someone, to cause damage. caja - coffin cajita - pager (beeper) caleta - stash caliente - dangerous. calza - tooth filling calzar - to fill a tooth cambiarse - to move (from one dwelling to another) camello - gig (employment) camioneta - pickup truck (usually); it could be an SUV too, out of context, go with pickup truck campero - jeep caneca - waste basket; drum (in coke labs) cansón - pest capo - kingpin (generalmente en el narcotráfico) cara de mondá - prick face cara de mondonga - gut face (euphemism of cara de mondá) caramelear - to sweet-talk careo - witness confrontation hearing (legal) carreta - fib, whopper (jerga para referirse a la mentira) carro de aseo - garbage truck carro de doble - four wheel drive car casa coche - motor home, recreational vehicle

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casa de inquilinato - guest house, rooming house casco urbano - urban area caspa/calilla- a pain (a badly-behaved person) catorce - a favor cauchar - to mess up cauchito - rubber band caucho - rain coat; rubber (condom) ceba - (see “boleta”) cédula - identity card cedular - to issue an identity card centro asistencial - health care facility citófono - intercom closet - closet (anglicism) cobijar - to include cocacolerío - bunch of teens cocacolo - teen (old slang) cocineta - kitchenette cochinarse - to be dirty (to be incriminated) cojo - weak or lacking sense. colaborar - to help colectivo de abogados - legal team, law office colombina - "colombina" (round piece of candy or chocolate) color champaña - light yellow ¿cómo se le ocurre? - How dare you? How can you even think of it? comando de policía - police headquarters comedero - feeding trough (farming term) comer más que hijo de sirvienta - to pig out comerse a alguien - to bang, to ball (to have sex) computador - computer (mostly masculine in Colombia) con pelos y señales - down to the tee (in fine detail) conceptuar - to issue an opinion (legalese) conejo - hoodwinking (double cross) contabilista - bookkeeper, accountant's aide contendor - contender (anglicism) contestar a lista - to answer a roll call contraevidencia - verdict notwithstanding the evidence (legal ruling) coquero - coke dealer coquetín - Mr. Flirt (a guy that flirts with many women, lacking a serious relationship) corbata - cushy job coronar - 1. to wrap up (a deal) successfully 2. to score big (as per context) corregimiento - rural township (goes back to the times of the Spanish "corregidor") correo de las brujas - (See enterarse/traer por el correo de las brujas) correr pliego de cargos - to file or bring charges (legalese) corroncho - riffraff; slowpoke (stupid); super tacky or low class, disparaging term applied to people from Colombia´s Caribbean Area/Coast; like a child with a new toy (someone who has

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something new, and he/she is eager to use it because he/she have never had anything like that before.) corroñoso - (see corroncho) coso - key (drug slang) cuál, cuáles - (In questions, it´s usually translated as “what,” for instance, “¿cuál plata?” –what money?) cuadro - guy, dude, buddy (vocative usage, Colombia´s Caribbean Seaboard) cuchi-barbie- cougar (a female oldie who dresses and acts much younger than her age.) cuchito, cuchita - old timer cucho, cucha - old timer; also, el cucho - my old man (father); la cucha - my old lady (mother), context is important here. Curramba - Barranquilla currambero - person from Barranquilla curuba - Andean passion fruit curul - seat (as regards those in the Colombian Senate or House) CH chanfa - government cushy job, sinecure (formal equivalent) chanfaina - (see chanfa) chanclas - thong sandals (Valle del Cauca) chapa - door lock; denture cheque chimbo - bad check chévere- cool, nice, admirable. chicharrón - hot potato (meaning “trouble”) chichigua - nickel and dime, peanuts (an insignificant amount) chimba - prick (male sexual organ); bogus, false. When used as an item of comparison it denotes an extreme attraction to something, such as “¡Eso es una chimba de carro!” ("That car is cool!”). It´s deemed vulgar, but it´s commonplace in Medellín and other places. It can be intensified by the prefix re—“¡Qué rechimba!” - "How awesome/cool!" chimbo - false, bogus; cock, prick; bullshit! chino - kid (especially in the Bogota area.) chiva - “chiva” bus (an artisan rural bus or artisan musical bus, as the case may be); scoop (news); loaded dice, paddy wagon (last two are infrequent) chivato (infrequent) - snitch, rat, stoolie, “sapo” is the usual word for the preceding slang chocha- pussy (female sex organ); hard headed; opossum (Valle del Cauca); slut, prostie callgirl chuchada - dirty trick chuchar - to ball, to bang (to have sex) chuchear - to snack chuchero - street vendor chusco - cute chuspa - bag, especially plastic bag (Valle del Cauca) chutear- to kick. D dar carga - to be a pain, to give a hard time dar de baja - to waste (kill) (other standard Spanish meanings are also applicable)

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dar papaya - to ask for it (such as flashing money in criminal areas, etc.) dar plomo - to shoot, to spray with bullets dar soroche - to pass out darle fuego a la gente - to lead people on de la verrionda - awful, humongous ¡de más! - really! de pronto - maybe, perhaps decolar - to take off (aircraft) demasiado - very, real desmembrada - broken detención precautelativa - pre-trial detention (legalese) dinero a rédito - money earning interest división de la policía antinarcóticos - Colombian drug enforcement police doctor - counsel, attorney; “doctor” is also in Colombia used to address big shots or to flatter someone, the equivalent would be “sir” said in a very respectful tone of voice. The saying goes: “En Colombia, todo el mundo es doctor.” droga - medication, drug; narcotics, drugs droguería - pharmacy (it isn´t a "drug store," since it sells medication exclusively) E echar cañas - to tell fibs (lies) ¡eche! - hey! edicto emplazatorio - summons (legalese) edil - councilman, city commissioner, freeholder (NY and NJ) eleno - ELN member ELN - National Liberation Army embarrar- to mess up, to get in trouble. embolado - last embolador - shoe shine boy embolar - to shine shoes embolatar - to misplace, to two-time (less frequent) embolatarse - to misplace; to be tied up; to get mixed up embluyinarse - to dress in blue jeans empiyamar - to dress in pajamas emputado- super upset, ballistic encaletar - to stash encaletarse - to stash oneself (to hide) encanar - to place in the slammer (same as in Cuban Spanish) encartarse - to be stuck [with something] encochinar - to stitch somebody up (incriminate) encomienda - (postal) package enguayabarse - to get a hangover; to get the blues enterarse por el correo de las brujas - to hear it through the grapevine entucar- to make out. enverracarse - to lose one's cool escogencia - selection

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escogimiento - selection escuadra - pistol esculcar - to search esculcón(a) - nosy esfero - ballpoint pen (especially in Bogota and the Department of Cundinamarca.) estadero - roadside/highway bar estanco - liquor store estanco (de agua) (farm setting) - well estanquillo - Government Liquor Store estar caleto - to be loaded with money estar cauchito - to be okay, ready or fine estar cogido de la noche- to be late for something; to be overdue for something estar en la olla - to be flat broke estar en la orina - to be in a crummy mood estar en mora de - to be overdue for estar galleta- to be top-notch estar mama´o - to be beat, to be dead tired estar más enfermo que un verriondo - to be as sick as a dog estar tragado de - to have a crush on (to be in love with) estar verraco - to be mad (angry) ¡está verraquísimo! - it's super!; he lost his cool! estrato - urban tier (Colombian big cities are divided into “estratos,” the higher the “estrato,” the more expensive the tier) experticio - expert testimony (legalese) extracto - statement (with reference to bank statements) F faltón - heel (thief) FARC - Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia fariano - FARC member filo - hunger flojo - lazy; chicken, scaredy cat fondo ganadero - rancher's fund foto tamaño cédula - a photo 1 1/4" X 2 1/4" franela - t-shirt fregar - to pester, to bug; to mess up frenillos - braces (teeth) fresco - what-me-worry attitude; as an exclamation (“¡Fresco! - Cool it!) fuerza pública - armed forces and police fufa - slut, prostie fufurufa - (see “fufa”) fumigar - to waste (kill) furgón - van; trailer furgoneta - van

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G gallada - crowd, bunch galleta . poop (human feces, see also “pasárselo por la galleta.”) gallinacear - to womanize gallinazo - womanizer galpón - chicken coop gamin - street child; ill-mannered ganado de levante - cattle for raising ganar la arepa - to bring home the bacon ganarse una maraña - to make some extra bread (money) garra- (see “boleta”) gas - tacky, nasty. gasolinera or gasolinero- a "gold digger". góndola - dumpster gonorrea - evil, loathsome. goteras - outskirts (of a city) gripa - the sniffles (common cold) guandoca - slammer, can guaricha- (applied to women) vulgar: bitch (such as- ¡India guaricha! — You ho'!) guaro - rifraff guayabo - hangover; blues H hablar paja - to talk nonsense; to tell lies hacer arepas - (see arepear) hacer mercado - to go grocery shopping hacer unas vueltas - to run some errands hacienda - cattle ranch ¡hágale! - go for it!, get down to it!, get cracking! hembro (amongst females or gays)- hot-looking hidrante - hydrant (anglicism) hijo de puente - SOB hoja de vida - résumé huevón - dumb ass, lazy bones; used amongst men jokingly- ¡Ay huevón! — Oh, man! huevos perico - (See “perico”.) I iguazo - (see “boleta”) impedimento - motion to withdraw for cause (legalese) incriminado - defendant (legalese) indagatoria - unsworn statement proceeding (legalese) inmovilizar - to impound (legalese) instalar - to open up, to begin interiores - underwear

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J jalador - heel (thief); hard-working jarto - sick and tired of something (“¡estoy jarto de esto!” I´m sick of this!) jartera - drag (“¡qué jartera!” - what a drag!) jefe de patios - bay supervisor jeta - trap (mouth) joder - to pester or annoy (not as obscene as in Spain or other countries) judicializar (legalese) - to prosecute juez de instrucción - magistrate, police judge (legalese) jurado de conciencia - trial jury (legalese) [juries were done away with in Colombia.] jurado popular - (see jurado de conciencia) juzgado de instrucción criminal - criminal magistrate court juzgado de reparto - case-assignment court (legalese) juzgado promiscuo - civil and criminal court (legalese) juzgado superior - trial court (legalese) K kárdex - multiple-tray cabinet L La Heróica - Cartagena (City on Colombia´s Caribbean coast.) la tomba - the cops lady - lady (cocaine) latonero - body and fender man levantamiento de cadáver - inquest (legalese) levantamiento de demanda - abandonment of claim (legalese) levantar - to raise (person or animals - "criar") levantar- to score with a woman or a man (such as- Me levanté una vieja anoche — "I picked up a broad last night"); to beat someone up. levita - priest ligar - to give money, to bribe. línea - bus línea - line (drugs; from the English “line of cocaine”) listo - O.K., fine (used often in phone conversations) LL llanta - tire (as in most of Latin America) llave - main man, good buddy loco - guy, dude lote de engorde - land for fattening cattle lulo - naranjilla, green orange M machetero - half-baked (as in a "half-baked job"), sloppy madrazo - insult to someone's mother mágico - (drug) dealer

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magistrado - justice (appellate and supreme court levels) mal puesto - spell, witchcraft ¡maldinga! - darnn it! malparido - (vulgar) bastard maluquera - sickness (illness) mamadera de gallo - (see mamar gallo) mamar gallo - to pull one's leg mamarse - to put up with mamita - my dear girl/child, honey (term of endearment) mamola- no way mansarda - attic mañé - low class, rifraff mañé- low-class, nasty maracuyá - passion fruit maraña - extra bucks (additional money) marica (literally "faggot")- dude, good buddy, my man (term of endearment used amongst friends, depending on the tone of voice, it can be understood as an insult. ) mariconadas- joke around (Deje las mariconadas. - Stop joking around) marimba - grass (marijuana) marimbero - grass dealer (marijuana dealer) marrano - victim (“hit men call their victim “marrano”) masato - "masato" (fermented sweet drink made with rice or corn) matamaleza - weed killer (substance) matrero - double-crosser mechas - hat (hair); rags (“clothing,” is another possible meaning applicable to the Department of Valle del Cauca.) mechero - messy hat (messy hair) Medallo - Medellin (city in the Department of Antioquia) mediasnueves - mid-morning snack medicina prepagada - HMO-type health insurance menajes - furniture mercado - groceries (See also “hacer mercado”) mercadotecnista - marketing major; marketing specialist merced - (See “su merced.”) meter la pesuña - to goof up meterse en la grande - to get into deep water (over your head) mierda - super mean mi´jo, mi´ja - honey /between husband and wife); my good friend (between friends) minar - to eat pussy miquingo - short, small mondá - (vulgar) prick, cock, dick mono(a) - blond or red haired; fair-skinned; American guy mosca - quick, fast, alert, on your toes motocleta - motorbike movilizarse - to travel, to go, to move mula - tractor (front portion of tractor-trailer)

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N narco - drugdealer necropsia - autopsy negrear - to blackball, to blacklist nerdo(a)- nerd, geek. neumático - tube (tire) nieve - snow (cocaine) no pararle - Elliptical term for the following entry no pararle bolas a algo/alguien - to not worry about something/someone; to not pay attention to something/someone noche de brujas - Halloween nonas - nope nones - nope Ñ ñero - low-class, nasty O ola - dude, guy, buddy, pal, girl etc. (variant of ala) once - late morning snack (usually after 11:00 A.M.) P pachanguero - party animal (Valle del Cauca) ¡paila! - No dice! (nothing happened!) paja - nonsense; lie panel publicitario - billboard panela - brown sugar loaf panocha - box, cunt, pussy pantaloncillos - men underwear pantalonetas - shorts papayazo - stroke of luck papayera - combo (small musical group) papito - my dear boy/child, honey (term of endearment) paquete - a mill (a million in money of any denomination) paraco -paramilitary force member paracos - paramilitary forces paramilitar - paramilitary force member paramilitares - paramilitary forces parce - see “parcero” parcero- buddy: it originally "partner in crime" parlache - Medellin local slang parqueadero - parking lot parrilla - motorbike passenger seat parrillero - motorbike rider (as opposed to its driver) partir - to fine (for a traffic violation) pase - driver's license (official name: pase del DATT); line (of cocaine)

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pastel - cheat sheet pastelear - to fence straddle (politics); to make cheat sheets pastelero - cheater (on tests) patas de catre - bowlegged patente - driver's license pat'eperro - free-spirit; street wanderer patio - bay (gas station) patota - crowd, bunch paz y salvo - tax payment certificate (legalese) peatonalizar - to close off a street to vehicle traffic pechi - smoke (slang for cigarette) pela'o - kid pelarse - to love, to like (me pela bailar = I love to dance) pelea de toche y guayaba madura - a no-win situation pelota - dummy, cluck peluqueada - haircut peluquearse - to get a haircut pena - buddy, pal pena moral - pain and suffering pendejada - dumb thing; nonsense pendejear - to act foolishly; to talk nonsense pendejo - dummy pepa - pellet (in airport cocaine swallower-type cases) perder días - to miss days (from work, etc.) perder el año- to flunk for the year; to kick the bucket (to die) perder el examen - to flunk the exam perder exámenes - to fail tests pereza - bummer (“¡qué pereza!” - what a bummer!) perico - scrambled eggs with tomato and onions; snow, blow (cocaine); small cup of coffee perica - snow, blow, lady, nose candy (cocaine) peritazgo - expert's opinion (legalese) picapulmón - smoke (cigarette) pichar- to bang (to have sex) (2) to down pop (“drink beer.”) pieza probatoria - exhibit (legalese) ¡pilas! - on your toes, get on the stick piloso - eager beaver pillar - to get the idea of something pisacorbata - tiepin pisarse - to split (to leave) pito - horn (vehicle); prick, cock placa - license plate; badge placas - license tag plagiario - kidnapper, abductor plagio - kidnapping, abduction pliego de cargos - charging document plomo - bullets

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ponencia - justice's opinion (in a legal context) poner al pelo - to hone up, to sharpen up poner conejo - to double cross ponerse las pilas - to get on the stick, to get in gear ponerse titino - to get spruced up ponina - money pool (same as in Cuban Spanish) porfa - please. potrero - barn prendido - tipsy proferir - to issue (legalese) Programas de Justicia y Paz - Justice and Peace Programs público - pay phone puente - long weekend Q que… (the Colombian use of “que” can be confusing at times because it is devoid of meaning in certain cases; one may ask “¿Cuándo regresan tus hermanos?” and the answer could be “Que vienen pronto”. The answer would be literally rendered as “They say they are coming soon.” However, in this case, “que” is there just to occupy space because the person that answered meant “They are coming back soon.” Furthermore, “que” is devoid of meaning in expressions of gratitude, such as “Que gracias.” It merely means “thanks.”) quebrar - to waste (to kill) quedar bien - convenient (cuando te quede bien - whenever it's convenient) ¿qué hubo? - what´s new? what´s up? ¿Q'hubo vé, bien o qué? - What´s up? Everything okay? (heard in Valle del Cauca) quemar - to backstab ¿qué más? (greeting) - what´s new? what´s up? R radiopatrulla - patrol car rallar el cuaderno - to screw to bang (have sex with) someone else´s man or woman rancho - shack; house; food preserves raponar - to snatch raponazo - snatching raponero - snatcher rasca - tipsiness (high on alcohol), “coger una rasca” - to get loaded (boozed up) rebuscador - go-getter (an aggressively enterprising person) rebuscar - to hustle (along the meaning of urban slang, “anything you do to make money”) rebuscarse - (see “rebuscar”) recomendado - package [more common]; certified package Red de Solidaridad - (stays the same) or Solidarity Network redesbanco - commercial bank loans rediscounted by the Central registraduría - vital records office registro civil - vital records office relleno sanitario - garbage dump rendir - to cut (drugs)

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repicado - abrasive requisar - to frisk reserva sumarial - pre-trial privileged information (legalese) resguardo - indian reservation retén - checkpoint; tollbooth; roadblock retén móvil - mobile police station retroexcavadora - backhoe revisor fiscal - tax auditor (legalese) riata - scum (applicable to males) rin - rim (of a tire) Rolo(a)- Bogotanian; Bogotanian speech (Bogotanian Spanish) ropa informal - informal attire (anglicism) rumbear- to go partying: to make out S sacar el guayabo - to get over the hangover; to get over the blues sacar la chispa - to fly off the handle sacar la piedra - (see “sacar la chispa”) saldo en rojo - overdraft; "balance in the red" saludes - regards (“Dale saludes a tu amá” - Give my regards to your mom.) salsamentaria - deli (Colombian-style) sanitario - toilet sapear - to snitch, to rat on sapo - snitch, rat, stoolie sardino (a) - kid sector - area, district sentar a manteles - to sit at the table (for a meal) ser uña y mugre con - to be real tight (close) with ser verraco - to be a whiz (at something) ¿sí o no? - right or wrong? (Used when seeking agreement from the other speaker; Valle del Cauca, Antioquia) servidor público - public servant sindicación - charge (legalese) sindicado - defendant (legalese) sindicar - to charge (legalese) siquiera - fortunately sisas- yeap su merced - you (singular or plural respectful form) soroche- see “dar soroche” T taco - traffic jam taladro - kiddie-fiddler (pedophile) tamaño cédula - 4" X 2 1/4" tapadito - stashed tapar - to stash

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taponar - to seal off; to barricade tarro - can tegua - witchdoctor; herb doctor tele - "tele" (a card game) tenaz - rough, difficult, hard (“Ese examen estaba tenaz. - That was a hard test.) teso- whiz (someone who is very good at doing something). tetear - to sweet-talk tiquete - ticket (train/airline); stub, claim check tirar - to bang, to ball (to have sex.) toche - turkey; mad, upset todero- handyman; jack of all trades tomba - see “la tomba” tope - meeting torcer - to corrupt someone (by bribing, etc.) trabajar con las uñas - to work like a dog tractocamión - tractor-trailer tractomula - tractor-trailer traer por el correo de las brujas - to sneak into the country tragado - see “estar tragado de”) trancón - traffic jam traquetear - to deal (drugs) traquetero - dealer (drugs) traqueto - dealer (drugs) trastear - to move [from one dwelling to another] tribunal - court of appeals (legalese) tribunal superior - court of appeals (legalese) trillar - to make out tula - duffel bag tuso - pockmarked; skinhead U un AUC - a paramilitary force member unión libre - domestic partnership, live-in relationship urna - coffin usted - you (In some areas of Colombia, there is a strong use of the “ustedeo.” This means that formal “you” (usted) is used even between husband and wife as well as close friends. This usage is pervasive in Santander and Norte de Santander. As a result, the “ustedeo” form of address is used by the people who were raised and live in the Venezuelan State of Tachira, which borders on Norte de Santander, especially in the cities of San Antonio and San Cristóbal. V vaca - money pool vacuna - “protection” fee vaina - thing; gizmo; issue (problem) varar - to break down (“se me varó el carro” - my car broke down) varillo - joint (marijuana cigarette)

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veeduría - watchdog commission; supervisor's office vergajo –(vulgar) prick (as in US English, on the one hand, this word refers to man´s penis and on the other, to a despicable person, usually a man.) verraco - guy, dude verraco(a)- ballistic (angry); awesome (worthy of admiration); el Verraco - the Man, the Guy to Go to; tough (hard to deal with) (Important Note: “Verraco” is one of these words linguists call “polysemic,” meaning that the word may have different meanings as per its context, so care should be taken when selecting its context-based meaning.) verraquera - gasser, blast; anger (“coger tremenda verraquera - to fly off the handle); “¡Ese man es la verraquera!” (That guy is it! That guy is the greatest of them all!) verrionda - bummer (¡qué verriondera! - what a bummer!) verriondez - (see “verriondera”) versión libre - unofficial, freestyle; unsworn statement vicha - cap video- lie; overreaction; a beef (an issue or problem.) vieja- broad, chic, gal; mom (less frequent) viejito - see “viejo” viejo - guy, dude, buddy; dad (less frequent). ¿Vientos o maletines? (greeting when joking around)- What´s cookin´? vincular - to join volqueta - dump truck volquetero - dump truck driver vos - you (familiar singular, it´s never used to address strangers; heard in Antioquia and Valle del Cauca) Y yeyo- on-the-edge (very scared or worried); lightheadedness, sick-like feeling ¿y de la guayaba qué? - where´s the beef? Z zanahorio - square, prim and proper , straitlaced (conventional people who neither drink nor smoke, etc.) zona verde - green area (grass)

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VACCINES: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE Tapani Ronni, PhD Abstract: This brief review of vaccines is aimed at medical and scientific translators. A vaccine is any biological preparation that enhances immune response in order to either prevent or treat a disease. Historically vaccines have been manufactured using killed or weakened (attenuated) microbes, and combinations thereof. Recent advances in biochemistry and molecular biology have made it possible to generate vaccines from protein subunits, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and genetically engineered virus particles. While vaccines have had an enormous positive impact on public health, many challenges remain, due to the high variability of some pathogens and the fact that some microbes don’t have obvious antigenic structures suitable for vaccine development. Genomic data should allow for more efficient and targeted vaccine development in the future. 1.

HISTORY OF VACCINATION

Vaccination is based on the knowledge that infectious diseases are caused by microbes (germ theory). Nonetheless, the concept of acquired immunity against disease has existed for thousands of years, dating back to ancient Greece. Thucydides wrote about a plague in Athens in the 5th century BC, and noted that those who survived it did not fall ill twice. Indeed, the recovered individuals were considered “exempt” from the disease−they became “immune.” This was an important observation but did not lead to any known practical applications. The earliest known attempts at vaccination come from 10th century China, where smallpox was endemic. Chinese used skin material derived from smallpox patients to vaccinate healthy persons against infection. This approach, called “variolation” was quite dangerous since the doses of skin used were not standardized, and sometimes the vaccination itself caused fullblown smallpox. However, variolation was popular and was used in the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. The concept of variolation became known in England and after some standardization of the dose variolation became common practice in the 18th century in England and also in the American Colonies. Edward Jenner (1749-1823) was an English physician and scientist who developed the first safe smallpox vaccine. It was commonly known in his day that milkmaids, who often contracted cowpox from cattle, were immune to smallpox. Jenner inoculated an 8-year boy called James Phipps with pus from cowpox blisters of a milkmaid Sarah Nelmes. Later he gave him variolation material twice, but the boy did not show any signs of smallpox. With this and other results Jenner was able to show that the cowpox vaccine was effective and safer than variolation. However, the reasons why his vaccination worked remained obscure.1 The germ theory of disease, which stated that minuscule beings were responsible for infectious disease, was first proposed in 16th century Italy but no one took it seriously until the latter half of the 19th century. Two giants of microbiology, a French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and a German physician Robert Koch (1843-1910) independently

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isolated and studied pathogenic micro-organisms, and their work laid a firm foundation for germ theory. Pasteur is most famous for developing vaccines against anthrax in cattle and rabies in humans. He and his coworkers found ways to propagate and progressively weaken rabies virus (extracted from dog saliva) in rabbits. He became world famous after he saved the life of a bitten 9-year old boy Joseph Meister in 1885 by giving him his attenuated rabies preparations. He subsequently treated 350 more patients, proving that his rabies vaccine was safe and effective.2 Robert Koch became famous for isolating many disease-causing bacteria, such as tuberculosis bacillus (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae and the causative agent of lethal cattle disease anthrax, Bacillus anthracis. He also laid the groundwork for medical microbiology with his Koch’s postulates, which are still used to determine whether a given microbe causes a given disease.1 Pasteur learned of Koch’s work on anthrax and found out that heat treatment of anthrax bacilli would weaken their pathogenicity (ability to cause disease). Subsequently he and his colleagues inoculated a flock of 25 sheep, a goat and several cows with his new vaccine. A similar control flock was left unvaccinated. Later both groups were given a dose of live anthrax bacilli. All the animals in the control group died, while all the vaccinated animals survived. This was an instant sensation and generated scientific and public interest in vaccines. Later research on attenuated and inactivated (killed) pathogens and on inactivated toxins led to the first golden age of vaccines. Vaccines were now available to protect against rabies, diphteria, tetanus, pertussis, and tuberculosis in infants.3 The second major advancement was invention of cell culture technology in the middle of the 20th century. Pure mammalian cell cultures grown in flasks and dishes allowed propagation of pathogenic viruses in controlled laboratory conditions. A lot of work led to development of vaccines against polio (the attenuated polio Sabin vaccine and the inactivated polio Salk vaccine), mumps, rubella, measles, and others. Perhaps the greatest public health victory came in 1980 when decades of work against smallpox led to complete worldwide eradication of this terrible viral disease. Smallpox has no animal host, so eradication was possible. An extensive and thorough vaccination program, led by World Health Organization (WHO) brought a victory against this ancient scourge of mankind. A similar worldwide eradication program against deadly cattle disease, rinderpest, was successfully concluded in Africa in 2001.4 A third worldwide eradication program, against polio, has been successfully going on for decades. However there are still some pockets of polio left, mainly in Pakistan, where vaccination programs have met political resistance. 2.

IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY

The concept of immune response is too large to discuss in detail here. Suffice it to say that it consists of the innate response (macrophages and other innate immune cells), which forms

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the rapid first line of defense against invading microbes, and the acquired response (B and T lymphocytes), which develops next and is able to adapt itself based on the structure of the invading microbe. Microbe-specific B and T lymphocytes divide rapidly and eventually stop the microbe infection by inactivating the microbe and killing infected host cells.5

Response'

The beauty of acquired response is that it has a memory. After the initial infection has been cleared from the body, some of the specific B cells (the cells that make antibodies) and T cells (which are involved in cell mediated immune response) remain as long-lived memory cells. They can live on for years and are on alert for subsequent invasion by the same microbe. If it is encountered again the memory cells are able to divide and activate so fast that the host does not develop the disease second time around. See Figure 1.

Time' First' challenge'

Second' challenge'

Figure 1. Immunological memory Vaccination is based on immunological memory. If the recipient’s body is given a harmless version of the pathogenic micro-organism, or an antigenic part of it, a protective, specific immune response will form, provided that the vaccine is immunogenic enough. Then, should the real microbe enter the body, this immunological memory helps ward off the infection before it has a chance to cause real harm. It is essential that the vaccine in question has sufficient immunogenicity - ability to generate a strong and specific immune response. This helps with efficacy of the vaccine. Immunogenicity is often enhanced by adding an adjuvant to the vaccine preparation. An adjuvant is any substance that enhances, extends or accelerates antigen-specific immune responses to the vaccine. Commonly used adjuvants are aluminum compounds. Not all human vaccines contain adjuvants. Some vaccines containing weakened or inactivated viruses are immunogenic enough that no adjuvant is needed.6 Some vaccines are so efficient that only one dose is required (the prime dose). In many cases, however, the prime dose is followed a few weeks or months later by at least one booster dose to enhance the immune response.

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3.

CLASSIFICATION OF VACCINES

Live, attenuated vaccines contain viruses or bacteria that have been weakened by repeated growth cycles (passages) in host cell culture (in the case of viruses) or by chemical methods (in the case of bacteria, such as Bacillus Calmette-Guerin [BCG] vaccine against tuberculosis). It is easier to attenuate viruses as they are structurally simpler and better understood. Attenuating bacteria is harder as bacteria have thousands of genes and are thus harder to control.7 Attenuated vaccines can provide a long lasting challenge to the immune system and therefore a robust immunity. However, in rare cases the living microbe can revert back to a more virulent (pathogenic) form and cause harm. This has happened, although rarely, with the oral Sabin vaccine, which contains live, attenuated polio viruses. Also the recipient has to have a healthy immune system. If the person (for example, an HIV patient) has a weakened immune system, live vaccines cannot be safely administered. Inactivated vaccines contain microbes that have been rendered noninfectious by chemical or thermal treatment, or by radiation. They are safer as no reversion to pathogenic form is possible. Inactivation has to be tightly controlled to make sure no live microbes are left. They are also more stable in storage as they can be transported in freeze-dried form.7 On the other hand, inactivated vaccines can be less immunogenic than live vaccines and require more doses. This can be a challenge in the field in developing world. An example of an inactivated vaccine is the Salk polio vaccine, which is currently used in worldwide polio eradication project, along with the live, oral Sabin vaccine. Toxoid vaccines contain bacterial toxins that have been treated with formalin (a mix of formaldehyde and water) and thus rendered harmless. However their structure is still antigenic and able to generate a protective immune response when given as a vaccine. Vaccines against diphteria and tetanus are examples of toxoid vaccines. Subunit vaccines contain only one or several subunits of the pathogenic micro-organism. These can be safe and effective, if the subunits are highly immunogenic. Using subunits as vaccines can mean that there are fewer adverse effects (vaccine reactions) in the recipient. Adverse effects generated by vaccination are usually mild and more severe effects are rare. Subunit vaccines can be generated by either breaking up the microbe and purifying individual components, or by genetic engineering. In the latter case microbial subunits that have been identified in the laboratory as immunogenic are produced by biotechnology in a different host (such as yeast cell). This kind of vaccine is called a recombinant subunit vaccine. An example of this is the hepatitis B virus vaccine currently in use in the clinic.8 Subunits are often proteins, but some bacterial pathogens have antigenic polysaccharides (sugars) that can be used as antigens in vaccines. They are not very immunogenic in purified form, but when they are chemically combined with carrier protein derived from bacteria, this so-called glycoconjugate vaccine can generate an efficient immune response. An example of this is the Hib vaccine, which protects against Haemophilus influenza infection in children. Since its introduction into pediatric vaccination programs, incidence of this disease has decreased 99%.9

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Nucleic acid vaccines (NAV) are still experimental but they are being actively investigated. The concept is appealing: instead of administering heat labile and complex formulations as vaccines, the recipient is given DNA or RNA constructs in the muscle that encode for desired antigen(s). With suitable adjuvants, these DNA vaccines have been shown to confer protective immunity in laboratory animals3. An example is a vaccine against West Nile Virus. DNA vaccines are relatively cheap to make and deliver. Safety is optimized as only the genetic material of micro-organism is being used. Administration to muscle leads to uptake of the genetic material into the muscle cells and production of the encoded protein in the muscle. This in turn generates an immune response against foreign proteins displayed on the muscle cell. However, DNA vaccines don’t always confer strong protective immunity.3 The potential drawback of DNA vaccination is the possibility that the immune system could start to make antibodies against DNA itself. This would be very harmful as anti-DNA antibodies could in turn lead to autoimmune disease, such as lupus erythematosus. As the DNA vector has to be transported into the nucleus for it to work, there is also the concern of DNA integration into the host genome and associated risk of cancer. RNA vaccines are another kind of NAV. The concept here is to introduce ribonucleic acid (RNA) into recipient cells. RNA can then be directly translated into protein by the host cells. Recent advances with self-replicating RNA constructs have made this avenue of research very exciting.3,10 The efficacy of RNA vaccines is probably enhanced by the fact that RNA is active in the cytoplasm and doesn’t need to be transported into the nucleus. Intracellular non-host derived RNA is very immunogenic to the host and generates so called innate immune response through Toll like receptors of the cell. Innate immune response in turn helps in generating a robust adaptive immune response (B and T lymphocytes). Also, there is no concern of generating anti-DNA antibodies, or integration into the host genome, as with DNA vaccines. Recombinant vector vaccines are a subject of intense interest in the field. These are hybrid viruses (or bacteria) that combine a harmless microbe (vector) with antigens of interest. One good example is a cow virus, Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), that doesn’t infect people. Using genetic engineering it is easy to edit the VSV genome, to delete undesired segments and to add desired new segments. Recombinant viruses can easily be grown in the laboratory to high quantities, purified and used as live recombinant viruses for vaccination purposes.11 Recombinant vectors have their advantages: their structure is well understood and therefore they are safer than many older vaccine types. As live microbes they give a long lived challenge to the immune system, activating both innate and adaptive immune responses. With current advances in genomics (studying whole genomes of organisms), it is easy to read through the entire genome of a pathogenic microbe of interest. Using computer modeling and laboratory experimentation the most important antigens can then be identified and tested in laboratory animals using recombinant vectors as carriers. The most promising candidates are then advanced into clinical trials. Some of the most important diseases, for which good protective vaccination is urgently needed, are HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), malaria, and hepatitis C. In the following chapter I present briefly three cases for vaccine development: HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and Ebola.

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4.

CASE STUDIES IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT HIV/AIDS

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a complex retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The HIV virus particle (virion) has a cone-shaped protein shell underneath a lipid envelope. Inside the protein shell is an RNA genome. HIV has a complex replication cycle. The cell receptor for HIV is CD4, a surface molecule found in several immune cell types such as helper T cells and macrophages. After gaining entry to the host cell, HIV uses an unusual enzyme called reverse transcriptase to generate DNA copies of its RNA genome, and then this DNA can integrate itself into the host cell chromosome as provirus. HIV can be latent as provirus for years and emerge again as an active virus in the right circumstances. This latency makes HIV very hard to eradicate from HIV positive patients. HIV is also highly variable and generates novel versions of itself constantly, which presents another challenge. Generating an efficient HIV vaccine has proved to be very difficult task because suitable targets on the virus are very elusive.12 Despite these challenges, basic vaccine development, preclinical animal trials, and clinical trials in the field are continuing. The goal is to identify antigenic structures on the HIV surface that would provide broad immunity against different HIV strains when used as vaccines. Many aforementioned vaccine designs are being used (DNA vaccines, subunit vaccines, live recombinant vectors) in HIV vaccine research.12 The results of the so-called Thailand HIV vaccine study were published in 2009.13 The combination of recombinant vector (prime) and subunit vaccine (booster) generated protective efficacy against HIV-1 infection of around 26% in the 3 years of the study. This is not enough for licensing, but a novel study with improved vector design has been launched in South Africa. Due to inherent difficulties with acquiring fully protective immunity against HIV, an efficacy of 50% might be considered adequate for licensing. Unfortunately, HIV clinical vaccine studies take years, so we will not know the efficacy results of the South Africa study for at least five more years. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health problem in developing countries. It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It’s predominantly a lung disease, but TB can develop in any other organ of the body. Most infected people can block TB from developing into active disease (thus they have a latent infection), but some develop active disease soon after infection or later in life, especially if their immunity is weak. People with active disease spread the disease by coughing. However, it is not easy to catch TB. TB is treated with drugs, but drug-resistant TB is a concern in developing countries. Since 1921, infants have been immunized with the BCG vaccine mentioned earlier in this review. BCG can prevent serious TB infection in infants, but doesn’t confer life-long immunity. One can only prime children with BCG, booster BCG is not recommended, and the booster doesn’t work well in people over 16. BCG isn’t part of the routine vaccination program in United States.

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Multiple improved TB vaccines are being developed, including improved BCG vaccines and recombinant virus vectors.3 The main problem with TB vaccine development is measuring efficacy. There are no appropriate human challenge models that could be used in preclinical studies for selecting the best vaccine candidates for the field studies.14 Ebola Ebola is a deadly viral disease caused by ebolavirus (which is a string shaped filovirus). Humans are not natural hosts of ebolavirus. Ebolavirus is thought to persist in bats and occasionally jump into non-human primates. Blood contact of humans with these primates then allows ebolavirus to jump into human populations, where it readily spreads through infected bodily fluids. It doesn’t spread through air. Ebola is a dangerous hemorrhagic fever, with an average mortality of 50%.15 A recent outbreak of Ebola in West Africa has renewed interest in vaccine development. Thanks to recent advances in biotechnology multiple vaccine candidates were rapidly taken from laboratory to field testing. The fatality rate of the disease caused difficult ethical dilemmas in vaccine trial design - it would have been unethical not to offer the vaccine to every participant in the trial. A recent paper showed that a recombinant VSV vector expressing Ebola virus glycoprotein was highly effective against Ebola in Guinea, West Africa.16 In this randomized open-label trial with approximately 7,500 participants, the first group got immediate vaccination and the second one got delayed vaccination 21 days afterwards. There were no Ebola cases in the first group and 16 cases in the second group. Vaccine efficacy was thus calculated to be 100%. This study is highly promising and might result in a licensed, efficacious Ebola vaccine in the future. 5.

REGULATORY AFFAIRS AND VACCINE SAFETY

In the United States, vaccine products are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER). As for all products regulated by FDA, vaccines have to undergo rigorous laboratory and clinical testing before they are approved for marketing. FDA is looking for efficacy, safety, purity, and potency in vaccine products. It has legal authority to regulate vaccine products based on the Public Health Service Act and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act.17 Vaccine clinical development follows the same pathway as drugs and other biologics. To start clinical trials in humans, one has to file an Investigational New Product (IND) application with supporting preclinical data. Clinical trials usually consist of three phases: I (small, safety), II (bigger, dose ranging, efficacy) and III (large scale, safety and efficacy). If all three phases have been successful, the manufacturer can submit a Biologics License Application (BLA). FDA review team will consider safety and efficacy data and perform a risk/benefit assessment. If the review is positive, licensure is granted, and the marketing of the vaccine product can start.

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FDA expects that during postmarketing phase any adverse events noted in the field are put into the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) database. Thus the safety of the vaccine can be monitored during its marketing period. In Europe, vaccines are regulated by the European Medicines Agency (EMA), specifically the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP). If EMA grants the vaccine product a marketing approval, it is valid in all European Union member states.18 6.

VACCINE SAFETY AND HERD IMMUNITY

The benefit/risk balance of current vaccines is good (otherwise they wouldn’t be approved for marketing). However, some vaccines can be unsuitable for certain persons. For example, immunocompromised persons (AIDS patients, recipients of immunosuppressant drugs etc.) should not be given live vaccines due to the risk of serious adverse effects caused by the weakened micro-organisms in the vaccine. Likewise, some influenza vaccines are prepared in fertilized chicken eggs and are not suitable for people who are allergic to eggs. The claimed link between vaccinations and increased prevalence of autism has been decisively disproven and does not need to be dealt with here.19,20 What would happen if we stopped vaccinations altogether? All the infectious diseases prevalent in history would come roaring back (with the exception of smallpox, which has been eradicated). Most people nowadays are too young to remember, for example, what polio epidemics were like in America, before polio vaccines became available. It is not necessary to be able to vaccinate 100% of the target population to stop infectious diseases. A concept called herd immunity protects the unvaccinated individuals in the target population as long as the vaccine coverage is adequate (WHO recommends coverage of 95%). Future challenges with vaccines This brief review is meant to only provide an outline for the reader - more comprehensive information is available in the list of References. Vaccines are under intense investigation for novel uses such as cancer therapy. In addition, there is much room for improvement with current vaccines. One problem in the developing world is the need for a “cold chain” - the need to keep the vaccine doses in refrigerated temperature all the way from the manufacturer to the field where vaccine is administered. A cold chain is expensive and not always easy to maintain in developing countries. Other ways to stabilize vaccines are being sought. Highly variable microbes cause major problems in vaccine development. In addition to HIV, influenza virus is a famous example. It would be a major public health victory if a broadly effective influenza vaccine were available that would protect against all the different circulating strains (and possible future strains) out there. Structural studies of influenza viruses may be helpful in this quest.

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Last but not least, many pediatric vaccines are not available or are underused in poorest countries of the world, due to lack of resources. The Global Vaccine Alliance is a nonprofit organization that aims to address this problem.21 7.

REFERENCES

1. 2.

de Kruif P. Microbe Hunters. 3th ed. Mariner Books; 2002 Pearce JMS. Louis Pasteur and Rabies: a brief note. Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002 Jul;73(1):82 Delany I, Rappuoli R, De Gregorio E. Vaccines for the 21st Century. EMBO Mol Med. 2014 May 6;6(6):708-20 Carter, JB and Saunders VA. Virology: Principles and applications. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2013 Delves PJ, Martin SJ, Burton DR, Roitt IM. Roitt’s Essential Immunology, 12th ed. Blackwell Publishing Ltd; 2011 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccine Adjuvants. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/concerns/adjuvants.html. Accessed September 11, 2015 Vaccine.gov. Types of Vaccines. http://www.vaccines.gov/more_info/types/. Accessed September 11, 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis B vaccination. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/hepb/. Accessed September 15, 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Haemophilus Influenzae Type b (Hib) VIS. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/hib.html. Accessed September 15, 2015 Weiner DB. RNA-based vaccination: sending a strong message. Mol Ther. 2013 Mar;21(3):506-8 Tober R, Banki Z, Egerer L, et al. VSV-GP: a potent viral vaccine vector that boosts the immune response upon repeated applications. J Virol. 2014 May;88(9):4897-907 National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. HIV Vaccine Research. http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/HIVAIDS/Research/vaccines/Pages/discovery.aspx. Accessed September 15, 2015 Rerks-Ngarm S, Pitisuttithum P, Nitayaphan S, et al. Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to prevent HIV-1 infection in Thailand. N Engl J Med. 2009 Dec 3;361(23):2209-20 World Health Organization. Tuberculosis vaccine development. http://www.who.int/immunization/research/development/tuberculosis/en/. Accessed September 15, 2015 World Health Organization. Ebola virus disease. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/. Accessed September 15, 2015 Henao-Restrepo AM, Longini IM, Egger M, et al. Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine expressing Ebola surface glycoprotein: interim results from the Guinea ring vaccination cluster-randomised trial. Lancet. 2015 Aug 29;386(9996):857-66 U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Vaccine Product Approval Process. http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/Biologic sLicenseApplicationsBLAProcess/ucm133096.htm. Accessed September 15, 2015

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

17.

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18. 19. 20. 21.

European Medicines Agency. Vaccines Working Party. http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/contacts/CHMP/people_listing_ 000023.jsp. Accessed September 15, 2015 Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H. Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent. BMJ. 2011 Jan 5;342:c7452 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccines do not cause autism. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/concerns/autism.html. Accessed September 15, 2015 Global Vaccine Alliance. www.gavi.org. Accessed September 15, 2015

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TRANSCREATION AND TRANSLATION FOR MARKETING Gabriela Lemoine Hispano Language Advisory (Umbrella S.A.) Abstract: In this paper, we will introduce ourselves into the world of transcreation. This relatively new term, visibly coined from “translation” and “creation,” is being heard more and more often. But what exactly are we, linguists, supposed to do when this is requested? What do our clients expect? And what about their clients? In this paper, we will define transcreation from both the point of view of the clients and the translators. We will cover the scope analysis of a transcreation project, including important considerations regarding the marketing mix and the transcreation brief, and all the questions that need to be asked before starting in order to ensure success. We will also suggest a process to approach transcreation, and review the related terminology generally used to refer to it. After that, we will discuss practical steps to complete a transcreation project, as well as ideas about how to charge for it. Finally, we will take a look at the potential risks we will face when accepting a transcreation project, and how to mitigate them. After reading this paper, readers will have gained insight into transcreation as a language service and as a process, and will be able to feel more confident with it. 1.

WHAT IS TRANSCREATION

There are a variety of transcreation definitions. Some start with something as basic as “delivering content in another language in a culturally appropriate way…” which is surprisingly similar to just plain old translation. Many definitions include ideas such as “the translation should read as if the text had been written in the reader’s mother tongue.” This term was first used to refer to translation of marketing content, such as ads, in the 60’s and 70’s, also known as “creative translation.” The “creative” part goes as far as changing images, characters or places mentioned in the copy in order to make it culturally appropriate. A good example of this is the Indian version of Spiderman, called Paviitr Prabhakar. Since transcreation is mostly used for marketing purposes, it involves a good deal of knowledge about marketing and about the target culture, as well as copywriting skills. Therefore, a good transcreator needs to have expertise in these disciplines too. With globalization and multinational brands came global marketing campaigns, and transcreation. But… What is the purpose of marketing copy in general? Let’s take an ad, for example. All ads contain a call to action, which is the expected reaction from the target audience. The call to action may be explicit, such as “call now”, or it may be expressed indirectly, such as showing the benefit –and happy faces of users– for choosing a specific product. In order to do this, marketers address emotion rather than reason. To engage emotion, the content needs to resonate with the target audience, and this is why cultural adaptation becomes a necessity. Good marketing copy elicits trust and empathy. It is about how the message is received. There are countless examples of both well and poorly adapted marketing copy. One such bad example is a Puma line of trainers they launched in the United Arab Emirates to celebrate the country’s 40th National Day in 2011, inspired in the colors of the flag. The product had to be withdrawn from the market

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because in this country it was not acceptable to use the flag colors in this way, for a product that touches both the feet and the ground, which are considered dirty. I also remember the Mitsubishi Pajero SUV, which in Argentina had to be renamed Montero, as the original name is a vulgar sexual insult. Examples of successful cases include Coca-Cola and McDonald’s. Coca-Cola created the campaign Share a Coke by using people’s names instead of the company name in the bottles. This started out in Australia in 2013, and it easily caught on in many other places. In China, for example, they used common nicknames rather than names. McDonald’s even localizes the menus to cater local preferences, so we can enjoy McFalafel, McBaguette, McNífica, McVeggie, and many others. “Think global - act local” is a good description of this strategy. One important aspect of transcreation is that for marketers it is less costly and more effective than to reach out to local copywriters and start a whole new campaign. With transcreation, it is easier to go “glocal” without losing the original intent stemming from the global marketing communication strategy, which is expressed in the original language. Transcreation helps achieve the desired marketing goal of global recognition by addressing any cultural subtleties within the local perception of the product. An example of different local perceptions is wine. In Argentina, you will find exceptionally good wines on any supermarket shelf for less than 10 dollars, but the same kind of wine would be considered a pricey, luxury product in other countries. Along the same lines, any product labeled “Made in Germany” is perceived as of higher quality than products labeled “Made in China.” In fact, in Argentina, anything made in China is perceived as low quality. This is called the country-of-origin effect, and it is related to perception: nobody would say that Apple products, such as the iPhone, also produced in China, are low quality. What kinds of texts would need transcreation rather than translation, then? Ads, taglines, slogans, websites, and any related branding content may need transcreation. The term transcreation has been used outside the marketing world as well. There is a definition of transcreation applied to the legal field: clarification of terms that do not exist in the legal system of the target culture. This kind of transcreation may also be called adaptation, and it is often solved using clarifications in the body of the text, or even footnotes or translator notes. Still, this use of transcreation is outside the scope of this work. A little marketing theory In the past years, there have been 2 main schools of thought regarding what is the best way to sell internationally: a standardized approach or a localized approach. To understand the decisions involved, in a standardized approach, the marketing mix stays the same, but in a localized approach, not just the promotion may change, but also other elements in the mix, including the product itself. Originally developed by Philip Kotler as the “4 Ps” of marketing, the marketing mix is now an expanded list of 7 variables that are used to define how something will be marketed. The variables are the following: 1. Product: Product development 2. Price: Pricing model

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Place: Distribution options Promotion: Communication, branding People: Culture, who are we Physical evidence: Packaging, experience Processes: Sales

Let’s look now at an example of a marketing mix for a software product. This illustrates how much information we as communicators need to understand and then communicate effectively in order to produce the desired outcome. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Product: Integrated tool for SEO, blogging, social media, website, and email Price: Subscription-based, monthly Place: Online Promotion: Event presentations, webinars, social media advertising People: Investment in online services Physical evidence: Consistent branding across communications Processes: Sales staff is involved in conversion

Any marketing campaign will have information for each of these variables, and the transcreator needs to know and understand this. Most of the text we will translate or transcreate will fall under promotion, but we still need to understand the other elements in the mix in order to transcreate properly. The standardization approach was very popular in the 80’s, and it was attractive in terms of reduced costs, but huge fails proved it wrong. If people cannot recognize themselves in the message, and there has been little attention to detail, such as accents or colors, and the message does not resonate with that specific culture, the result will not be as expected. So, what is transcreation for a client? We define it as a culturally appropriate translation that triggers the same expected behavior in the target audience as the original text. Not just the words change –maybe the concept changes too. Transcreation goes beyond the written text. Sometimes, the only thing that is kept is the expected reaction. A successful transcreation project will ensure the reaction is the one expected by the client. You may even need different photos, colors, or messages. For example, in a project many years ago we had to change all the pictures showing how to use the product so that the skin color would match the ethnical origin of the target audience. In another recent project for the Spanish version of the Viagra website, our client had to change the photos and some of the concepts for their Latin American audience in the US because the original campaign in English would have caused embarrassment. In another project last year, we suggested changing the color palette in an informative brochure about SIDS to match what in Latin America are considered “baby” colors. And what is transcreation for a translator? We believe it is translation as it was before computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools were introduced. CAT tools force us to translate sentence-by-sentence, and “quality” checks, especially the automated ones, make sure the translation fits pre-determined metrics, such as number of sentences, consistency, and even punctuation. We believe it is translation as it was before clients started engaging reviewers who are not linguists –sometimes, not even language speakers– who want the translation to mimic the original text (capitalization, punctuation, numbers, etc.). As it was before client-approved

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glossaries and tight deadlines were imposed on us, frequently without the translator having a say in these decisions. Transcreation is about being a talented writer in your own language. For example, take the name of Coca-Cola in China. When it was officially introduced in 1928, it was re-created with characters meaning “pleasure in the mouth” and also sound similar to the original name (Kokou-Kolay). Using a simple sound representation resulted in characters whose meaning made no sense. If we give it serious thought, selling is the main reason for translating anything, even a safety manual. But advertising has a call for action, and intends to pull a reaction from the reader. That is when transcreation may be needed, depending on the distance between cultures. Also, it may be needed in varying degrees. For individual translators, transcreation involves at least one additional review step after translation, or an initial review step to assess the actual need for transcreation, and it’s scope. Usually, the analysis is performed by the translation company hiring the translator. This is when understanding the marketing mix comes into play. The difference with “regular” translation, then, is that translation has become a sentence-by-sentence process of saying something in another language. With many sophisticated translation buyers, that is, large companies with control over to style guides, translation memory content, and terminology management, translators are not free to be creative. If a translator becomes used to this, when a project calls for creative or a “freer” translation, the requester will need to ask for that specifically in the instructions. 2.

THE TRANSCREATION BRIEF

A transcreation brief derives from the typical “creative brief” used by copywriters. A transcreation brief should, at least, include the following information: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Requirement: What kind of content are we producing? A brochure, a letter, an ad… Purpose: What is the client’s marketing/communications goal? Details such as short-term or long-term are important. Deliverables: What does the client expect to receive? A translation with the same number of sentences? A list of key glossary terms? A translation with the same number of paragraphs? Something completely original? (copywriting, artwork, etc.) Target audience: Who will be reading/viewing this copy? Again… details, please. Positioning: What is the current positioning in the market, actual and perceived? Response: What reaction should this elicit from the audience? Brand awareness, customer loyalty, the first purchase… Tone: formal, casual… Distribution: Will this be sent over mail, email…? Timeframe: By when is the final version needed? How many client review rounds there will be?

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There are many other elements in a complete copywriting brief, but these are the ones relevant for a transcreation project, at a minimum. Even when some of them, such as tone, may be clearly understood from the copy in the original language, it is always safe to check this with the client instead of assuming the risk of making incorrect assumptions. This means that if the assumptions were incorrect, the translator will need to start from scratch again after having displeased a client. The transcreation project should ideally begin with the marketing communication plan. This is a strategic process starting before the original copy is even written. A client that is not aware of cultural differences might demand that transcreation is done in no time, even if the original copy took months to create. In these cases, translators may explain that transcreation is no less, because you need to repeat the process in another language. In these unfortunate cases, we need to make sure the client knows this is the last link before reaching the consumer, and it would not be wise to risk all that has been invested at this point. It is important to notice that sometimes clients do not ask for transcreation, but that is what they actually need. Translators need to ask all the relevant questions about the items above as soon as the source text is reviewed, before actually starting the project, as soon as it is determined that a regular translation will not be enough to achieve the desired result. Based on our experience, I suggest that the brief is shared across all levels of the organization, including the client, client reviewers, and all of the translation team members. 3.

SUGGESTED PROCESS FOR A TRANSCREATION PROJECT

The actual stages in a production process should be negotiated and agreed upon with the client through the translation company (if there is one). One thing is certain: there will be more review and feedback stages than in a regular translation project. Below are the main processes specific to transcreation: Pre-production: • Client interview: This is when the creative brief or transcreation brief is completed or discussed. It is important to confirm with the client that we have understood what is in the brief. This could be a phone call or an email conversation. A good brief does not need to be very long. • Brief creation: Every requirement or agreement should be recorded in writing. The briefing process may take a while with unresponsive clients, and even details from a phone call 2 months ago can become instructions for a transcreation project. • Clarification: Do not make any assumptions. Translators should ask any and all questions, especially if the client did not provide sufficient details during the briefing. Any missing information from the brief or the marketing mix should be promptly requested. • Project instructions and style guide: Create appropriate sets of instructions from the brief. A style guide will be the most helpful tool after the brief is compiled, because it translates to rules and instructions the requirements in the brief. When translation starts, a style guide with sets of instructions and decision-making criteria is much easier to follow than just a brief.

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Production: • Translation • Revision • Transcreation • Review/proofreading Post-production: • Client review: After delivery, plan for a checking step after client feedback has been received. The translator should be prepared to justify any decisions and choices made, and to reject and justify any client requests that go against the expected outcome. Be prepared for more than 1 round of feedback, but try to limit this to no more than 3 rounds. • Change implementation: After all the preferences have been included and all the rejections have been justified, the final version is produced, the brief and style guide are subsequently updated, if needed, and the project is closed. For the production process, I am using process names and definitions per ISO 17100, except for transcreation, which should be completed as an additional step in the process. It consists, therefore, in adapting the text or other content in order to suit the expected outcomes per the transcreation brief. Proofreading of the monolingual text in the target language should be completed at the end of the production stage as an additional quality control action. As it can be seen, the most important part in the process of a transcreation project is preproduction. It is the only way to ensure client expectations will be completely and thoroughly understood and met, and this is because they have been well defined and mutually agreed. Likewise, post-production plays a very important role in wrapping up the project and making sure any new requirements resulting from client preferences will be included in the instructions for the next project, thus ensuring consistent criteria. 4.

RELATED TERMINOLOGY

There are many similar terms in the translation industry, and it could be confusing because sometimes, different terms are used to refer to the same process. Also, at times, one term may be used to refer to completely different tasks. A good example is the term “proofing,” which has been used to refer to both monolingual and bilingual processes. Regarding transcreation projects, the terms used to refer to regular translation services are basically the same, and this is why we refer the reader to ISO 17100 for consistency. For transcreation, even when new, fancy terms may be coined to create differentiation between service providers, I encourage translators to make sure the transcreation terms they use are different from regular translation terms. For example, let us not use “proofreading” to refer to a step involving cultural adaptation. Clearly naming and defining transcreation will facilitate client awareness. In addition to this, it is a good idea to always define in writing the tasks to be completed, and not just use an industry term, so client expectations are clear, especially as regards quality control or adaptation steps in the process. These definitions ensure that both the client and the translator are on the same page, and expectations are aligned. This applies to regular translation terms too,

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such as proofing, proofreading, after-format proofing, spot-checking, in-country review, mechanical review, and so on. If a potential client has been doing some research about transcreation, they will have come across terms such as creative translation, cross-market copywriting, international copy adaptation, marketing translation, internationalization, localization, cultural adaptation, copy adaptation, marketization, multilingual copywriting, creative international marketing, and other terms, including incorrect ones (transliteration). For each of these words and phrases, the concept is similar: taking the essence of a message involving a desired outcome and re-creating it in another language. 5.

CHARGES

Ideally, a full transcreation project should be billed by the hour, especially due to the extensive pre-production –and sometimes post-production– stage. However, when translators are working with a translation company in a transcreation project, the usual situation is that the preproduction stage has been completed by the company, and not by the individual translator. Therefore, it is possible to have a per-word rate, just as with regular translation, at a premium. This is applicable when the translator is provided with all the information from the brief, the style guide, and instructions. The reader is warned that even a per-word rate should include the stages of client review and change implementation, which are part of the transcreation –and many translation– projects. For experienced translators, per-word rates allow them to increase productivity easily, as no time is wasted in making language decisions, thanks to expertise. Confident, experienced translators will be able to make more money with rates linked to a production unit instead of a time unit. Nevertheless, there will always be more challenging projects which will require a compensation for time. A per-hour rate is most suitable when a linguist needs to deliver reports or comments, or there are several client review rounds that are very time consuming due to client input which is preferential, but still needs to be reviewed, sorted out, and reported about. With per-hour projects, it should be noted that clients in general request a quotation and time estimation that is approved before starting the project. Every project has a limited budget, and the translator should be aware of it in order to keep the project time within the budget. No client accepts being billed for 100 hours if the supplier had originally estimated 10 hours. As we have seen, transcreation is a trans-cultural service. Therefore, it would be safe to assume that not all language pairs will have the same rates. 6.

RISKS

What are the worst problems that we could have in a transcreation project? Top of the list is failing at meeting client expectations. Everyone involved in the project needs to understand what is needed. This is achieved by asking, at the very least, questions about the purpose, the target audience, and the deliverable –if it is not possible to obtain a full brief. Client expectations may

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be shaped by offering input and suggestions during the quotation and pre-production stages. Please remember that clients sometimes do not know what they need, and they ask for something else. As language experts, we should be able to anticipate the clients’ real needs, raise their awareness, and offer the suitable solution (a.k.a. “educate the client”). The second risk is lack of internal communication. Think of the brief: everyone in the team should have it and understand it, including the linguist implementing client changes received 2 months after delivering the project. This avoids the issue of “the account manager promised something that cannot be done” or “the translators are giving me something that is not what I promised to the client.” Translators should make sure they tell everything to the project manager, and project managers and coordinators should do so with all the linguists involved. This brief should be treated like any marketing or advertising brief. Last but not least, another risk is the past experience in translation of a client: they may be used to informative or technical translation, or have non-expert language reviewers they trust for marketing copy. They all may need to learn what transcreation is and why they need it. 7.

CONCLUSION

The main take-aways for translators are the following: ! Transcreation is more similar to copywriting than to translation. ! Transcreators should know about marketing and the target culture, in addition to being talented writers. ! The transcreation brief is critical. ! Transcreation means more pre- and post-production activities, which are more important than the production process itself. ! Transcreation requires a team with no internal communication issues –the client being part of the team. ! Being inherently human and cultural, there is little room for machine translation in transcreation projects. “If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart”. – Nelson Mandela 8.

SOURCES

1) 2) 3) 4)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcreation (Actually, surprisingly good article) http://marvel.wikia.com/wiki/Paviitr_Prabhakar_(Earth-50101) http://transcreation.org.uk/ http://unic.academia.edu/DemetrisVrontis/Papers/359731/Adaptation_Vs._Standardizatio n_In_International_Marketing-The_Country-of-Origin_Effect http://www.amazon.co.uk/Kotler-Marketing-Philip/dp/0684860473 http://www.amazon.co.uk/The-Little-Book-Transcreation-1/dp/095689240X http://www.articulatemarketing.com/translation-vs-transcreation

5) 6) 7)

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8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18)

http://www.commonsenseadvisory.com/Portals/_default/Knowledgebase/ArticleImages/1 00331_R_Transcreation_Preview.pdf http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=59149 http://www.lionbridge.com/solutions/transcreation/ http://www.marketingdonut.co.uk/tools/writing-a-brief-a-template-for-briefingcopywriters-and-designers http://www.transcreation.com/transcreation-services/#.VeiE9tNViko http://www.verbalizeit.com/what-is-transcreation-a-definition-and-explanation/ http://www.vividmeaning.com/services/transcreation/ http://www.welocalize.com/examples-transcreation/ https://pbtranslations.wordpress.com/2010/07/14/transcreation-translating-and-recreating/ https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-global-marketing-campaigns-fail-richardbrooks?trk=prof-post https://www.smartling.com/2014/07/21/six-ways-transcreation-differs-translation/

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TRANSLATION AND LANGUAGE SKILLS: GIVING YOU THE PROFESSIONAL EDGE Kathleen Stein-Smith, PhD Fairleigh Dickinson University, Metropolitan Campus Abstract: Career opportunities are available, in language services and beyond, for those with foreign language skills. However, the vast majority of U.S. students do not study foreign languages, and most Americans do not possess the ability to hold a conversation in a language other than English, resulting in a U.S. foreign language deficit. Career opportunities are available in the language services sector, in education, and in a variety of careers enhanced by the knowledge of other languages and cultures, and opportunities exist in the U.S., EU, and beyond, in a global language services sector with annual revenue estimated at $50B. Challenges to the development of foreign language skills include the lack of awareness among U.S. workers and students as to the career opportunities available to those who possess foreign language skills and lack of motivation among English-speakers to learn another language. Encouraging signs include the increase in immersion programs like New York's "revolution bilingue" and in programs for heritage language speakers. Advocacy is of critical importance, including activity of professional associations and high profile events such as "Many Languages One World." Future directions include an increase in the number of partnerships, referred to as the "language enterprise," and recent initiatives have included Languages for All? in 2013 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Commission on Language Learning, announced in July 2015. The lack of foreign language skills also needs to be examined in the context of international education and global citizenship and languages for specific purposes/business language studies. 1.

JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR THOSE WITH FOREIGN LANGUAGE SKILLS

Job opportunities for those with foreign language skills may be found many areas, including education, language services, import-export, and a wide range of positions within U.S. doing business overseas and foreign-owned companies operating in the U.S. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, job opportunities for translators and interpreters are predicted to increase by 46% during the 10-year period 20122022, much faster than average, with 29,300 additional positions predicted. The language sector offers a wide range of career and employment opportunities, from language services and education, to the government, military, business, and the private sector. In addition, many seemingly unrelated careers can be enhanced by proficiency a locally important language or a language related to your specialty, and these include real estate, journalism, and careers in publishing, museums, libraries, etc. In terms of the language services sector, according to Rivers, foreign language represents a $25B sector in the U.S. alone and is growing at a rate of 8% per year. According to CommonSenseAdvisory's The Top 100 Language Service Providers: 2013, 3 of the top 5 language services firms are U.S.- based (Lionbridge Technologies, TransPerfect/Translations.com, and LanguageLine Solutions).

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However, careers using foreign languages and enhanced by foreign language skills include careers in sales and other areas within companies or organizations purchasing materials and services from abroad or selling goods and services to overseas customers. Exports are an important component of the economy, and the importance of foreign language skills in international business has been most famously stated in the quote attributed to Willy Brandt, "If I’m selling to you, I speak your language. If I’m buying, dann müssen Sie Deutsch sprechen!" This well-known principle certainly points for a need for workers at all levels with skills in the languages of purchasers of U.S. products. According to the U.S. Census, the top 5 countries to which the United States has exported goods in 2015 are: Canada; Mexico; China; Japan; and the United Kingdom. According to Trade.gov, in 2014, 11.7 million U.S. jobs were directly or indirectly supported by exports of goods and services, up 1.8 million since 2009, and the highest number ever, and the number of jobs supported by exports of goods and services reflects our most important purchasers: Canada; Mexico; China; Japan; and the United Kingdom. Our top trading partners have been Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany. According to the Chamber of Commerce's Imports Work, 16 million American jobs are supported by imports. Many multinational or foreign-owned companies also operate in the U.S., and local staff who have knowledge of their language and of other languages needed by the company may be employed in many areas, including sales, corporate communications, government relations, law, accounting, tax, etc. According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, foreign-owned companies in the U.S. account for almost 6 million jobs, or 3.5% of all employment, and are present across the country. Leading employers are the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Canada, and France. States with the largest number of workers employed by foreign-owned companies are: California, Texas, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, New Jersey, Ohio, and North Carolina -- all with over 200,000 workers employed by foreign-owned companies. Some of the foreign-owned companies that employ the largest number of U.S. workers include EADS North America (Netherlands), Sodexo (France), BAE Systems (UK), Nestle USA (Switzerland), and TMobile USA (Germany). Another area in which foreign language skills are useful is the transnational, or global, career. Although Americans have traditionally been among the most reluctant to move abroad for a job, that may have changed since the recession. According to Business Insider, 59% of millennials would be willing to move abroad, but the majority prefer an English-speaking location. Promoting greater language skills among our students would offer this growing population a wider range of potential job opportunities. According to the HSBC Expat Survey, the top 5 countries for expats are: Switzerland; Singapore; China; Germany; and Bahrain. It is estimated that 6 million Americans live abroad, and that an additional 1 million are deployed abroad in the U.S. military. Government departments and agencies at the federal, state, and local level have a wide range of foreign language needs, ranging from diplomats to courtroom interpreters. According to the Interagency Language Roundtable, federal government job opportunities include positions in the Department of Defense, Central Intelligence Agency, Department of Stated, Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Security Agency, Defense Intelligence Agency, Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Virtual Translation Center, Peace Corps, and others.

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The decision as to which language to study is an important one, as it takes time and effort to reach business proficiency and fluency, even if the learner has some knowledge of the language at the outset, and this decision can be made for reasons including cultural affinity, the local or regional importance of a specific language, or its importance within one's professional area. Different career paths will, therefore, tend to encourage or to reward the specific foreign language skills needed. Business, government, and education are broad fields encompassing many different types of professionals, and the terms "languages for specific purposes" and "business language studies" can include languages learned in order to work in those areas, or in a specific area such as STEM, or within a particular STEM discipline like health sciences, or Italian for art and museum related careers, French for film or culinary-related careers, etc. These same concepts can be applied to any language studied, including English as it is studied globally in order to prepare for study abroad in an English-speaking country, for advanced study and career in a discipline whose research is published primarily in English, or for a transnational career. The Bloomberg organization created a list of the most useful languages for international business, with English followed by Mandarin Chinese and French as the top three, and Centers for International Business Education and Research (CIBERs) have been created at universities across the country. Language Flagship programs offer education and training in language and culture for future global professionals. The Harvard Business Review recently discussed the importance of "language strategy" within the business enterprise. Government departments and agencies have developed lists of "critical languages," a term widely used since 2005, which have varied over time, and from agency to agency, depending on the specific foreign language skills needed. For those in search of a career in international government, the United Nations has six official languages: Arabic; Chinese; English; French; Russian, and Spanish (in alphabetical order), and the European Union has over 20 official languages, with French, English, and -- increasingly -German as working languages. Careers in international relations span a wide range of organizations -- government entities, NGO's, etc. -- and professions -- international law, diplomacy, and communication, as well as subject and language specialists. An example of this would be the implementation of the post-2015 global sustainable development goals by the UN, which will necessitate collaboration of international multidisciplinary teams of specialists. Careers in education for those with foreign language skills include careers from early childhood education through graduate and pre-professional study. In addition to careers as foreign language educators, career options include teaching English as a second language in the U.S. and around the world at all levels, and a wide range of positions in international education and international student services, primarily within higher education. English is most widely studied foreign language around the world, with opportunities here in the U.S. and around the world for teachers of English as a Second Language (ESL). According to the British Council, over 1 billion people around the world are learning English. For those considering a career as an ESL teacher, language skills in the local language(s), regional languages, and other international languages in addition to English, broaden potential employment opportunities. Within higher education, opportunities for those with foreign language skills go far beyond teaching foreign languages and literatures. International education serves a significant number of

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students who come from all over the world to pursue their college and university studies at the undergraduate and graduate levels in the U.S. According to the Open Doors report, the leading countries of origin for international students in the U.S. are: China; India; South Korea; Saudi Arabia; Canada; and Taiwan. In addition, many U.S. students study abroad. According to the Open Doors report, the leading destinations for U.S. students studying abroad are: the United Kingdom; Spain; Italy; France; and China. International educators involved in the recruitment and retention of international students who have a knowledge of the home languages and cultures of the students have a significant advantage, as do international educators involved in planning, curriculum, assessment, and international student services. According to O'Net, employment opportunities for postsecondary teachers of foreign language teachers ( predicted to increase 15% to 21%), and anthropologists and archeologists (predicted to increase 19%) are predicted to increase faster than average. However, career opportunities involving foreign language skills are not limited to language services. They include careers as language specialists, careers enhanced by foreign language skills, careers requiring cultural intelligence (CQ) and in international business, and other careers. It is not difficult to imagine the need for realtors in locally important languages, interpreters for international athletic stars, etc. For those eligible for employment within the European Union (EU), the prospects for employment are bright. According to Statista, Europe accounts for over 51% of the global language services market, compared to the U.S. at 37%, with a estimated revenue of over $16B in 2014. 2.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE SKILLS IN THE UNITED STATES: THE U.S. FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEFICIT

Despite the opportunities available, the vast majority of U.S. students do not study foreign languages. According to the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language (ACTFL), only 18.5% of K-12 public school students in the U.S. study a foreign language, and according to the Modern Language Association (MLA), only 8.1% of college and university students are enrolled in a course in a language other than English. This contrasts sharply with the status of foreign language learning in the European Union (EU) and in many areas around the world. In the EU, for example, almost all students study a foreign language. According to a July 2015 Pew Research report, "Learning a foreign language a ‘must’ in Europe, not so in America," and Americans trail Europeans in terms of foreign language learning. Beyond the classroom, only 25% of Americans consider themselves able to hold a conversation in a language other than English, and if recent immigrants and other heritage language speakers are deducted, the true number stands at around 10%. On the other hand, in the EU, 56% of adults consider themselves able to hold a conversation in a second language, 28% to hold a conversation in an additional second language, and 11% to hold a conversation in two additional languages.

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The reasons for this U.S. foreign language deficit include the reluctance of English-speakers to learn a foreign language which is often caused by the mistaken belief that -- as English is the global lingua franca -- there is no need to learn another language. While English is, indeed, useful and widely studied and spoken, 75% of the world's population does not speak English. Another reason is that nearly half the states do not have a foreign language requirement for high school graduation, and that many colleges and universities may not enforce the existing foreign language requirements. Despite numerous celebrities and public figures who speak one or more languages other than English -- Bradley Cooper, Sandra Bullock, Gwyneth Paltrow, Mila Kunis, Joseph GordonLevitt, Natalie Portman, Charlize Theron, Ben Affleck, Johnny Depp, not to mention Jacqueline Kennedy, John Kerry, etc., enrollment in foreign languages continues to decline, according to the MLA. The need for foreign language skills in the U.S. in order to maintain our national and economic security has been demonstrated and confirmed by numerous articles, books, and research reports. Business and government need workers with foreign language skills, but the majority of Americans do not speak other languages, and U.S. students are not studying foreign languages. 3.

THE TRIPLE CHALLENGE -- AWARENESS, MOTIVATION, AND SKILLS: THE MINDSET AND THE SKILL SET

U.S. workers and students tend to be unaware of the need for foreign languages in the workplace, and most do not learn another language. English-speakers lack motivation to learn another language, erroneously believing it to be unnecessary. U.S. students face little in the way of opportunity to begin the study of a foreign language at an early age, or foreign language graduation requirements to encourage continued study. U.S. students who study abroad often study in English, and even those who study international/global studies have minimal foreign language requirements. Many states do not have a foreign language requirement for high school graduation, or even an official language, and the United States itself does not have an official language. On so many levels, the mindset for language learning is clearly not present, which makes foreign languages skills at the proficiency or fluency level a commodity in limited supply and high demand. A three-step approach is needed to increase awareness, increase motivation, and to increase skills. Continued education and advocacy on the part of foreign language professionals and supporters to increase awareness of the importance of knowledge of other languages and cultures are clearly needed. While increased awareness may awaken interest in foreign language study, learning another language to the level necessary for use in the workplace requires considerable time and effort. Developing sustainable motivation includes developing the initial motivation to begin a language and sustainable motivation so that the learner will persevere and develop communicative competency or business proficiency. Motivation is generally considered the best overall predictor of successful foreign language learning outcomes.

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As immersion is generally considered the most effective methodology in developing foreign language skills, existing immersion programs must be strengthened, and expanded to additional levels, upward through the grade levels, and additional languages. In the absence of an immersion program, conventional programs at all levels should work to provide immersive experiences on site or through media and technology. The importance of continued study cannot be over-stated, as it is necessary in order to reach the level of language skill needed for effective use in the workplace. This is highlighted by the purpose of "Many Languages One World" Essay Contest and Global Youth Forum, which has been created to promote multilingualism and the continued study of the six official languages of the UN. There is a critical need to increase awareness of the opportunities foreign language skills can offer and to increase motivation to learn foreign languages through the implementation and enforcement of more robust foreign language requirements and a strategic social marketing campaign, and if a language-learning mindset can be fostered and encourage, improved foreign language skills are likely, as demonstrated by the success of the EU policy of plurilingualism. 4.

ENCOURAGING SIGNS -- ADVOCACY, IMMERSION, HERITAGE LANGUAGES, AND PARTNERSHIPS

There are, however, encouraging signs, including advocacy for foreign languages, programs for heritage language speakers, immersion programs, and partnerships. Education as to the benefits of foreign language study and advocacy for foreign languages are essential in order to increase awareness of and awaken interest in foreign languages. At the international level, advocacy has included the "Many Languages One World" (MLOW) program, now in its second year, sponsored by ELS Educational Services, Inc. and the United Nations Academic Impact, intended to promote multilingualism and to encourage the continued study of the six official languages of the UN. In the United Kingdom (UK), the British Academy for the Humanities and Social Sciences launched a 4-year program to increase awareness of the importance of foreign languages. The EU has observed a European Day of Languages on September 26th each year since 2001. In the U.S., advocacy for foreign languages has included the Languages for All? initiative, launched in 2013, and the Commission on Language Learning sponsored by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS), announced in July 2015, as well as long-term programs sustained by professional association such as the American Association of Teachers of French (AATF) (full disclosure -- this presenter/author is Chair of the AATF Commission on Advocacy), with its Commission on Advocacy, National French Week, the Grand Concours, etc., the ACTFL with its Year of Languages in 2005, followed by Discover Languages Month every year, and our own ATA, with its school outreach program.

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Heritage language speakers possess a wide range of skills, ranging from conversation or few skills, to fluency. However, all things being equal heritage language speakers may have a greater potential to achieve business proficiency than monolingual English speakers. Programs serving heritage language speakers need to take into account this wide range of skills, linguistic variation depending on country or region of origin, motivation, etc. Heritage language programs may be classroom or immersion programs, and may enjoy strong community support. Heritage language programs can include immersion programs such as New York City's "revolution bilingue," a public school program including more than 10 schools and more than 1,000 students, the Louisiana and New Orleans NOLA immersion programs, including approximately 30 schools. Other noteworthy heritage language programs include the Puerta al Futuro, Mirae Ro, Cheng Gong, and Latino Promise programs at Fairleigh Dickinson University in New Jersey (the presenter's home institution). The first three stress empowerment for English language learners from local communities, Spanish-, Korean-, and Chinese-speaking, respectively through mastery of their new language, English, combined with a U.S. college degree, while the Latino Promise program stresses support for the needs of traditional age students, usually first generation Americans, or children of recent immigrants. However, effective immersion programs are not limited to the presence of heritage language speakers and can serve a language learning population. Concordia's Language Villages program and the historic Middlebury College Language Schools, observing their centennial in 2015, provide immersive learning for individuals and families (Concordia). Internationally, the Centre linguistique du College de Jonquiere, in Quebec's historic Saguenay Lac St.-Jean region and observing its 45th anniversary in 2015, offers a French language immersion program with flexible homestay and seasonal options (full disclosure -- this author visited the Centre linguistique as part of the 2015 AATF annual convention). In alignment with stakeholder theory, foreign language skills and foreign language education are made stronger by strategic alliances, the "language enterprise" partnership of education, government, and business, as defined by Rivers. These "language enterprise" partnerships include high-profile partnerships such as the "Many Languages One World" Essay Contest and Global Youth Forum, with corporate sponsor, ELS Educational Services, Inc., international government sponsor, the UN Academic Impact, and host institution, Adelphi University. Another example of the "language enterprise" partnership includes the "revolution bilingue" partnership of parents, teachers and school administrators, and the French government, in New York City, and -- potentially -- the private sector. NAFSA: The Association of International Educators has global partners and affiliates, and the Joint National Committee for Languages and the National Council for Languages and International Studies (JNCL-NCLIS), the national advocacy organization for foreign languages, has both educational and corporate members. 5.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS -- OVERCOMING THE DISCONNECT BETWEEN SUPPLY AND DEMAND

Future directions include a continued emphasis on advocacy for foreign languages, a concerted effort to learn from best practices both here and abroad, a strategic social marketing campaign

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for foreign languages, and the "language enterprise" partnership. Getting the word out to the general public, to educators at all levels, and to career development professionals about the career advantages that accompany knowledge of foreign languages is essential. Programs for heritage language speakers and immersion programs need to be expanded, and foreign language would do well to transcend the traditional concept of foreign languages to embrace intercultural competence and to focus on the globalized world. There are many wonderful advocacy programs and initiatives for foreign languages, but much remains to be done if the needed paradigm shift is to be effected. Foreign language educators can bring the workplace, and the world, into the classroom, seeking and developing partnerships with the local community and with local heritage language communities, and developing community events to increase awareness of and achievement in foreign languages. Education and advocacy for foreign languages can build on existing efforts to include a high-visibility strategic marketing campaign for foreign languages, which would embrace the methods of marketing and public relations practice and theory in support of the social good. An effective campaign would be framed in current theory and practice of change management to broaden buy-in and would take inspiration from "blue ocean" strategy to expand interest in foreign language beyond the traditional learners and stakeholders. The recent British Academy campaign for languages and the long-term European Union policy of multilingualism and practice of plurilingualism are wonderful examples. It is necessary to continue to build bridges to career development and employment professionals to increase their awareness of the importance of foreign languages skills so that this awareness can frame the advice they give to students and job seekers. The interconnectedness of foreign language education that focuses on languages for specific purposes and business language studies and career preparation could well be emphasized. From a pragmatic perspective, as heritage language speakers are the Americans most likely to be able to develop proficiency and fluency in another language, more programs designed to meet their specific language learning needs are needed. Programs mentioned above, including Latino Promise, Puerta al Futuro, and the "revolution bilingue" are among the examples. The "revolution bilingue," in New York, offers an example of a dual language immersion program which both responds to and meets the needs of heritage language speakers and transcends the concept of heritage/foreign language to begin to address foreign language as a global competency in the world's global city. Foreign languages and international education would seem to be natural partners, but much more could be done to highlight the importance of knowledge of other languages and cultures for U.S. students planning on study abroad, studying international relations or international/global studies, planning transnational careers, or effectively navigating the globalized world and our multicultural society. The role of the foreign language teacher as intercultural competence teacher, always implicit, could play a leading role in strengthening this partnership, as could the importance of the English as a second language teacher in the transitions faced by international students and local bilingual learners in the U.S.

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The announcement of the Commission on Language Learning sponsored by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS) announced in July 2015 is an example of the "language enterprise," with an academic and former NYC administrator as Chair, and members from foreign language education and government. 6.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS -- THE PARADIGM, THE PARTNERSHIPS, AND THE "RESUME DIFFERENTIATOR"

The much-needed paradigm shift in attitudes toward, and achievement in, foreign language education in the U.S. would be characterized by a mindset informed by awareness of the importance of knowledge of other languages and other cultures, by motivation to learn one or more additional languages, and by the opportunities needed to achieve these skills. While high-profile events like "Many Languages One World" highlight the importance of foreign language skills on the global stage, local immersion programs like the "revolution bilingue" and Puerta al Futuro, advocacy efforts, and heritage language programs are the building blocks of the needed "sea change," or paradigm shift, in how Americans view foreign languages and foreign language learning. Partnerships are key, as in the "language enterprise" partnership of education, government, and business, or in a partnership of foreign language educators, international educators, English as a second language educators, and career counselors. After all, as Vanides wrote, "global fluency is the new resume differentiator." 7.

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