PSRTflniHfl - Pertanika Journal - UPM [PDF]

^

<
2

z l 2

Boleh ditunjukkan bahawajul L (iaituJulat L) dalam H ialah In (L)"K Ini berdasarkan kepada fakta bahawa Jul (L) + In (L) = H. (Lihat umpamanya Morris 1978). Oleh sebab itu, Jul (L) ialah pelengkap (secara ortogon) terhadapIn(L) dalam H. KatakanVeJul (L), makaVsaling berortogon dengan kos ( ) dan sin ( ). Oleh sebab itu 2

= - { *V(t)kos(t)dt = 0 dan m - i } 2 / r V ( t ) s i n ( t ) d t = 0 K

Si/at I Jika U suatu unjuran seperti dalam takrifan (3.4) maka untuk sebarang h dan H« . yang memenuhi sistem persamaan (3.2), persamaan terbitan "x + x = h mempunyai penyelesaian dalam H ^ . jika dan hanya jika Uh = 0. Bukti Katakan x(t) suatu penyelesaian dalam H ^ . bagi persamaan terbitan "x + x = h. Perhatikan bahawa, Uh = U(x + x) = Ux + Ux kos ( ) r2x", v i

^ ft

Persamaan (3.2) d i p e n u h i j u g a o l e h V e H 2ff (3.3)

sin K

-> H tl

Kita takrifkan satu unjuran U : H 2 bagai

se

sin ( )

— K

}(fx(s)sin(s)ds

UnjuranU : H t)

/ x i

U x(s) kos(s) ds +

JrSbr (, x(s) kos(s)ds

n sin(s) ds

= kos( )< x( ), kos( ) >+ sin( ) + sin( )
PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1,1991

71

MAT ROFA BIN ISMAIL

r = 0 menggambarkan titik keseimbangan (0, 0) manakala r = 2 menggambarkan kitaran had dengan jejari 2. Penyelesaian ini sudah dikenali umum (lihat umpamanya Jordan dan Smith op.cit). JikajU # Odan0 = —, persamaan (3.17) menjadi As u - Xx + — r 4

M

x - r kos(t) + w*(r, A) (t) £ H2K bagi persamaan Van der Pol (3.6). Ini bermakn; set dwicabangan ialah

s 4/z A = 0 atau r - 4r + —- = U A

Jika ditakrifkan fj (r) = r 3 - 4r + 4^-; maka boleh ditunjukkan bahawa

2 fj (0) > 0 dan r = -S»

ialah titik minimum f, dan 16

8

Kita pertimbangkan 3 kes berikut: (i) JTika - —T= + 4— > 0

3V3

Kewujudan penyelesaian positif r bermakn; kewujudan penyelesaian (3.10), iaitu

A

makaf tidak mem-

punyai pensifar positif.

oj. Perlu disebutkan bahawa keputusan melalui analisi ringkas ini selari dengan keputusan yang diperoM oleh Levinson (1943) dan Lloyd (1972), keram kedua-duanyamenunjukkan terdapatnya sekurang kurangnya satu penyelesaian berkala bagi sisten (1.2), manakala Lloyd (ibid) menunjukkar terdapatnya penyelesaian berkala yang unik bag suatu rantau dalam satah (ft, A). Dalam analisis in kami telah menunjukkan bahawa satah (/i, \ terbahagi kepada dua bahagian oleh persamaar 4 / H « - ^ 3 A , / i , A > 0 sedemikian hingga dibaha

(ii) Jika - —-?= + 4— < 0 maka f mempunyai 3V3 A 2 pensifar positif

gian bawah garis lurus tersebut terdapat penyelesaian berkala, manakala di atasnya terdapa penyelesaian berkala unik.

(iii) Jika - —m + 4— = 0 maka f mempunyai

KESIMPULAN Untuk semua nilai positif ji dan A, persamaar Van der Pol

1 pensifar positif. Kes ketiga memberikan persaman diwicabangan bagi fungsi fj (r) sebagai (3.18)

x + A(x2 - \)\

+ x = J2 kos(t);

fU, A keti

ada penyelesaian berkala dengan kalaan 2* Bilangan penyelesaian berkalanya berubaf daripada 1 kepada 3 bila parameter jj. dan A

Jika 0 a - —, maka persamaan (3.17) menjadi memotong set dwicabangan fu = -/i - Ar + — 4 Jika ditakrifkan

= 0 atau r3 - 4r f2(r) = r 3 - 4 r -

4— , A

= 0.

j

boleh ditunjukkan bahawa f 2(°) < 0 dan r = -T=, ialah titik minimum f2. Mudah ditunjukkan bahawa f

2 "7= < 0 untuk semua fi dan A positif. Ini mem-

bawa kepada natijah bahawa L(r) - 0 ada satu dan hanya satu punca positif. Oleh yang demikian, sistem persamaan (3.16) dan (3.17) ada 3 penyelesaian positif r, 4 jika ji < — V3 A, dan 1 penyelesaian positif r, jika

74

9

PENGHARGAAN

maka

Penulis merakamkan ucapan terima kasih kepad; Dr. David Chillingworth dari University i Southampton, United Kingdom kerana men cadangkan masalah yang dibincangkan dalam ker# ini kepada penulis. Beliaujuga memberi beberap cadangan terhadap kaedah penyelesaiannya. RUJUKAN ARNOLD, V.I. 1968. Singularities of Smooth Maps Russian Math. Surveys 23(l):3-44. BROCKER, T. and LANDER L 1975. Differential Germ and Catastrophes, LMS Lecture Notes Series, I Camb. Uni. Press. CHOW, S.N. and HALEJ.K 1982. Methods of Bifurcate

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1,1991

DWICABANGAN PENYELESAIAN BERKALA PERSAMAAN VAN DER POL

Theory, Springer Verlag.

D.W. and SMITH, P. 1977. Non-linear Ordinay Differential Equation. Oxford University Press.

JORDAN,

GOLUBITSKY M. and SHAEFER, D.G. 1979. A Theory for

Imperfect Bifurcation Theory via Singularaty Theory, Comm. PureAppL Maths32:21 - 9 8 .

LEFSCHEZ, S. 1979. Differential Equations, Geometric

1981. Bifurcation Analysis Near a Double Eigenvalue of a Model Chemical Reator. Arch, Rat. Meek Anal 75: 315 -348.

LEVINSON,

1984. Singularities and Groups in Bifurcation Theory

Vol. I, Springer Verlag.

Theory, New York: Dover Pub. N 1943. On the Existence of Periodic Solutions for Second Order Differential Equations with a Forcing Term. JournalMath. Physics, M.I.T. 22:41-48.

LLOYD, N.G. 1972. On the Non-autonomous Van der

GOLUBITSKY, M. and KEYFITZ, B.L.

1980. A Qualitative Study of the Steady State Solutions for Continuous Flow Stirred Tank Chemical Reactor. Siam J. Maths. Anal. 11:316-339.

Pol Equation with Large Parameters. Proc. Camb. Philos.Soc. 72: 213-227. A.O 1978. Linear Algebra, an Introduction, VNR.

MORRIS,

and HOLMES, P. 1983. Non-Linear Oscillations, Dynamical Systems and Bifurcations of Vector Fields, Applied Mathematical Science, 42, Springer Verlag, New York.

STEWARD, I.N.

Kand RODRIGUES, H. M. 1977. Bifurcation in the Duffing Equation with Independent

THOM, R. 1975. Structural Stability and Morphogenesis, Benjamin Reading, Mass

GUCKENHEIMER,J.

HALEJ.

Parameters II, Proceedings of the Royal Society of

1981. Bifurcation and Hysteresis Varieties for the Thermal Chain Branching Model with a Negative Model Parameter. Math. Proc. Camb. Philos. Society9ft, 127-139.

Edinburg, 79A,317-326.

THOMPSON,].

J.K. and TABOAZ, P.Z. 1978. Intraction of Damping and ForcinginaSecond Order Equation,

ZEEMAN, E.C.

M. T. and

HUNT

G.W. 1973. General

Theory of Elastic Stability. New York: Wiley.

HALE,

Journal Non-Linear Analysis Theory, Methods and Applications 2: 77-84.

1975. Catastrophe Theory, University of Warwick.

ISMAIL, MAT ROFA. 1988. The Behavior of the Solutions

of the Forced Van der Pol Equation with Small Parameters. Pertanika 11 (2): 305 - 309.

L

PERTANIKA VOL. 14NO.1,1991

(Diterima22Jun, 1989)

75

PertanikaHU), 77-81(1991)

COMMUNICATION II Determination of Best Straight Line Graphs in the Undergraduate Science Laboratory ABSTRAK Satu huraian diberikan tentang kaedah penentuan kecerunan m dan penggalan c bagi satu garis lurus, apabila satu daripada pembolehubah adalah bebas ralat dan satu lagi mempunyai ralat. Berdasarkan teori ini, satu program komputer ditulis untuk mengira parameter-parameter garis ini, iaitu m dan c, dengan ralat mereka dan %2cat untuk kes-kes data masukan yang diketahui ralatnya. Data yang diperoleh daripada ujikaji fizik nuklear (di mana data mempunyai ralat yang tidak tetap) digunakan untuk menguji kaedah ini, dan ia didapati berguna dalam penentuan parameter-pan meter garis lurus terbaik, serta ralat piawai mereka. Kegunaan kaedah ini untuk ujikaji fizik bukan nuklear di peringkat prasiszvazah (atau untuk data yang mempunyai ralat tetap) juga dibincangkan. ABSTRACT A description is given of the method of determining the gradient m and intercept c of a straight line when one variable is error-free, while the other is subject to error. Based on this theory, a computer program was written to compute the parameters of the line, i.e.mandc, with their standard errors, andx cai for those cases where the errors of the input data are known. Data obtained from nuclear physics experiments (where data have non-constant errors) ivere used to test this method, which was found useful in determining the parameters of the best straight line, and their standard errors. The usefulness of this method for non-nuclear physics undergraduate experiments (or for data with constant errors) is also discussed. INTRODUCTION

The increased availability of computers in undergraduate science laboratories has made it more desirable to use a rigorous procedure for computing the parameters of a straight line, preferably in conjuction with a plot done "by hand". In most cases, the gradient of the line will not differ appreciably between the machine computation and the manual plot. The computed value, however, can more easily be given a standard error estimate, which is more reliable than that determined from a manual plot. In addition, the consistency of the data - specifically, whether the deviations of the data points from the straight line are consistent with the estimated errors can be assessed using the X2 test. The mathematical principles underlying the method should be readily understood by science students.

that the relationship between x and 31. is a straight line, and that there is no error in x. Since only the y. are liable to error, corresponding to each y., there must be a "theoretical" value, K, which is the value which would have been measured in a perfect experiment (one without error). The relationship between Y and x. is i

1

Y. = mx+c,i= 1

1

1 , 2 , ...rz,

(1) v

'

'

where values of the constants m and c are to be found for which the theoretical values Y. will be as close as possible to the experimental data y.. A good general assumption is that the each experimental value belongs to a Gaussian distribution centred on the theoretical value. The probability that a particular experimental value, e.g. y., should lie in a small interval dy. in the neighbourhood of K. is

MATHEMATICAL METHODS AND DATA

Consider an experiment which produces data in the form of n pairs of readings (x, ;y.), i- 1, 2, ...n . In this experiment, two things are known, namely

P(y]) dy-, = const x exp

-

d*, (2)

-^ 22

or

where a. is the standard error in the value >\. The

SUPIAN BIN SAMAT AND CJ. EVANS

probability of obtaining the whole set of n data points y., JL, ... y is proportional to the product of n expressions of the form (2), and the best fit will be that which maximises this total probability. On replacing the product of exponentials by the exponential of the sum, we find (Samat and Evans 1989) that the condition for the best fit is that the expression

(3) should be a minimum, where w. is the statistical weight of the observation JJ., and is defined to be a."2. The minimum value of 5must be obtained by adjusting the two parameters mand c We therefore differentiate the function Swith respect to wand c, and equate the derivatives to zero, to obtain

41 and

= 0

dm

(4)

i

as

The Rutherford Scattering Experiment

\y\ = 0.

dc These are two linear equations which may be solved for wand c. In a more general case, with more than two coefficients, the equations (4) would be best solved by an elimination technique. In the present case, the solution can be written down explicitly in terms of matrix inversion:

[ml

J_ | Ew,y, |

(

where A is the determinant, Xw. £w.x.2 - (Xw.x which can be shown to be a non zero quantity. Equation (5) gives

while the diagonal elements of the matrix on the RHSof (5) yield the errors in the parameters: Am = V Q > j / A ) Ar = Substituting the best values of the parameters into equatian (3) gives j 2 cai = 2S = X^i(mxi

+c~yif.

The calculations were carried out on a micro processor system (a Dragon 32 computer connecte( to a Radio-shack Trs-80 computer cassette recorder NEC PC- 8023 BE-N printer and Philips TX B&V monitor), using a program written in BASIC. Tht order of calculation follows that of the equation derived above. There are some extra facilities in this program As was mentioned earlier, if O. is the error in y., ther w = G.~2. To input these values of a. into thi> program, there are options for O., namely (i)o. = constant (a given value), (ii) O. = constant (un known), (iii) O. =a constant percentage (given) ot y. (iv)a. = a constant percentage (unknown) of) (v) a. = "\/ C, and (vi) the value of O. is supplied foi each point. In (i) and (iii) we only need to inpw one value of o. (or % a.) while in (ii), (iv) and (v) no input is needed in order to specify a.. Options (ii) and (iv) do not permit the calculation of %2 Two sets of data from nuclear physics experi ments were obtained and applied to test the pro gram.

The first setofdata was obtained from an experimeni set up to verify the angular dependence of Rutherford scattering. Alpha-particles emitted from a radio-nuclide source ( A m , activity 50 juCi. energy 5.48 MeV, half-life 458 years) were passed through a gold foil (of thickness 2.5jUm), and the resulting scattered cc-particles were detected al scattering angle (varied between 10° and 52°) b a semiconductor device. The source, the gold foil and the detector were in a vacuum enclosure, through the base-plate of which the output pulses were brought out and fed into the counter/timer unit. If the observed number of a-particles expressed as counts/sec is /, then / decreases as 0 increases, as given by the equation / = const x sin ~ 4 (0/2). For the full derivation of this equation, see for example Evans (1982). Attenuation of/5-rays The second set of experimental data was obtained by counting /J-rays (from a radioactive source of Sr, activity 100 jUCi) which had been attenuated by different numbers of sheets of alumunium foil, using a GM-tube detector (connected to a sealertimer type ST6 m a n u f a c t u r e d by Nuclear Enterprises). If the number of sheets is x and the observed number of /J-rays expressed as counts/ sec is /, then /decreases when x increases, as given

PERTANIKAVOL. 14 NO. 1,1991

DETERMINATION OEBEST STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS IN THE UNDERGRADUATE SCIENCE LABORATORY a V

Y = (-3.911

• ln[siii(rf/2)]

± 0.093>x

•

(-7.499

*

«

l n ( / >

0.124)

\

1

Fig.l: The observed count-rate of a-partictes as a function of scattering angle 01 for a gold foil of constant thickness 2.5 fim.

input. The assoiated probability that yj should be > X2cal was obtained by interpolation in table x (e-gSpiegel, 1972). It can be seen from Fig. 1 that, although all the 21 data points look as if they lie on a straight line, their resulting %2cal (28.75) is large and the associated probability (0.06 for n- 2 = 19 d.f.) is very low, showing that the 21 data do not fit very well to a straight line. When the number of data is reduced to 18 (by excluding the three smallest angles), the probability increases to 0.77. Further reduction to 17, 16 or 15 data points also gave good probabilities (0.73, 0.67 and 0.62 respectively) but were not significantly better. The gradient and its error obtained for all these reduced numbers of data defined confidence intervals which included the theoretical value (Evans. 1982) of -4 (while the confidence interval obtained with 21 points did not include the value-4). The line plotted in Fig.l is the best straight line obtained with 18 points, the gradient being -3.911 ± 0.093 and the intercept -7.499 ± 0.124. The reason for getting a higher probability (% cal) when the small-angle data were excluded can be explained by the physical properties of the systems, namely that at small angles the result may be unreliable because the angular size of the detector is not negligible compared with the angle of scattering.

The results for the attenuation of ^3-rays are shown in Fig. 2. At first glance, it looks as if there by the equation / = / exp(-//sx), where / is the is a non-linear relationship between the two initial number of/J-rays (counts/sec), jl the linear variables. The central part of the data, however, is atenuation coefficient of aluminimum, and s (here in good agreement with a straight line, and the deassumed constant) is the thickness of one sheet. viation occurs for large and small absorber thickFor both experiments, let A/ be the error in /. nesses. Significant bending at small x may be For observations in the form of numbers of counts, explained by the broad energy distribution of the A/ may be estimated by taking the square root of the /J-particles. The low-energy particles are absorbed number of counts observed (before dividing by the easily in the first few layers of foil, and the more time of counting). In order to use a straight-line energetic ones are then absorbed more slowly. For fitting program to analyse the data, we must define large x, the bending (levelling out) is probably due new variables: x (= In sin (0/2) for the Rutherford to the /3-rays stopping in the foils and generating scattering experiment; and equal to xfor the jS-ray attenuation experiment),)). (=lnZ), . (=Ay. = A In )*-rays, which have a much greater penetrating power (but a smaller chance of detection). / = A///.). Since the errors in y. are not all equal, With this argument in mind, the straight-line the program was run using the error option (vi). fitting procedure was first applied to the central The u were corrected for background. region only, then the other points were included one at a time and the values of x2cal were recorded RESULTS AND DISCUSSION for each number of pints included. The straight For the Rutherford scattering experiment, Fig.l line in Fig 2 (with gradient (-5.427 ±0.284) x 10"2 shows the plot of y= In (I) versus x for all the 21 and intercept 1.290 ± 0.031) is the best straight line data, with the experimental errors as indicated. obtained with between 1 and 19 foils. It has X cal = Table 1 shows the variation / 2 cal , the gradient of the straight line and its error (all output from the 13.1, for n - 2 = 15 d.f., which represents a highly computer program) for different numbers of data satisfactory goodnessof-fit. Table 2 shows the variPERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

79

SUPIAN BIN SAMAT AND CJ. EVANS

V = ln(/)

(1.290 *

0.031)

0.5.

Number o f

foils,

I

Fig. 2: The observed count-rate of ^articles as a function of number of absorbing foils (0-24). The best straight line has been computed using 1-19foils only.

TABLE 1 X2cal obtained by the computer program for different angles of scattering in the Rutherford experiment. Scattering angles Number Description included 21 18 17 16 15

*P

Gradient (TO ± Am)

28.75 11.23

0.03 0.77

-4.299 ± 0.028 -3.911 ±0.093

11.22

0.73

-3.914 ±0.102

10.91

0.67

-3.937 ±0.112

10.68

0.62

-3.962 ±0.121

real

all data all data except 3 smallest angles all data except 4 smallest angles all data except 5 smallest angles all data except 6 smallest angles

* Probability that a value of x2 > X2c a l should have arisen due to statistical errors only. Note: the probability has* expected value of 0.5. ation of ^ 2 cal , and its significance level, when different numbers of points are included. It can be seen that when the first point (x = 0) or when the last few points (large x) are included, then %2cal increases and the significance level of the fit becomes distinctly worse. Therefore, the deviations from the straight line at small and large x are statistically significant, and likely to have arisen from physical 80

proceses, such as those suggested. Although d point x = 1 may also appear to deviate from it straight line, this difference is not statistically si nificant; likewise, the X2 test gives n o justificatk for rejecting the points x= 18 and 19. T h e assumption of a Gaussian distribution errors in equation (2) will be valid for b o t h of the experiments since, although the underlying stat

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1,1991

DETERMINATION OF BEST STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS IN THE UNDERGRADUATE SCIENCE LABORATORY

TABLE 2 X2cal obtained by the computer program for different numbers of foil thicknesses in the p-ray absorption experiment. No. of foils included 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

-> 17 -» 18 -> 19 -* 20 -> 21 -> 22 ->23 -» 24 -> 19 -> 24

X2cal 13.1 14.5 15.0 20.5 25.6 30.9 31.5 33.9 33.6 63.5

0.60 0.57 0.60 0.31 0.15 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.05 1.0 x 10--'

CONCLUSION For pairs of experimental data which are expected to satisfy a straight-line relationship, besides yielding the gradient and intercept of the line, with their standard errors, this method is most useful in determining the extent of validity of the linear theory, by calculating each time the value of % cal and the probability that a value of x >% cal should occur. In the experiments illustrated, this procedure yielded the best straight line with a highly satisfactory goodness-of-fit. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One of us (SBS) is grateful to The British Council, Kuala Lumpur and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, for the award of Research Grant, which made possible sabbatical leave at Swansea for nine months (29.3.90-31.12.90).

tics satisfies a Poisson distribution, the two distributions become indistinguishable for c o u n t n u m b e r s exceeding about 20. T h e curve-fitting t e c h n i q u e used in this work is particularly well suited to nuclear counting experiments, where errors (which are generally not constant) can easily be assigned to the data. Many versions of this technique have b e e n written, a n d some are available commercialy, b u t often they d o not offer the facility of presenting the errors as part of the data, and therefore c a n n o t give a value of X2cal. T h e present p r o g r a m can, of course, be used for situations in which the errors are constant, a n d can be used for experiments n o t c o n n e c t e d with nuclear counting. In such cases, however, it is much more difficult to estimate e x p e r i m e n t a l errors reliably. A s a result, a large value of %2 does not necessarily m e a n that the apparatus is faulty or that the theory is inapplicable; a m o r e likely reason would be that the errors have been under-estimated. Similarly, a small value of X2cal often indicates that the errors have been over- estimated.

*SUPIAN BIN SAMAT and CJ. EVANS Department of Physics, University College of Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK *On sabbatical leave from UKM and attached as a visiting research worker at this address for nine months. REFERENCES SAMAT, S.B. and C J.EVANS. 1989. Nuclear Spectroscopy-

Maximum Attainable Accuracy in the Calculation of Peak AreaJ.Ftzi* Mai, 10: 5. EVANS, R.D.

1982. The Atomic Nucleus. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, p.11-18. M.R. 1972. Statistics. New York: McGraw-Hill, p.345.

SPIEGEL,

PERTANIKAVOL. 14 NO.l, 1991

(Received 21 August, 1990)

81

Pertanika 14(1), 83-86( 1991)

COMMUNICATION III Effect of Organic Matter on the Immobilization of Cadmium in Four Malaysian Cocoa Growing Soils ABSTRAK Kesan bahan organik atas penjerapart kadmium dalam empat jenis tanah koko Malaysia telah dikaji. Isoterma Langmuirmenunjukkan bahawa untuk siri Rengam, Bernam dan Selangor muatanpenjerapan kadmium meningkat dengan pemusnahan kandungan organik. Sebaliknya kesan terbalik didapati pada siri tanah Malaka. Perbezaan mungkin disebabkan oleh kesan penkelatanyangberlainan antara tanah dengan kadmium.

ABSTRACT The effect of soil organic matter on cadmium adsorption in four Malaysian cocoa soils was investigated, Langmuir isotherms for the metal show that for Rengam, Bernam and Selangor series soils, sorption capacities increase with the destruction of organic matter. The reverse is obtainedfor Malacca series soil. The difference could be due to the different chelatingeffectiveness of soil organic matter to cadmium. INTRODUCTION Cadmium is a non-essential trace element in plants and animals. Its hazardous effects on human beings are well documented. It is emitted to the environment from industrial activities and products. Its presence in Malaysian cocoa estates is probably due to its geochemical origin a n d / o r as a contaminant from application of phosphate fertilizer. Depending on its source of origin, a range of less than 1 to 75

MATERIALS AND METHODS Four different soils from cocoa estates in Peninsula Malaysia were collected from a surface horizon of 0-15 cm and some of their characteristics were deter-mined by standard procedures. The soils investigated were Rengam (Merlimau), Bernam (Sungei Buluh), Selangor (Flemington) and Malacca (Selbourne). •

cadmium in phosphate fertilizers has been reported (Sauerbeck 1984). Various studies have shown that cadmium from the soil can be taken up by the plants, through which it enters the food chain. Cadmium availability to plants depends on many factors. They include soil pH, clay mineralogy, competing anions, abundance, type of sorption sites and complexing agents (organic and inorganic). Ram and Verloo (1985) found that high sorption capacity and the formation of stable organo-metallic complexes led to a relatively lower mobility of cadmium, amongst other heavy metals, in soil. However, Petruzzelli etal (1978) reported that organic matter reduction produced a small decrease or even a slight increase in cadmium sorption in four Italian soils. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of organic matter on the immobilization of cadmium in four Malaysian cocoa growing soils. This was accomplished by studying the Langmuir isotherms for cadmium with and without the presence of organic matter in the soils.

Contact Time Experiments In all the contact time experiments, 0.5g of soil was shaken in 40 ml of 50/ig ml" 1 Cd solution at room temperature. Aliquots of 2 ml were withdrawn at various intervals for analysis of cadmium using a Labtest (710-2000) inductively coupled plasmaatomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES). Adsorption Isotherms Adsorption isotherms were obtained by shaking 0.25 g of soil with 20 ml of Cd solution for 24 h at room temperature. In order to prevent precipitation of Cd(OH)^, a concentration range of 0-150/igmg ml" for Cd was used. The suspension was centrifugedat4500rpmfor 10 min and the supernatant was analysed for Cd using the method as described. The amount of Cd adsorped was calculated as the difference between the initial concentration and that remaining after equilibration. Data reported are the means of three replicates. Controls without soils were similarly carried out to ascertain

LOW, K.S. ANDC. K. LEE,

adsorption on vessel wall. Organic Matter Content Organic matter was determined by the H^ 02 peroxidation method in the presence of 0.1 M pyrophosphateSequiandAringhiei 1977). After destruction of organic matter, cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined again (Chhabra, Pleysier and Cremer 1975) and the adsorption process was repeated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Some of the analytical characteristics for the soils are shown in Table 1. All the soils are acidic. Bernam series is most acidic while the rest are comparable. Kabata (1986) reported that the backgrounded levels in soils should not exceed 0.5 /Jg g~ and all higher values reflect the anthropogenic activities on the Cd in top soils. Thus it would appear that the Malaysian cocoa growing soils are contaminated with Cd. A likely source of contamination would be through the use of Cd contaminated phosphate. TABLE1 Analytical characteristics of some Malaysian cocoa growing soils. Location

Mcilimau Sungei Remington Selbourne Buloh Classification Rengam Bernam Selangor Malacca

The results of contact time experiment are shown in Table 2. A contact time of 4 h was sufficient for attaining equilibrium. However, for all subsequent experiments, a contact time of 24 h was adopted. The data obtained from cadmium adsorption or four different types of soils were applied to the Langmuir isotherms in the form C/x/m

where x/m is the amount of metal adsorbed per unit weight of soil (jUg mg ! ) , C is the equilibrium concentration of Cd solution (jUg mg" 1 ) b tht maximum adsorption capacity (/igmg~ ) andl the Langmuir bonding energy coefficient (ml jdg~\ Adsorption isotherm for the four soils are shown in Figs. /, 2, Jand 4. The linearity of such plots show* that the Langmuir isotherm can be appliec successfully. The maximum adsorption capacities for the various soils before arid after destruction of organic matter are shown in Table 3. In the original soils, the maximum adsorption capacity for cadmium was found to be highest for Selangor soil while the Rengam soil shows the lowest. i'ABLE 3 Maximum adsorption capacities b (fug mg- L ) of some Malaysian cocoa soils as calculated from Langmuir isotherms. Cadmium Soil

pH 5.68 Organic matter 12.2

4.52 20.6

5.32 26.8

6.6

CEC (me

13.9

25.2

32.3

13.6

/lOOg) CEC (me /lOOg)

10.7

16.9

22.4

8.4

Cd tot {m%

2.23

1.95

3.34

€*) (IEC = Cation exchange capacity CEC* = Cation exchange capacity after destruction of organic matter

TABLE2 Percentage adsorption of cadmium as a function of time

si

Soil

1h

Rengam Bernam Selangor Malacca

18.2 45.2 68.6 27.8

4h

24 h

17.4 46.0 70.6

18.8 47.0 74.2 34.4

29.8

WithOM

5.73

2.10

= l/kb + C/b

Rengam Bernam Selangor Malacca

1.03 2.77 4.65 2.26

With* »ut OKI 1.49 4 ,11 7 .22 1.80

OM = Organic Matter

Upon destruction of organic matter, theordl of adsorption capacity remained the same. F
PERTANIKAVOL HNO.1,1991

EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER ON IMMOBILIZATION OF CD IN FOUR COCOA GROWING SOILS

If b's are expressed as percentages of CEC, the values are always higher with organic substances removed (Table 4) TABLE4 Maximum adsorption capacities, b, as percentages of CEC for some Malaysian cocoa growing soils with andwithoutOM.

-.

O

with organic matter

0

without organic matter

•

Cd

b*(%)

Soil Rengam Bernam Selangor Malacca

13.2 19.6

24.8 46.8 57.4 38.6

25.6 29.6

Note: b dan b* are calculated with respect to CEC and CEC* respectively. C

The bonding energy coefficients for the soils are shown in Table 5. There is no correlation between k values and organic matter in the four soil samples.

Fig. 2:

x 10 {u R ml' 1 )

Langmuir isothermforcadmium adsorption on Bernam Soil

TABLES Bonding energy coefficient, k, (ml {ig~ ) as calculated from Langmuir equation for some Malaysian cocoa growing soils. Cd

Soil Rengam Bernam Selangor Malacca

WithOM 4.34 0.96 4.65 0.69

Without OM 0.44 0.03 0.03 3.44

C_ x 10 (ug ml"1)

Fig. I:

Langmuir isothermfor cadmium adsorption on Rengam Soil.

Fig.3:

Langmuir isothermfor cadmium adsorption on Selangor soil

PERTANIKA VOL. 14 NO.l, 1991

85

LOW, K.S. ANDC. K. LEE,

REFERENCES CHHABRA,R.,J.PLE\SIER andA.CREMKR. 1975. Catior Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations ir Soils. A New Method. Proc. Int. Clay Con/., p. 439. 449. PKTRA/ZKLLI, G., G. GUIDI and L. LUBRANO. 197a

Organic Matter as an Influencing Factor on Coppei and Cadmium Adsorption by Soils. Water, Air, &jj Pollut. 9:253-9. RAM, N and M. VERLOO. 1985. Effect of Various Organic Materials on the Mobility of Heavy Metal; in Soils. Environ. Pollut. Ser. B. 10: 241 - 248 Fig. 4: Langmuir isotherm for cadmium adsorption on Malacca soil. From this study it can be inferred that while organic matter correlates well for copper (Petruzzelli etal 1977), it may not be so for cadmium. Otherfactors suchaspHofthesoilscould influence ion mobility more than the interaction of cadmium with organic matter.

SAUERBECK, D. 1984. The Environmental Significance of the Cadmim Content in Phosphorus Fertilizers Plant Research & Development 19:24-34. S£QUI,P.andARINGHIEI. 1977. Destruction of Organic Matter by Hydrogen Peroxide in the Presence of Pyrophosphate and its Effect on Soil Specific Surface Area. SoilSci. Soc. Am.]. 41:340-342.

CONCLUSION Data with four soil samples showed that cadmium adsorption on soils does not correlate with organic matter. It would imply that chelation reaction between the metal and the organic material in soils is of little importance in the adsorption process. LOW,K.SandC.K LEE, C hemistry Department, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 43400 UPMSerdang, SelangorDarulEhsan, Malaysia. (Received 7July, 1990}

86

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

Section III Social Sciences

Pertanika 1 4 ( 1 ) , 87-91 ( 1 9 9 1 )

Self-esteem and Initial Drug Use: a Comparative Study between Users and Non-users among Malay Adolescents in Peninsular Malaysia H.M. ABDULLAH AL-HADI and M.T. MOHD NASIR Department of Human Development Studies Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 43400 UPMSerdang, SelangorDarulEhsan, Malaysia Keywords: self-esteem, initial drug use, adolescents. ABSTRACT Kajian ini menelitipenghargaan kendiri pengguna dadah dan bukan pengguna dadah sebelum mana-mana responden terlibat dengan tingkah laku permulaanpenggunaan dadah. Sampel terdiri daripada 183pengguna dadahyang sedang menerima rawatan pemulihan di lima buah Pusat Pemulihan Dadah Kerajaan, dan 200 bukan pengguna dadah yang sedang menuntut di sebuah universiti. Kajian mendapati pembentukan tingkah laku permulaan penggunaan dadah mempunyai kaitan dengan penghargaan kendiri responden. Hasil kajian ini mempunyai implikasi-implikasi tertentu dalam hubungannya dengan sebab-musabab permulaan tingkah laku permulaan penggunaan dadah, dan kaedah-kaedah rawatanpermulihannya. ABSTRACT This study examined self-esteem ofdrugusers and non-users before any of the subjects engaged in initial drug use. Subjects were 183 drugusers receiving treatment atfive Government Rehabilitation Centers, and 200 non-drugusers drawn from a universitiy. Development of initial drug use was found to be related to self-esteem of the subjects. The result may have certain implications both in relation to the etiology of drug use and to its treatment. INTRODUCTION

Many theorists have advanced that self-esteem is related to delinquency. Adler (1930), Dreikurs (1962), Kaplan (1975, 1980) and Reckless et a\. (1956) have all proposed that low self-esteem plays a significant role in the development of social behaviour. According to Adler, Dreikurs and Kaplan, avoiding low self-esteem is the major motive of human behaviour. Individuals seek to avoid future devaluing experiences and to compensate for feelings of low self-worth. Thus, delinquency is viewed as a compensatory means through which children with low self-esteem avoid devaluing social experiences and attempt to enhance self-worth. Reckless etal. (1956) have asserted that poor selfesteem makes a child vulnerable to environmental forces which then steer him to delinquency. Kaplan (1980) in a three-year longitudinal study observed that low self-esteem preceded delinquent behaviour. The findings of Rosenberg and Rosenberg (1978) from extensive longitudinal data concluded that low self-esteem influences the development of delinquent behaviour.

A number of studies deal directly with the concept of self-esteem as it relates to drug use. Kaplan (1975b) and Samuels and Samuels (1974) have found that low self-esteem is one of the significant factors associated with drug use. However, other studies present contradictory findings whereby self-esteem is not significantly associated with drug use (Jessor and Jessor 1977; Kandel 1978; Paton andKandel 1978;Schaeferrta/. 1976; Smith and Fogg 1978). The inconsistencies of findings from studies relating self-esteem with drug use suggest the need for more research in this area, especially in the Malaysian context. Thus, a detailed study utilising a psycho-social model was conducted to examine, among others, the selfesteem of drug and non-drug users before any of these subjects were engaged in drug use. The comparison of the self-esteem of drug and non-drug users is discussed in this paper. Other objectives of the study are to examine the relationship between social and psychological factors with the development of initial drug use behaviour, and to investigate the association between parenting styles and

H.M. ABDULLAH AL-HADI AND M X MOHD NASIR

the personality of drug-using children. The reports of the study in relation to the above-mentioned objectives are discussed elsewhere (Abdullah AlHadi and Mohd. Nasir, 1989; 1990; in press). MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study focused on the initiation of drug use, namely ganja(marijuana), and adolescents (12 to 22 years old). Focus on the initiation of drug use was thought appropriate because studies on drug abuse should start at the period when the user begins experimenting with drugs. How an individual comes to initially use a particular drug appears to be a logical focal point to begin explaining drug use. At the same time, focus on the useofganja (marijuana)is pertinent since findings from studies conducted locally (Choo and Navaratnam 1980) and internationally (Kandel 1975; O'Donnel and Clayton 1979) indicate that ganja (marijuana) was the initial and major drug experimented on by drug users. The adolescent group was the target of the study due to the facts that in Malaysia, the majority of drug users began using drugs during the period of 15to24years(PasukanPetugasAnti-Dadah 1988). This age group mainly comprised adolescents. Study Area

The drug users (case group) were selected from Government Drug Rehabilitation Centers at Tampoi, Tampin, Perlop, Bukit Mertajam, and Besut towns found throughout Peninsular Malaysia. These rehabilitation centers represented the southern, central, north central, northern and eastern regions of Peninsular Malaysia respectively. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (UPM) waschosen as the study area for the non-drug user group (control group) because it is one of the universities in Malaysia, besides Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), offering both diploma and degree programmes. The entry requirement for the degree programme istheSijilTinggiPersekolahan (STP) while the entry level for the diploma programme of studies is the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM).

Only Malay males 23 years or below in age w< selected for the study. Males were chosen for t study for the reason that inmates of the Govei ment Rehabilitation Centers comprised the m; sex only. Malay males were selected for the stu since the majority of drug users in Malaysia a overwhelmingly Malay (Pasukan Petugas An Dadah, 1988). The criterion of age at or below years old was chosen since the focus of the study M the adolescence age group (12 to 22 years). Tl upper age limit of 23 years old was used in the latt criterion so that adolescents who initiated drugu at the end of their adolescence were included in tl study. A report by the National Anti-Drug Fon (Pasukan Petugas Anti-Dadah 1988) asserted th the relevant authorities were only able to identi drug users one or more years after they had beeni volved with drugs. All the drug users of the five Government R habilitation Centers who fulfilled the selectionci teria were chosen for the study. This selection r suited in one hundred and eighty-three (183) dm users included in the case group. For the contn group, 200 students who never used drugs and wti fulfilled the selection criteria were selected; random from the UPM student population. One major disparity between the case andth control groups was in their current level of educ< tion. The control group had a higher current levt of education than their case group counterpart However, it was felt that this disparity would m affect the results of the study for the reason that th study was conducted retrospectively emphasizin on the past and not on the current level of educ tion. Other studies conducted locally (Marian and Mohd Rozali, 1986) and international! (Coopersmith, 1967;Jessor, 1979) have repeated shown that the level of education does not relat significantly not only with the individual's sei esteem but also with the development of initi* drug use. The case (drug users) and the contP groups (non drug users) in this study ranged in at from 18 to 23 years. For the case group, meanaj was 21.3 years, and for the control group, mean as was 20.6 years.

Study Sample

The study sample consisted of two groups of respondents namely the case and the control groups. The case group comprised drug addicts who were receiving treatment at five government Rehabilitation Centers throughout Peninsular Malaysia whereas the control group consisted of individuals who had never used drugs. 88

Procedure

This study utilized a structured questionnair which was administered to all subjects individual and privately. The subjects were requested nf to reveal their names on the questionnaire ar were told that their identity would rema anonymous.

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SELF ESTEEM BETWEEN MAI AY MALE DRIX. AND NON-DRUG USERS

There were two sets of questionnaires: Set I h was administered to the drug users (case group) rr whereas Set II was for the non-drug users (control il group). Set I questionnaire was basically the c same as that of Set II except for the inclusion of a I few additional questions for the former. Set I I consisted of four sections which included I demographic information, exposure to illicit drugs, G drug experimentation and the Coopersmith \\ Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith 1967). Setll f consisted of three sections namely, demo5 graphic information, exposure to illicit drugs, and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Both : sets of questionnaires were pretested in the study i areas. The actual study was conducted in theCovernf ment Rehabilitation Centres for a period of 3 months commencing in early December, 1987 and t ending in late February, 1988. For the control i group, the study was completed within the month ofMarch,1988. Instrument

This study involved the measurementof personality. The aspect of personality examined was in the dimension of self-esteem which was measured using the "Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory" instrument (Coopersmith 1967). The level of self' esteem measured was based on the perception of the respondent towards himself. For the case group, the level of self-esteem was the level before the drug user first experimented with drugs while the level of self-esteem measured for the control I group was the level during the period beginning in early adolescence (12 years) until the time of the interview. The difference in periods during which self-esteem was measured was related to the focus of the study on adolescents and also to the objective of the study which was to examine the self-esteem of drug users and non drug users before any of the subjects were engaged in drug use. Thus, the level of self-esteem of the drug user was measured before the initiation of drug use. The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory instrument consisted of 50 items/statements which were categorized into four areas. These areas included peers (8 statements), parents (8 statements) , school (8 statements), and personal interests (26statements). These items were constructed in the form of statements as they related to the individual self. If a respondent felt that a certain statement described himself, then he would have to mark an "X" under the column "LIKE ME". Likewise, the respondent would have to mark

an "X" in the column "UNLIKE ME" if he felt that the particularstatementdid notdescribe himself. For positive statements, an "X" in the "LIKE ME" column carried 2 points and an "X" in the "UNLIKE ME" column carried 1 point each. The reverse was true for negative statements, where an "X" in the "LIKE ME" column carried 1 point whereas an "X" in the "UNLIKE ME" column carried 2 points each. The highest possible score for thisinstrumentwas 100 points. Respondents who scored 50 or less poin ts were categorized in the low self-esteem group, whereas those who scored 51 and above were included in the high self-esteem group. This instrument had been used widely by various investigators such as Bennet et al (1971), Burns (1979),Coopersmith (1967), Schaefer etal (1976), and Simon (1972). Bennet et al (1971), for example, utilized the instrument to measure self-esteem among adult prisoners. Schaefer et al (1976) employed the instrument in examining the relationship between self-esteem and drug use behaviour among university students. A test-retest reliability of the instrumen t at two time points 5 weeks apart was conducted by Burns (1979) resulting in a correlation of 0.88 for a sample of 30 respondents. Spatz and Johnson (1973) reported a test-retest reliability correlation of 0.70 for a sample of 56 respondents at two time points, 3 years apart. For this study, the test-retest reliability at time points 4 weeks apart on a subsample of 10 drug users interviewed during the pretesting period and later reinterviewed in the actual study resulted in a correlation of 0.85. Data Analysis Data were processed and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer programme. Among the statistical tests conducted were the mean, frequency distribution, and t-test. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory instrument used in this study, 89.1 % of drug users were found to possess low self-esteem, and 10.9% of the drug users possessed high self-esteem. For the non-drug users, the figures were 35.0% and 65.0% respectively (Table 1). This finding clearly asserted an association between self-esteem and the development of initial drug use behaviour. Possession of low self-esteem was an attribute of a majority of the drug users

PERTANIKA VOL. 14 NO. 1, 1991

H.M.ABDUIAAHAL-HADI AND M.T. MOHD NASIR

TABLE 1 Frequency distribution of level of self-esteem

reported no association between self-esteem am drug use.

Level of self-esteem Drug-users Non-drug Total users

CONCLUSION

Low

163 (89,1%)

70 (35.0%)

233

High

20 130 (10.9%) ' (65.0%)

150

Total

183 (100%)

200 (100%)

N=383

Chi square - 116.634; p = 0.01; phi coefficient = 0.552

(89.1 %) whereas high self-esteem characterized a majority of the non-drug users (65%) as was shown in Table 1. A hypothesis that was related to the objective of the study was formulated to be tested. This hypothesis was. H : the level of the self-esteem of drug users equals that of non-drug users. The above hypothesis was tested using the t-test. The test resulted in the rejection of the null hypothesis above (Table 2). This showed that the level of the self-esteem of drug users before the initiation of drug use was significantly lower than the level of the self-esteem of non-drug users. TABLE 2 Self-esteem mean score by type of drug users Respondent

Self-esteem mean score

Standard deviation

Drug users (n=183)

37.825

5.037

Non-drug users (n=200)

57.550

24.384

t= 10.7326; p=0.05

The above finding provided some support for the suggestion forwarded by Brehm and Beck (1968) that individuals with low self-esteem may, under certain conditions, be predisposed to drug use. It was also consistent with studies carried out by Kaplan (1975b) and Samuels and Samuels (1974) who reported that low self-esteem was one of the major factors associated with drug use. However, results of the present study contradicted studies by Jessorandjessor( 1977) and Kandel (1978),which 90

The results reported in this study have certair implications on both the etiology of drug use am the treatment of drug-dependent individuals. Wit} respect to the etiology of drug use, individuals wht are lacking in self-esteem and exposed to drug constitute a high risk group. Preventive measure should be carried out by the relevant authorities t( plan and implement programmes that can develoj and augment the qualities of high self-esteem sucf as self-satisfaction, self-cofidence, and self-word for this high risk group. Examples of thest programmes include "Kemjayadiri" (Self-succe* Camps) and "Kem Membina Semangat programmes (Self-development Camps). The* programmes can provide positive challenges am self-growth through the development of sci discipline and self-awareness among thei participants. The programmes can be carried ou in schools and youth training centers throughou the country. Parents can also play a role in the developmen of high self-esteem of their children. Among tl measures that can be carried out by parents an effective communication, the provision of adequai love, affection, and discipline, and regular famil activities. The relevant authorities should also ir elude those individuals who are already endov ed with a high self-esteem in their preventive pn grammes. The high self-esteem among these ii dividuals should be maintained and furthc augmented. Measures can also be carried outl select these high self-esteem individuals as grou leaders or coordinators in the various progran mes. Their role as leaders can further enhanc their self-worth, self-discipline and sell confidence. The findings from this study also have implic tions on rehabilitation programmes for drug a diets. A form of therapy directed toward enhancii self-esteem may be implemented in the rehabilit tionofdrugaddicts. Co\eetaL (1969) utilisedth formof therapy on delinquent females with son success. This therapy can be adopted at the lotf level and should include training in leadership^ skillsan self-discipline. REFERENCES ABDULIAH AL-HADI HAJI MUHAMED and MOHD N

PERTANIKAVOL 14NO.1, 1991

\ ( ()MPARATIVE STUDY ON SELF ESTEEM BETWEEN MAI AY MALE DRUG AND NON-DRKi I SI RS

MOHD TAIB. 1991 Social Factors Associated with Development of Initial Drug Lse Behaviour among Adolescents: A Comparative Study Between Users and Non-Users. Akademikd (In press) ABDULLAH AL-HADI HAJI MI HAMKD dan MOHD NASIR MOHD TAIB. 1989 Pembentukan Tingkahlaku

Permulaan Penggunaan Dadah di Kalangan Remaja: Interaksi Pcrsonaliti dengan Sekitaran Sosial. Jurnal Antropologi dan Sosiologi 17: 73-94. ABOUUAH AL-HADI MUHAMKD, MOHD NASIR M O H D TAIB dan AHMAD HARIZAHASHIM. 1990. Mencegah

Remaja Daripada Menggunakan Dadah: Programprogram PencegahanAmalan Penggunaan Dadah di Peringkat Masyarakat. furnal Kebajikan Masyarakat 12(2): o-lf>. ADLER,A, 1930 The Pattern ofUfe.

N e w York: Little a n d

[ves, BENNKT, L.A

D.F SORINSON, and LL FORSHAY. 1971.

Trie Application of Self-esteem Measures in a Correctional Setting: Reliability of Scale and Relationship to other Measures. Journal of Research <>n Crime and Delinquency 8 : 1-9. BRKHM, M.,and K. Beck. 19(i8. Self-image and Attitudes toward Drugs, jou ma I ofPersonality 36: 296-314, BURNS, R.B. 1979. The Self-Concept. London: Longman.

Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear Publishing. KAPLAN, H.B. 1975b. The Self-esteem Motive and Change in Self-attitudes, journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 161: 265-275. KAPLAN, H. B. 1980. Deviant Behaviour in Defense ofSelf New York: Academic Press. MARIANA M., and M.A. MOHDROZALI 1986. Kedudukan

Masai ah Dadah Semasa, Dasar dan Starategi Negara. Kertas kerja yang dibentangkan dalam Bengkel Pergerakan Ihu Bapa Dalam Pencegahan Dadah, anjuran Majlis Penasihat Integrasi Wanita Dalam Pembangunan (NACIWID) dan Majlis Keselamatan Negara, di Kuala Lumpur, pada 7-9 Julai. O ' D O W I I., J.A., and R.R. CIAYFON 1979. Determinants

of Early Marihuana Use. In Youth, Drug, Use: Problems, Issues, and Treatment, ed Beschner, and A.S. Friedman, Lexington, Mass: Lexington Books. PASUKAN PI it GAS ANTI-DADAH. 1988. (National AntiDrug Force). Perangkaan-perangkaan Semasa. Kuala Lumpur: Majlis Keselamatan Negara. PATON, S., and D.B. KANDEL. 1978.

Psychological

Factors and Adolescent Illicit Drug Use: Ethnicity and Sex Differences. Adolescence 13: 187-200.

CHOO, P.Y., and V. NAVARATNAM . 1980. An Overview

RECKLESS, W.C. S. DINITZ, and E. MURRAY. 1956. Self-

of Dadah Use in a High-Risk Area - Rifle Range Flats, Penang. National Drug Research Center, University of Science, Penang.

concept as an Insulator against Delinquency. American Sociological Review. 21: 744-746. ROSENBERG, F.R., and M. ROSENBERG 1978. Self-esteem

GOLE, C.W., K.R. OETTING, and R.W. MISKIMINS. 1969.

Self-concept Therapy in Adolescent Females. foumai of Abnormal Pscyhology. 74: 642-645.

and Delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 7: 279-294. SAMUELS, DJ. and M. SAMIKI s 1974. Low Self-esteem

COOPKRSMITH, S. 1967.

Antecedents of Self-esteem. San

Francisco: Freeman. DRKIKURS, R. 1962. Prevention and Correction of Juvenile Delinquency. New York: Alfred Adler Institute. JKSSOR, R., and S LJessor. 1977 Problem Behaviour and Psychosocial Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth. New York: Academic Press. JKSSOR, R. 1979. Marijuana: A Review of Recent Psychosocial Research. In Handbook on Drug Abuse, ed. Dupont, R.L Golstein, A. and O'DonnelJ.Washington D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office. KANDEL, D. B. 1975. Stage in Adolescent Involvement in Drug Use. Science. 190: 912-914. KANDEL, D.B. 1978. Convergences in Prospective Longitudinal Surveys of Drug Use in Normal Populations. In Longitudinal Research on Drug Use, ed. Kandel, D.B. Washington, D.C. : Hemisphere Corporation.

as a Cause ofDrugAbsue.foiirnalofDrugEducation. 4(4): 421-438. SCHAEFER, Ci., M SCHUCKTT, a n d E. MORRISSEY 1976.

(Correlation between Two Measures of Self-esteem and Drug Use in a College Sample. Psychological Reports 39(3): 915-919. SIMON, W.E. 1972. Some Socioeconomic Evidence for Validity of Coopersmith's Self-esteem Inventor). Perceptual and Motor Skills 34: 93-94. SMITH, G. M., and C.P. FOGG, Psychological Predictors

of Early Use, Late Use and Non-use of Marijuana Among Teenage Students. In Longitudinal, Research on Drug Use: Empirical Findings and Methodological Issues, ed Kandel, D.B. Washington D.C: Hemisphere-Wilev. SPAT/, R.C., and J.D.JOHNSTON. Internal Consistency

of the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory. Education and Pscyhologicol Measurement 33: 875876.

AN, H.B. 1975. Self Attitudes and Deviant Behaviour. PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.L 1991

(Received 14 April, 1990) 91

Pertanika 14(1), 93-100(1991)

Means of Payment and Bidding Firms1 Stock Returns in the UK: a Test of 'Information Hypothesis' SHAMSHER MOHAMAD and ANNUAR MD. NASSIR Department of Accounting and Finance Faculty of Economics and Management Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 43400 UPMSerdang, SelangorDarulEhsan, Malaysia. Keywords: bidding firms, share offers, cash offers, abnormal returns, information hypothesis'. ABSTRAK Kertas ini mengkaji peranan bentuk pembayaran untuk menghuraikan pulangan terhadap firma-firma di United Kingdomyangmembeli/mengambilalih syarikat melalui tawaran saham dan tunaipada masapengumuman tawaran tersebut. Hasilpenyelidikanmenunjukkanfirma-firmayangmembeli/mengambilalih syarikat dengan menawarkan saham mengalamipulangan abnormalyuangnegatif dan signifikan semasapengumuman. Didapatijugaperbezaan di antara pulangan abnormal tawaran tunai dan tawaran saham adalah positifdan signifikan, Kedua-dua hasil penyelidikan adalah konsisten dengan saranan hipotesis maklumat.

ABSTRACT This paper explores the role of the means of payment in explaining the returns to UK. bidding firms in share and cash offers at the announcement of the offer. The findings reveal that bidder firms that made share offers experience significantly negative abnormal returns at the announcement period and that the difference in abnormal returns betw cash and share offers are positive and significant. Both findings are consistent with the 'information hypothesis \ INTRODUCTION Compared to the US, there is little published evidence in the U.K. on the announcement period returns of firms involved in takeovers. Earlier studies by Newbould (1970), Utton (1974), Singh (1971),Franks,BroylesandHecth (1977),Barnes (1974), Firth (1980) and Dodd and Quek (1985) centred on mergers rather than takeovers. There is a technical difference between a merger, which is a negotiated deal and a takeover which is a surprise attack on the target management through a direct appeal by bidder to the target shareholders to sell their shares at a premium to the market price. The lack of published evidence on takeovers could be due to the lack of a database on such activities and/ or the lack of demand for empirical studies on the subject as regulators in the U.K. do not depend on empirical evidence to guide regulatory policy formation (English 1987). This paper intends to explore the behaviour of announcement period returns of bidders involved in takeovers in the U.K. during the period 1985 to 1988. In particular, it examines the validity of the

'information hypothesis' as suggested by Myers and Majluf (1984) on bidder returns in cash and share offers. INFORMATION HYPOTHESIS In complete markets with symmetric information and in the absence of taxes, shareholders should be indifferent to the means of payments used in takeovers. The share price response should reflect any changes in the fundamental values induced by the takeover. However, the presence of a non-neutral tax system and the constraints imposed by the Takeover Code may encourage the use of particular types of payment in takeovers (Franks, Harris and Mayers 1988). In the US, Myers and Majluf (1984) have suggested that because of informational asymmetries, the form of payment offered.by bidders in takeovers provides a signal to investors of the estimated value of the bidder's shares. They postulate that a bidder is better informed about the true value of its shares and will tend to offer an exchange of shares

SHAMSHKR MOHAMAD AND ANNUAR MD. NASSIR

to the target shareholders when its shares are perceived to be overvalued. When shares are offered by the bidder, the ultimate gains to the shareholders of the target firm will depend on the value of the shares offered, which is partly determined by the expected success or failure of the acquisition attempt and if successful, the expected outcome in the post takeover period. It is assumed that the bidder signals information about its equity value through the form of payment it offers to the target shareholders at the announcement of the offer. The bidder will offer cash if it believes that its shares are undervalued thereby avoiding sharing of the potential increase in value with target shareholders. Hansen (1987) suggests that if a target is better informed about itsown value and expects this to be revealed only after the acquisition, it will prefer a share offer when it perceives its shares are undervalued. Fish man (1986) suggests that if the bidder is well informed about the potential contribution of the target, it will offer cash in acquisition to avoid sharing the benefits with the target. However, if the bidder is uncertain about the target'scontribution, the bidder will prefer to offer an exchange of shares to the target. These combined suggest ions of Myers and Majluf (1984), Fishman (1986) and Hansen (1987) relating to the above information effect resulting from information asymmetry between the bidder's management a n d the market constitute the 'information hypothesis'. In the US.Travtos (1987) provided evidence of significant differences in the abnormal returns of bidders offering shares and those offering cash. His findings confirmed the presence of the information effect. He reported that the two-day announcement cumulative abnormal return of share financing bidding firms is significantly negative (CAR = - L 4 % , Z = - 5 . 0 7 ) but for bidders offering i ash, it is not significantly different from zero (CAR = ().24%,Z=l.ll). Jensen and Ruback (1983), reviewing the evidence of takeover activity in the US, found that the returns to bidding firms'shareholders in takeovers were positive, whereas those of mergers were zero. None of the empirical work discussed investigated differences d u e to the exchange medium. However, the presence of the information effect is implied in the findings as most takeovers in the US are financed by cash and mergers by exchange of shares. Smith (1986) and Asquith, Brunnerand Mullins (1987) show that in takeovers financed by new 94

equity issues, the share price returns to bidder firm* are significantly lower than in offers financed byi cash. In the U.K., the only published evidence of thJ information effect on bidder returns in takeovers is I reported by Franks, Harris a n d Mayers (1988). Their study showed that n e i t h e r cash n o r equity considerations displayed significant a b n o r m a l re-j turns to bidders' shareholders in t h e announce-! ment month, but it is possible that information leakage before the a n n o u n c e m e n t a n d / o r the confounding effects of monthly r e t u r n s c o u l d have obscured the effect of the form of p a y m e n t s on bidder returns in their study. I f information effects are present, t h e change in the bidding firm's share price at t h e announcement of the offer will reflect both the gains (or losses) from the takeover and the information effects. It is not possible to separate the effect of the form of payment perseon the bidder's share price because the form of payment is always announced; with the offer. It is therefore assumed that t h e economic effects of the takeover are the same for cash and share offers. By segregating the sample with respect to the form of payment a n d by comparing the differences in the a n n o u n c e m e n t period returns, it will be possible to identify t h e effect of the form of payment on the bidder's share price. If the information hypothesis holds, the returns to shareholders in cash offers will be greater than those in share offers at the a n n o u n c e m e n t of t h e offer. Other things being equal, the r e t u r n s to bidding firms in cash offers are expected to be positive and in share offers to be negative at the announcement of the offer, due to the signalling effect. The information hypothesis suggested by Myers and Majluf is silent on the issue of combination offers. It is assumed that the net effect of the combination offer- on the bidder's share price depends on the weight of the (ash a n d share portion in the offer. If the share portion is greater thai the cash portion, a negative effect o n t h e bidder's share price can be expected. If t h e cash portion is greater than the share portion a positive effect I likely. If the combination offei consists of an equal portion of shares and cash, the n e t effect on the bidder's share price would not be significant d i ffe rent from zero. DATA AND METHODOLOGY Data The data analysed in this study is drawn from public announcements of takeover proposals. Thei

PERTANIKAVOL 14NO.1, 1991

MEANS OF PAYMENT AND BIDDING FIRMS' STOCK RETURNS IN THE UK

sample contains bidder firms engaged in successful takeovers for the period January 1985 to July 1988, for which daily share returns were calculated for eleven days surrounding the announcement day. The announcement day is the day the bidder makes its first offer for the target. The takeover offer is considered successful if the bidding firm acquires the required interest in the target firms common equity (i.e. equal to or more than 30 percent). The offers studied were not preceded by a merger attempt. The sample was identified by a search of various financial publications such as acquisition Monthly, Investors Chronicle, Business Research Index, Fair and Trade Publications, Stock Exchange Yearbook

and financial newpapers. The selection for the sampled firms was subjected to the following criteria: (a) The takeover offer is considered successful if it is declared unconditional as to acceptances. (b) Bidders are listed on the London Stock Exchange and drawn only from alpha and some beta stocks to mitigate the nonsynchronous trading problem. (c) To filter the confounding effects of exogenous events on bidder returns during the eleven days surrounding the event, the bidders sampled did not experience any other major corporate event at the time of the announcement of the offer. Major corporate events are defined as death or appointment of key executives, announcement of financial reports or new investment programmes for the eleven days surrounding the announcement. (d) Daily share prices for each firm were available for at least 58 days before and 58 days after the announcement day. The overall sample was divided into stock exchange offers, if the takeover was financed wholly through an exchange of common stocks, offers financed wholly by cash and combination offers financed by cash and shares. The final sample contained 90 bidder firms, composed of thirty common stock offers, thirty cash offers and thirty combination offers where stocks represented between 28 and 70 percent of the transaction.

and Travlos (1987). The ordinary - least squares coefficients of the market model regression were estimated over the period n = -58 to n =-6 and n = +6 to n = +58 relative to the day of the of the initial announcement. Daily abnormal common stock returns were calculated for each firm i over the interval n = -5 to n = +5. For a sample of N firms, the daily average abnormal returns (AR) for each day n are computed as follows:

ARn = i ZiViflUn - « i - A * ™ )

(i)

n = day - 5 , ...., 0,...., +5 N = the number of firms in the sample Where R.n is the return for common stock of firm i, R mn is return for the market approximated by the All Share Market Index on day n, a., B. are ordinaryleast squares estimates of the market model parameters (adjusted for non-synchronous trading problem using Dimson's (1979) aggregated coefficient approach). The daily returns were calculated from stock prices after adjustment for stock splits and dividends. The returns for each firm were further adjusted for any significant first-order auto-correlation using Cochrane-Orcutt's (1949) quasi-firstdifference approach before calculating the abnormal returns. Average cumulative abnormal returns (CAR T]T2 ) were derived by summing the AR's over the eleven days surrounding the announcement. The expected values of ARn* and CAR TIJ2 are zero in the absence of abnormal performance. The test statistics of ARn* and CARTIT2 are based on the average standardised abnormal return respectively, where (Rin - at - /JjRmn) Sin

(2)

1"

CAR

(3)

T1T2

T h e estimation period is from n = - 5 8 to n = - 6 a n d n = +6 to n = +58 a n d the analysis p e r i o d is from n ~ - 5 to n = +5. T h e s t a n d a r d i s i n g factor S i n mitigates t h e p r o b l e m of non-constant variance of the residuals in the estimation a n d analysis period, a n d comp u t e d as follows:

Methodology

The research hypotheses examined are tested by applying an event-type methodology similar to that described in Fama, Fisher, Jensen and Roll (1969)

Sin =

(1

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

—+

(Rmn - R m ) 2

k

- Rm) 2

1/2

(4)

95

I

SHAMSHER MOHAMAD AND ANNU AR MD. NASS1R

where S2. is the residual variance for security i from the market model regression, L is the number of observations during the estimation period (i.e. 106 days),R . is the return on the All Share Market Index for the kth day of the estimation period. Rmn is the return on the All Share Market Index for day n in the analysis period, and Rm is the average return of the All share Market Index (i. e. market portfolio) for the estimation period. Assuming that individual abnormal returns are approximately normally distributed and independent across time and across securities, the statistic t and t n T 2 which follow unit-normal distribution (Dodd and Warner. 1983) are used to test the hypotheses that the average standardised abnormal returns (ARn*) and average cumulative standardised abnormal returns (CAR^pg) equal zero.

summary of the results is presented in Table below. Second, the differences in the abnormal returns for the eleven days surrounding the announcement for bidders offering the different means of payment were calculated. The detailed results are presented in Tables 2 (A), (B) and (C) i the Appendix, and a summary of the results is p seined in Table 2.

TABLE 1 Summary of the abnormal returns (AR) and the two-day announcement cumulative abnormal returns (CAR) for bidders in the cash, shares and a combination categories. The t-statistics are in parentheses. Means of payment Cash N=30

Shares

-1

0.1129 (0.618)

-0.3662 (-2.006)

0

-0.3699 (-2.026)

-0.8898 (-4.874)**

-0.8871 (-4.858)**

CAR (-1,0)

-0.257 (-0.995)

-1.256 (-4.860)**

-0.917 (-3.550)**

Event day

where x (AR*)and

t =

tT1T2

-

VT2 - T l + 1

(5) CAR T1T2

(6)

To compare the abnormal returns between the different methods of payments, the daily mean differences in abnormal returns from these different methods were derived. For example, for day zero, the daily mean difference between bidders offering cash and those offering shares was calculated, and the statistical significance in the difference using tstatistic was computed as follows: ARD - ARcash - ARshares, t NS

where N^ and Ng represent the number of sampled firms in the cash and share offers respectively. Sc2 and Ss2 are the variances of the abnormal returns in the respective cash and shares categories. FINDINGS Information Hypothesis

A test of the 'information hypothesis' wasconducted in two steps. First, the abnormal returns were observed for the eleven days surrounding the takeover announcement for bidders offering cash and shares offer. The detailed results are presented in Tables 1 (A), (B) and (C) in the Appendix and a 96

N=30

Combination N=30 -0,0296 (-0.162)

** Significantly different from zero at 1 % level Share Bidders

The results in Table 1 indicate that, for share bidders, the abnormal return on the day prior to the first announcement(day-l) of the offer is 0,3662 which is not significantly different from zero (t = -2.006). The abnormal return on the announcement day (day 0) is -0.8898 which is signigicant at 1 % level (t = -4.874). The two-day (day-1 andO) announcement CAR is-1.256 which is also significant at 1 % level (t = -4.860). These results indicate that, on average, the shareholder* of bidding firms offering shares to the target shareholders in takeovers experience significant!) negative abnormal returns at the announcementof the offer. These results are consistent with the prediction of the information hypothesis1 that the announcement of a share offer conveys a negative signal to the market about the true value of the bidder's shares. Cash Bidders

For bidders offering cash as the means of payment Table 1 shows that the abnormal returns on day-1 (AR = 0.1129, t = 0.618) and the announcement d»

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1,1991

MEANS OF PAYMENT AND BIDDING FIRMS1 STOCK RETURNS IN THE UK

(day 0) (AR = -0,3699, t = -2.026) are not significantly different from zero. The two-day announcement CAR is -0.257 which is also nor significantly different from zero (t = -0.995). The results are consistent with the prediction of the information hypothesis' that bidder shareholders in cash offers experience nonnegative abnormal returns at the announcement of the offer.

TABLE 2 Summary of the differences in the AR and CAR on day-1 and day 0 for bidders in the cash, shares and combination offers. Th' t -statistics are in parenthesisA Means of payment Event day

Cash Cash Shares vs. shares vs.combination vs. combination

1

Combination Bidders

For bidders in the combination category, Table 1 indicates that the shareholders experience negative abnormal returns on the announcement day (AR = -0.8871, t = -4.858) and for the two-day announcement period (CAR = -0.917, t = -3.55) which are significantly different from zero at 1% level. The proportion of shares in eighty percent of the combination offers studied was at least sixty percent. The results are consistent with the negative effect of the share portion outweighing the positive effect of the cash portion of the offer. Comparison of Returns for Bidders in the Cash, Shares and Combination Offers.

To ascertain whether there is any significant difference in the announcement day AR and the two-day announcement CAR between the cash, shares and the combination bidders, the daily mean differences of abnormal returns were calculated for the eleven days surrounding the announcement. The results are presented in Tables 2(A), (B) and (C) in the Appendix, and a summary of the differences in the abnormal returns and the cumulative abnormal returns are presented in Table 2. (A) Cash versus Share offers The 'Information Hypothesis' suggests that if the information effects are present and assuming other things being equal, the returns to bidders in cash offers will be positive and in share offers negative, implying that bidders in cash offers earn higher returns than share offers at the announcement of the offer. Table 1 shows that the returns to bidders in cash offers at the two-day announcement period are negative but not significantly different from zero. The two-day announcement period returns to bidders in the share offers are negative and significantly different from zero at 1 % level. Table 2 shows that the difference in the two-day announcement period abnormal returns of cash and share bidders is positive and significant at 5% level (CAR(-1, 0) = 0.999, t = 2.01). These findings

0

CAR (-1,0)

0.480 (1.470) 0.519 (1.970)

0.206 (0.871) 0.581 (2.390)*

-0.272 (-1.30) 0.061 (0.240)

0.999 (2.01)*

0.787 (1.93)

-0.211 (-0.312)

*Significantly different from zero at 5% level

suggest that, on average, the returns to bidders in cash offers are higher than those in share offers at the announcement of the offer, consistent with the 'Information Hypothesis'. (B) The Combination offer in comparison to Share and Cash offers Table 2 shows that the difference in the two-day announcement abnormal return for bidders in the 'cash and combination' offers is positive and in the 'share and combination' offers is negative but both differences are not significantly different from zero. The negative and significant two-day announcement abnormal returns for bidders in the combination category shown in Table 1 implies that most of the combination offers studied had on average a higher proportion of shares in the offer. Eighty percent of the combination offers sampled had more Jiian sixty percent of the offer in the form of shares. This implies that for the cash versus combination category, the positive effect of the cash offers outweigh the negative effect of the share offers but the positive difference is not significantly different from zero. For the 'share versus combination' offers, the negative effect of the share offers outweigh the positive effect of cash offers but the negative difference is not significantly different from zero. The negative and significant two-day announcement abnormal returns for bidders offering shares are consistent with the findings of Dodd (1980), Asquith (1983), Dennis and MacConnel (1986) and Travlos (1987) on bidder returns in share offers in the US. They all found that bidders experience significant negative abnormal returns

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SHAMSHER MOHAMAD AND ANNUAR MD. NASSIR

at tht two-day announcement period. Other studies in the US which used monthly returns reported mixed results. For example, Mandelker (1974) reported insignificant positive abnormal returns, Asquith (1982) reported significant positive returns and Franks, Harris and Mayer (1988) reported significant negative abnormal returns. The inconsistent results reported in studies using monthly returns could be due to the confounding effect of exogenous events on the monthly returns which are difficult to control by research design. For the post-announcement period, Fishman (1986) argues that bidders in cash offers experience positive and significant abnormal returns. The abnormal returns for cash bidders in the post announcement period (day + 1 to day + 5) in this study (Table 1 (B)) are also positive but only the abnormal returns on day +1 are significantly different from zero, which is not consistent with Fishman's findings. CONCLUSION The findings of this study indicate that bidders in share and combination offers earn significantly i iegat ive ( A R for the two-day announcement period, whereas bidders in cash offers do not suffer losses. The difference in the two-day CAR between bidders in cash and share offers is positive and significant. These findings are consistent with the 'information hypothesis'which suggests that financing a takeover through exchange of common stocks conveys negative information about the bidding firm's value. The findings of negative abnormal returns to bidders in share and combination offers arc not consistent with the view that acquisitions are wealthcreating investments. However, it is possible that the positive wealth effect of takeover announcements is dominated by the combined effects of other negative factors. One such factor is the hubris behaviour of bidder managers. Bidder managers may have been performing well, thus overstimating their capacity to manage the target company efficiently. The negative returns to share and combination offers at the announcement are consistent with the notion that bidders believe that the market has a short-term planning horizon. Bidding firms taking a log-term view may not consider the market signals as relevant to them.

Professor Simon Keane, Department of Accounting | and Finance, University of Glasgow. REFERENCES ACQUISITIONS MONTHLY MAGAZINE, January 1985 to

December 1988. ASQUTH, P. and H. KIM. 1982. The Impact of Merger bids on the Participating Firms Security Holders. J. Finan. tf: 1209-1228. ASQUITH, P. 1983. Mergers, bids, Market Uncertainty j and Stockholder Returns. / Finan. Econs. 11: 5183 ASQUITH, P., R. F. BRUNER a n d D.W. MULLINS. 1987

The Pains to Bidding Firms from Merger./ Finan. EconsM: 121-39. ASQUITH, P., R. BRUNNER and D. MULLINS. Merger Returns and Form of Financing. Working Paper, Havard University. BARNES, P. 1978 The Effect of a Merger on the Share Price of Bidding Firms. Ace and Bus. lies 9: 1974. 162-165. BARNES, P. The Effect of a Merger on the Share Price of the Attacker, Revisited. Ace. and Bus. Res. 15:4549. BRADLEY, M., 1980. Inter-firm Tender Offers and the Market for Corporate Control./ Bus. 53: 345-375. BRADLEY, M., A. DESAI

and H.E. KIM. 1983.

The

Rationale behind Interfirm T e n d e r Offers: I Information or Synergy. /. Finan. Econs. 11:183206. BROWN, SJ. and J.B.Warner. 1980. Measuring Securiri Price Performance. /. Finan. Fcons. 8: 205-258. BROWN, S. J. and J.B. Warner. 1985. Using Stock Returns: The Case of Event Studies. J. Finan. Econs. 14:3-31. CAKLTON, W. T., D.K. Guilkey and R.F. Harris. 1983. An Empirical Analysis of the Role of the Medium of Exchange in Merges. /. Finan. 38: 813-26. COCHRANE, D., and G. H. ORCt'TT. 1949. Application i of Least Squares Regression to Relationships! Containing the Autocorrelated Error Terms. J. Ainer. Stat. Assoc 44: 32-61. DENNIS, D.K., and J J MCCONNELL. 1986. Corporate

Mergers and Security Returns./ Financ. Econs. 16: 143-187.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

DlMSON, E. 1979. Risk Measurement when Shares are Subjected to Infrequent Trading. /. Finan. Econs. 7: 197-226.

The authors acknowledge the helpful comments of

DODD, P. 1980. Merger Proposals, Management)

PERTANIKA VOL. 14 NO.l, 1991

MEANS OF PAYMENT AND BIDDING FIRMS' STOCK RETURNS IN THE UK

Discretion and Shareholder Wealth./ Finan. Econs. 8: 105-137. DODD, P., and J, WARNER. 1983.

On

Corporate

and the Theory of the Firm: Evidence from the Postwar United Kingdom Experience. Econ. J. 85: 497-515.

Governance: A study of Proxy Contests./ Finan. Econs. 11: 401-438.

SMITH, C. 1986. Investment Banking and Capital Acquisition Process./ Finan. Econs. 15: 3-29.

DODDj.C, andJ.P. QUEK. 1985. Effect of Mergers on the Share Price Movement of the Acquiring Firms: A U.K. Study./ Bus. Finan. and Ace. 12: 285-296.

TRAVLOS, N.G. 1987. Corporate Takeover Bids, Methods of Payments and Bidding Firm Stock R e t u r n s . / Finan. 42: 943-963.

DiTRBlN,J., and G.S. WATSON. 1951. Testing for Serial Correlation in Least S q u a r e Regressions. Biometrica. 38: 159-178.

U T T O N , M. A. 1974 O n Measuring the Effects of

Industrial Mergers. Scot./ Ptl. Econ. 21: 13-28. (Received 18 October, 1990)

FAMA, E.F., L. Fisher, M.C.JENSEN and R. ROLL. 1969.

The Adjustments of Stock Prices to New Information. Int. Econ. Rev. 10: 1-21. FINANCIAL TIMES NEWSPAPERS. 1985 to 1988.

FIRTH, M. 1980. Takeovers Shareholder Returns and Theory of the Firm. QuarJ. Econs. 94: 235-260. FlSHMAN, M.J. 1986. Preemptive Bidding and the Role of Medium of E x c h a n g e in Acquisitions. Photocopy, Evanston 111: N o r t h Western University. FRANKS,J. R,,J. E. BROYLKS and M.J. HECHT. 1977.

Industry Study of the Profitability of Mergers in the United Kingdom. / Finan. 32: 1531-1525. FRANKS, [. R., R.H. HARRIS and C. MAYER. 1988. Means

of Payment in Takeovers: Results from the U.K. and the U.S. Nat. Bureau Econ. Res. p. 221-258. (Forthcoming). HANSEN, R.G., 1987. A Theory for the Choice of Exchange Medium in Mergers and Acquisitions./ Bus. 60: 75-95. JENSEN M., and R.S. RUBACK 1983. The Market for Corporate Control: The Scientific Evidence. / Finan. Econs. 11: 5-50. MALATESTA, P.H. 1983. Wealth Effect of Merger Activity and the Objective Functions of Merging Firms./ Finan. Econs. 11: 151-181. MANDELKER, G., 1974. Risk & Returns: the Case of Merging Firms. /. Finan. Econs. I: 305-335. MYERS, S. C , and N. MAJLUF J. 1984. C o r p o r a t e

Financing and Investment Decisions when Firms Have Information that Investors Do Not Have. / Finan. Econs. 1 1 : 1 5 5 - 1 8 1 . NEWBOULD, G.D. 1970.

Management and Merger

Activity. Liverpool: Guthstead. RAPPAPORT, A., 1978. Executive Incentives Versus Corporative Growth. Hav. Bus. Rev. July/August: 81 -88. SINGH, A. 1975. Takeovers Economic Natural Selection,

APPENDICES TABLE 1 (A) Daily average abnormal returns (AR) and cumulative abnormal returns for the sample of thirty bidders offering cash to their target shareholders, for the eleven days surrounding the initial announcement. Years 1985 through 1988 Event Day

-5

0.0694 0.3681 0.1003 0.3568 0.1129 -0.3699 0.4264 0.0720 0.2531 0.0584 0.1593

-4 —S

—2 -1

0 1 2 3 4 5 ;

AR

t-Score 0.380 2.018 0.549 1.964 0.618 -2.026 -2.336* 0.395 1.386 0.319 0.873

CAR 0.0694 0.4373 0.5377 0.8963 1.0092 0.6458 1.0722 1.1442 1.3973 1.4557 1.6150

Significantly different from zero at 5% level

TABLE 1 (B) Daily average abnormal returns (AR) and cumulative abnormal returns (CAR) for the sample of thirty bidders offering shares to their target shareholders, for the eleven days surrounding the initial announcement. Years 1985 through 1988 Event day

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

AR -0.0521 0.2651 0.1872 -0.0154 -0.3662 -0.8898 -0.4753 -0.1309 0.0663 0.2056 0.1384

t-Score -0.285 1.452 1.025 -0.084 -2.006 -4.874** -2.603* -0.717 0.363 1.126 0.758

CAR -0.0521 0.2130 0.4002 0.3848 0.0186 -0.8266 -1.3020 -1.4329 -1.3666 -1.1610 -1.0226

** Significantly different from zero at 1% level * Significantly different from zero at 5% level

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SHAMSHER MOHAMAD AND ANNUAR MD. NASSIR

TABLE 1 (C) Daily average abnormal returns (AR) and cumulative abnormal returns ((^AR) for a sample of thirty bidders offering a combination of shares and cash to their target shareholders, for the eleven days surrounding the initial announcement. CAR

t-Score 0.2735 -0.1160 0.0503 0.0951 -0.0296 -0.8871 -0.0920 -0.1385 -0.2001 -0.1655 -0.0503

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

.498 -0.635 0.276 0.521 -0.162 -4.858** -0.504 -0.759 -1.096 -0.906 -0.276

0.2735 0.1575 0.2078 0.3029 0.2733 -0.6138 -0.7058 -0.8443 -1.0444 -1.2099

-1.2602

TABLE 2(B) Differences in the average abnormal returns (AR) between cash and combination bidders, for the eleven da* surrounding the initial announcement.

Event day -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Differences in AR

t-Score

-0.205 0.486 0.050 0.265 0.206 0.581 0.520 0.210 0.450 0.225 0.209

-0.870 1.740 0.210 0.990 0.871 2.390* 1.970 1.260 1.080 0.900 1.180

* Significantly different from zero at 5% level

** Significantly different from zero at 1% level TABLE 2 (A) Differences in average abnormal returns (AR) between cash and share bidders for the eleven days surrounding the initial announcement Event day -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Differences in AR

t-Score

0.121

0.600 0.360 -0.480 1.260 1.470 1.970 3.170** 1.010 0.770 -0.560

0.105 -0.087 0.380 0.480 0.519 0.910 0.203 0.184 -0.146 0.021

** Significantly different from zero at 1

100

0.110 level

TABLE 2 (C) Differences in the average abnormal returns (AR) between share and combination bidders, for the eleven chu surrounding the initial announcement.

Event day -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

5

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

Differences in AR -0.326 0.381 0.137 -0.115 -0.272 0.061 -0.390 0.007 0.266 0.371 0.188

t-Scort -1.600 1.690 0.590 -0.440 -1.301 0.240 -1.362 0.040 1.481 1.720 1.050

PertanikaH(l), 101-109(1991)

Pembangunan Sistem Perladangan: Kearah Penggunaan Sumber Secara Optimum MOHD. GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN dan SARIPAH MOHD. NOR Jabatan Ekonomi Pertanian Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor DarulEhsan, Malaysia Istilah Penting: pembangunan sistem perladangan, pekebun kecil, pemprograman linear, sistem perladangan semasa, sistem perladangan optimum, kombinasi bidangusaha.

ABSTRAK Pendapatan rendahyangdiperolehi olehpekebun kecilialah kesan daripada masalah saiz kebunyangtidak ekonomik, penggunaan teknologi modenyangmasih rendah, perpindahan golongan belia ke bandar serta penggunaan sumber yangtidak optimal. Tujuan kajian ini ialah untuk menilai dan membandingkan Sistem Perladangan Semasa (SPS) dengan Sistem Perladangan Optimal (SPO) untuk pekebun-pekebun kecil di daerah-daerah Muar (Johor), Sepang (Selangor) danjerantut (Pahang). Kaedah pemprograman linear digunakan untuk mendapatkan SPO tertakluk kepadapemhataspengeluaran seperti tanah, buruh dan modal. Keputusanyangdiperoleh menunjukkan pendapatan bulanan pekebun-pekebun kecil dapat ditingkatkan daripada $ 193 kepada $1,287 di Muar, $523 kepada $2,404 di Sepangdan daripada $119kepada $543dijerantut. Kertas inijuga mengesanperubahan kepada SPOsekiranyasaiz tanah ditambah. ABSTRACT

The loiv income of smallholders is a result of an interplay of many problems such as uneconomic land holdings, low utilization of modern innovative technologies, outmigration of young peoplefrom this subsector and suboptimal lev of resource-use. The purpose of this study is to evaluate and compare current and optimum farming systems for smallholders in the districts of Muar (fohor), Sepang (Selangor) andjerantut (Pahang). Linear programming analys is used to obta in opti mu mfarming systems su bject to agricutural constraints su ch as land, labour and capital. The res indicate that the optimum farming system could raise the monthly income of the smallholders from $193 to $1,287 in Muar, $523 to $2,404 in Sepang and $119 to $543 in/erantut. The paper also traces the changes to optimum farming systems if the size of land is increased. PENGENALAN

Selepas Malaysia mencapai kemerdekaan, sistem pengurusan ladang yang diamalkan pada keseluruhannya mula berubah. Perubahan paling ketara terdapat pada sikap petani-petani sendiri. Ramai petani terpaksa menjalankan usaha mereka sebagai suatu jenis perusahaan atau perniagaan yangharus mendapatkan keuntungan dan tidak lagi sebagai sara hidup sahaja. Untuk menghadapi cabaran ini, konsep pembangunan sistem perladangan boleh digunakan sebagai suatu pendekatan untuk memenuhi keperluan bagi meninggikan produktiviti dan pendapatan, supaya mereka dapat terus bersaing dengan pengeluarpengeluarlain.

Sistem perladangan bukanlah suatu cara pertanian yang baru bagi petani-petani di Malaysia, malah ia telah diamalkan secara tradisional sejak dahulu lagi. Tetapi masalah yang terdapat dalam sistem tradisional ini, antara lain, ialah perancangan dan pengurusan yang kurang teratur, daya pengeluaran yang rendah dan pendapatan yang kecil. Di antara faktor-faktor yang menimbulkan masalah di atas dan dapat dikenal pasti oleh agensiagensi kerajaan ialah saiz kebun yang kurang ekonomik yang dimiliki dan diusahakan oleh para petani. Pilihan kombinasi bidang usaha yang dijalankan oleh pekebun kecil juga dapat mempengaruhi pendapatan mereka. Jika kombinasi yang

MOHD. GHAZALJ MOHAY1DIN DAN SAR1PAH MOHD. NOR

dipilih tidak bersesuaian dengan keadaan tanah atau input pertanian, segalausaha mungkin tidak dapat mencapai potensi yang diharapkan. Masalah jugaberlakukerana tiadanyapenilaian tentang kesesuaian sistem perladangan yang diusahakan dari segi kehendak pekebun kecil, perkembangan teknologidan perubahan keadaan ekonomi. Kelemahan yang wujud dalani sistem perladangan inijuga tidak dikenalpasti. Keadaan tersebut rnenyukarkan lagi usaha memajukan sektor pekebun kecil. Pembangunan sistem perladangan merupakan satu corak pengusahaan ladang yang unik, mengikut peraturan tertentu yang telah ditetapkan berasaskan kepada tiga faktor utama. Pertama, faktor fizikal dan biologi. Faktorfizikalmerangkumi pembolehubah-pembolehubah seperti saiz tanah, kualiti tanah, topografi, iklim, lokasi dan jarak. Manakala faktor biologi ialah dari segi fisiologi tanaman dan ternakan, penyakit dan sebagainya. Kedua, faktor dalaman yang dapat mempengaruhi corak sistem perladangan di sesuatu kawasan seperti saiz keluarga, tenaga buruh, pelajaran, kaedah p e n g u r u s a n , saiz ladang, k e m u d a h a n kredit dan tunai serta sikapdan matlamatpetani. Ketiga, faktor luaran seperti dasar kerajaan tentang harga, perniagaan, bank dan kredit, subsidi serta infrastruktur.

Objektifumum kajian ini ialah untukmengkaji serta menilai keberkesanan sistem perladangan yang ada sekarang. Secara khusus kajian ini akan menilai sistem perladangan semasa, mendapatkan sistem perladangan yang optimum, membandingkan sistem perladangan semasa dengan yang optimum dan menentukan pengaruh perubahan saiz tanah kepada kombinasi bidang usaha dalaifl sistem perladangan. METODOLOGI Kawasan dan Sampel Kajian Kajian ini dijalankan di tiga buah daerah, di JADUAL1 Keluasan tanaman mengikutjenisdi Muar, 1984 Jenis Tanaman Getah

Kelapa sawit Kelapa Koko Nenas Kopi Tanaman jangka pendek

Luas (Hektar) 90,081 30,177 10,487 2,834

2,263 398 412

Sumber: I^aporan Statistik Pertanian, Jabatan Pertanian Negeri Johor, 1984 102

Semenanjung Malaysia. Daerah tersebut ialah Muar diJohor, Sepang di Selangor danjerantut di Pahang. Ketiga-tiga daerah serta mukim-mukiro dibawahnyadipilih secara 'purposive' berdasarkan ciri-ciri yang sa-ma seperti sistem perladangan yang diamalkan sekarang, keadaan tanah dan persekitaran. Daerah Muar mempunyai keluasan 234,654 hektar. Daripadajumlah tersebut, 164,322 hektar ialah tanah pertanian. Penduduknya berjumlah seramai 333,168 orang dan keluarga tani terdil daripada 94,360 orang. Daerah Muar meng. andungi 18 buah mukim. Bag] kajian ini 4 buah mukim yang telah dipilih ialah Serom, Sungai Balang,TangkakdanJorak. Tanaman utamadisini ialah kelapa sawit, getah, koko, kelapa dan nenas (Jaduall). JADUAL 2 Keluasan tanaman mengikutjenisdi Sepang, 1984 Jenis Tanaman (ictah

Kelapa sawit Kelapa Kopi Koko Bnah-buahan Tanaman jangka pendek Sayuran

Luas (Hektar) 7,946 4,076 350 423 34 419 496 10

Sumber Laporanjabatan Pertanian Daerah Sepang, 1984

JADUAL3 Keluasan tanaman mengikutjenisdi Jerantut, 1984 (enis Tanaman Getah Kelapa sawit Kelapa Koko Buah-buahan Padi Sayuran Tanamanjangka pendek

Luas (Hektar) 50,692 23,633 364 6,580 1,092 272 25 567

Sumber: Laporanjabatan Pertanian Daerah, Jerantut. 1984

Daerah Sepang mempunyai keluasan 63,675 hektar dan mempunyai penduduknya seramai 46,025 orang. Keluarga taninya ialah seramai 4,104 orang. Daerah Sepang terdiri daripada 3 buah mukim iaitu Sepang, Salak atau Labu dan Dengkil Keluasan tanah pertaniannya ialah 31,914 hektar. Jadual 2 menunjukkan taburan jenis tanaman. Tanaman utamanya ialah getah, kelapa sawit, buah,

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buahan, kelapa dan tanaman jangka pendek seperti jagung, kacang tanah dan keledek. Luasdaerahjerantutialahlebihkurang 756,017 hektar, tetapi tanah yang sesuai untuk pertanian hanya 302,597 hektar. Kawasan yang diusahakan untuk pertanian sekarang ialah 83,266 hektar. Penduduknyaberjumlahserarnai 68,033 orang dan keluarga taninya seramai 4,863 orang. Daerah ini mempunyai 10 buah mukim. Kajian ini dijalankan di empat buah mukim ialah Pulau Tawar, Tembeling, Pedah dan Tebing Tinggi. Jenis tanaman yangditanam dijerantut adalah seperti dijadual 3. Tanaman utamanya ialah kelapa sawit, koko, buahbuahan, getah dan tanaman jangka pendek. Sampel untuk kajian ini dipilih dari senarai pekebun-pekebun kecil yang disediakan oleh pejabat RJSDA daerah. Sampel dipilih melalui kaedah persampelan rawak mudah.

penggunaan sumber-sumber pengeluaran (input) yang terhad supaya keuntungan dapat dimaksimumkan. Satu masalah yang dihadapi dalam kaedah ini ialah kesesuaiannya kepada tanaman jangka panjang seperti getah, kelapa sawit dan koko. Walau bagaimanapun masalah ini dapat diatasi dengan mendapatkan aliran tunai sepanjang hayat tanaman tersebut, mengira nilai kini tahunan aliran pendapatan dan perbelanjaan seterusnya mengira nilai kini pendapatan bersih tahunan. Dengan berbuat demikian, perbezaan-perbezaan yang timbul akibat daripadajangka hayat bidang-bidang usaha yang berlainan akan dapat dikurangkan. Untuk kajian ini model pemprograman linear ialah seperti berikut: objektif ialah untuk memaksimumkan: Z = ICjXj

Jenis dan Bentuk Data

Jenis data yang dikumpulkan dalam kajian ini ialah data primer dan data sekunder. Data primer dikumpulkan melalui borang soal selidik yang diisi oleh pembanci semada menemuduga para pekebun kecil di kawasan kajian. Data primer yang dikumpul adalah berkaitan dengan perbelanjaan keluarga, komposisi dan saiz isirumahjantina, umur, pekerjaan utama dan taraf pelajaran. Maklumat perladangan seperti saiz ladang, hakmilik, kegunaan tanah, kemudahan pertanian, pengangkutan, perhubungan, jenis bidangusaha, input digunakan, output dikeluarkan, pendapatan ladang dan bukan ladang, pemasaran, kredit dan kewangan juga dikutip. Antara lain, data-data ini akan digunakan untuk membentuk belanjawan tanaman dan ternakan dan seterusnya menjadi input kepada model pemprograman linear (LP). Data sekunder pula dikumpul dan diperoleh daripada pelbagai agensi kerajaan seperti Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia dan pejabat-pejabat pertanian. Data sekunder yang dikumpul ialah taburan jenis tanaman, penggunaan tanah, iklim, taburan hujan, bilangan pekebun kecil sebenar di kawasan kajian, jumlah penggunaan modal (agihan perbelanjaan) dan buruh bagi setiap tanaman dan ternakan serta jumlah hasil. AnalisisData

Bagi data-data yang telah dikumpulkan, kaedah analisis diskriptif dan pemprograman linear (LP) digunakan. I ,P digunakan bagi mendapn ikan sistem perladangan yang optimum. Dalam kajian ini, LP digunakan sebagai suatu teknik merancang

tertakluk kepada pembatas-pembatas: Ay Xj < bj dan X| > 0 j=

di mana: C. = Vektor baris margin kasar sehektar bidang usaha j , X = Vektor lajur bidangusaha j , A.. = Metrik pekali input-output sumber i U satu unit bidangusaha j , b. = Vektor lajur pembatas-pembatas sumber, i - 1,2, ...,m. (Bilangan input digunakan), j = 1, 2, ..., n. (Bilangan bidang usaha dicadangkan). PENEMUAN KAJIAN Sistem Perladangan Semasa (SPS)

Seramai 125 pekebun kecil dari daerah Muar, 99 dari Sepang dan 82 darijeran tut ditemuduga untuk kajian ini. Lebih daripada 70 peratus pekebun kecil berumur melebihi 41 tahun. Purata umur pekebun-pekebun kecil ialah 45 tahun di Muar, 48 tahun di Sepang dan 54 tahun dijerantut. Selain daripada usia yang agak lanjut, hampir semua pekebun kecil mendapat pendidikan setakat sekolah rendah sahaja. Dari segi pekerjaan, kajian ini mendapati ada sebilangan pekebun kecil yang berkebun secara sambilan. Di Sepang, seramai 32.3 peratus yang ditemuduga mempunyai pekerjaan utama selain

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103

MOHD. GHAZAI.I MOHAYIDIN DAN SARIPAH MOHD. NOR

JADUAL4 Peratus bilangan pekebun kecil dan purata pendapatan tahunan mengikut jenis sistem perladangan yang diusahakan oleh pekebun-pekebun kecil SEPANG

MUAR JENIS SISTEM PERLADANGAN

1. 2. 3. 4.

Tanaman saka sahaja Tanaman jangkapendek sahaja Ternakan sahaja Tanaman saka dan jangka pendek sahaja 5. Tanaman saka dan ternakan sahaja 6. Tanaman jangka pendek dan ternakan sahaja 7. Tanaman saka, jangka ptMidek dan ternakan

Purata Bilangan Pdptn/ P/kecil Tahun ($) (%)

Bilangan P/kecil (%)

Purata Pdptn/ Tahun ($)

JERANTUT Bilangan P/kecil (%)

Purata Pdptn/ Tahun ($)

34.5 2.7 8.0 8.0

2,096.40 249.60 104.40 1,794.00

39.4

6,844.80

3.7

1,276.80

2.0

3,835.20

1.2 4.9

0 4,466.40

39.8

3,735.60

54.5

6,798.00

42.0

1,461.60

1.8

138.00

5.3

2,775.60

4,800.00

48.2

1,1160.40

•

4.1

Nota: P/kecil = Pekebun kecil Pdptn • Pendapatan ketujuh-tujuh jenis sistem perladangan di atas diusahakan.

daripada berkebun. Di Muar angkanya ialah 22.4 peratus, manakaladijerantut 12.3 peratus. Ketigatiga faktor di atas dijangka m e m p e n g a r u h i k e c e k a p a n p e n g u r u s a n s u m b e r - s u m b e r dan seterusnya prestasi sistem perladangan mereka. Jadual 4 menunjukkan SPS yang diamalkan oleh pekebun-pekebun kecil di daerah kajian. Kombinasi tanaman saka dan ternakan ialah sistem perladangan yang paling popular terutama di daerah Muar (39.8 peratus) dan Sepang (54.5 peratus), Pendapatan tahunan yang diperoleh daripada sistem perladangan jenis ini ialah $3,735.60 di Muar dan $6,798.00 di Sepang. Manakala di Jerantut, sistem ini ialah sistem yang kedua paling popular di mana seramai 42.0 peratus pekebun kecil mengamalkannya dengan pendapatan tahunan sebanyak $1,461.60. Di daerah ini, sistem perladangan yang utama ialah kombinasi tanaman saka, tanaman jangka pendek dan ternakan iaitu sebanyak 48.2 peratus dan pendapatan tahunannya hanya $1,160.40 Di Muar dan Sepang, jenis sistem perladangan kedua terbanyak yang diusahakan oleh pekebunpekebun kecil ialah tanaman saka sahaja (34.5 peratus di Muar dan 39.4 peratus di Sepang) dengan pendapatan tahunannya sebanyak $2,096.40 di Muar dan $6,844.80 di Sepang.

Tiga kumpulan pembatas utama dalam kajian ini ialah tanah, buruh dan modal. Tanah merupakan suatu faktor yang terpenting kerana ia menentukan di mana sesuatu sistem perladangar boleh dijalankan. Untuk SPO keluasan purata semasa telah dipilih sebagai pembatas iaitu 1.25 hektar di Muar, 5.74 hektar di Sepang dan 23 hektar di Jerantut. Tiada tanah diperuntukan untuk ternakan kerana diandaikan bahawa sistem yang sesuai ialah pemeliharaan ternakan di bawah tanam-tanaman jangka panjang atau di sekitai rumah. Oleh itu saiz tanah untuk tanam-tanaman tidak terjejas.

Sistem perladangan yang paling kurang diamalkan oleh pekebun-pekebun kecil di Sepang dan Jerantut ialah kombinasi tanaman jangka pendek bersama ternakan, tanaman jangka pendek, dan ternakan sahaja. Manakala di Muar

Modal penting untuk membiayai segala kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan bidangusaha. Puna modal dapat diperoleh melalui wang simpanar; sendiri, pinjaman atau bantuan dari kerajaan Pembatas modal untuk model pemprogramar

104

Sistem Perladangan Optimum (SPO) P e m p r o g r a m a n linear d i g u n a k a n untuk mendapatkan SPO. Untuk kajian ini, hanya bidang usaha bidangusaha yang sesuai berdasarkan ikliqj tanah dan pengetahuan petani bagi mengendalikannya sahaja yang dipilih untuk dianalisis Bidangusaha tersebut ialah tanaman getah, kelapa sawit, koko, buah-buahan, sayuran, tanamanjangka pendek seperti jagung, kacang tanah dan cili serta ternakan kambing, biri-biri, lembu daging dan ayam daging.

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JAD UAL 5 Matrik asas bagi sistem perladangan di Muar XI

Pendapatan Tanah Modal Buruh

1800 1 431 75

X2

X3

2100 1 431 32

2100 1 311 88

X4

X5

X6

X7

X8

680 5800 1 1 291 1495 32 163

5944 1 1490 164

109 0 84 9

2198 0 1629 12

X9

25 0 20 0.3

b

1.25 8000 750

JADUAL6 Matrik asas bagi sistem perladangan di Sepang XI

Pendapatan Tanah Modal Buruh

1709 1 432 74

X8

X3

2201 1 432 31

1963 1 311 88

X5

X6

X7

1114 10800 1 1 355 2680 14 20

5944 1 1495 162

109 0 84

X4

X8

2198 0 1630 8 12

X9

25 0 19 0.3

b

5.74 6500 1200

JADUAL7 Matrik asas bagi sistem perladangan dijerantut

Pendapatan Tanah Modal Buruh

XI

X2

X3

X4

X6

X7

X8

1020 | 346 99

1457 1 588 49

961 1 395 94

1114 1 355 14

1100 1 954 77

110 0 84 9

2198 0 1629 12

Nota: XI =Tanaman X2 = Tanaman X3 = Tanaman X4 = Tanaman X5 = Tanaman

getah kelapa sawit koko buah-buahan sayuran

X9

25 0 20 0.3

2.70 3500 550

X6 = Tanaman jangka pendek X7 = Ternakan biri-biri dan kambing X8 = Ternakan lembu daging X9 = Ternakan ayam daging b. = Jumlah tertinggi sumber i.

linear ini dikira berasaskan keupayaan pekebunpekebun kecil mendapatkan modal untuk menjalankan setiap bidangusaha di ladang mereka. Selain wang simpanan dan bantuan, pinjaman ialah satu punca yang penting bagi pekebun-pekebun kecil mendapatkan modal. Lazimnya institusiinstitusi kewangan memerlukan cagaran. Tanah ialah aset yang sering digunakan sebagai cagaran ter-sebut. Daripada ketiga-tiga punca di atas, jumlah purata modal yang terdaya dikumpulkan oleh pekebun kecil ialah $8,000 di Muar, $6,500 di Sepang dan $3,500 di Jerantut. Pembatas ketiga ialah buruh. Walaupun teknologimoden rnemperkenalkan penggunaanjentera dan mesin, tetapi buruh masih memainkan peranan yang penting dalam sistem perladangan. Di samping kos pengurusan yang lebih rendah terutama kepada pekebun kecil, ia juga dapat menjimatkan penggunaan modal yang tinggi ber-

banding dengan penggunaanjentera. Terdapatduajenis buruh, iaitu buruh keluarga dan buruh upahan. Jumlah buruh dari kedua-dua jenis bagi setiap daerah kajian ialah 750 hari di Muar, 1,200 hari di Sepang dan 550 hari dijerantut. Selain andaian-andaian yang berkaitan dengan model pemprograman linear, pekebunpekebun kecil diandaikan beroperasi di bawah pasaran sempurna. Keadaan ini tidak mempengaruhi harga barangan pertanian yang dikeluarkan. Jadi pekebun kecil boleh mengeluarkan seberapa banyak kuantiti tanpa menjejaskan harga. Kuantiti dihadkan oleh sumber yang dapat diperoleh oleh pekebun-pekebun kecil berkenaan. Data-data yang telah dikumpul, diolah dan diubahsuai ke dalam bentuk matrik asas seperti dalam Jadual 5, 6 dan 7. Keputusan daripada analisis pemprograman linear merupakan kemungkinan mendapatkan suatu sistem perladangan yang optimum iaitu yang

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

105

MOHD. GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN DAN SARIPAH MOHD. NOR

memaksimumkan pendapatan (atau jumlah margin kasar). SPO di kawasan kajian adalah seperti di Jadual 8. Bagi seorang pekebun keci! di daerah JADUAL8 Si:;tem perladangan vang optimum (dalam hektar atau ekor). Bidang usaha

Muar

Sepang

Jerantul

Purata luas tanah (Hektar)

1.25

5.74

2.70

Koko Kelapa sawit Sayuran Tanaman jangka pendek 1.25 Kambing dan biri-biri 60 Lembudaging 1

3.75 1.99 —

Anggaran pendapatan Setahun ($) 15,444

28,855

2.70 — 1

6,514

Muar, SPOnya ialah kombinasi tiga bidangusah iaitu tanaman jangka pendek seluas 1.25 hekd ternakan kambing dan biri-hiri scbanyak 60 e j serta seekor lembu daging. Pendapatan dari sistd ini ialah $15,444 setahun.

Di Sepang kombinasi bidang usaha yang sesua dan optimum ialah sayuran 1.99 hektar dan kofo 3.75 hektar. Sistem ini memberi pendapatan yang paling tinggi, iaitu sebanyak $28,855 setahun.

Manakala di Jerantut pula kombinasi bidang usaha yang optimum ialah 2.7 hektar kelapa sawii dan menternak seekor lembu. Ini menghasilkan pendapatan sebanyak $6,514 setahun.

Kesan Penambahan Luas Tanah Bahagian ini bertujuan melihat kesan kepada SPO dari segi kombinasi bidangusaha dan pendapatan akibatdari penambahan saiz tanah. Untuk tujuan ini, keluasan tanah diubahsuai kepada 3, 5, 10,15

JADUAL9 Ringkasan kombinasi bidangusaha optimum bila keluasan tanah ditambah Kombinasi bidangusaha optimum

Keluasan tanah yang dicadangkan 3

Pendapatan 5

Pendapatan 10

Pendapatan 15

Pendapatan 20

Pendapatan 106

Muar

Sepang

Jerantut

Tanaman jangka pendek (3.00), kambing dan biri-biri (28 ekor), lembudaging (seekor)

Savuran (2.34), koko (0.65)

Kelapa sawit (3.00) lembudaging (seekor)

$22,430

$26,655

$6,713

Tanaman jangka pendek (4.40), kelapa sawit (0.59), lembu daging (seekor)

Sayuran

(2i)9) (5.00), Koko (8.57)

Kelapa sawit lembu daging (seekor)

$28,951

S28,261

$8,040

Kelapa sawit (6.75), tanaman jangka pendek (3.24), lembu daging (seekor)

Savuran (1.43), Koko (8.57)

Buah-buahan (9.86)

$33,796

$32,275

$10,983

Kelapa sawit (12.32), tanaman jangkapendek (1.58), koko (1.11)

Sayuran (0.71), koko (13.03)

Buah-buahan (9.86)

$37,555

$36,021

$10,983

Kelapa sawit (16.83), koko (2.43) (7.00)

Koko (11.17), Kelapa sawit

Buah-buahan (9.86)

$40,385

$37,344

$10,983

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PEMBANGUNAN SISTEM PER1ADANGAN: KEARAH PENGGUNAAN SUMBER SECARA OPTIMUM

dan20hektar. Hanya keluasan tanah atau ladang diubah tetapi faktor modal dan buruh ditetapkan. Keputusan yang diperoleh ialah seperti berikut. a) Muar Untuk keluasan tanah 3 hektar, kombinasi bidangusaha yang optimum ialah tanamanjangka pendek, ternakan kambing dan biri-biri sebanyak 28 ekor serta seekor lembu daging dan ia menghasilkan pendapatan sebanyak $22,430 setahun (Jadual9). Apabila keluasan ditambah kepada 5 hektar, keluasan bagi tanamanjangka pendek meningkat kepada 4.40 hektar, kelapa sawit seluas 0.59 hektar vangdisertai dengan ternakan lembu daging. Ini membolehkan pendapatan meningkat kepada $28,951 setahun. Untuk keluasan 10 hektar, keluasan tanaman kelapa sawit terus meningkat kepada 6.75 hektar tetapi tanaman jangka pendek berkurangan kepada 3.24 hektar kerana tanaman jangka pendek memerlukan buruh yang lebih berbanding dengan kelapa sawit. Kombinasi ini menghasilkan pendapatan $33,796 setahun. Kombinasi bidangusaha telah bertambah untuk keluasan tanah 15 hektar, iaitu kelapa sawit sebanyak 12.32 hektar, tanaman jangka pendek 1.58 hektar serta koko 1.11 hektar. Kombinasi berkenaan mampu menghasilkan pendapatan sebanyak $37,554 setahun. Untuk keluasan maksimum 20 hektar, hanya koko dan kelapa sawit sahaja merupakan kombinasi bidangusaha yang optimum dan ia menghasilkan pendapatan sebanyak $40,384 setahun. b) Sepang Jadual 9 juga menunjukkan perubahan kepada SPO apabila saiz tanah diubah di Sepang. Untuk keluasan tanah sebanyak 3 hektar kombinasi bidang usahayang optimum ialah 0.65 hektar untuk koko dan 2.34 hektar untuk sayur-sayuran. Kombinasi ini menghasilkan pendapatan sebanyak $26,655 setahun. Apabila keluasan terus ditambah kepada 5, 10, 15 dan 20 hektar, keluasan tanaman koko terus meningkat iaitu dari 2.91, 8.57, 13.03 tetapi kemudian berkurangan kepada 11.17 hektar. Sementara itu keluasan sayur-sayuran terus berkurangan sehingga 0.71 hektar di keluasan 15 hektar dan ianya terkeluar dari sistem apabila saiz tanah meningkat kepada 20 hektar. Keadaan ini berlaku kerana untuk menghasilkan pendapatan maksimum, tanaman sayuran memerlukan modal dan buruh yang lebih banyak berbanding dengan tanaman koko. Untuk keluasan 20 hektar, kombinasi

bidangusaha yang optimum ialah 11.17 hektar koko dan 7.00 hektar kelapa sawit. Sistem ini menghasilkan pendapatan sebanyak $37,343 setahun. c)Jerantut Jadual 9 juga menunjukkan kesan perubahan SPO di Jerantut. Kombinasi bidangusaha kelapa sawit bersama ternakan lembu daging dapat menghasilkan pendapatan $6,713 setahun bagi ladang seluas 3 hektar. Apabila keluasan ditambah kepada 5 hektar, kombinasi yang sama diperoleh iaitu kelapa sawit dan ternakan lembu daging. Pendapatan maksimumnya ialah sebanyak $8,040 setahun. Tetapi bagi keluasan 10, 15 dan 20 hektar hanya bidangusaha buah-buahan yang optimum diusahakan. Keluasan bidangusaha tidak berubah lagi selepas 10 hektar. Ini bermakna modal dan buruh yang terdapat di daerahjerantut hanya sesuai bagi keluasan 10 hektar sebagai keluasan maksimum. Pada tahap ini keluasan tanaman buahbuahan yang optimum ialah 9.86 hektar dan pendapatan ialah $10,983 setahun. PERBINCANGAN DAN KESlMPULAN JikaSPS masihdijalankan, hanya pekebun-pekebun kecil di Sepang sahaja memperoleh pendapatan melebihi paras pendapatan isirumah miskin (diandaikan sebanyak $385 sebulan). Manakala pekebun kecil di Muar dan Jerantut berada di bawah paras berkenaan. Keadaan ini berlaku kerana majoriti pekebun kecil merupakan golongan tua (lebih daripada 60 peratus bagi ketiga-tiga daerah kajian berada di dalam lingkungan umur 41 hingga 70 tahun). Oleh itu tenaga buruh yang digunakan adalah kurang produktif dan kurang berpengetahuan kerana ramai di antara mereka tidak pernah bersekolah. Tambahan pula mereka tinggal di luar bandar (84.0,92.9 dan 100.0 peratus masing-masing bagi daerah Muar, Sepang dan Jerantut). Keadaan ini serba sedikit menyukarkan pemasaran hasil keluaran pertanian dan penerimaan idea baru dalam bidang teknologi pertanian yang disebarkan oleh agen-agen pengembangan. Melalui SPO, pendapatan para pekebun kecil dapat ditingkatkan beberapa kali, iaitu dengan menggunakan semua input pertanian yang sedia ada seperti modal, buruh dan tanah. Apabila pendapatan dapat ditingkatkan, taraf hidup pekebun kecil akan dapat diperbaharui dan seterusnya kemiskinan dapat dikurangkan.

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

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MOHD. GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN DAN1 SARIPAH MOHD. NOR

Di Muar, kombinasi yang optimum ialah tanaman jangka pendek bersama ternakan kambing, biri-biri dan lembu daging. Pendapatan dapat ditingkatkan daripada $ 193 kepada $ 1,287 sebulan (Jadual 10). Di Sepang, tanaman koko dan sayuran menghasilkan peningkatan pendapatan daripada $523 kepada $2,404 sebulan. Manakala dijerantut pula tanaman kelapa sawit bersama ternakan lembu daging dapat menambah pendapatan daripada $ 119 kepada $543 sebulan. Perbandingan kombinasi bidangusaha SPS dan SPO dapat diringkaskan seperti Jadual 11. Pekebun-pekebun kecil yang telah mengusahakan bidang usaha seperti dalam SPO ialah sebanyak 12.5 peratus di Muar, manakala di Sepang dan Jerantut melebihi 40 peratus. Ini bermakna jika pekebun-pekebun kecil di ketiga-tiga daerah, mengusahakan kombinasi bidangusaha seperti dalam SPO maka seramai 87.5 peratus petani di JADUAL 10 Perbandingan purata pendapatan setahun/bulan bagi sistem perladangan semasa dan sistem perladangan optimum Pendapatan

Muar

Jerantut

Sepang

Setahun ($)

2,316

6,270

1,432

Sebulan ($)

193

523

119

Setahun ($)

15,444

28,855

6,514

Sebulan ($)

1,287

2,404

543

Perubahan (kaliganda. 6.67 antaraSPSdanSPO)

4.60

4.56

SPS

SPO

Nota: SPS - Sistem perladangan semasa, pendapatan ialah purata dari semua jenis sistem SPO- Peratusperbandinganbidangusahaantara sistem perladangan semasa dan yang optimum JADUAL 11 Peratus perbandingan bidangusaha antara sistem perladangan semasa dan yang optimum Bidangusaha Tanaman jangka pendek Tanaman jangka pendek dan ternakan Ternakan Tanaman jangka pendek dan saka Tanaman saka Tanaman saka dan ternakan

Jumlah 108

Muar

Sepang

Jerantut

2.7

_

1.8 8.0

_

0 1.2

_ _

2.0 39.4

_ 3.7

-

-

42.0

12.5

41.4

46.9

Muar, 58.6 peratus petani di Sepang dan 53.1 peratus petani dijerantut perlu mengubah corak sistem perladangan mereka bagi memastikan pendapatan yang mereka peroleh berada di atas garis kerrriskinan. Terdapat dua faktor yang membolehkan peningkatan pendapatan pekebun-pekebun kecil di-! lakukan. Pertama, adanya "slack" iaitu sumbersumber seperti buruh dan modal yang tidak digunakan sepenuhnya di dalam SPS. Dengan menggunakan sunber-sumber ini secara optimum pendapatan dapat ditingkatkan. Kedua, di dalam SPS, sumber-sumber buruh, modal dan tanah tidakdiagihkan dengan cekap. Pengagihan semula sumber-sumber tersebut dalam mengeluarkan hasil pertanian yang lebih sesuai akan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan. Terdapat persamaan dalam kombinasi bidang usaha di antara SPS dengan kombinasi bidang usaha SPO apabila keluasan tanah ditambah. Kombinasi bidangusaha yang popular di Muar ialah tanamanjangka pendek, tanaman saka (kelapa sawit dan koko) dan ternakan (kambing, biri-biri dan lembu daging). Kombinasi ini bertepatan dengan SPS yang diusahakan oleh pekebun kecii. Walau bagaimanapun keluasan tiap-tiap bidang usaha berbeza-beza. Bidangusaha di Sepang ialah tanamanjangka pendek (sayuran), tanaman saka (koko dan kelapa sawit). Tanaman saka (kelapa sawit, buah-buahan) dan ternakan (lembu daging) merupakan bidangusaha yang popular dijerantut. Sebagai kesimpulan, kajian dan penyelidikan yang terperinci mestilah terlebih dahulu dilakukan ke atas kesesuaian tanah apabila sesuatu sistem perladangan diperkenalkan, Ini penting supaya bidangusaha-bidangusaha tersebut benar-benar memberikan pulangan yang diharapkan dan dapat memenuhi keperluan pengguna dan pasaran tempatan. Untuk melaksanakan SPO (kecekapan menggunakan input-input pertanian sepenuhnya) kerjasama diperlukan daripada perlbagai disiplin atau pihak kerana pembangunan sistem perladangan merupakan campuran pelbagai kegiatan daripada pelbagai disiplin seperti agronomi, penternakan, kejuruteraan, ekonomi pertanian, sosio logi luar bandar dan Iain-lain. Kerajaan dan sektor swasta haruslah memberi perhatian yang khusus kepada para pekebun kecil terhadap keperluan perkhidmatan sokongan seperti pemasaran, bantuan kredit (pinjaman) dan bekalan input-input pertanian di samping pemberian bantuan yang sedia ada.

PERTANIKAVOL 14 NO. 1,1991

PEMBANGUNAN SISTEM PERLADANGAN: KEARAH PENGGUNAAN SUMBER SECARA OPTIMUM

Memandangkan pekebun kecil mempunyai keluasan tanah yang agak kecil maka pilihan kombinasi bidang usaha yang tepat amatlah perlu untuk m e m a k s i m u m k a n p u l a n g a n serta m e n gurangkan pembaziran akibat penggunaan sumbersumber yang terhad. RUJUKAN BENEKA, RAYMOND and RONALD WINTERBOER. 1973.

Linear Programming Applications to Agriculture. Ames: Iowa State University Press. DEMETERIO, JINDRA LINDA. 1987.

The Philippines

Experience in Farming System Research Development, Farm Management Notes for Asia and the Far East, No. 10, Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Farm in Cameron Highlands. Masters Thesis, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. IAPORAN EKO^OMI MALAYSIA. 1986/87. Kementerian

Kewangan, Kuala Lumpur. MOHD. GHA7ALI MOHAYIDIN. 1987. Farming System Options in Northern Terengganu, Farm Management Notes, No. 10, Bangkok: Food and Agiculture Organization. WAN MOHAMED WAN EMBONG DAN CHEE YAN KUAN.

1976. Maximizing Returns in Immature Rubber Smallholdings, Proceedings of the RJRJM Planters Conference. 34.

EDDIE F.C. CHIEW. 1976. Application of Linear Programming in Farm Planning at a Vegetable

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

(DitenmalSOgos, 1988)

109

Pertanikal4(l),lll-118(1991)

Kajian Keberkesanan Projek Pembangunan Estet Padi di Kelantan M O H D GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN WAN AZAHARI WAN HARUN Jabatan Ekonomi Pertanian Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang, SelangorDarulEhsan, Malaysia. Kata Petunjuk: Estet padi, sebelum dan selepas projek, analisis faktor, inovasi baru, pendapatan, tanggapan. ABSTRAK Salah satu strategi yang telah diamalkan oleh kerajaan bag, meningkatkan produktiviti dan pendapatan petani ialah melaluipenanaman padi secara komersialdan besar-besaran (ala estet). Kajian ini bertujuan meninjau dan menilai keberkesanan perlaksanaan strategi berkenaan bagi Projek Perintis KADA II. Data-data primeryang digunakan diperolehi melalui temuduga dengan para peserta projek. Kaedah analisis faktor telah digunakan untuk menilai keberkesanan projek dalam mencapai objektif-objektifnya. Walaupun projek berkenaan belum dapat mencapai mat la mat asnlnya, para petani merasakan projek tersebut berkesan dari segi menambahkan pendapatan dan berupaya menyedarkanpetani supaya menggunakan inovasi-inovasi baru dalam kegiatanpertanian mereka. ABSTRACT One ofthe strategies adopted by the government to increase productivity and subsequently farmers 'income is to encourage the commercial cultivation of paddy on a relatively large area (estate-type). This study investigates and evaluates the effectiveness of this strategy in the KADA II Pilot Project. The primary data used in this study was collected by interviewing the project participants. Factor analysis was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the project in meeting its objectives. Though the project has not achieved its initial targets, thefarmers are of the opinion that the project has been effective in raising their income and in creating an awareness among them to use new innovations in their farming activities. PENGENALAN

Walaupun penanaman padi merupakan sektor terpenting dari segi keluasan tanaman dan penggunaan tenaga kerja, sektor ini menghadapi pelbagai masalah seperti saiz sawah yang tidak ekonomikdan produktiviti yang rendah. Dalam tempoh 1960-1974 pengeluaran padi didapati telah meningkat setiap tahun, tetapi semenjak tahun 1975 pengeluarannya telah menurun. Fenomena ini mungkin berpunca daripada kurangnya minat masyarakat terhadap sektor tradisional, yang secara umumnya dianggap sebagai scktoryang memberi pulangan yang rendah. Hal inidapatdilihatdenganbertambahnyatanah sawah terbiardi seluruh negara. Bagi mencapai matlamat pembangunan sektor pertanian amnya dan sektor perusahaan padi khususnya, maka kerajaan telah nielancarkan program pembangunan berdasarkan kepada konsep pembangunan kawasan pertanian yang disatukan di bawah Rancangan Pembangunan

Pertanian Bersepadu (IADP). Objektif umum kajian ini ialah untuk meninjau dan menilai keberkesanan strategi pembangunan pertanian bagi sektor padi di bawah Rancangan Pembangunan Pertanian Bersepadu. Matlamat utama perlaksanaan projek pembangunan di bawah IADP ialah untuk menggalakkan petani menanam secara komersial bagi meningkatkan peratus kecukupan beras negara dalam strategi pembangunan pertanian yang berorientasikan gantian import. Oleh sebab perlaksanaan IADP melibatkan banyak kawasan, kemungkinan perlaksanaannya hanya berkesan di sesetengah tempat dan tidak di tempat yang lain; terutamadari segi penerimaan petani, peningkatan hasil dan kos pembangunan yang terpaksa dibelanjakan. Oleh itu kajian ini akan cuba mengenal pasti masalah-masalah yang timbul akibat perlaksanaan projek berkenaan dan seterusnya mengemukakan cadangan bagi mengatasi masalah tersebut.

M O H D . GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN DAN WAN AZAHARI WAN H A R U N

METODOLOGI Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas petani-petani yang menyertai projek perintis Program IADP bagi kawasan Lembaga Kemajuan Pertanian Kemubu (KADA). Seramai 80orang responden telah dipilih dari kalangan 656 pescrtaestetpadi yang berdaftar dengan KADA dan menjadi ahli Pertubuhan Peladang Kawasan. Responden berkenaan dipilih dengan menggunakan kaedah persampelan rawak mudah. Untukmendapatkan data dan maklumat yang diperlukan, satu soal selidik telah dibentuk merangkumibutir-butirtentangsosioekonomi,perbezaan hasil dan pendapatan sebelum dan selepas menvertai projek, sumbangan pendapatan luar ladang, pandangan dan sikap petani terhadap projek yang diiaksanakan serta maklumatmak 1 umat lain yang berkaitan. Pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui temuduga. Analisis faktor digunakan bagi menentukan wujudnyakorelasi faktor mengenai pandangan dan tanggapan petani tentang keberkesanan projek pembangunan pertanian berkenaan. Walaupun terdapat beberapa teknik analisis yang boleh digunakan, analisis faktor didapati paling sesuai bagi mendapatkan satu set angkubah di kalangan angkubah-angkubah yang mempunyaikorelasi yang linggidi antara satu sama lain. Dalamkeadaan ini, analisisregresi tidakberupayamemberikeputusan yang tepat (Kim dan Mueller 1978). Selain dari disiplin-disiplinsosiologidanantropologi (Forslund 1980), politik (Kim, Nie dan Verba 1977) dan pendidikan (Verlicer 1975), teknik analisis faktor juga telah digunakan dengan berkesan dalam bidang ekonomi dan pengurusan termasuk pemasaran (Stewart 1981;Kenneth 1983). Model asas analisis faktor ialah seperti berikut: Z = a.. F. + a,, F(, + ... a. F + d.U., j = l,2,..,n di Z F. U a..

mana = angkubahj dalam bentuk terpiawai; = faktor hipotesis, i = 1,2,..., m; = faktor unik untukangkubahj; = koefisien regresi berganda piawai untuk angkubahj atas faktor i; dan d = koefisien regresi terpiawai untuk angkubahj atas j faktor unik, j . Korelasi di antara angkubah yang menjadi hipotesis ialah seperti berikut: r(R, U.) = 0; i = 1, 2, ...n; j = 1,2, .,., n; dan i =j r(U.,U k )=0;j=k 112

Antara angkubah-angkubah yang dijangka dapatj menentukan keberkesanan projek estet padi bagi kajian ini ialah peningkatan kepada taraf hidupl petani, peningkatan kepada tahap pengeluaran, penambahan kepada peluang pekerjaan, pe.| nerimaan teknologi baru, penggunaan input perJ tanian yang baru, peningkatan kepada aktivitij pengembangan dan latihan, peningkatan kepada aktiviti pemasaran, dan peningkatan kepada kecekapan sistem pengeluaran. Angkubahangkubah ini dipilih berdasarkan matlamat serta objektif projek tersebut. Teknikanalisisfaktordidapati boleh meringkaskan pengaruh angktibah-angkubah hingga kepada satu set komponen atau faktor yang lebih kecil. Ia juga dapat digunakan bagi mengenalpasti dimensi berasingan bagi angkubah yang diukur, dengan menentukan faktor bebanan bagi setiap angkubah untuk setiap faktor. Keadaan ini membolehkJ angkubah-angkubah pentingdikenal pasti berdasarkan dimensi yang ditentukan. Kriteria 'varimax' putaran 'ortogonal' digunakan untuk memudahkan pengenalpastian faktordan ia telah diterima umum sebagai satu teknikj yang baik dalam menganalisis putaran orthoga

PENERIMAAN PETANI TERHADAP PROJEK PRINTIS KADA II

Perlaksanaan Projek Perintis KADA II me 1 ibatkan kegiatan-kegiatan seperti merata tanah, membuat jalan ladang, menyediakan perparitan, menyusun semulalot tanah dan membahagikan semula lot-lot tersebut. Wa 1 aupun perbelanjaan serta peralatan ditanggungoleh pihak KADA, persetujuan daripada tuan tanah diperlukan terlebih dahulu. Untuk memberi kefahaman, seterusnya memperoleh persetujuan dan tandatangan pemilik, pihak KADA mengadakan lawatan, perjumpaan dan penerangan kepada petani-petani yang terlibat. Ia bukanlah tugas yang mudah kerana pemikiran petani agak konservatifdisebabkan usiayang lanjutdan tahap pendidikan mereka yang rendah. Setelah dialog di 1 akukan beberapa kali, barulah projek berkenaan dapatdijalankan. Sebanyak 96.2% petani bersetuju dengan ketetapan yang melibatkan kegiatan kegiatan merata tanah, pembinaan jalan ladang. sistem perparitan dan penyusunan semula lot tanah Bilangan yang tidak bersetuju dengan ketetapan tersebut hanya 3.8%. Mengenai pembahagiar semulalottanah,hanya91.2% petani memberikan Untuk perbincangan terperinci, rujuk kepada Jae-On (1975) dan Jae-On Kim dan Charles W. Mueller (1978)

PERTANIKA VOL. 14 NO. 1, 1991

KAJIAN KEBERKESANAN PROJEK PEMBANGUNAN ESTET PADI DI KELANTAN

persetujuan. Walaupun sebilangan kecil p e t a n i tidak bersetuju t e n t a n g p e r k a r a t e r t e n t u yang t e r d a p a t dalam konsep p t n y a t u a n t a n a h , h a m p i r k e s e m u a yang terlibat dalam Projek Perintis KADA II

bersetuju dengan konsep projek secara keseluruhan. Cara penerimaan projek di kalangan petani didapati berbeza-beza. Keadaan tersebut wujud berpunca daripada perbezaan kefahaman petani, pengaruh orang lain atau paksaan. Pegawai-pegawai KADA, penghulu (ketua kampung), Jawatankuasa Kemajuan Kampung (JKKK) dan orang perseorangan yang berpengaruh didapati penting dalam memberi penerangan untuk mempengaruhi sikapdan tanggapan petani. Terdapat sebilangan kecil petani yang menyertai projek kerana desakan apabila mendapati jiran-jiran mereka menerima projek tersebut. Kaedah penerimaan petani terhadap perlaksanaan projek dapat dilihat dalam Jadual 1. JADUAL 1 Taburan mengenai kaedah penerimaan petani terhadap projek Cara penerimaan

Bil.petan (N-8O)

Dengan kefahaman sendiri Dipengaruhioleh orang lain Paksaan

44

55.0

10 26

12.5 32.5

PENCAPAIAN SERTA KEYAKINAN PETANI TERHADAP PROJEK

Pencapaian matlamat dan objektif perlu diberi penekanan dalam menilai keberkesanan projek. Penilaian perlu kerana projek berkenaan telah menelan belanja yang banyak dan dijangka memberikan faedah kepada sebilangan besar keluarga tani. Kos projek IADP di kawasan KADA dalam Rancangan Malaysia Keempat ialah $114 juta dan dalam Rancangan Malaysia Kelima $57 juta. Ianya melibatkan kawasan projek se 1 uas 60,438 hektar dan dijangka 45,000 keluarga petani akan menikmati faedah daripada projek tersebut. Kos pembangunan bagi projek IADP di kawasan KADA ialah $3,153 sehektar dan kos pembangunan keluarga ialah $3,799 bagi setiap keluarga (Rancangan Malaysia Keempat, 1984). Kemudahan Infrastruklur

Pewujudan serta peningkatan kepada kemudahan infrastruktur boleh dianggap sebagai salah satu ciri

keberkesanan projek. Selain memudahkan perlaksanaan aktiviti utama iaitu pengeluaran hasil pertanian, petani juga akan dapat menikmati kemudahan kemudahan sepertijalan ladang, taliair dan sistem perparitan yang sistematik. Jadual 2 menunjukkan pencapaian perlaksanaan kemudahan infrastruktur di dalam kawasan projek. JADUAL2 Kepadatan jalan ladang, tali air dan perparitan di dalam kawasan projek Perkara

Sebelum projek

Kepadatan tiada jalan ladang maklumat Kepadatan taliair tiada (meter/hektar) maklumat Kepadatan perparitan tiada (meter/hektar) maklumat

Matlamat Pencapaian projek masakini (% kawasan) (% kawasan) 60.0

29.0

60.0

20.0

60.0

10.5

Sumber: Laporan Kemajuan IADP, Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia (1987) Pengeluaran Padi Perubahan kepada pengeluaran padi diperoleh dengan membandingkan hasil bersih padi sebelum projek dengan selepas projek (Jadual 3). Hasil kajian mendapati pengeluaran sebelum perlaksanaan projek berada di antara 0 hingga 4,000 kilogram dengan purata hasil sebanyak 970 kilogram . Selepas projek didapati pengeluaran berada di antara 150 hingga 4,250 kilogram, dan purata keluaran ialah 1,312.5 kilogram. JADUAL3 Taburan pengeluaran padi seluruh sawah semusim Sebelum projek

Selepas projek

Pengeluaran Bilangan petani Kurang daripada 625 kg 625-1250 kg 1250-1875 kg Lebih daripada 1875 kg

(%)

Bilangan petani

(%)

34 26 6

47.5 32.5 7.5

14 35 17

17.50 43.75 21.25

14

17.5

14

17.50

80

100.0

80

100.0

2 Kuantiti keluaran adalah untuk seluruh sawah petani. Keluasan tanah petani yang terletak di dalam kawasan projek berada dalam lingkungan 0.08 hektar sehingga 1.92 hektar. Keluasan purata ialah 0.4 hektar.

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

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MOHD.GHAZAU MOHAYIDIN DAN WAN AZAHARI WAN HARUN

Perbandingan pengeluaran hasil padi per hektar antara sebelum dan .sdepas projek serta mathimat projek dapat dilihat dalam Jadual 4. Hasil padi per hektar sebelum projek ialah 48.6% daripada matlamat projek. Setelah projek diusahakan hasi 1 telah meningkat kepada 76.1%. JADUAL 4 Purata pengeluaran padi per hektar Perkara

Sebelum

Matlamat

Selepas

projek

projek

projek

Pengel uaran padi (tan/hektar)

2.14

4.40

3.35

Sisihan piawai (tan/hektar)

2.68

2.82

Peratusan daripada 48.64 matlamat

76.14

Perbezaa ti Pen da pa ta n Pet a u i da la m Projek

Pendapatan kasar hasil padi untuk kesehu uhan sawah juga digunakan bagi meni 1 ai keberkesanan projek. Perbandingan dijalankan antara pendapatan kasar sebelum dan selepas projek. Hasi] kajian mendapati pendapatan sebelum projek berada dalam lingkungan $0.00 hingga $2,500.00 dengan purata pendapatan semusim $547.00 bagi seorang petani. Selepas projek, pendapatan petani meningkatsebanyak 37.48% dengan pendapatan purata $752.00 semusim bagi seorang petani (Jadual 5). JADUAL5 Taburan pendapatan kasar padi semusim untuk seluruh sawah

Sebelum projek

Selepas projek

Pendapatan Bilangan petani Kurang daripada $400 $400-$800 $800-$1200 Lebih daripada $1200

Purata pendapatan Sisihan piawai Peratus perubahan

114

Bilangan petani

43 19 6

53.75 23.75 7.50

23 33 13

28.75 41.25 16.25

12

If).00

11

13.72

80

100,00

80

100.00

S547 .00 $716 .00

.00 $650 .00

37. 48

Tahap Keyakinan Petani

Tahap keyakinan petani amat penting dalam mengukur tanggapan petani terhadap kesan perlaksanaan IADP. Faktor-faktor yang dikajj merangkumi keberuntungan projek, kebolehan dan kemahiran pegawai-pegawai KADA yang menjalankan aktiviti-aktiviti pengembangan, dan prestasi projek sebagai satu sistem yang dapat dimajukan sebagai perladangan komersil. Majoriti petani didapati mempunyai keyakinan (yakindan sangat yakin) tentang ketiga-tiga aspek yang dikemukakan kepada inereka (Jadual 6). JADUAL6 Peratus petani yang menyuarakan tahap keyakinan mereka terhadap projek Aktiviti Perladangan Tahap Keberuntungan pengembangan komersial kevakinan Sangat yakin Yakin Tidak pasti Tidak yakin Sangat tidak yakin

16.25 50.00 30.00 3.75

20.0 67.5 12.5

11.25 42.5 41.25

0

5.0

0

()

0

100.0

100.0

100.0

HarapanPetani Walaupun sebahagian besar petani berkeyakinan terhadap kejayaan projek, mereka tetap mengharapkan pihak KADA membahagikan semula lot tanah kepada keadaan asal seperti yang dijanjikan. Mereka tidak berpuas hati dengan masalah teknikal seperti penilaian tanah bagi urusanjualbeli dan pewarisan .Justeru itu, apabila diajukan soalan tentang harapan petani terhadap projek, didapati 22.5% mengharapkan KADA meneruskan atati mengambil alih pengurusan tanaman padi, 68.8% ingin mengusahakan tanaman mereka secara bebas seperti sebelum projek, dan 8.7% ingin mengusahakan sendiri tetapi memerlukan pengawasan dari pihak KADA. ANALISIS FAKTOR Teknik analisis faktor telah digunakan untuk menilai tanggapan petani tentang keberkesanan IADP menjalankan Projek Perintis KADA II. Beberapa soalan diajukan kepada responden bagi tujuan mendapatkan pandangan serta tanggapan mereka tentang keberkesanan projek. Soalansoalan tersebut termasuklah samaada projek vang disertai itu berkesan dalam meninggikan taraf hidup, meninggikan hasil pengeluaran, menyedia-

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

KAJIAN KEBERKESANAN PROJEK PEMBANGUNAN ESTET PADI DI KEIANTAN

JA0UAL7 Matrik korelasi faktor Angkubah

X|

X9

V

1 .()()()()

.6527 1.0000

.2929 .4202 1.0000 .3996 .3048 .2301

.6527 .2929 .4142 .4006 .0090

.4202 .4227 .2849 .0928

kan peluang pekerjaan, meningkatkan penerimaan teknologibaru,meningkatkan penggunaan inputpertanian yang baru dan menyediakan aktiviti pengembangan dan latihan. Soalan-soalan yang dikemukakan menggunakan lima kategori skala yaflg tersusun iaitu daripada skala sangat berkesan kepada sangat tidak berkesan. I'ntuk kajian ini prinsip komponen analisis faktordengan putaran 'ortogonal 1 telah digunakan. Bagi menyen an gkan penggunaan, makaangkubahangkubah yang digunakan ditukar kepada X , ,

.4142 .4227 .3996 1.0000 .6476 .1991

JADUAL9 Keputusan analisis komponen faktor

Xj = membantu meninggikan taraf hidup,

XL = menerima input-input pertanian baru, dan X6 = menyediakan aktiviti pengembangan dan latihan. Pekali matrik korelasi dan komunaliti jangkaan bagi setiap angkubah dalam sampel ditunjukkan dalamjadual 7 dan 8. JADUAL8

Komunaliti jangkaan bagi setiap angkubah dalam sampel Angkubah

Komunaliti jangkaan

XI X2 X3 X4 X5 X6

0.49605 0.89504 0.25720 0.59597 0.73339 0.12081

.0090 .0978 .2301 .1991 .3057 1.0000

Selepas memasukkan komunaliti jangkaan dalam pepenjuru utama bagi matrik korelasi, penyelesaian faktor yang terlibat adalah merujuk kepada gabungan nilaieigen dan vektoreigen. Jumlah nilai eigen yang dihasilkan sama dengan bilangan angkubah yang digunakan. Nilai eigen yang terbesar mewakili jumlah bahagian varians yang terbesar, nilai eigen yang kedua terbesar mewakili jumlah bahagian varians yang kedua besarnya dan begitulah seterusnya. Ini dapat dilihat dalamjadual 9.

X.sepertiberikut:

X9 = meninggikan basil pengeluaran tanaman, X,? = menyediakan peluang pekerjaan kepada keluarga dan penduduk setempat, X4 = menerima teknologi baru,

.4006 .2849 .3048 .6476 1.0000 .3057

Bil. faktor

1 2 3 4 5 6

Nilaieigen

2.78521 1.12588 0.79946 0.64838 0.37346 0.26761

% varians

46.4 18.8 13.3 10.8 6.2 4.5

Timbunan ' < vanans 46.4 65.2 78.5 89.3 95.5 100.0

Faktor 1 mempunyai nilai eigen 2.78521, faktor 2 nilai eigennya 1.12588 dan seterusnya hingga faktor 6 dan nilai eigen ini jika dijumlahkan bersamaan dengan 6 iaitu sama dengan jumlah angkubah yang digunakan. Dalam kajian ini teknik SPSS 'default' 1 telah digunakan bagi menentukanfaktoryangdisimpan seperti yang dilihat dalamjadual 9, di mana hanya dua faktor sahaja yang disimpan iaitu yang mempunyai nilai eigen lebih daripada 1.0. Keputusan analisis faktor yang dijalankan berdasarkan putaran 'varimax' dapat dilihat dalam Jadual 10. 3 SPSS 'default' menyimpan faktor yang mempunyai nilaian eigen lebih daripada 1.0. Dengan menggunakan

subpengatucaraan 'FACTOR1 dalam pengaturcaraan SPSS

bagi analisis faktor, maka ia secara automatik akan menghapuskan semua faktor yang mempunyai nilai eigen yang kurang daripada 1.0.

PERTANIKA VOL. 14 NO.l, 1991

115

MOHD. GHAZALl MOHAV1DIN DAN WAN AZAHARl WAN HARUN

JADUAL10 'Varimax' matrik faktor bagi tanggapan peserta terhadap keberkesanan projek Putaran Perkara

Skor

Beban 1

faktor 2

meninggikan taraf hidup

sangat berkesan

.66166

.08650

,

x,

meninggikan hasil tanaman

sangat berkesan

.99569

-.12751

menyediakan banyak peluangpekerjaan

berkesan

.32956

.26609

Angkubah

x

X

K

X

penerimaan teknologi baru

, sangat berkesan

25343

.62512

4

X

penerimaan input baru

sangat berkesan

.04139

83712

5

X

6

aktiviti pengembangan

berkesan

-.05798

.36938

Faktor

NilaiEigen

%Varians

1

2.78521

46.4

2

1.12588

65.2

Terdapat dua faktor yang menerangkan 65.2% jumlah keseluruhan varians. Faktor-faktor yang wujud dapat diterangkan berdasarkan corak kriteriamenurun. Faktor-faktorditentukan berdasarkan corak pembebanan faktor (factor loading) di mana pembebanan (loading) tertinggi diberi keutamaan. Berdasarkan analisis faktor ke atas data-data yang berhubung dengan tanggapan petani mengenai keberkesanan projek, didapati hanya angkubahangkubah XL, X^, X4 ,danX 5 menjadikomponen f aktor-faktor yang terpen ting. Berdasarkan kepadajadual 11, faktor 1 yang dikenal pasti sebagai perubahan pendapatan menunjukkan jumlah varians sebanyak 46.4%.

JADUAL 12 Inovasi pertanian

JADUAL11 Perubahan pendapatan

Angkubah Bebanan

Angkubah

Bebanan

Perkara

Skor

X2

0.996

X3

0.662

Meninggikan hasil tanaman Meninggikan taraf hidup

Sangat berkesan Sangat berkesan

Nilaieigen = 2.78521 Peratus = 46.4% T i m b u n a n p e r a t u s v a r i a n s = 46.4%

116

Faktormeninggikan hasil pengeluaran tanaman dan taraf hidup petani mempunyai bebanan tertinggi iaitu 0.996 dan 0.662. Oleh itu pada tanggapan petani projek ini berkesan dari segi menambah pendapatan mereka. Kesan projek ten tang perkara ini dapat dibuktikan oleh pengeluaran hasil per hektar yang telah bertambah dari 2.14 kepada 3.35 tan (Jadual 3). Faktor 2, yang dikenalpasti sebagai inovasi peftanian, memberikan jumlah varians sebanyak 18.8%. Faktor inovasi pertanian ialah untuk angkubah penerimaan input baru pertanian dan penerimaan teknologi baru yang masing-masing mempunyai bebanan 0.837 dan 0.625 (Jadual 12).

Perkara

Skor

X.

0.837

Penerimaan input pertanian baru

X4

0.625

Penerimaan teknologi Sangat baru berkesan

Nilaieigen = 1.12588 Peratus varians = 18.8% Timbunan peratus varians = 65.2%

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

Sangat berkesan

KAJIAN KEBERKESANAN PROJEK PEMBANGUNAN ESTET PADI DI KELANTAN

Parapetani menganggap projek ini berkesan dari segi meninggikan inovasi pertanian di kalangan mereka. Penerimaan input-input pertanian baru meliputi penggunaan benih baka baru, baja dan racun mengikut kadar-kadar yang telah ditetapkan. Penerimaan teknologi baru pula ialah galakan dalam menggunakan jentera penuai di samping jenterapembajak yang memang telah digunakan, sistem semaian dapog dan tabur terus bagi mengurangkan kos serta sistem pintu kawa 1 an air vang lebih sistematik untuk mengawal kuantiti air. Komponen faktor-faktor ini dianggap pen ting untukmenilaikeberkesanan projek berdasarkan tanggapan para petani. KESIMPULAN Di sepanjang tempoh perlaksanaan 1967-73, IADP di KADA gagal mencapai matlamat asalnya, terutama dari segi menyediakan kemudahan infrastruktur serta meningkatkan pengeluaran dan pendapatan petani. Setelah Projek Perintis KADA II dilaksanakan di beberapa tempat didalam kawasan IADP KADA, pencapaian matlamat asal IADP ditempat-tempat tersebut telah dapat diperbaiki. Kesan daripada pelaksanaan projek perintisini ialah kejayaannya dalam meningkatkan pengeluaran hasil per hektar, memberi kemudahan infrastruktur kepada petani dalam kawasan projek sertamenyeimbangkan kedudukan sosioekonomi petani. Peserta-peserta jugaberpendapatbahawa projek ini berkesan dari segi menambah pendapatan dan menyedarkan petani supaya menggunakan inovasi- inovasi baru di dalam kegiatan mereka. Sekiranya perkembangan ini berterusan dan usaha-usaha dalam bidang ini dapatdipertingkatkan serta dipergiatkan lagi maka matlamat utama Dasar Pertanian Negara khususnya di sektor padi akan dapat dicapai. Oleh itu adalah dicadangkan bahawa: (i) Perlaksanaan Projek Perintis KADA II haruslah diteruskan serta dikembangkan di kawasan KADA yang lain kerana kesan perlaksanaan dari projek ini menunjukkan penambahan hasil dan pendapatan. Walau bagaimanapun kos serta faedah perlaksanaan projek mestilah diteliti dengan mendalam terlebih dahulu. (ii) Kemudahan infi astruktur haruslah ditambah bagi mencapai kepadatan yang telah ditetapkan oleh IADP untuk memberi kemudahan kepada petani meningkatkan daya pengeluaran mereka.

Pencapaian masa kini masih belum mencapai matlamatasal IADP. (iii) Perlaksanaan projek ini melibatkan pembahagian serta penyusunan semula lot secarasementara. Bagi mengatasi masalahmasalahpentadbiran,urusanjualbeli serta masalah yang berkaitan dengan harta pesaka di pihak petani, disarankan satu pembahagian yang kekal dibuat. Geran asal haruslah digantikan dengan geran baru dan bagi petani-petani yang tanah mereka terpaksa diambil mestilah menerima bayaran pampasan. (iv) Dalam perancangan dan perlaksanaan projek, pendapat para petani dan masyarakat umum perlu diambil kira terutama sekali yang melibatkan kehidupan mereka. (v) Program-program serta aktiviti-aktiviti pengembangan haruslah dipergiatkan bagi mendedahkan lagi petani kepada teknik penanaman padi secara moden yang dapat meninggikan produktiviti. (vi) Penggunaan teknologi yang bersesuaian dengan keadaan setempat haruslah diperkenalkan kerana tidak semua teknologi baru sesuai dengan keadaan setempat. Umpamanya ada petani mendapati bahawa jentera penuai yang digunakan sekarang tidak sesuai bagi setengah-setengah tempat dalam kawasan KADA yang mempunyai struktur tanah yang lembut dan berlumpur. RUJUKAN DASAR PKRTANIAN NEGARA. 1984. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara. FORSLUILD, MORRIS. A. 1980, Patterns of Deliquency Involvement: An Empirical Typology. Kertaskerja yang dibentangkan di Annual Anthropologists, Lethbridge, Alberto. KAJIAN SEPARUH PERTANIAN MALAYSIA.

1984. Kuala

Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara. 1984. Dasar Pertanian Negara, Strategi Pembangunan di Sektor Padi. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.

KEMENTERIAN PERTANIAN MALAYSIA.

1987. Laporan Kemajuan Rancangan Pembangunan Pertanian Bersepadu, Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.

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MOHD. GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN DAN WAN AZAHARI WAN HARUN

KENNETH, H.B. 1983. Modelling Farm Decisions for Policy Analysis. Colorado: Western Press Inc.

RANCANGAN MALARIA KELIMA 1986-90. 1986. Kuaj

KJM,JAE-ON. 1975. Factor Analysis, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. New York: McGraw Hill.

STEWART, D. W. 1981, T h e Applications anc

Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara. Misapplications of Factor Analysis in Marketing Research. Journal of Marketing Research (Feb).

KIM.JAE-ON dan CHARI.ES MUELLER. 1978. Introduction

to Factor Analysis: What it is and How to do it. California: Sage Paper Series. KIM, J.O., N. NIE and S. VERBA. 1977. A Note of Factor Analyzing Nichotomous Variables: The Case of Political Participation. Political Methodology 4:39-62. KLECKA, WILLIAM. R. 1980. Discriminant Analysis. California : Sage Publications.

UNIT PERANCANG

EKONOMI

NEGERI.

1985. DaJ

Pertanian Negara dan Strategi Pembangunan Sekti Pertanian di Negeri Kelantan, Kota Bharu: Pejaba Setiausaha Kerajaan.

VELICER, W.F. 1975. The Relation between Factori Scores, Image Scores, and Principal Componerr Scores. Educational and Pyschological Movernm 36:149-159.

LEMBAGAKEMAJUAN PERTANIAN KEMUBU. 1987.Taklimat

Jabatan dan Agensi Kementerian Pertanian, Bukit Kiara,Jabatan Percetakan Negara. RANCANGAN MALA\SIA KEEMPAT 1981-85. 1981. Kuala

Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.

118

PERTANIKAVOL. 14NO.1, 1991

(Diterima 12Januarit 1989

PertanikaH(2), 119-124(1991)

Pf Growth and Physiological Changes of NFT-Grown Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) as Influenced by Salinity, Vapour Pressure Deficit (VPD) and Root Temperature. I. MOHDRAZI 1 and S.W. BURRAGE2 Department of Agronomy and Horticulture Universiti Pertanian Malaysia 43400 UPMSerdang, SelangorDarulEhsan Malaysia. 1

2

Wye College, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, England. Keywords: Lycopersicon esculentum; salinity; vapour pressure deficit; root temperature; growth; water relation; photosynthesis. ABSTRAK Kesan kepekatan larutan nutrien, deficit tekanan wap dan suhu larutan ke atas pertumbuhan dan prosesfisilogibagi tanaman tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill cv. Counter)yangditanamdalamsistemteknik aircetek(NFT) telah dikaji. Tanaman telah diberi rawatan kepekatan larutan nutrien (2.5 mS/cm 8.5 mS/cm), deficit tekanan wap (0,16kPa; 0.80 kPa) dan suhu larutan (12° C,22° C). Pertumbuhan daun dan akar dikurangkan apabila tanaman ditanam pada kepekatan larutan tinggi, deficit tekanan wap rendah dan suhu larutan rendah. Pengurangan pertumbuhan daun oleh kepekatan tinggi dan suhu yang rendah adalah dihasilkan dart kesan tegasan airyang ditunjukkan dengan pengurangan potensi air dan pengambilan air oleh tanaman. Pengurangan kadar tranpirasi menghalangpergerakan nutrien tanaman yang ditanam dalam keadaan deficit tekanan wap rendah menyebabkan pengurangan pertumbuhan daun. Konduksi stomata mengurang bila tanaman ditanam pada kepekatan larutan tinggi, deficit tekanan wap tinggi dan suhu larutan yang rendah. Walau bagaimanapun, pengurangan oleh deficit tekanan wap tinggi dan suhu rendah tidak menjejaskan kadarfotosintesis bagi seunit luas daun. ABSTRACT

The effects of salinity, vapour pressure deficit (VPD)and root temperature were investigated on the growth and physiological processes ofNFT-grown tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill cv Counter). The plants were expos to two levels of salinity (2.5 mS/cm; 8.5 mS/cm), VPD (0.16 kPa; 0.80 kPa) and root temperature (12 °C; 22° C). Lea and root growth werereduced whenplants were grown at high salinity, low VPD and lowroot temperature. The reduct in leaf growth at high salinity and low root temperature was attributed to the water stress effect indicated by a reductio in leafwater potential and plant water uptake. The reduction in transpiration rate which limits the transfer of nutrient in the plants contributes to the reduction in leaf growth at low VPD. Stomatal conductance was reduced when plants were grown at high salinity, high VPD and low root temperature. This reduction at low VPD and low root temperature however, did not affect the leaf photosynthesis rate per unit leaf area. INTRODUCTION Nutrient film technique (NFT) of growing plants is described as the most sophisticated technology yet conceived for improvement and control of crop production in the greenhouse (Wittwer 1980). In NFT-grown tomatoes, salinity and root temperature were manipulated to improve growth and fruit development. High salinity was reported to produce deleterious as well as beneficial effects

on tomatoes (Costa etal 1986; Adams 1987). High salinity increased the osmotic potential of root environment. As a result, water uptake is reduced, resulting in an internal water deficit in plants creating an effect similar to that of plants exposed to drought conditions. Plant growth and development were also increased with increasing root temperatures (Cooper 1973;Papadopuolos andTiensen 1987). This