Idea Transcript
Maria Galli Stampino
Bodily Boundaries Represented: the Petrarchan, the Burlesque and Ar-
cimboldo's Example*
The purpose of the following study
is to
expand along chronologic and thematic
made by Elizabeth Cropper in an essay published in 1986 entitled "The Beauty of Woman: F*roblems in the Rhetoric of Renaissance Portraiture." In it, Cropper analyzes the relationship between women's portraits and lines the claims
courtly love poetry in Renaissance Italy and reaches a notable conclusion with respect to the role of the female subject in both these domains. She recognizes that Renaissance
women's
vis-à-vis their subject,
portraits contain nothing natural or
much
like love poetry of the period, in
Gareth Walters' characterization) "the
mode
even naturalistic
which
use D.
(to
of detailing the lady's qualities
is
a
highly stylized one .... She represents an ideal beauty, a symbol of perfection"
Neoplatonic tendencies went, obviously, hand
(73).
that the various poetical descriptions of physical
beloved further tiful
woman
by
even
less real
and more
ideal.
in
hand with
this trend, so
bodily) details render the
(i.e.,
However, Cropper goes one
step
asserting that the ultimate goal of literary and visual portraits of beau-
women
did not consist in the celebration of beauty in
the praise of the male artist's ability to represent
these representations
is
male narcissism, while
it.
its
purest form, but in
Consequently, the subject of
their object is the absent
woman
(190).i
The expand
intent of the present paper is twofold.
my
well as in Italy (with other,
I
On
the
one hand,
I
would
like to
analysis to the poetical production of the Baroque period, in Spain as
some examples from France and England,
too).
On
the
contend that a careful consideration of the burlesque poetical production
of the times could yield fruitful results in the current effort of mapping the representational strategies at
work
in the poetical
and visual
portraits in early
modem
culture.
My
claim
is
that in the
Baroque period there
is
a notable convergence of rep-
resentational strategies between the lyrical and the burlesque domains; in particu-
both utilize the clichés and patterns inherited from the previous
lar,
literary pro-
duction but do so only superficially. In other words, the pre-existent poetical
forms are self
filled
with
new
"contents," that are particular to the Baroque period
it-
and that cover a larger domain than the Renaissance ones.
Within the Petrarchan tradition of
lyrical poetry, a cursory analysis
QUADERNI daalicuustica Volume XVl, No.
1.
1995
of a few
Maria Galli Stampino
62
sonnets of the Baroque period reveals a striking tendency towards inorganicism in the descriptions
manos
of the beauty of the beloved. In Góngora's
cristalinas" (445), not only are the
has been extracted by
"Amor
.
.
amada's hands
"Ya besando unas
crystalline, but her hair
from
entre el oro de sus minas" ["Love
.
golden mines"], 2 her teeth are "perlas finas" ["fine pearls"] and her
kisses that are "purpureas rosas sin temor de espinas" ["purple roses free
Quevedo's love poems, we encounter
fear of thorns"]. In
("Bastabale
from the
lips that are rubies
are "relampagos
clavel" 151), smiles that
al
his
lips dispense
... de purpura"
["flashes of purple"], hair defined as "oro de tu frente" ["gold of your brow"]
("Al oro de tu frente" 156), and an entire description of the face of the
amada
in
which the only organic elements are yet again, roses and carnations: Crespas hebras, sin ley desenlazadas,
que un tiempo tuvo entre
las
manos Midas;
en nieve estrellas negras encendidas,
y cortésmente en paz de ella guardadas. Rosas a abril y mayo anticipadas, de
la injuria del
tiempo defendidas;
auroras en la risa amanecidas,
con avaricia del clavel guardadas. (169)
[Curly fibers, untied in a discomposed manner.
Once held by Midas' Black
stars
on
hands;
fire in the
snow.
Kept safe from it with gallantry. Roses advanced to April and May, Protected from the offense of time;
Dawns
appearing from your laughs.
Watched over by Parallel descriptions can be
In
"Donna che
si
a carnation, with cupidity.]
found
in the Italian
"aureo mar" combed by a "navicella d'avorio"
production in Marino's sonnets.
woman's hair is "onde dorate" of an d'avorio" (the comb) held by "una man pur
pettina" (Getto 1.224) the
— where
it
is
noteworthy that for the poet, there
is
no difference
in
texture or material between the tool and the lady's hand. In "Pianto e riso" (Getto
1.226) the eyes ("I'umidette stelle") claim their primacy over the asserting that
maintains
its
from them flows "di vive perle
superiority
mouth by
oriental ricchezza," yet the latter
by merely "disserrando quelle
/
porte d'un bel rubino in
duo diviso." Albeit inorganic elements such as those highlighted above are original to this
kind of poetry,^
in their earlier
usage they tended
to
be linked to the cruelty ex-
pressed by the lady vis-à-vis the unacknowledged or rejected lover-poet.^ In the early seventeenth century, however, this parallelism crumbles, so that the inor-
Bodily Boundaries Represented
63
ganic images traditionally associated with rejection, coldness and cruelty are
employed independently of clear instance of this cristalinas,"
is
the situation for
A
Góngora's already cited sonnet "Ya besando unas manos
where the white, polished neck and
an aubade: precisely
now
which the poem was composed.
moment when
at the
hands are praised
crystal-like
the poet is kissing his beloved's
in
hand
and neck ... .
.
.
oh claro Sol invidioso hiriéndome los ojos,
tu luz
mató mi
gloria
y acabó mi
suerte. (445)
[Oh, bright, envious Sun,
Your
A
wounding
light,
Killed
my
my
eyes.
my
glory and sealed
fate.]
similar observation applies to the cosmologica! elements of Neoplatonic as-
cendance tered in
that are traditional in Petrarchan poetry
Baroque
times.
A
single
example
and
that can
still
be encoun-
will suffice to delineate the extent of
the hollowness of these stereotypical images in Marino's poetry: the fictional "I"
of the sonnet saw
... nel sol de le luci uniche e sole intento, e preso dagli aurati stami,
volgersi quasi un girasole
This tercet
is filled
il
with those seemingly empty paronomasiae, polyptotons and
antistases
which contributed powerfully
altogether
common
then,
we
sole. (Getto 1.215)
until at least the
to the
are faced with a series of clichés that
in the Petrarchan tradition,
was
readily available to the poets
but that had been depleted of
meaning and relevance. What
is left is
much of
its
with any
fill
new meaning
they
fit.^
A
similar situation emerges
tremendous following
in the
from another
tradition of lyric poetry that
Baroque period: the burlesque.
If
we keep
Cropper's contention that Renaissance portraiture and love poetry aim ing the author's art and at erasing the ject of the painting or of the
a highly attractive poetic
The
original
the silhouette of these traditional meta-
phors and metonymies, which poets could then
saw
defamation of Baroque poetry,
beginning of the twentieth century.^ Overall,
woman
poem), then
mode
it
in
had
mind
at glorify-
(no longer the subject, but the ob-
becomes
clear that the burlesque
for any artist aspiring to his
own
was
aggrandizement.
uglier, or the least canonical, the object of representation, the bigger the
challenge for the
artist to
legitimize
it
by portraying
consequently, the higher the reward for the
artist
it
in painting or poetry,
and
succeeding in this task. The
Renaissance vogue of burlesque poetry converges with a rediscovery of classical
Maria Galli Stampino
64
adoxology
(or
mock encomium)
(Martin 48-49) to provide the Baroque period
with plenty of opportunities and justifications for engaging in this poetic endeavor.
There are various degrees
which Baroque poets adapted Petrarchan clichés
to
Marino's poetic corpus
to eccentric topics. In
ling the beauty of a slave
we
find a sonnet devoted to extol-
woman. What makes
this subject matter particularly
— and
suitable for a representation along, as well as against, Petrarchan lines
—
therefore especially challenging to the poet
amination hair
is
black.
the fact that the slave under ex-
The Petrarchan bric-à-brac of
and marble-like neck has
sative conjunction
is
ma,
in the
very
ma
sì,
fra le belle
first line),
lily
white skin, golden blond
emerges from the forceful adver-
(as
thus making the praise
and for the audience
difficult for the poet to achieve
Nera
be reversed
to
all
the
more
to
deny
to accept.
o di natura
se' bella,
d'amor leggiadro mostro;
fosca è l'alba appo
te,
perde e s'oscura
presso l'ebeno tuo l'avorio e l'ostro.
Or quando, vide
sì
or dove
mondo
il
viva mai, sentì
o luce uscir
di
sì
antico o
il
nostro
pura
tenebroso inchiostro,
o di spento carbon nascere arsura? Serva di chi m 'è serva, ecco ch'avolto porto di bruno laccio
il
core intorno,
che per candida
man non
La
o
've più ardi,
fia
mai
un Sole è nato; un
Sol, che nel bel volto
porta la notte, ed ha negli occhi
Marino
them
clearly this
—
cites
many common
in the case at
hand;
il
giorno. (Croce 105)
attributes of the Petrarchan
in particular,
we ought
amata only
to notice that the
on the opposition light-darkness, and on the paradoxical
black
woman
gives
more
a sharp antithesis to the
which the for the
sciolto.
Sol, sol per tuo scorno
fair
and
to the
enamored
world than the sun
(1.2), i.e.
is far
itself
numerous claims of previous Petrarchan poetry
poet, as well as the center of his universe.
from being
derisive: the slave
is,
is
assertion that
complexion and the eyes of the beloved were the source of
sonnet, however,
mostro"
light to the poet
emphasis
in
all light
The tone of Marino's after all, a "leggiadro
an object worth observing, a thing of beauty and leggiadria.
Properly speaking, then, this
is
not a burlesque poem, but simply one where the
author stretches ready-made topoi to express his fictional feelings.
Another challenging and popular subject matter for burlesque poetry
Baroque period are old women. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza wrote net about "una vieja que se tenia por hermosa" ["an old hag beautiful"]
which
is
a
who
in the
a caudate son-
reputed herself
deformed description rather than an attempt
at
using Pe-
trarchan clichés in a creative, novel way. Indeed, the representation of this old
Bodily Boundaries Represented
woman
from being subsumed
far
is
emerges
in
gives us a long
list
same glorifying tone
in the
Marino's sonnet on the black
65
slave.
that clearly
Hurtado de Mendoza instead
of elements that characterize the old
woman
under scrutiny,
an openly mocking tone: she has "très cabellos no mas, y un sol diente,
pechos de zigarra propriamente,
/
en que ay telas de aranas y de aranos" ["Three
strands of hair, and no more, and only one tooth, / Breasts
hopper, filled
/
Where
are to be found
with "tantas rugas" ["so
and oversized
(11.7-8);
cobwebs and
many
wrinkles"]
even her smell
(Martin 198).^ Indeed, the
elicits a
last tercet
which single element
is
fit
more
for a grass-
brow
scratches"] (11.2-4); her (1.6),
while her mouth
is
to
negative and scoffing remark (1.12)
look carefully
responsible for the old
de todo quanto oys no os
is
empty
crowns the sonnet by accentuating the
anybody who were
that the poet (in fact,
in
/ los
woman's
fact
cannot decide
at her)
lack of beauty:
falta cosa:
dezid que os falta para ser hermosa.
[Of
all
you hear you lack nothing: what you lack to be beautiful.]
Tell us then
A
typically laudatory line (the second to last one) is rendered ironic
by the pre-
ceding enumeration, and the crowning touch comes from the repetition of falta. is
the old hag herself
entry into the
who
domain of Petrarchan beauty.
Hurtado de Mendoza 's sonnet
clear difference in tone
woman
directly,
is
much more blatant in its indictment of its poems on viejas. One of the reasons for this
is
subject matter than Quevedo's love
old
the fact that Hurtado de
in turn,
sonnets
come
more
to
Mendoza 's poem
while Quevedo's usually avoid
tion, then, the subject matter is spared the
comes,
It
receives the task of choosing the elements that bar her
produc-
open jeers of the author, but she be-
more inconspicuous,
transparent,
addresses the
this. In the latter's
mind: the one entitled "Pinta
el
that
is,
more
absent.
'Aqui fue Troya' de
la
Two
Hermo-
sura" ["He paints the 'Here Troy used to stand' of Beauty"] (203), and the quat-
"En cuévanos, sin cejas y pestaiias" (21 1-12). Quevedo teases an old woman's attempts to look younger by way of an excessive amount of cosmetics. Even if some of the usual Petrarchan
rains of the
one
starting
In the first one,
attributes are present
ample
—
— her
face
they are linked with
lesque tradition: her hair
is
is
"bianca nieve" ["white snow"]
some of
silver (1.4)
(1.1),
for ex-
the traits already encountered in the Bur-
and her complexion
almidonado de gargajo" ["carnation starched with phlegm"]
is
likened to "clavel
(1.8),
thus fusing to-
gether a perfectly acceptable element of Petrarchan description (the carnation)
with the element of
made
is
artificiality (the cloth
starched, so that the old
ful skin) as
woman
with which the
manmade
flower
is
can maintain the pretense of her beauti-
well as with a repulsive term, inappropriate in the Petrarchan tradition
Maria Galli Stampino
66 (the gargajo, or phlegm). In
direct
"En cuévanos," however,
the criticism
is
much more
and pointed:
En cuévanos,
sin cejas
y pestanas,
ojos de vendimiar tenéis, agiiela;
cuero de Fregenal, muslos de suela; piemas y cono son toros y canas. Las nalgas son dos porras de espadaiias; afeitâis la caraza de chinela con diaquilón y humo de la vela,
y luego dais
la teta a las aranas.
[As on the bottom of baskets, without eyebrows or eyelashes.
You
have, old hag, eyes
fit
for a grape harvest;
Skin from Fregenal, thighs of tanned leather;
Your legs and cunt are fit for bulls and look like reeds. Your buttocks are two clubs made of reed-mace;
You shave your With
plaster
slipper-like face
and candle smoke.
And readily you The
direct address in line
old hag's head
is
two soon gives way
deprived of
of drunkenness; her skin
give your breast to the spiders.]
is
to an
impersonal description: the
eyes are dark and possibly showing signs
hair, her
as hard as leather, and her thighs are far
from
flexible
and supple. Even bodily parts accurately avoided by love poets (buttocks and breasts,
which are not designated as such but with a more colloquial and offen-
sive equivalent) surface here and are accurately observed, so as to
whole
portrait
more
That the mocking portrait of the old
woman had become
rather than a casual disruption of a Petrarchan
Donne's Elegy this
9,
"The Autumnall."
composition as one of the
conversely see
it
as an
last
examples
the
in the
this elegy
poems
largely a cliché, attested
by John
Mario Praz construed
in this poetical trend (1 15),
we
can
to
was
"first printed
which
it
and thus
entitled in
belongs "are often thought to
mid- 1590s" (Donne 135).^ Consequently, "The
Autumnall" can be legitimately viewed in
is
early vitality of the burlesque exploitation
1633" (Donne 152), the group of poems
have been composed
commonplace,
In spite of the fact that
example of the
of Petrarchan modes. Although
of Petrarchan topoi
make
bizarre and less canonical.
as an early attestation of the exploitation
other than love ones.
The tone of Donne's elegy 9 can be If transitory things,
easily gathered
from
its last
which soone decay,
Age must be lovelyest at the latest But name not Winter-faces, whose
day. skin's slacke;
Lanke, as an unthrifts purse; but a soules sacke;
sixteen lines:
^
Bodily Boundaries Represented
67
Whose Eyes seeke light within, for all here's shade; Whose mouthes are holes, rather worne out, then made; Whose every tooth to a severall place is gone. To vexe their soules at Resurrection;
Name
not these living Death-heads unto mee,
For these, not Ancient, but Antique be. hate extreames; yet I had rather stay With Tombs, then Cradles, to weare out I
Since such loves motion natural
My love descend, Not panting I
shall
after
is,
growing beauties,
ebbe out with them, here
is
Donne
is
woman's
is
appearance,
still
no longer
taut is
not his main concern; the skin, after
(1.38). ff the
own
art,
old
woman
all,
described in "The
but ad majorem Dei gloriam, so to speak.
also interesting to notice that "a
Paradox of an ould woman'" for the interpretation that
woman was
Donne's concerns is
she tends to become transparent and inconspicuous: seemingly
not to benefit the poet's is
skin
appreciated for her inward substance rather than for her outward
Autumnall"
It
is
a transcendent meaning, so
by Diego Hurtado de Mendoza and
as in the sonnets
"but a soules sacke"
goe. (154)
derisive, reflects
with morality and mortality. The fact that the
Quevedo, since outward appearance
hill.
so,
endowed with
description
from being mocking and
for
still
who home-ward
that the tone, far
Donne
a day.
and journey downe the
The old woman's
not derided by
may
this
few
MSS
elegy (Donne
provide
152); this
Donne's usage of Petrarchan clichés
eccentric for his contemporaries,
who
titles
such as 'A
could corroborate vis-à-vis
an old
could only read these poetic
compositions along the lines of the burlesque and the paradoxical. Indeed, paradoxical portraits of the beloved
sonnet tradition,
and had a following
woman in the
surface fairly early in the Italian
Spanish Baroque production.
I
am
of
course alluding to Francesco Bemi's "Sonetto alla sua Donna," a precocious
example of paradoxical usage of many Petrarchan clichés of the beloved:
Chiome d'argento
fino, irte e attorte
Senz'arte intorno ad un bel viso d'oro;
Fronte crespa, u' mirando io mi scoloro.
Dove spunta Occhi
Da
i
suoi
strali
Amor e
Morte;
di perle vaghi, luci torte
ogni obietto diseguale a loro;
Ciglia di neve, e quelle, ond'io m'accoro.
Dita e
man dolcemente
Labra di
latte,
Denti d'ebeno
grosse e corte;
bocca ampia
celeste;
rari e pellegrini;
Inaudita ineffabile armonia;
Costumi altèri e gravi: a voi, divini Servi d'Amor, palese fo che queste
Maria Galli Stampino
68
Son
The tone so
far.
is
le
bellezze della donna mia. (Martin 190)
again different from that characterizing the
Since the
sonnet aims
woman
described by
Bemi
is
poems we have examined
admittedly his beloved (1.14), the
describing her using Petrarchan topoi that at
at
first
pounded:
brow, eyes, eyebrows, hands, fingers,
hair,
lips,
com-
sight look
pletely plausible. All the canonical features are taken into consideration
mouth,
teeth,
and exand her
general demeanor. Furthermore, most sanctioned attributes are present here:
sil-
ver and gold, pearls and snow, milk, a pale blue color, ebony. Bemi's innovation consists in the fact that he bestows on each physical feature an attribute that is
unusual in the Petrarchan vein;
amata, one that
Bemi audience.
and
is
utilizes yet
He
this
way, he builds a paradoxical
indeed difficult to visualize
in the reader's
portrait
of his
mind.
another strategy with respect to direct address of his implied
Love
identifies the latter in the coterie of his friends, all devoted to
to loving similar beauties.
More
than a criticism of the object of the sonnet,
"Chiome d'argento" can be construed
as a direct attack against the Petrarchan
school of love poetry and as an attempt to legitimize
its
alternative, the so-called
"berneschi." It is
not by coincidence,
intrigued ian:
I
am
by Bemi's sonnet
I
"Chiome d'argento" at the
is
what
remarkably different
is
is
falls
more
it
into Castil-
The elements
at the
are
once again the tone.
a tongue-in-cheek raillery of his beloved, arguably
Petrarchan tradition than
aimed
object of his description, as can be
gathered from the abstract terms on 1.11 and, in general, the
crespos"
sigh de oro was
and adapting
referring to Baltasar del Alcazar's "Cabellos crespos."
largely similar to Bemi's, but
more
believe, that a Spanish poet of the
to the point of translating
clearly in the burlesque category
last tercet;
by virtue of
"Cabellos
its last
two
lines:
Si lo
que vemos publico es tan
bello,
jContemplad, amadores, lo secreto! (Martin 202)
[If
what we see openly
is
so
fair,
Contemplate, lovers, the secret Baltasar leaves
much
part!]
unsaid, and not because he has run out of lines
if
he
is to
respect the sonnet form; instead of ending the composition on a light, yet sympathetic tone like
Bemi, Baltasar tums the poem into something very similar to the viejas by Quevedo and Hurtado de Mendoza. In any
mocking descriptions of case, both in
exploited to
"Chiome d'argento" and "Cabellos crespos" Petrarchan clichés are form an absurd, paradoxical picture, one that does not seem to have
a possible visualization.
We seem to
be able to reach the same conclusion for the
burlesque tradition as with Petrarchan poetry proper: these female images de-
Bodily Boundaries Represented
69
scribe only the outline, the silhouette of their object, so that the poet
them with any elements he deems Just as Italian
is
free to
fill
poetic, or mocking, enough.
Cropper points out the discrepancies between
Renaissance, in the later poetic tradition
we
portraits
and
sitters in the
detect a gap (indeed, in the
case of the burlesque, a chasm) between the woman-object and her representation in poetic
compositions. However, in the Baroque period the series of poetic and
pictorial portraits that maintain the contour of the object of description while filling
it
with various and sundry elements
most blatant example Cabra
in
in
not limited to female subjects. The
is
literature is the description
Quevedo's El Buscon (book
1
,
chapter
El era un clérigo cerbatana, largo sólo en el
of the infamous warden
3):
talle,
una cabeza pequena, pelo ber-
mejo (no hay mas que decir para quien sabe el refrân), los ojos avecindados en el cogote, que parecia que miraba por uévanos, tan hundidos y escuros, que era buen sitio el
suyo para tiendas de mercaderes;
la nariz, entre
Roma y
rancia,
porque se
le
habïa comido de unas bûas de resfriado, que aun no fueron de vicie porque cuestan dinero; las barbas descoloridas de
miedo de
la
boca vecina, que, de pura hambre,
parecîa que amenazaba a cernersela; los dientes, le faltaban no sé cuântos, y pienso que por holgazanes y vagamundos se los habîan desterrado; el gaznate largo corne
de avestruz, con una nuez tan de
la necesidad; los
que parecîa se iba a buscar de comer forzata
salida,
brazos secos, las
manos come un manojo de sarmientos cada
una. (97-98)
[He was a peashooter-scholar, notable only in his length; he had a small head and (I do not have to add anything for those who know the proverb). His eyes were so sunken in his head that he seemed to look out of deep baskets, so profound
red hair
and obscure they were; they would have been
Roman and
shop. His nose was between the
away by rheum
(but
it
He was
for the
could not have been vice, as
white with fear of the adjacent mouth, as the
pure hunger.
fit
missing
awnings of a tradesman's
the French type, having been eaten it
latter
costs money). His beard
looked ready to eat
do not know how many
I
teeth,
was
out of
it
banished in
my
opinion for being lazy and vagabonds. His neck was as big as an ostrich's, and his
Adam's apple was so prominent find some food. His arms were
that
it
looked as though
it
was
straining forward to
withered, and each hand looked like a bundle of
twigs.]
Since Quevedo
in this novelistic
passage
is
remarkably free of clichés to follow,
contrary to love poetry, his fancy depicts Cabra in
than what
we have
head and neck,
seen so
filled
far.
much more
Truly, what the reader "sees"
imaginative terms is
the outline of a
with disparate objects: the merchants' tent that shadows
Cabra's eyes; his mustaches, embodied and fleeing from the mouth for fear of
being eaten; his teeth, so few and
far in
between
that the rest
iled; his
Adam's apple prominent
on.
also worthwhile noticing that Cabra's portrait
It is
must have been exand so
as if looking for food outside the neck;
by no means stops
neck; similar equivalents are given for his gait, his hat, and his clothes,
at the
among
Maria Galli Stampino
70 others.
unclear, however, if this is a function of a different subject matter for
It is
the description (a
which In
man, instead of the Petrarchan lady) or of
the different genre to
this description belongs.
Quevedo's passage, then, the whole body
tendency
we
identified in the poetic traditions.
more domain could be
invested with the deforming
is
It is
besides poetry and portraits: staged performances. studied the
phenomenon of
worth mentioning that one
gamer more examples of
fruitfully exploited to
this trend,
Mark Franko has
recently
courtly ballets at the French court, and in the case of
burlesque ballets he describes dancers garbed in costumes that highlighted, ex-
panded and "reduced the body
[of the dancer] to
one anatomical
an enormous head or legs walking without a trunk" (80). posite, yet corresponding, trend to the etry: instead in
one observed
of preserving boundaries while
filling
feature, such as
We witness here an
in lyrical
op-
and burlesque po-
them with disparate elements,
French burlesque ballets the boundaries are erased so that one element can
gain the upper hand on
all
the others.'^
un hombre de gran nariz" ["To a
man
Almost
naturally,
Erase un hombre a una nariz pegado, erase una nariz superlativa, erase una alquitara
medio
viva,
erase un peje espada mal barbado; era un reloj de sol mal encarado, erase un elefante boca arriba, erase una nariz sayón y escriba,
un Ovidio Nasón mal narigado. Erase un espolón de una galera, erase una piramide de Egito, los
doce tribus de narices
era;
erase un naricismo infinito, frison archinariz, caratulera,
sabanón garrafal, morado y
[There was a
man
frito.
(188)
stuck to a nose.
was a superlative nose. It was a half-alive alembic, It was a swordfish with an ugly beard; It was a sundial with an ugly face. It was an elephant with a high mouth. It was a nose-executioner and a nose-scribe. An Ovid Naso with an ugly nose. It was a galley's ram. It was an Egyptian pyramid, It was the twelve tribes of noses; It was an infinite nosism. It
Quevedo's sonnet "A
with a big nose"] comes to mind:
Bodily Boundaries Represented
71
A Phrygian arch-nose, maker of masks, A tremendous chilblain, purple and fried.] In the case of the French burlesque ballets the object of representation can
male or female, without the gender limitations
either
and
that are already
much
be
mark Petrarchan poetry
that
burlesque domain, as proven by
less fixed in the
Quevedo's sonnet about the man-nose.^^ In order to
come
to
some general conclusions with
covered by Cropper's essay,
it is
necessary that
we
respect to the entire field
consider
some
portraits that
can be deemed contemporaneous to the Baroque poetical production that has constituted the core of our analysis so
far.
There
is
one
artist
whose production
deserves such sustained attention: Giuseppe Arcimboldo, official portraitist of the imperial court in Prague in the years 1562-87. His "Vertumnus" (which portrait of
Emperor Rudolph H,
sent to
Mario Praz, an appropriate emblem
him
in
Prague
1591)
in
is,
is
also a
according to
between the
for the transitional phase
late
Renaissance and the Baroque:
Se una figura mitologica è
Proteo egli ha la mutabilità,
ma
barocco, questo è Vertumno. Di
il
Proteo è già mutabilità assoluta, pieno gioco di
forme, essenza del barocco; Vertumno è vista d'un fine,
emblematicamente quella fase della
atta a rappresentare
cultura che sta tra l'ultimo Rinascimento e
cambia più volte
meno
sfrenato, esperimenta mutazioni in
sua figura per entrar nelle grazie della bella
la
Pomona, cioè personifica il mutare delle culture per ottenere la fertilità dei campi raffigurata in Pomona, la dea dei frutti. E così l'età che egli è atto a impersonare è caratterizzata da una serie di tentativi, di atteggiamenti, di assaggi di ninfa
nuovi accordi, che preludono a quella che sarà poi
Vertumno è un personaggio
—
in
keeping with traditional interpretations of the Baroque
ful analysis
Over
and hermetic exegesis of his composite
Cacciari in a 1987 article,
approach as more productive
my
a
more
fruit-
language. Just as in the fulness from
phonemes
Arcimboldo's work
we
latter
to
we
words
in this context.
proposed by
According
to his interpretation,
articulation that is distinctive of
identify an increased complexity and to
poems
(or literary
works
meaning-
in general), so in
witness the progress from points to objects to portraits.
therefore possible for the painter to
It
work with metaphors, metonymies, and
any other poetic tropos as poets do (24-26). Consequently,
Arcimboldo's
portraits,
analysis favors Roland Barthes's linguis-
Arcimboldo bestows on painting the multiple
is
—
needs to address the distinctive characters of Arcimboldo's paintings.
a Foucaultian
Massimo tic
piena orchestra del barocco.
Praz emphasizes, in the subject matter of Vertumnus, the aspect of mutabil-
If ity
la
di Arcimboldi. (33)
portraits yield a richer harvest of
meaning
in Barthes's analysis,
to their
viewers than a
conventional, realistic (yet, as Cropper has shown, idealized) one.^^ It is
tive
worthwhile noting that while Arcimboldo's followers repeated his figura-
schemes or transposed them
to
landscape painting (thereby virtually revert-
ing to the antecedent tradition),^^ his approach revolutionizes the field of portrai-
Maria Galli Stampino
72
much more
ture, a
sensitive domain, precisely because
long philosophical and iconographical
unusual case of a courtly
who
tradition.
it
was associated with a
Arcimboldo presents us with the
the official portrait painter of the Hapsburg court,
artist,
plays with the expectations of his patrons. ^'^ According to Giancarlo Maiori-
monograph on Arcimboldo,
no, author of the most recent
was responding
in a
remarkably personal way
to a tension
the Milanese painter
running through his
times:
To maintain some
sense of order, knowledge often was reduced to an inventory of was stored in the only frame of order: the canvas itself. Form became catalogue, which would present unusual things without having to interpret them. In reality that
Arcimboldo's
art,
man is not an idea man would take
an anatomical vessel,
We
should keep
mind
in
Wunderkammern and traits are
and
primarily tools to
insists
make
of
sense of and envision a
seems
to strengthen
at glorifying their
new
order for the world
Cropper's contention that
authors while erasing their object,
on man as the foremost subject matter of Arcimboldo's work, a
rather objectionable assertion.
Along with the akeady mentioned Vertumnus, one
of Arcimboldo's most successful portraits ery.
As
heap of objects. (58)
that these are also the times of the popularity
Renaissance portraits aimed
Maiorino
in a
studioli}^ according to Maiorino, then, Arcimboldo's por-
objects. ^^ If this assertion
its
but a shape, and a grotesque one at that.
Both paintings are praised
delfine della pittura, the
among his Ambrogio Figino,
first
in
is that
a painter in real
expert of literature,
if
//
Pigino overo
document of Arcimboldo's popularity and appre-
peers and contemporaries.
ciation
of Flora, the goddess of green-
Gregorio Comanini's dialogue
life,
The
fictional character
Giovanni
asks Stefano Guazzo, a cavalier and an
Arcimboldo's paintings can be considered
as expressing
"fantastica imitazione":
E
perché no? anzi, ingegnosissimo pittor fantastico e commendabile sommamente.
Che
se bene la favola, così di Flora
come
di
Vertunno,
gli è stata
somministrata di
da poeti che l'hanno imitata col verso, e da altri pittori che l'hanno dipinta; capriccio et invenzion sua nondimeno è stato il formare una donna che tutta sia fiori, et un uomo che tutto sia frutti; cosa che non aveva l'essere in alcun altro infuori, e
telletto.
(257)
Comanini, through the words of Guazzo, recognizes
came
part of
one of the Seasons
tive topic for a painting; 1^
ment of the mythological tion that he himself
nied
it
to
Prague
in
however
figure.
that Flora,
series as "Primavera," is
later be-
the originality is clearly present in the treat-
Comanini cannot avoid
citing a poetic
had written à propos of the painting and 1589:
which
by no means an innova-
that
composi-
had accompa-
Bodily Boundaries Represented
73
Son io Flora, o pur fiori? Se fior, come di Flora
Ho col sembiante il riso? E s'io son Flora, Come Flora è sol fiori? Ah non fiori son io, non io son Flora, Anzi son Flora e
fiori.
Fior mille, una sol Flora,
Però che Sai
i
come?
fior fan Flora, e I fiori in
Cangiò saggio
Flora
i
fiori.
Flora
pittore, e Fiora in fiori. (258)
This poem, with a distinctive Marino-like usage of puns and verbal recurrences, furthers Arcimboldo's attempt at disguising a natura morta^^ as a lively (or living) subject for his portrait; the last line of the lyric)
one
is to
that is necessary if the painter
(dubbed "wise"
in
pursue the traditional representation of Flora as
ideal beauty.
compose the portrait of Flora metonymy fiori-Flora, hence in this respect
interesting to notice that the materials that
It is
are organic, precisely to further the
we encountered in poetic in much the same way as
fundamentally different from the inorganic ones which production. However, Arcimboldo lyric or
What
burlesque poets: he
is
literalizes
twisting clichés
them, showing on canvas
all their
impact.
accounts for the grotesque quality of Flora's portrait is the lack of corre-
spondence res-verba; what would go almost undetected
in a
poem
footnote reference to yet another topos) is forcefully effective
(other than a
when
depicted on
the canvas. 1^
One could simply espouse Maiorino's conclusion that Arcimboldo's portraits move towards a form of relativism in taste: "Whereas cosmos rests with the proportional order of beauty, chaos thrives on clashes between beauty and ugliness,
thus opening the door to a plurality of standards" (126). Indeed, this conclusion
echoes perfectly
at least
some of
the preceding observations
on
lyric
and bur-
lesque poetry: having observed a convergence between lyric and burlesque poetry,
based on their respective usage of traditional images depleted of
nal content,
their origi-
can easily further the parallel between poetry on the one hand and
we
Arcimboldo's paintings object represented
is
in the other. In the latter case, too, the silhouette
respected, yet
it is
filled
of the
with other elements. These, to fur-
ther Maiorino's claims, are manifestations of the tendency of the times towards a plurality of standards of beauty, based
would have reached Baroque period sance,
on chaos and confusion. Once again we
a conclusion fitting the traditional belief of a Mannerist or
that proceeds to dismantle all the cherished tenets of the Renais-
among which, of course, female beauty
However,
I
would
like to
emphasize a
ranks high.
parallel point
made by Nancy Vickers
Maria Galli Stampino
74
with respect to Petrarch's lyrics and by Maiorino vis-à-vis Arcimboldo's portraits.
In the former's words,
Petrarch's particularizing
mode
of figuring [Laura's] body, the product of a male-
viewer/female-object exchange that extends the Actaeon/Diana exchange, thus reveals a textual strategy subtending his entire volume: lyric
program and understandably becomes the
tors.
(107)
In other words, in order to better,
more
easily possess
—
rarch and his followers scatter her limbs
image never emerges.
that the full
We
i.e.,
goes to the heart of his
Laura and her body, Pet-
they only describe parts of
it
so
Roman adage "particularizing mode of fig-
face a literalization of the
applied to the body politics: divide et impera. This
uring that body" derives from a specific
it
lyric stance of generations of imita-
way of
looking, which
is
aggressive and
possessive, in other words, well suited to a male gazer vis-à-vis his prized possession. This
almost
remark converges unmistakably with Maiorino' s observation, made
in passing, that
in spite of an extravagant
assemblage of natural and
Arcim-
artificial objects,
boldo's profiles are set against aperspectival backgrounds. The shapes making up the anatomical whole^^ preserve their depth, but the predominant effect
crowded plane on which shallowness of foreground and background test ambiguity. (31-32)
As
in
is
that of a
middle and
Petrarchan poetry the gazer concentrates on one limb or feature at a
time, so in Arcimboldo's portraits the viewer
composing the
sitter's profile as
the beloved
is
is
is
aware of the different elements
well as of the décalage between the foreground
and the background of the painting. the object of vision
In
flatness of
In both instances, the viewer's possession of
furthered and completed by the disjointed
way
in
which
presented to view.
conclusion,
we
witness a remarkable convergence of representational
strategies in the case of lyric
and burlesque poetry as well as
portrait painting in
the period variously described as late Renaissance or mannerism, and continuing into the
Baroque proper.
of Petrarch's
If
such strategies emerge from the historical antecedents
own Canzoniere
ture (as demonstrated
(as
Vickers has shown) and of Renaissance portrai-
by Cropper), they become more
spread in the period under our scrutiny.
Is this
haustion of poetic and figurative clichés? Or earlier of the
is it
rather
"deux discontinuités dans V episteme de
according to Foucault? Or
is it
radical and
more wide-
trend a consequence of the ex-
la
one of the marks of the
culture occidentale" (13),
evidence, to follow Cacciari, of a crisis in the
hermetic belief of the centrality of man? Or does
it
reflect a positive
view of na-
much like Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, to espouse Maurizio Calvesi's opinion? The representational strategies expounded in the present study accommodate themselves to all these interpretative approaches, and possibly many more. Truly, they are a strangely neglected monstrum. Held to our view (if the term come from ture,
Bodily Boundaries Represented
monstrare) as an admonishment ness,
still
come from monere,
(if it
instead) to our blind-
they have gone undetected for centuries, transparent to our rhetorically
trained eyes. artists:
75
And
so they have fostered the very
a keen awareness of their
art,
aim of Renaissance and Baroque
emptied of any reference
and
to its object
its
medium. Stanford University
NOTES
I
would
thank Professors H.U. Gumbrecht, A. Martin, and C. Springer of Stanford
like to
University as well as Professor Karl Maurer of Ruhniniversitat
ing questions, which led to
many
Bochum
for their stimulat-
Thanks
also to the gradu-
revisions of the present work.
and suggestions
ate students in Italian at Stanford University, 1993-94, for their feedback
for fiirther reading.
Giovanni Pozzi' s remarks seem
gami
tra
i
to corroborate the possibility of such
componenti del sistema
sembra funzionare
[letterario] si rinserrano in tal
in sé e per sé, senza
che
designare la bellezza, la forza,
il
che
il
letteratura elabora
i
suoi simboli per
piacere senza interessarsi gran che degli esseri in carne ed i
dati.
La compattezza
coerenza del sistema che viene elaborato in rapporto
su un riferimento al reale" (398-99).
alla materia
del
tema
si
not that, according to Pozzi, any attempt at map-
It is
literature. Rather,
in
Empson,
stricto
he offers a necessary counterpart to any duU
referential school of criticism, such as the neoclassical
language (see chapter 5
basa
da descrivere e non
ping representational strategies becomes void and useless, as no representaticm sensu ever takes place in
"I le-
congegno
renda necessario un rapporto con la realtà
meno intensamente
ossa che ne oggettivano più o sulla
si
... La
percettiva o sperimentale che rappresenta.
an exegesis:
modo
one attacking John
Miltcxi's use of
Maybe Cropper's most relevant a revamping of this debate among scholars of lit-
especially 153-54).
contribution will turn out to be precisely erature.
All the translaÙOTis are by the author, they strive to render the original closely, and not to
reproduce
stylistic effects.
Nancy Vickers emphasizes
this character
of lyric poetry in Petrarch's
textures are those of metals and stones; her beautiful dissociated objects" (96). Italian poetry
A
image
is
representative
own
works: "Her
that of a collecticn of exquisitely
list
of of^sitional clichés in early
can be found in Pozzi (413-14), while Forster' s classical study offers a short
roster of Petrarchan topoi (9-10). classic petrarchist situation is that the lady is hard-hearted; love has struck the poet
"The
alone but spared the lady, and he begs that love should strike her too. The lady
shown as enjoying the lover's pain; she is The best overview of the biith of the
is
often
crueller than a tiger" (Forster 15).
twentieth-century notion of "Baroque"
is
still
WeUek's. Earlier than the
Pierre de
Jean
examples
we
have
Adhémar
put
it,
"Pour lui,
les
mais des statues ou des peintures (344).
just
mentioned, approximately in the years 1550-65,
Ronsard found another method for portraying
However,
beloved than
it
is
earlier,
femmes ne
comme
worth noticing
il
his beloved in inorganic terms: as
sont pas des êtres vivants, des êtres de chair,
en voit autour de lui"
that his corpus contains far
contemporary or
later
at
Fcmtainebleau castle
fewer descriptions of the
examples. Moreover, Ronsard
tries to
for bodily parts of his aimée that are usually neglected in love poetry: a wild
him of Marie's waist and hips
(1
.
122); the branches of an
account
oak reminds
elm covered with ivy
are a figu-
Maria Galli Stampino
76
laùan of her arms embracing him
(1 170); .
even her breasts, her legs and her
feet arrest his
observation for a while (1.348-49).
7
"Oleys come a pescado remojado" ["You stink
like pickled fish"] is diametrically ofçosite
"Du beau jardin de son jeune
to Ronsard's description of Cassandre's breath (sonnet 143):
printemps/ Naist un parfum, qui
en tous temps/ Embsmeroit de ses douces haleines."
le ciel
(1.61)
8
The tail
and introductiMi
in the preface
sive study of the relationship tual settings within
9
Donne's poems before they were printed
issue of the circulation of
by Marotti
was generated and by which
it
is
explored in de-
John Donne, Coterie Poet, an exten-
between Donne's poetic production, the
and for which
it
was
and
social
intellec-
influenced, as well
as the generic constraints and expectations that ruled over
it.
An
considers directly only the Anni-
interesting text
versaries, a
much
on
this topic is Tayler's.
less descriptive series of
a better understanding of Donne's and description of, especially,
10
to his
I
will only
which
Although
poems,
it
its first
chapter
is
useful in order to gain
and idealized
his contemporaries' concept of "idea"
women.
mention in passing the consequences of such deforming costumes (some of
on the freedom of bodily movements for the danc-
are reproduced in Franko's text)
Qearly, there exists a tension between bodily movements as
ers involved in the ballets.
conceived by the choreographers and those possible donning those costumes. In Franko's
costumes were of paramount importance
interpretation,
to establish the identity
of the
staged bodies: "Unlike plays that develop character and action through dialogue, burlesque ballets attempt to
communicate principally through the dancer's appearance"
(79).
Even
in
the openly Platonic setting of British masques, costumes play an important function. Their architect rate
and designer Inigo Jones frankly acknowledges the goal he pursues: "his elaboin Townshend's Tempe Restored has been de-
costume for Queen Henrietta Maria
vised, he said, 'so that corporeal beauty, consisting in symmetry, color, and certain unex-
pressable graces, shining in the Queen's majesty,
beauty of the soul, unto which strategies are akin to those
and
"kings and queens
.
.
in Renaissance portraiture, as analyzed
form the core or our analysis
Queen
us to the contemplatici of the
by Cropp)er,
in the rest of the present work.
Henrietta Maria, moreover,
worth remembering
is
it
that
possess two bodies, one their own, the other belonging to the State
.
over which they mie.
commission"
may draw
hath analogy'" (Orgel 369). In some sense, both these
employed
in the paintings that will
In the specific case of
it
It
is
(Brilliant 102)
the latter that interests portrait artists worthy of their royal
— an important element
to
be recalled
later in
our discussion
of Arcimboldo's imperial portraits. 11 In one canovaccio of the
commedia dell'arte.
Pulcinella offers a long tirade in praise of his
beloved Checca that bears witness to the pervasiveness and longevity of such chchés (the manuscript is dated 1734) as well as to an indirect (i.e., in non embodied, evocative form) stage usage: "Schiavo gioia
Toleto
/
addove
Ammore
mia amata
/
De Napole
terato dalle Grazie
Lanziere, e Tanto delli spaiare
/
lo
tu sei la bella Fata /
ba 'ncarozza
/ ss'
miezzo de ssà faccia è propeo
ssà vocca, laura, e diente, è chiazza larga delli Arefece
s'mballa la farina
Mercato 'nante
/
Chiù
ssè rizie è chiazza
/
sotta
avenno dato
pò ngè /
sta lo
de pietto
belle coscetelle tuie: / ora aie
mantracchio.
/
/
Cà
/
e
non bole
/
/
delle doie
Pertuso" (Thérault 152).
Maggio
le
de
dalli
la chiazza dell'Armiere /
Recotte
/
Doana addò
ssò ventre è lo
Vena mia / non pò jire chiù Colonne d'Ercole, che so le
nò
frate assaie
sfratta
temmerario, e resoluto,
autro lo Poveriello scuro
ma siente nò lo trattare da Vozzacchio / co' chisso pò à
la strata
ora suffece, cà la
non presuto
da sapere cà aggio
chisso è sciuto da Porta Caputo, chisso ftsciaturo:
/
sij
ssò Pietto è la
d'Arco addò se venneno
Lavenaro
allo
/
Tu
vocchie uno è la strata
com'è
/
/
e
cà ave na casa à
darele Chiazza Larega, ò lo
l'uso, / e
vene ad abetà dereto à
lo
Bodily Boundaries Represented 12
It
77
then becomes possible to advance a variety of exegeses, including the recent one by
Qaude Gandelman
according to which Vertumnus would be a direct inspiration to Hob-
"A
bes' idea of Leviathan: part of the body. This
was
tradition diverging
from the
the Hobbesian tradition with
classical its
foregrounded one single
concept of the king as a
sort of
devouring stomach constituted by the digested bodies of his subjects. The body of the Leviathan-king was crystallized in an etching that served as the firontispiece of the first edi-
Hobbes' Commonwealth. This
tion of
mannerism. The picture of Rudolph
known
.... Arcimboldo represented the king as a conglomerate of
doing so he was following the precept
start in spring. In
who was also
the philosopher,
wrote, is
away from Leviathan
stituted
King
in the
that is
by the
fruit
the fruit that gets
all
down by
hidden in
all things.'
his friend
he has digested, whereas the Leviathan
may have
in fact,
Vertumnus
essential difference that
mannerism, and the representation-directing homunculus may be said
by painters
delman's interpretation seems to go a
cimboldo and
homunculus à
into the composite mannerist
in particular. In the
Prague
setting, these paintings,
made with a
Arcimboldo"
trans-
Gan-
fine study of Ar-
and to the Rudolphian court
culminating with Vertumnus, would be
and an intentional
specific poUtical content,
"pubhc figures are always defined
in general,
(78). If
Season cycle was
establishes that the in general
in-
con-
aesthetics of
have been
to
Thomas Kaufmann's
far,
Holy Roman Empire
clearly perceived as "allegories
message" (102). Indeed,
too
Hapsburg court
his relation with the
replete with references to the
little
la
is
formed by human bodies.
is
Hobbesian ideology thus may be regarded as a product of the philosophical lated
its
Comanini,
Rudolph as Vertumnus
Hobbesian conception and,
Both are composite images, with the
it.
set
patronized by Rudolph. 'The duty of the painter,' Comanini
to reveal the face of the
'is
not far
spired
stemmed from sixteenth-century Roman god of spring, was well
latter tradition
as Vertumnus, the
II
to
some degree by
the distance necessary to stage the roles they play for a sizeable audience. Allegorical por-
by
traiture, its
its
very nature, tends to make observation abstract, to displïice perception from
and
objects,
to
engender emblematic images which transmute the substance of a person
words and
into ideas,
conceits, gathered around a
"La
13 Forster reproduces a 1627 etching of
from Arcimboldo's production, and,
different
named persona"
(Brilliant 104).
belle Charité" (plate 3), in
which
any case, much posterior
ever interesting to remark that the text which this etching accompanies (Sorel's
Le Berger extravagant): and
par Métaphore" (Forster
xii),
that its author calls
is
indeed very
is
to
it.
It is
how-
parodie in nature
such a depiction "un portraict
fait
thus anticipating Barthes's exegesis.
14 Extant documents and evidence of Arcimboldo's earUer work, prior to taking up residence
do not seem
in Vienna, tion. In
1549,
brica del ity
Duomo in
moves
to
any grotesque, bizarre, or otherwise irregular produc-
to indicate
when Arcimboldo
is
twenty-two, his
Como, where he works on
cal cathedral.
Only four years
later, in
ready the following year he paints his 15
A well-documented
name appears
in the
Annali della Fab-
Milan, where he worked on stained glass windows; in 1558, his activpreparatory designs for à fresco painting in the lo-
1562, does Arcimboldo
first
Seasons
move
to Vienna,
and
al-
series.
and highly comprehensive study of these phenomena
is
to
be found in
Lugli.
16 This
is
by Raimondi: "A mano a mano che entra nel mondo il nuovo gusto rinasci-
also the interpretation offered
letterario e,
per così dire,
si
secolarizza, la cultura platonica educa
mentale a un'idea di naturalezza che sia insieme decoro, e mentre propugna la libertà dell'immaginazione, di una sapienza
stilistica
convertita in
una
sorta di grazia, diviene
anche un Principio d'ordine, in quanto postula in ogni opera d'arte un organismo governato,
come
l'universo, dai segreti rapporti delle
forme vive e fluenti"
unitario,
(9).
17 Held's article provides a broad overview of the treatment of this subject from the fifteenth century onward
— one from which
emerges astonishingly.
the originality of Arcimboldo's treatment of this topic
A background
study on a particular (and teUing) exploitation of the
Maria Galli Stampino
78 image of Flora is provided Leda" in Lawner. 18
The connotations of the ing English one of
in the section entitled
Italian phrase are
much gloomier and negative than the
A
this
"still life."
comparative analysis of
has not been attempted before, to
is
my
correspond-
phrase in various languages
knowledge, but could perhaps shed some
light
on
conventions throughout various times and places. In any case, Arcimboldo's
pictorial
claim
"The Mythological Guise: Rora and
simply that he "cangiò" one living element into another, an appropriate claim for
his highly personal representational strategies, yet remarkably different
from Góngora's
contention that El Greco "dio espìritu a leno, vida a bno" ["gave soul to wood,
life to
cloth"] (502).
19
On
work
the topic of the effectiveness of images, the seminal
chapter 4: "The
20 These "wholes"
is
Freedberg, especially
Myth of Aniconism." are far
from comprising the
entire
body of the
portrait sitter,
whether male
or female; correctly, Maiorino refers to them earlier in the same passage as "profiles," since that
is vtiiat
they are: silhouettes of faces and shoulders.
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