Idea Transcript
AZTEC
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M AYA
R E V I V A L J u n e
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S e p t e m b e r
G A L L E R Y
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G U I D E
AZTEC
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M AYA
R E V I V A L Mexic-Arte Museum gratefully acknowledges the generous loans of artifacts and objects from The University of Texas at Austin College of Fine Arts Department, The Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection, the Harry Ransom Center, and private collectors including the overwhelming support of Lance and Erika Aaron, Susan Frost, Robert Hollingsworth, Rogelio Agrasánchez, Lolis García-Baab, Marissa Valdez, Nancy Jarman, Logan Wagner, Antonio Wehnes, and Sandie Huston.
This exhibition was made possible by the generous support of the Austin Arts Commission under the auspices of the City of Austin, The University of Texas at Austin College of Fine Arts, the Texas Commission on the Arts, and the Memnosyne Foundation. Mexic-Arte Museum would like to recognize and especially acknowledge the work of Claudia Zapata, M.A. Art History Candidate and Research Assistant sponsored by the College of Fine Arts at The University of Texas at Austin. Claudia’s research and curatorial assistance provided essential academic information for the formation of the exhibition. Mexic-Arte Museum is grateful for support from its dedicated Board of Directors and talented staff for production and presentation of the exhibition including Jesus Alaniz III, New Media Designer; Angela Hicks, Store Manager; Alexandra M. Landeros, Membership and Public Relations Director; Sylvia Orozco, Executive Director; Angel Quesada, Production Manager; Lacey Richter, Education Program Coordinator; Frank Rodriguez, Development Director; and José L. Rodríguez, Production Assistant, and all our volunteers.
INTRODUCTION In M exico, ar tists, architec ts, and ar tisans use the ter ms Neo-A ztec, Indigenism, and Neo-pre-Hispanic to identify M esoamer ic an influences on the ar ts. M exic-Ar te M useum has selec ted ar t, photo graphs, b o oks, and ephemera to intro duce one of M exico’s imp or tant cultural expres sions: the reemergence of pre-Columbian designs in the fine and decorative ar ts. Although M aya R evival is pr i mar ily a designation asso ciated with an architec tural st yle develop ed in the United States, M exic-Ar te wishes to expand the meaning of this ter m to illustrate M exic an examples of the reemergence of pre-Hispanic for ms. Under the reign of President Por fir io Díaz, M exico b egan laying the cultural foundation that would eventually for m the countr y ’s visual paradigm. From the latter half of the 19th centur y, M exico expanded its gover nmental supp or t for the exc avation and preser vation of many of its preHi spanic archaeolo gic al sites. As a result, M exico passed var ious laws protec ting its patr imony, commissioned na tional monuments, showc ased its past in the 1910 Cen tennial Parade, and par ticipated in var ious inter national wor ld ’s fairs. M exico also established the National M use um of Anthrop olo gy, allowing for do cumentation, preser vation, and display of some of its imp or tant archaeolo gi c al ar tifac ts, including the A ztec Calendar Stone. M exico combined this awareness of past indigenous civi lizations with Europ ean influence to construc t a visual fu sion that epitomized the countr y ’s histor ic al back ground while simultaneously c aptur ing its cur rent cultural expression. Ar tists develop ed a new ar t st yle by appropr i ating the icono graphy of many pre-Columbian ancestral groups, including but not limited to the A ztec and M aya cultures. Continuing in the ear ly t wentieth centur y, as gover nment fur ther embraced its indigenous ro ots, many ar tists, designers, and ar tisans integrated var ious pre-Columbian visual patter ns to pay ho mage to this new M exic an national identit y.
Though many locate the Revival period of Mexico and Mexican art in the early 20th century, it actually started earlier. The seeds for the Revival period were planted in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, due to a series of archaeological excavations that happened in Mexico at that time. As Mexico’s past was realized through discoveries of pre-Columbian art, it became apparent that these pieces were precious to the culture and heritage of Mexico. The first President of Mexico, Benito Juárez, declared that the archaeological findings of the pyramids were the national patrimony of Mexico. Later, President Porfirio Díaz, upon realizing the importance of the pre-Columbian art pieces, acted to restore the first Museum of Mexico for its treasures. Additionally, Porfirio Díaz chose to showcase the deep and ancient roots of Mexican culture through the revival of indigenous iconography. President Díaz commissioned artists to travel to World’s Fairs - the cultural and international gatherings in which countries would represent their customs, industries, and art. It was at the 1900 World’s Fair in Paris that Díaz debuted an intricately-designed piano featuring Zapotec glyphs and style that won a goldmedal prize, as seen in the gallery. It was not so much the intent of President Díaz to positively represent the indigenous people of Mexico, as they were still considered inferior by the elites, but to use them as a way to highlight the grandeur of Mexico and its cultural roots. This led to the use of indigenous imagery and iconography in the 20th century.
H O W TO U S E T H I S G A L L E RY GUIDE The pur p ose of this G aller y G uide is to share our k nowledge of a few signific ant images. M uch of the ar t from pre-Columbian times, including that of the A ztecs (M exic as), M aya, and other indigenous groups, was compr ised of symb ols and designs that or iginated from complex asp ec ts of culture lik e customs, traditions, r ituals, and language. Even though they may app ear decorative at first glance, the symb ols asso ci ated with these indigenous groups represent more than patter ns - they represent a way of life. Such images have b een revived in mo der n times for use in the fine and decorative ar ts.
A Z T E C S A N D M AYA M a ny p eople wonder which indigenous group was the first to inhabit M esoamer ic a (an area of distinc tive cultures that ex tends from Nor thcentral M exico to Pacific Costa R ic a). The answer to this question is not simple. Indigenous groups, such as the var ious tr ib es of the A ztecs (also refer red to as M exic as), Zap otecs, M ix tecs, and the M aya were prevailing simultaneously, though the O lmecs are b elieved to b e the first group to inhabi t M esoamer ic a, ar r iving around 1400 B.C.E. in easter n M exico throughout the region of Veracruz. The A ztecs eventually inhabited the area near the O lmecs, in what is to day M exico Cit y and Teotihuac an. The Zap otecs and M ix tecs made up the area of Oaxac a, along the souther n coastal tip of M exico, and still do to day. The M aya continue to inhabit the Yuc atan area, in addition to Chiapas, and Q uintana R o o, near G uate mala. B ot h the A ztecs and M aya had advanced civilizations and wor k ing k nowledge of the stars, sun, and mo on. R itual sacr ifice played a signific ant role within indigenous civilizations, and it was for the numerous go ds, whose sacr ifices they b elieved had given them life, that these offer ings were made.
(Pronounced way-way-te-o-tl) Followers of the A ztec religion b elieved that Huehueteotl presided over the do mestic hear th fire of the household. A hear th is the flo or of a fireplace, usually made of stone or br ick, of ten ex tending a shor t distance into a ro om. B eing a do mestic go d, Huehueteotl ’s image is usually found in residential quar ters rather than temples. For the A ztecs, fire held great signific ance. I t was a symb ol of change and renewal. D ur ing the r itual of New Fire, all fires through out the land were ex tinguished and the entire A ztec p opulation was plunged into dar k ness. Pr iests would watch the movement of the stars and lo ok for the signal to tear out a sacr ificial vic tim’s hear t; then they would star t a fire on the b o dy and tak e it around to all homes in the area. This r itual, which replic ated the way in which A ztecs b elieved the go ds first created fire, p ostp oned the end of the wor ld.
Cocijo Effigy vessel, Ceramic, c. A.D. 400 - 800, Zapotec, Provenance unknown,, H. 19 cm, from The University of Texas at Austin Collection
Huehueteotl-Old God of Fire, basalt sculpture, Aztec c. 1200-1500 A.D., Central Mexico, from The University of Texas at Austin Collection
H U E H U E T E OTL O L D G O D O F FIRE
T H E P R I M A RY S TA N D A R D S EQUENCE This M aya vessel has a hiero glyphic blo ck that is par t of a sequence frequently used in ceramics c alled the Pr imar y Standard S equence (PSS). The PSS displays infor ma tion regarding the dedic ation, shap e, and contents of the vessel. For example, on this vessel the intial glyph signs may translate to u ja-y(i) meaning “ thin walled vessel ce ramic vessel ” and yu-k ’i-b(i) meaning “ his/ her/its dr ink ing vessel. ”
POLITICAL HISTORY TIMELINE 1335 - 1519 The Aztecs establish Tenochtitlán, and the Aztec empire reaches its peak. 1519 Hernán Cortés marches on Tenochtitlán (Mexico City). 1521 The Spanish, led by Cortés, overthrow Tenochtitlán and capture the last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtémoc. 1810 Father Miguel Hidalgo declares Mexican independence on September 16th. 1821 Spain recognizes Mexico’s independence. 1824 Guadalupe Victoria becomes the first president of Mexico. 1859 Mexico elects Benito Juárez as president. 1861 - 1867 French intervention in Mexico. 1862 On May 5th, Mexicans defeat the French in Puebla. 1864 Archduke Maximilian of Austria and his wife, Carlota, arrive in Mexico. The Chapultepec Castle is rebuilt and serves as their official residence. 1867 Benito Juárez elected president of Mexico for a second term. Maximilian is captured and shot, and French forces withdraw from Mexico. 1871 Porfirio Díaz revolts against Benito Juárez. 1872 Benito Juárez dies. 1876-1911 El Porfiriato 1876-1880 Porfirio Díaz serves first term as president of Mexico. 1880-1884 Manuel González serves as president of Mexico. 1884 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a second presidential term. Mexico inaugurates the first railroad uniting itself with the U.S. 1884-1910 Porfirio Díaz elected continuously; this period is referred to as the Porfiriato. Mexico is open to foreign investment with industry and rail transportation expansion. 1888 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a third presidential term. 1892 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a fourth presidential term. 1896 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a fifth presidential term. 1900 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a sixth presidential term. 1904 Mexico extends Porfirio Díaz’ presidential term another two years. 1906 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a seventh presidential term. 1910 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for an eighth presidential term. 1910-1920 Period of the Mexican Revolution. 1911 Porfirio Díaz resigns and flees on May 25th.
1911-1913 Mexico elects Francisco I. Madero as president. 1917 Mexico elects Venustiano Carranza as first constitutional president 1920 Mexico elects Alvaro Obregón as president. 1921 President Obregón appoints José Vasconcelos as Minister of Public Education. 1922 Under the Ministry of Public Education, Vasconcelos initiates the Mexican mural movement in public buildings. 1924 Mexico elects Plutarco Elías Calles as president. 1928 Mexico reelects Alvaro Obregón for a second presidential term. 1928 Emilio Portes Gil inaugurated as provisional president. 1929 Mexico elects Pascual Ortiz Rubio as president. 1932 Ortiz Rubio resigns and General Abelardo Rodriguez assumes presidency. 1933 Mexico elects General Lázaro Cárdenas as president. 1940 Mexico elects Manuel Avila Camacho as president.
ARCHAEOLOGY TIMELINE 1790 Workmen in Mexico City unearth the Aztec Sunstone and Coatlicue. 1790 The first Museum of Natural History of the Royal and Pontific University of Mexico is inaugurated. 1824 Archaeologists excavate the courtyard of the Great Temple at Tenochtitlán in Mexico City. 1825 President Guadalupe Victoria, with historian Lucas Alamán acting as advisor, founds the Mexican National Museum in Mexico City. 1841 John Lloyd Stephens writes and Frederick Catherwood illustrates Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. This book generates international interest on Mayan ruins. 1848 First scientific expedition visits Tikal. 1858 Désiré Charnay makes the first photographs of the Maya ruins of Palenque. 1865 The National Museum moves to the building located in 13 Moneda Street, by orders of Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico. 1868 On August 28th, Mexican President Benito Juárez makes an official decree prohibiting the pillage of antiquities by individuals, and he recommends their conservation in the National Museum. 1880-1910 This period acts as the most important time for Mexican archaeological patrimony. Discovery, rescue, and conservation of many archaeological sites occur, as well as exhibition of the most important preColumbian objects in the National Museum. 1882 The Archaeology and History galleries of the National Museum open, and printing begins on the museum catalog. 1884-1910 Díaz promotes pre-Columbian culture as part of a cultural nationalism, including the increase in budget for excavation of archaeological sites and support for the development of collections. 1885 The Mexican government creates the Department of General Inspection of Archaeological Monuments. 1885-1910 Leopoldo Batres explores diverse archaeological sites including Mitla, Xochicalco, La Quemada, and Teotihuacán. Leopoldo Batres acts as official archaeologist for Díaz and dedicates himself to reconstruct, with license, the most impressive monumental sites. Batres begins the practice of restoration of archaeological monuments in Mexico and on the continent, a practice by all means novel. 1887 On September 16th, the National Museum inaugurates the Gallery of Monoliths. 1895 The XI Congress of the Americanists takes place in Mexico City. The Americanists, founded in France, act as a group who contributes to the progress of ethnographic, linguistic, and historical studies relative to the Americas. Leopoldo Batres, General Inspector of Archaeological Monuments, reports that there are 25
sites with regional inspectors or custodians, including Mitla, Xochicalco, Palenque, El Tepozteco, Zempoala, Monte Albán, Papantla, Labna, La Quemada, Chichén Itzá, Sayil, Texcoco, and Teotihuacán. 1897 The Mexican government passes legislation on May 11th declaring all the archaeological monuments property of the nation. This law for the protection of archaeological and historical sites represents the most important action of Díaz’ regime for the care of the national patrimony. The National Museum reports conserving almost 15,000 objects, divided in large lots, in addition to the creation of a new section called the Collection of Indigenous Historic Documents. In the National Museum, historian Jesus Galindo y Villa organizes the study and classification of the pieces. Archaeological archives are distributed in the Gallery of the Monolith, in the entrance, and in five other galleries under the classifications: astronomy and chronology, mythology, objects of religious cult, urns, ball game, commemorative monuments, ethnography, architecture, and sculpture and diverse pieces. 1905 The Mexican government initiates archaeological excavations at the site of Teotihuacán led by the archaeologist Leopoldo Batres. The Pyramid of the Sun is excavated and restored. 1910 The expansion of the collections leads writer and historian Justo Sierra to divide the heritage of the National Museum. Thus, in 1910 Díaz founds the National Museum of Archaeology, History and Ethnography. 1920 The National Museum of Archaeology, History and Ethnography houses more than 52,000 pieces and receives more than 200,000 visitors. 1924 Twenty year project at Chichén Itzá by the Carnegie Institution and Harvard University begins under direction of Sylvanus G. Morley. 1939 Mexico founds the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), and later the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH), at the Instituto Politécnico. A 1939 law defines the institute’s concept and functions giving the Instituto a great deal of power over sites and archaeological properties. This also establishes federal authority, prohibiting private ownership of archaeological objects. Matthew Stirling begins excavations at the Olmec site of La Venta. 1940 On December 13th, under Presidential decree, the history collection at the Museum of Archaeology, History and Ethnography moves to the Castillo de Chapultepec, and the museum changes its name to the current title: National Museum of Anthropology.
R E V I VA L T I M E L I N E 1867 Leon Mehedin creates one of the first examples of a Neo-pre-Hispanic design with a maquette of the Quetzalcoatl Temple in Xochicalco. The French government and the French Scientific Commission sponsor this creation for the Exposition in Paris. 1877 Under Porfirio Díaz, the Ministry of Development, led by Vicente Riva Palacio, initiates a competition for a Cuauhtémoc monument with the themes of truth, beauty, and utility. The chosen artists are Francisco M. Jimenez, (engineer), Miguel Noreña, Gabriel Guerra, Epitacio Calvo, and Luis Paredes (statue reliefs and sculpture). 1883 Mexico names Porfirio Díaz as General Commissioner of the Mexican Delegation to the New Orleans World Fair. He visits New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Washington, and Boston. 1887 President Porfirio Díaz inaugurates the Cuauhtémoc Monument on Avenida Reforma in Mexico City. 1889 Mexico participates in the World Fair of Paris with the Aztec Palace Pavilion. The Paris 1889 and 1900 exhibitions are the most expensive exhibitions staged by Porfirian Mexico. The total cost of Mexico’s presence at Paris 1889 constitutes 11 percent of the expenditures of the Ministry of Economic Development for the year 1889; it was the highest sum ever paid by Mexico in a world’s fair. Inside Mexico’s pavilion, the exhibition showcases objects with Maya and Toltec decorative elements. 1899 In Yucatán, an arch with Maya elements in the Puuc style is built to welcome President Díaz to Mérida. Another arch was erected with the same objective in Oaxaca. 1900 Mexico participates in the Paris Universal Exhibition. Díaz’ Zapotec Piano wins a gold medal. Porfirio Díaz’ government supports the creation and presentation of the Atzimba Opera composed by Ricardo Castro honoring famous personages of ancient Mexico. 1904 The construction of the Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts) starts during the Porfiriato. Italian designer Gianetti Florenzo designs the palace incorporating elements inspired by pre-Columbian art, such as the Eagle Warrior. 1904-1913 Pre-Columbian influences begin to appear in the work of architects Frank Lloyd Wright, Walter Burley Griffin, and Francis Barry Byrne, noted for their Prairie School architecture. 1908 Mayan Revival Style begins in the United States with the Pan-American Union’s announcement of an international competition for the design of its headquarters in Washington D.C. The jury chooses a design by architects Albert Kelsey and Paul Cret that includes Maya, Aztec, and Zapotec symbols and
architectural traditions. 1910 The September Centennial of Mexican Independence begins. Opulent public ceremonies take place in celebration of the 100 years of Mexico’s independence from Spain, including a parade with representation of past indigenous groups of Mexico. 1914 Gerardo Murillo (1875-1964), who called himself Doctor Atl (the Aztec word for water) as a gesture of native pride, founds a ceramic decoration school in Tonalá with his brothers Luis and Cirilo. A few years later, they establish a production cooperative. Doctor Atl presents Antonio Peñafiel’s book, Monuments of Ancient Mexican Art, commemorating the centennial of Mexican Independence, which contains drawings and motifs from pre-Hispanic cultures that inspire the potters of Tonalá and Tlaquepaque to create new designs. 1915 Leonard Seed builds the Aztec Theater in Eagle Pass, Texas; it is the first documented theater in the Mayan Revival Style. 1921 Minister of Education José Vasconcelos takes Diego Rivera to Chichén Itzá where he sees the murals in the interior chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, greatly influencing Rivera’s later mural work. Roberto Montenegro and Adolfo Best Maugard organize the first exhibit of Mexican popular and contemporary indigenous art. 1922 President Alvaro Obregón sends a Mexican exhibition and delegation headed by the Minister of Education, José Vasconcelos, and by the influential General Manuel Pérez Treviño to Brazil’s World Fair. This constitutes the first Mexican presence at an international exposition since the departure of Porfirio Díaz. 1926 San Antonio builds its own Aztec Theater. 1926-1920 Jean Charlot works with Sylvanus Griswold Morley, of the Carnegie Institute in Washington, in Chichén Itzá registering through illustration the pre-Columbian reliefs and painted surfaces upon discovery. 1929 Manuel Amabilis makes a conscious effort to synthesize pre-Hispanic styles with modern construction techniques and uses of space for the Seville World Fair. The entire facade, surrounding fences, and a fountain in the outside gardens, is replete with sculpture in Maya and Toltec styles. 1930s-1940s Matthew Stirling of the Smithsonian Institution conducts the first detailed scientific excavations of various Olmec sites in the 1930s and 1940s. Stirling, along with art historian Miguel Covarrubias, becomes convinced that the Olmec predates all known Mesoamerican civilizations. 1931 William Spratling initiates the jewelry workshop, Taller de las Delicias, based on pre-Columbian designs.
M E S O A M E R I C A N G E O G R A P H Y, P E R I O D I Z AT I O N , A N D D AT E S Periods & Dates
Central Mexico
Gulf Coast
Maya Area
Northwest Area
Spanish Conquest 1519 - 1542
Late
Aztec
Ea r ly
1521
P O S TC L A S S I C
Oaxaca Area
To l t e c
Te n o c h t i t l á n
To t o n a c Huastec
Mixtec
Tula
Chichén Itzá
Xochicalco
Ea r ly
Te o t i h u a c á n
E l Ta j i n
Zapotec Mitla Monte Albán
Classic Maya Tikal Colima Nayarit
A.D.
Late 1500
Classic Veracruz
Izapa
B.C.
200
Ear ly
PRECLASSIC
CLASSIC
Late
900
Tlatilco
Olmec San Lorenzo
SYMBOLS M any pre- Co l u m b i a n d e s i g n s i n c l u d e s h a p e s a n d p atter ns found in nature that resemble f l owe r s, s e e d s, m a i ze, b i rd s, a n i m a l s, a n d human for ms. Customar ily, designs of te n d e p i c t s i g n i f i c a nt g o d s a n d d e i t i e s t h at to ok on multiple app ear ances. One c a n i d e nt i f y t h e s e d e i t i e s w i t h i n t h e d e corative and utilitar ian ar ts, pre-Colum b i a n a n d R ev iva l s t y l e, a s t h ey a p p e a r i n t he exhibition. Var ious go ds and mytho l o g i c a l s to r i e s, a l o n g w i t h re p re s e nt at i onal drawings and images found in th e g a l l e r y, re fl e c t l e g e n d s a n d h i s to r i c a l accounts that offer insight into the r ic h c u l t u re o f M ex i co.
THE L E G E N D O F T H E E AG L E A N D THE SERPENT M ost comm o n l y s e e n o n t h e M ex i c a n f l a g, t h e p i c ture of the eagle p erched up on a c ac t u s w i t h a s e r p e nt i n i t s b e a k h a s g re at s i gnific ance to the histor y of M exico. Hu i t z i l o p o c ht l i ( h we e t - z i l - p o a c h - l e e ) , t h e go d of the sun, ordered the A ztecs to b u i l d t h e i r c i t y o n t h e s p o t w h e re h e h a d h ur led the hear t that he tore from the c h e s t o f h i s d e fe ate d e n e my a n d n e p h e w, Copil. H e told them that an eagle d evo u r i n g a s e r p e nt wo u l d m a r k t h e s p o t. They c ame up on the pre dic ted ima g e o n a n i s l a n d i n t h e m i d d l e o f L a k e Texco co, and built Teno chtitlán, now k nown a s M ex i co Ci t y. Th e A z te c s g re w c ro p s o n the lak e using chinampas (floating m at s ) .
Pre - Co l u m b i a n Ima g e : Ea g l e a n d S er p e nt
R ev i va l St y l e I m a g e : Ea g l e a n d S e r p e nt
Luis Ortiz Monasterio (Mexican, 1906-1990), (Eagle with Serpent), Bronze with wood base, 1961, H. (without base) 48 cm, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection
Histor ians co nt i n u e to d e b ate w h e t h e r t h e s y m b o l is prop er ly represented to day. S ome a rg u e t h at t h e re wa s n eve r a s e r p e nt n ear the eagle. O thers claim that what i s a c t u a l l y h a n g i n g f ro m t h e m o u t h o f the eagle c annot b e deci phered fro m t h e A z te c co d i ce s ( b o o k s t h at we re w r i tten by pre-Columbian and Colonial-e ra A z te c s ) . Fi n a l l y, a fe w h i s to r i a n s q u e s tion whether the bird was in fac t an e a g l e a n d n o t a ca ra ca ra , o r a f a l co n . Arg uments aside, the image is most comm o n l y re p re s ente d a s i t a p p e a r s o n t h e M exic an flag.
CUAUH T É M O C THE FAL L I N G E AG L E
Revival Style Image: Cuauhtémoc
Miguel Noreña (Mexican, 1843-1894), Cuauhtémoc, Bronze (with dark olive green patina), c. 1886, H. 82 cm, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection
Known as the last true emperor of the Aztecs, Cuauhtémoc (kwow-TE-moc) surrendered to the Spanish (led by Hernán Cor tés), and was tor tured to reveal the location of hidden Aztec gold, which probably did not exist. He withstood the agonizing tor ture of having his feet held against fire. Cor tés eventually had Cuauhtémoc executed for conspiring against him, but whether there actually was a conspiracy or not is debatable. Cuauhtémoc’s image, found within the galler y as a maquette, can be seen in a large sculpture on a historic avenue in Mexico City, the Paseo de la Reforma. His image can also be seen in Rober to Montenegro’s large and color ful painting in the galler y, drawing focus to the mighty eagle falling from the sky.
Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs of Ancient Mexico, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1953
Pre-Columbian Image: Eagle
QUETZ A LCOAT L , T H E P LU M E D S E R PENT
Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs of Ancient Mexico, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1953
Armchair, Wood, c. 1925-1935, various materials, Made in Mexico, H. 111 cm W. 52 cm D. 56 cm, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection
Q uetzalcoat l ( k ay t - s a h l - k o - t l ) , co m b i n at i o n o f a b i rd and a ser p ent, was a p ower ful go d i n a n c i e nt M e s o a m e r i c a . Q u e t z a l co at l represented b oth ear th and sk y, and ex i s te d a s a s e r p e nt i n o n e re a l m a n d a b i rd in another. The represen tation of b o t h s e r p e nt a n d b i rd h a s l o n g b e e n s e e n in the indigenous groups of M esoam e r i c a , h o l d i n g p owe r, fe r t i l i t y, s p i r i t u a l i t y, and rebir th in addition to signifying t h e co n n e c to r o r p o r t a l to t h e s p i r i t wo r l ds. D ur ing the late p ostclassic p er io d o f Ce nt ra l M ex i co, Q u e t z a l co at l o f te n to o k the for m of the wind and was c alled Eh e c at l - Q u e t z a l co at l . I n t h i s co ntex t, t h e go d was thought to b e the wind that b r i n g s ra i n c l o u d s. Th e i nva d i n g Sp a n i s h conquistadors may have b een b elieve d by t h e A z te c s to b e e i t h e r s e r va nt s o f Q uetzalcoatl or the deit y itself. This wa s p ro b a b l y d u e to a co m b i n at i o n o f t h eir horses (A ztecs had never b efore see n h o r s e s ) , t h e i r s t ra n g e a p p e a ra n ce s, a n d word of their cruelt y and militar y m i g ht t h at p re ce d e d t h e m .
Pre-Columbian Image: Serpent
Revival Style Image: Serpent
The smiling war r ior face is also seen in the or nate and ador ning pieces c ar ved within the upp er level of the Zap otecst yle piano. Another noticeable motif within the remojada figure is the round disk ador ning the ear lob e. R ound disks were of ten c ar ved from jade and stone. The round, jade disk c an also b e seen in the film, showc ased in the galler y, c ap tur ing fo otage of archaeolo gic al digs in M exico by National G eo graphic.
Pre - Co l u m b i a n I m a g e : S o n r i e nte ( s m i l i n g f a ce )
Detail from Zapotec Piano, Wood, 1899, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection
The R emojadas st yle comes from Vera cruz and is named af ter the archeolo gi c al site where a large numb er of hollow clay figur ines were unear thed. Popu lar within this st yle are the S onrientes, which p or tray lively human figures with smiling faces, filed teeth, and black asphalt paint. Their pur p ose is still dis puted to day. I t is thought by some that their faces p or tray a hallucino genic state of spir itual r itual. O thers think that they are simply asso ciated with festiv it y and joy. The immense numb er of them discovered implies that they had in imp or tant place in pre-Colum bian culture.
Standing Figure, Ceramic, c. 250-450 A.D., Remojadas, Veracruz, Mexico, H. 32.5 cm, from the private collection of Logan Wagner
REM O J A D A S VER AC RU Z , M E X I CO
R ev i va l St y l e I m a g e : S o n r i e nte ( s m i l i n g f a ce )
TLALOC, CHAC, AND COCIJO: GODS OF RAIN AND FERTILITY
Pre- Co l u m b i a n Ima g e : Co c i j o
R ev i va l St y l e Image: Tlaloc
Detail from Zapotec Piano, Wood, 1899, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection
Cocijo Effigy Vessel, Ceramic, Zapotec c. 400–800 A.D. from The University of Texas at Austin Collection
Because the assurance of good crops was so important to the indigenous groups, special ceremonies and offerings were given in honor of the deity of rain. It was believed that through offerings, dance, and rituals, the heavens could be pleased and would, in turn, shower crops and civilizations with rain. Tlaloc, the Aztec god of rain and lightning, can be seen intricately carved on the table furniture piece from the Lance and Erika Aaron collection within the gallery. Another god of rain and lightning, known to the Zapotecs as Cocijo, can be seen in the Zapotec-style piano. Lastly, the Mayan god of rain and lightning Chac is one of the oldest and longest worshipped gods in the Americas.
THE DEATH OF THE MOON AND THE BIRTH OF THE SUN COYOLXAUHQUI
Pre-Co l u m b i a n Imag e : Coyo l x a u h q u i
R ev i va l St y l e I m a g e : Coyo l x a u h q u i
Wooden Frame of Leandro Izaguirre (Mexican, 1867-1941), Untitled, 1900, Overall, with frame 52 x 42 cm, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection
According to A z te c l e g e n d, t h e g o d d e s s Co at l i q u e (Qwaht-lee-que), was mi raculously i m p re g n ate d w h e n to u c h e d by a b a l l o f feathers. Embar rassed by her mothe r ’s f re q u e nt p re g n a n c i e s Coyo l x a u h q u i ( Co-yo-shal-k ee), go ddess of the mo on, a n d h e r fo u r h u n d re d b ro t h e r s d e c i d e d to murder her. R ight af ter Coyolxauh q u i h a d k i l l e d Co at l i q u e, i t i s s a i d t h at Huitzilop o chtli, go d of the sun, spran g f ro m Co at l i q u e’s wo m b f u l l y a r m e d, b e headed Coyolxauhqui, and pushed he r d ow n t h e s te p s o f t h e te m p l e. I t i s b e l i eved her head, ador ned with shining b e l l s, b e c a m e t h e m o o n . Coyo l x a u h q u i ’s d i sfigured b o dy c an b e seen in a round s to n e at t h e M u s e o d e Te m p l o M ayo r i n M exico Cit y. D ur ing A ztec sacr ifices to t h e g o d H u i t z i l o p o c ht l i , t h e t h row i n g of the sacr ificial vic tims’ b o dies dow n t h e te m p l e s te p s wa s a re e n a c t m e nt of Coyolxuahqui ’s humiliat ing demise.
SELLO S S ellos (seals or stamps) were predominately made of clay, though a few have b een identified that are c ar ved from stone, b one, and even cop p er. These small stamps c ame in a var iet y of shap es: flat, c ylindr ic al, and rounded lik e a rolling pin. Unidentifiable in exac t use, most researchers think the stamps were used as a decorative to ol for the b o dy, as well as on bar k pap er, cloth, and p otter y. S ome, including the ar tist and record er of pre-Columbian stamps, J orge Enciso *, b elieve that they may have b een used in the stamping of delic ac y fo o ds for the go ds. R esearchers agree fur ther study is necessar y to b etter understand the stamps and their signific ance. *D id You K now : J orge Enciso, an ar tist from Mexico, do cumented many of the seals during the earl y t wentieth centur y re vival p erio d by dra wing and printing them onto pap er. His b o ok, D esign M otifs of Ancient M exico , which categorizes the stamps into flowers, animals, and geometrical patterns, can b e found inside the plexi-case within the galler y. S ee if you can find some examples of the geometrical shap es, like those of the stamps, on the p otter y.
MAYA N N U M B E R S A N D T H E G O LDEN R ATIO The M aya c i v i l i z at i o n h ad a dva n ce d m at h e m at i c a l k nowledge, which led to many acco m p l i s h m e nt s t h at i n c l u d e, b u t a re n o t l i m ited to, the building of their ancie nt c i t i e s, t h e e m p l oy m e nt o f t h o u s a n d s o f construc tion wor k ers, commerce ove r a va s t g e o g ra p h i c a l a re a , c a l c u l at i n g an accurate c alendar, and using g e o m e t r y to c re ate a rc h i te c t u re a n d i n ar t. Unfor tunately, the Spanish de s t roye d m a ny M aya n a r t i f a c t s t h at wo u l d have help ed us b etter understand h ow t h ey ma n a g e d s u c h g re at a c co m p l ishments. H owever, we c an still d raw k n ow l e d g e f ro m a fe w s u r v i v i n g M ayan b o oks such as the Pop ol Vuh a n d t h e B o o k o f t h e Ch i l a m B a l a m o f Ch u mayel. We c an also lear n ab out the t ra d i t i o n s o f t h e m i l l i o n s o f M aya w h o a re still alive to day. Th e M aya n n u m e ral system is fascinati n g n o t o n l y b e c a u s e it c an c alculate such l a rg e q u a nt i t i e s, b u t b ec ause one c an see h ow t h ey d eve l o p e d it through studying n at u re. M aya s we re k een obser vers of their s u r ro u n d i n g s, a n d t hese obser vations p erm e ate n e a r l y eve r y asp ec t of their culture, i n c l u d i n g t h e i r n u m b ers. Un l i k e Ara b i c Nu m e rals, which mak e up a b a s e te n s ys te m , M ayas used a system that is base t we nt y. Th at m e a n s t h at t h e p l a ce va l u e s of M ayan numb ers in cre ased by m u l t i p l e s o f t we nt y. I n s te a d o f u s i n g o nes, tens, hundreds and thousands a s p l a ce va l u e s, t h ey u s e d o n e s, t we nt ies, four-hundreds and eight-thou s a n d s. Th ey a l s o h a d a s y m b o l fo r ze ro. (A concept lik ely dis covered by t h e O l m e c s m u c h e a r l i e r. ) Th e i r n u m b e r s are made up of three symb ols. A d o t re p re s e nt s o n e, a b a r re p re s e nt s f i ve, and a shell or closed hand repre s e nt s ze ro. M ayan num b e r s we re w r i t te n f ro m b o t to m to to p. S o the numb er nine, for example, wo u l d b e w r i t te n a s a l i n e w i t h fo u r d o t s ab ove it. This is lik ely from their o b s e r vat i o n o f h ow p l a nt s g row u pwa rd s. The dot, to the M ayas, was a b ean , s m a l l ro c k , o r s e e d. Th e b a r re p re s e nte d an op en hand. To day, in cur rent M aya n m a r k e t s, p u rc h a s e s a re m a d e i n te r ms of “ hands. ” A p erson would buy a “ h a n d ” o f f ru i t s o r ve g e t a b l e s. We of ten t h i n k o f ze ro a s re p re s e nt i n g e m p t i n e s s. The M ayas b elieved that zero repres e nte d co m p l e t i o n , w h i c h wo u l d ex p l a i n why a closed hand is of ten seen a s i t s s y m b o l . Th e n u m b e r t we nt y wa s a l s o i mp or tant to the M ayas. Twent y rep re s e nte d a w h o l e p e r s o n , co u nt i n g f i n g ers and to es. I t mak es sense then t h at t h e M aya s d eve l o p e d t h i s b a s e t we nt y system through obser ving nat u re a n d t h e h u m a n b o dy.
M any argu e t h at t h e M aya s m ay h ave h a d k n ow l e d ge of the golden ratio (also k nown as t h e g o l d e n s e c t i o n , t h e g o l d e n m e a n , a n d the divine prop or tion), a prop or tion a l rat i o a p p rox i m ate l y e q u a l i n g 1 . 6 1 8 . I n equations, the G reek letter Phi represe nt s i t . Th e g o l d e n rat i o h a s c a p t i vate d i ntellec tuals for thousands of years b ec a u s e o f i t s a p p e a ra n ce a n d a p p l i c at i o n s i n nature, science, and ar t. Co nt ra r y to w h at many b elieve, the ter ms “g o l d e n rat i o” and “golden sec tion” are f a i r l y re ce nt . I t i s true that the ter m “divine p ro p o r t i o n” h a s b een used since the R enaiss a n ce, b u t re fe r r ing to Phi as the golden rat i o o n l y d ate s b ack to the ear ly 19th cent u r y. Th e te r m “golden mean” was used in c l a s s i c a l t i m e s to denote something that is b a l a n ce d. I t i s l i k ely that p eople have con f u s e d o u r co n ce pt of the golden ratio with t h e c l a s s i c a l co ncept of the golden mean, which has l e d to m a ny b e l i ev i n g t h e te r m i s m u c h o lder that it ac tually is. The ratio o f a + b to a i s t h e s a m e a s a i s to b, w h i c h is equal to Phi. The ratio is only a+b i s 1 . 6 1 8 t i m e s a , w h i c h i s 1 . 6 1 8 t i m e s b. This prop or tion is thought to b e aest h e t i c a l l y b e a u t i f u l . Th i s rat i o c a n b e u s e d to mak e rec tangles, c alled golden rec t a n g l e s, w h i c h i n t u r n c a n b e u s e d to draw golden spirals. These golden sha p e s a p p e a r i n m a ny a s p e c t s. G re e k co l umns have golden prop ortions, as d o Egy p t i a n py ra m i d s, f a m o u s p a i nt i n g s, seashells, human DNA, and many of n at u re’s c l aws a n d h o r n s. Th e s e rat i o s a pp ear to o frequently to b e ign ored. Examples o f t h e M aya’s u s e o f t h e g o l d e n rat i o i n a rchitec ture c an b e found in the pyram i d a l ru i n s o f Ch i c h é n I t z á i n t h e Yu c at a n Peninsula. The app earance of the gold e n rat i o i n M aya n a rc h i te c t u re h a s l e d to much debate over whether the M ayas we re awa re o f t h e co n ce p t o f Ph i . M at hematicians and histor ians also b elieve t h at t h e g o l d e n rat i o m ay h ave p l aye d an imp or tant role in the developme nt o f t h e M aya n c a l e n d a r. Th i s i s s u e i s still b eing researched and discussed to d ay.
CREATIN G YOUR OWN GOLDEN RECTANGLE An Exercise in Maya Design M ate ri a l s Yo u Wi l l Need: - a cord or string (you may use yarn as well) - a pencil - a large sheet of paper or poster board (24” x 24”) - scissors - a straight-edge DIRECTIONS: Use the step-by-step diagrams as a visual guide to help you along the way. 1. Use the tip of your pinky, which is roughly equivalent to an inch, to measure your string (remember the Mayas did not have specialty measuring tape). 2. Taking the tip of your pinky, start from one end of the string, counting 20 units to the other end. Cut your string here. It should be roughly 20 inches. 3. Double your string over, making two equal parts, but do not cut. 4. Your string should now measure about 10”. Using this measurement, create a square on your paper, marking the four corners of the square and connecting them with your pencil. Use a straight edge to sketch the connecting lines. 5. Next, find the midpoint of the bottom square side. You may do this by simply doubling over your 10” string once again to make 5”. Hold the 5” cord from one end of the bottom side of the square to the middle and mark this point (Point M). 6. Now, unfolding your cord completely, hold one end of the string at Point M, pulling it taut to the top right corner point (Point P1) of the square. Put your pencil at that corner and wrap the string around it. 7. Holding the string with your index finger at Point M, swing the remainder of the cord down and to the right, marking the curve with your pencil until it is outside of the bottom right corner of the square. Use your straight edge to extend the line from the bottom of the square to the curve. 8. Using your straight edge, extend the lines from the top of the square to the right, and from the point that you made in step 7 upward until the lines meet. You have now completed a Golden Rectangle!
The Official Me xican and Me xican A merican Fine Art M useum of Te xa s 419 Congress Ave. Austin, T X 78701 P.O. B ox 2273 Austin, T X 78768 512.480.9373 www.mexic-ar temuseum.org
This exhibition was made possible through the generosity of
The University of Texas at Austin College of Fine Arts
Education Program Sp onsors
Allstate Foundation Eloise and John Paul DeJoria
Wine and Food Foundation of Texas