Sarcophagi of the Roman Empire and Early Christian sculpture [PDF]

the Roman senator to whom it was dedicated: Junius Bassus, who died in 359 and was one of the first Christians to be bur

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Sarcophagi of the Roman Empire and Early Christian sculpture Introduction Until the 2nd century AD the Romans followed the Greek and Etruscan practice of cremating their dead. The ashes were placed in a funerary or cinerary urn. The urns were frequently sculptured and had a stylized representation of the deceased on the lid. This practice was to continue until the end of the 1st century AD. For the wealthier families the urn might be placed in an altar and a sculptured tombstone might be commissioned; these acts were to memorialize the dead. From the 2nd century burials became more popular and by the 3rd century AD it was the standard practice. The poor were buried in cemeteries outside the town or city limits to avoid pollution within the town or city; the wealthy were also buried in the same cemeteries but often in elaborate tombs or sarcophagi within them. (Sarcophagus is from the Greek ‘sarxsark’ meaning ‘flesh’ and ‘sarkophagos’ meaning ‘flesh eating’). Most sarcophagi in Rome were placed against a wall or niche in these tombs or mausolea; therefore they were usually only decorated on the front and the two short sides.

2nd c BC cinerary urn with scene of battle between centaurs and Greeks, now Perugia, Umbria (left) & 1st c AD tombstone of Roman legionnaire, Mainz, Germany (right) For the wealthy, carved sarcophagi were characteristic. These were usually of marble or, less frequently, of limestone and were frequently elaborately carved with scenes from Greek mythology reflecting the taste of upper class Romans for Greek culture. Other decorative themes illustrated aspects of the deceased’s personal and professional life and included battle and hunting scenes or biographical events from

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the life of the deceased. A large number were decorated with garlands of flowers, foliage or fruits.

2nd c sarcophagus from Ostia Antico – Centauromachy

2nd c sarcophagus from Ostia Antico – Death of Hector The main production centres were in Rome and Northern Italy during the 2nd century and early 3rd century AD. The raw material such as marble from Carrara or Proconnessos Island, near the Dardanelles, finished or part-finished sarcophagi were shipped to other parts of the Mediterranean. By the late 3rd century workshops were established at several points along the coast of the Western Mediterranean such as Arles, Narbonne and Tarragona and, later, at Marseilles. There was even a production centre that used marble from Saint-Béat, in what is now in the Haute-Garonne of France. The centres in Marseilles, which became active in the 5th century, and in Narbonne employed limestone for many of the sarcophagi. During the 3rd and 4th centuries these outlying centres of production followed the styles of those from Rome and North Italy which were a blend of Eastern and Western influences. With the sack of Rome by the Goths under Aleric between AD 410 and 420 the Italian dimension declined; the wealthy in Italy no longer continued the custom of burying their dead in ostentatious tombs or sarcophagi and trade links to the rest of the Mediterranean declined. However, the Visigoths established themselves in Septimania and their influence spread West to Aquitaine; they absorbed and developed the Roman custom of using a sarcophagus for the deceased.

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A third century sarcophagus that is now in Arles museum shows a hunting scene. The scene is set against a background of trees to suggest that it was taking place in a forest. This use of trees was to be employed somewhat differently on early Christian sarcophagi as we shall see. On the left a boar is being harassed by dogs and is about to be speared by a hunter on foot. On the right a mounted hunter with assistants is driving deer towards a net that is held by two slaves, identified by the lack of protective clothing on their legs. Hunting was a ‘high status’ activity and this was a theme that was repeated frequently and it was to continue to be used well into the 4th century as may be seen with another sarcophagus that is at Arles. The person who purchased this does not seem to have had time to have had the inscription panel (imago clipeata) at the top completed. It contained the bodies of a young woman and her new born baby, implying that they died in child-birth.

3rd c sarcophagus from Arles – Boar hunting

Mid 4th c sarcophagus from Les Saintes Maries, now in Arles museum – Deer hunting

The beginning of Christian art in the Roman Empire After the death of Christ his disciples travelled throughout the Roman Empire taking with them their beliefs. As a result it was not long before small groups of Christians were to be found across the Empire. For more than two centuries the Roman authorities tried to suppress the new religion, often with considerable brutality. The refusal of Christians to participate in the Imperial pagan rituals was considered to be treason. The most ruthless exactions were carried out on the orders of Diocletian between 303 and 311. They ended in April of that year when Galerius issued an edict

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of toleration also known as ‘The Peace of the Church’, which allowed the Christians freedom of worship. During this prolonged period of persecution Christian art was inevitably low key, furtive and even ambiguous in that they used many of the images and symbols of the existing pagan culture but gave them special Christian meanings. So, for example the sign of a fish (Ichthys), peacocks, anchor, grape vines and the ‘Good Shepherd’ were common. The fish reminded the faithful that Christ urged his flowers ‘to be fishers of men’. The anchor was a symbol of hope taken from Hebrews 6: 18-19: ‘Christ is like an anchor in our lives, sure and steadfast’. The Good Shepherd recalls the shepherd in St Matthew who goes in search of his sheep that is lost. The cross and crucifixion were not represented until several centuries later because crucifixion was the punishment given to common criminals. Representations of Christ and people from the Old and New Testaments did not appear until later perhaps because of the Old Testament restrictions that forbade the production of such images because they might be seen as encouraging idolatry.

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Two early Christian tomb stones, now in the Vatican museum A mausoleum on the North side of Rome was dedicated to Santa Constantina (Costanza), the daughter of Emperor Constantine. She died in 354 and it was thought that she was buried here. There was a porphyry sarcophagus that was thought to be hers (or that of her sister, Helena). It was removed to the Vatican in the 18th century and a copy replaces it. It has reliefs of cupids harvesting grapes on the front and sides, but no Christian motifs or symbols.

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Sarcophagus of Santa Constantina (Costanza), now in the Vatican museum Classical mythology associated Hermes, who carried the souls of the dead to the after life, with the image of the ‘Good Shepherd’ carrying a lamb or a sheep and it was a very popular image because it was then associated with philanthropy. But it was also a symbol of sacrifice; in the representations from Greece from the 3rd and 4th centuries BC it was more likely that the lamb was being taken for sacrifice. The Romans, adopting as they did, many aspects of Greek culture are likely to have viewed the lamb in a similar light. It was not until the Christian era that the Good Shepherd carrying a lamb was adopted the image was given a new meaning taking the phrase from the Gospels of Jesus being described as the good shepherd of his flock. For a time there may have been some confusion in the minds of new converts. An example is provided by a sarcophagus in the Vatican museum that has images of three such ‘Good Shepherds’ set in a countryside of bucolic rural chaos. The object, which is dated to around AD 370 and therefore at a time when Christianity was becoming well established in Rome. On the right a woman has her arms raised in the ‘orans’ position, a position of prayer that had been used by both pagans and Jews before it was adopted by the early Christians in Rome to indicate prayer. They probably saw the position as symbolising that of Christ on the cross. The woman may represent the deceased person. On the right side a figure holds a scroll; this is a very common feature, the scroll being a symbol of authority. Though adopted as a Christian motif, the Good Shepherd is not a motif that was incorporated into any of the friezes that contained several biblical scenes, but it was used on the ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagi. Thus we have two motifs that provided symbols of Christian values: Neighbourliness from the ‘Good Shepherd’ and prayerfulness from the ‘Orans’ figure.

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Athens 350BC – Statue of shepherd carrying a lamb

Fragment of 4th c sarcophagus from St Honorat des Alyscamps, now in Arles museum

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Sarcophagus from AD 370 now in Lateran museum - Three shepherds in bucolic pastoral scenes

4th c sarcophagus lid of ‘Iuliane’ with ‘Good Shepherd’, Jonah, sheep and ‘Orans’ figure

4th c Sarcophagus of Good Shepherds & ‘Orans’ figure in the choir of Sant Feliu, Girona A sarcophagus that was made a little before the end of the 3rd century has some hints of a connection with a Christian burial: the sarcophagus shows a number of hunting scenes on the front panel and on the left side of the lid; on the right side of the lid is the unfinished bust of the deceased. On the left side of the front panel is a shepherd carrying a ram, whilst on the right side there is a female with her arms raised as if in prayer; this is the ‘Orans’ position. It is probable that the figure represents the deceased but it is improbable that there is any suggestion that she was Christian.

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Late 3rd century Sarcophagus with pastoral scenes, now in the Vatican museum It was Constantine’s decision to formally cease all persecution of Christians and decriminalising the religion throughout the Empire that was the real turning point. This was formalised in the Edict of Milan in 313, which left the Empire officially neutral as regards religious conduct and belief. It was the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 that ordered all subjects of the Empire to adopt the Christian religion. These legal changes led to the adoption of Christianity by Roman citizens of all social levels; hitherto Christians had tended to be poorer members of society. With the arrival of wealthy Christians there was a significant increase in the production of sarcophagi with Christian images and motifs, especially those that might reflect their enhanced social status. Pre-Christian sculptures provided models for sarcophagi produced for Christians. Examples are provided by two sarcophagi – a pagan one that is from Sidamara and is now in Istanbul; the other is Christian with Old and New Testament scenes that is from Santa Maria Antiqua, in Rome. Both show a seated teacher or philosopher. In the Christian sarcophagus the seated man was intended to personify Christ as a teacher, but also to represent the deceased. In front of him there is a female figure who is shown in the ‘Orans’ position, with arms raised as in prayer and with a small bird, probably a dove, at her feet. This pairing is intended to show the deceased as being a person who had read and been guided by the teachings of Christ as set out in the gospels and that she was a learned woman. On the right end there are two fishermen holding a net with fish. Next to the left of the fishermen is the scene of the baptism of Christ; Christ is shown as a small naked boy standing in a stream; above his head a dove descends. Behind the teacher or philosopher is the Good Shepherd, a figure that was adopted by Christianity from the pagan tradition. At his feet are two more sheep. The left end face shows a boat with sail furled and two members of the crew. The boat is sailing towards a seated figure holding a trident in his left hand. The figure has the appearance of a pagan sea god; the trident was used in very early Christian art as a disguise for the Cross. Between this scene and that of the ‘Orans’ figure is the scene of the story of Jonah and the whale and the sea monster. Jonah is shown to the right of the monster looking towards Jonah, who is naked and asleep under a shelter; on the roof of this shelter are three sheep, whose presence is difficult to explain; they do not feature in the Old Testament story and they are too detached from the Good shepherd to be part of that scene. This sarcophagus is another example of the seamless way that Christianity adopted forms and motifs from the pagan period and did so in a manner that eased the acceptance of Christianity because it brought with it many things that were familiar.

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Sarcophagus of the Teacher from Sidamara, AD 250, now in Istanbul

Sarcophagus of the Teacher from Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome, 3rd c The period of transition from pagan to Christian themes produced some sarcophagi that could be identified as belonging to either tradition. From the Praetextatus catacomb in Rome there is a sarcophagus that is now in the Vatican museum. Dating from the last decades of the 4th century, the front panel has a vibrant scene of naked figures clambering amongst tall vines harvesting grapes, whilst in the centre and at each corner are the much larger figures of the Good Shepherd. There is no inscription to identify it as Christian, though by AD 370 the Christian religion was well established in Rome and the original location of the sarcophagus in the catacomb would imply that the deceased was Christian. But the bucolic nature of the panel as a whole makes it improbable that there was any underlying Christian theme. An earlier example is provided by a sarcophagus, originally found at the Via Salaria, which is now also in the Vatican museum. It has been dated to ‘the second half of the 3rd century’ and ‘AD 270’. A man and wife with their attendants are at each end facing each other. The man holds a book whilst the wife has a scroll. Both are elegantly dressed. Between them are a man dressed as the Good Shepherd and a woman in the ‘Orans’ position. These latter two were to be typical Christian figures, but they were

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derived from pagan forms. At the corners are magnificent heads of rams. Thus we have two sarcophagi that have figures found in both pagan art and in Christian; in both the figures are capable of having a specifically Christian interpretation; but in one, despite its later date the surrounding context makes it unlikely that it was Christian.

Sarcophagus from the Praetextatus catacomb, now Vatican Museum. AD 370

Sarcophagus from Via Salaria now in the Vatican Museum. 2nd half of the 3rd C Despite the adoption of Christianity across the Roman Empire, pagan themes continued to be employed to decorate sarcophagi. A good example is the ‘Dioscures sarcophagus’ at Arles. This late 4th century sarcophagus has, along the main panel, images of the twins of Roman mythology, Pollux and Castor, sons of Leda with their horses, at each end. In between there are two couples, a young wife with her husband and an older couple. The side panels, however, have a Christian theme: the Multiplication of Bread & Fish and the arrest of Saint Peter.

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Arles - ‘Dioscures sarcophagus’, late 4th c, Front panel

Arles - ‘Dioscures sarcophagus, late 4th c, Left side panel By the time of the Edict of Milan images of Christ were well developed. He is generally shown as a clean-shaven young man with long hair, robed in a toga but bare-footed. Rarely is he shown with a nimbus around the head. He was generally shown in narrative scenes that were mostly derived from the New Testament. In most 4th century scenes Christ is shown holding a stick or wand in one hand; he uses this to point to the person or the object that is the object of the miracle he is performing rather like a magic wand. The use of the trepan drill added an element of vitality to the figures; eyes were often pierced and filled with lead; the use of the trepan was a technique that was adopted by sculptors in the West from the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond.

Images of Christ from two Sarcophagi of AD 300 in the Vatican (left & centre) and one in Arles dated AD 325

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But there was no consistency in the representations of Christ. A damaged sarcophagus that is dated to AD 300 in the Palazzo Massimo museum in Rome shows Christ as a mature middle aged and bearded man. To the right of the break Christ has his hand on the head of a young boy. This gesture is probably related to the giving of the Holy Spirit or baptism. The representations of Christ with a nimbus or a halo are few and are mostly confined to those sarcophagi that have just three narrow blocks of sculpture on the front panel. Examples are to be seen on a 4th century sarcophagus in Arles museum and on an early 5th century sarcophagus that is known as the ‘Geminus sarcophagus’ and which is in St Trophime, at Arles. The latter is unusual in that above the head of Christ there is a small cross.

Sarcophagus from AD 300 showing the Miracles of Christ, now in Palazzo Massimo museum, Rome

Arles – 4th c sarcophagus, detail of Christ (left) ‘Geminus sarcophagus’, detail of Christ (right)

& St Trophime – Early 5th c

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The ‘Peace of the Church’ gave great impulse to the production of Christian sarcophagi with biblical stories covering their exposed panels, but the trend had begun from the middle of the 3rd century; characters and scenes were arranged without any obvious logical narrative sequence or sense of continuity. This type is sometimes described as having ‘The continuous frieze’. The same people may be repeated across the face of the sarcophagus; a change of scene may be indicated by an individual turning his or her back or the insertion of a tree, as shown in the illustration above. Scenes from the Old Testament might run beside scenes of the Miracles of Christ or events from the life of St Peter. Thus, as in the example below, the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, Jonah and the whale and Daniel, who is shown naked, because that is the way people were put into the arena to be eaten by beasts, in the lions’ den between King Cyrus and Habakkuk are set beside scenes of Christ and St Peter, who, lower right, is arrested in Rome and baptises his warders, both apocryphal tales. The scene of St Peter baptising his wardens and of his arrest also appear on the left side of the upper example. It is noteworthy that the wardens and those arresting Christ all wear identical caps on both sarcophagi. Narrative scenes were usually abbreviated to a single essential event that would be sufficient for the viewer to recall the fuller message; this format is the one that was used for most of the Christian scenes found in the catacombs. The principle behind the scenes was that of Christian salvation and the hope of eternal life after death for the deceased. St Matthew’s Gospel uses the tale of Jonah being swallowed by the whale, though that is usually represented by a huge serpent and not a whale, and then regurgitated to foretell the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ: ‘For as Jonah in the belly of the sea-monster for three days and three nights, so will the Son of Man be in the earth for three days and three nights’. (Matthew 29: 39-40). In this way the tale of Jonah’s salvation from death and his enjoyment of the peaceful rest that was to follow reinforced the message of salvation; God would save the deceased and their families if they stood firm in the faith. In the Ny Carlesberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen there is a sarcophagus for a child. It dates from the late 3rd century and is probably from Rome. Being smaller, the scene of Jonah and the whale is less ‘busy’ than other examples. It is of interest that the story of Jonah was thought appropriate for a child’s sarcophagus; it is likely that it had to be specially made and was not prepared in a workshop in anticipation of a child’s death. That of Daniel, similarly, shows how he was restored unharmed through faith, endurance and the power of God. It has already been stated that Christ usually points with a stick to the object of the miracle; an exception always to this convention is when he is shown healing the man born blind, when Christ places mud on his eyes. The female figure to the left of this scene is a representation of the deceased in the act of prayer. These scenes seem to have been already familiar to the sculptors before the easing of the restrictions on Christian worship and must have been developed during the period of persecution under the Emperor Diocletian. Scenes and figures, in general, are repetitive, following a standard format. The bodies are often stiff, clumsy and ill-proportioned with little attention to detail.

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Frieze sarcophagus of AD 300 now in the Vatican museum

Double register sarcophagus with scene of Jonah & the Whale, AD 300 now in the Vatican museum

Child’s sarcophagus from Rome, late 3rd C. Now in Copenhagen Another front panel of a sarcophagus at Arles with scenes of Jonah and the Whale has an interesting and unusual scene. The sarcophagus has two registers. On the lower register there are two scenes with a reptile climbing a tree. To the right of the Jonah scene two naked figures stand each side of the tree. These are undoubtedly Adam and Eve being tempted by the snake to eat the forbidden fruit. The tree to the left of the Jonah scene has a clothed figure beside the tree. This has been interpreted as representing Daniel poisoning the Dragon of the Babylonians, an apocryphal story in

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which the King challenges Daniel to prove that the dragon his people worship is not a God. Daniel poisons the beast and it dies, proving that it was mortal.

Panel of a sarcophagus at Arles with scenes of Jonah & the Whale, AD 340

Panel of a sarcophagus at Arles with scenes of Jonah & the Whale, AD 340; detail

A 4th century sarcophagus in the Vatican museum that includes a scene with Daniel in the lions’ den shows the naked, boyish Daniel in the ‘Orans’ position with, on his right, a youth who points to a scroll that he is holding and on his left Habakkuk who is holding a loaf that is inscribed with a cross indicating that it is Eucharistic bread; this links the Old Testament story to the New Testament and Christian salvation.

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4th c sarcophagus in the Vatican museum – Detail of Daniel in the lions’ den Also derived from the Book of the Prophet Daniel is the story of Chaste Susanna. In the choir of Sant Feliu in Girona eight front panels of sarcophagi from the Roman period have been set into the walls. One from the 4th century is known as ‘Chaste Susanna’ and it tells the story of Susanna, the wife of Joachim. On the sarcophagus, from right to left, the scenes show Susanna walking in her garden when she is approached by two men; she refuses their sexual advances, so they take her before a judge and they accuse her of adultery. The judge sentences her to death by stoning. She prays for God’s help and Daniel proves her innocence; she is freed and her accusers are sentenced to death. It is a story that was used across the Roman world on sarcophagi. A sarcophagus in Carrara marble from the middle of the 4th century that is at Arles is also known as ‘Chaste Susanna’. On this, the story occupies part of the upper register with Daniel in the lions’ den on the lower register.

4th c sarcophagus of ‘Chaste Susanna’ in Sant Feliu, Girona, Catalonia

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Mid 4th c sarcophagus ‘Chaste Susanna’ in Arles museum

Other Old Testament scenes that focused on ‘Salvation’ included Noah’s Ark with God’s covenant to man, the Crossing of the Red Sea and the scene of the Original Sin and the Garden of Eden. A late 4th century sarcophagus in Arles museum has an unusual detail at the right edge of the panel illustrating the crossing of the Red Sea. It shows a female with a tambourine; she has been identified as Miriam, the prophetess and sister of Aaron; she is mentioned in Exodus 15:20. The Crossing of the Red Sea was a popular them especially in the second half of the 4th century through into the 5th century. Two in Arles show considerable similarities in their details.

Sarcophagus illustrating the Crossing of the Red Sea; now in the Vatican museum

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Late 4th c sarcophagus now in Arles museum – Red Sea crossing, detail of right end

Late 4th c sarcophagus now in Saint Trophime, Arles – Red Sea crossing, detail of right end

A scene taken from Daniel that was used to how God aids the faithful is that of three young Jewish men who, on the orders of the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, are thrown into a furnace because they stood by the faith and endured. The sculptor has added the figure of a slave busy stoking the furnace. Strangely, the Jews wear Phrygian bonnets. The fragment below illustrates this vividly. To the left Noah is receiving back the dove which is holding an olive branch in its bill.

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4th c sarcophagus in the Vatican museum – Three Jews in the Fiery Furnace The scene of the three Jews being sent to the fiery furnace after rejecting the order to worship the idol of Nebuchadnezzar is found on an early 3rd century Proconnessos marble sarcophagus at Arles. It is known as the ‘Farewell of Christ’. In the centre is young-looking Christ, who is clean-shaven. His feet rest on a low stool and he holds a partially opened scroll. His apostles are set around him in three groups. To the left Moses strikes the rock to produce the miraculous spring and then there are the three Jews. This fragment is a mould; the original is in Aix-en-Provence. To the right of the couch Christ is restoring life to the daughter of Zaire who crouches at his feet. On the extreme right Christ bids farewell to the assembled faithful.

‘The Farewell to Christ’ sarcophagus at Arles. Early 3rd c.

Very similar scenes and episodes feature in quite different sequences on sarcophagi from the same period. This reflects the system of creating the sarcophagi. Teams of sculptors would work on the same sarcophagi in the manner of a conveyer belt. Each sculptor might be responsible for one or possible two scenes. He would move from work to work as he became free, so he would be unlikely to follow the same colleague twice. If there was to be a central disc for the image of the deceased or for an epitaph (imago clipeata), it would be left blank until the time of purchase of the sarcophagus by the family of the deceased. A surprising number of these plaques or imago clipeata were left blank. The sarcophagus of Agape & Crescentianus, which is dated to AD 330-360, is decorated on three sides. The front has scenes from the life of Christ and 20

St Peter; the two sides have scenes from the Old Testament. Contrary to the usual convention, Christ does not hold a stick in any of the scenes. The lid is decorated with the Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace on the left and, on the right, Jonah being spewed from the mouth of the whale and then lying under a pergola. In the centre is an inscription panel held by two genii. The translation of the inscription reads: ‘Crescentianus made this tomb for his beloved spouse Agape who lived with her husband for 55 years, one month and 5 days and was laid to rest on 23 December – and for himself while he was still alive’ (and the following was added later) ‘and who was led to his tomb on 30 August and lived one hundred and one years’. Each of the scenes is framed by an arch supported by columns with capitals. On some sarcophagi the various scenes are divided by trees, which are thought by some to represent Paradise. An example is to be seen at Narbonne. This is a 4th century marble sarcophagus that is in the style associated with Arles. It is deeply sculptured with young, clean-shaven Christ at the centre between two doves. To his side are Ss Peter and Paul; on the right is a tree with a serpent. Whether the sarcophagus is a local work or one imported from Arles cannot be determined. The inclusion of trees to separate scenes on the front panel was a fairly common device. It certainly facilitated the separation of the different scenes.

The sarcophagus of ‘Agape & Crescentianus’, AD 330-360, Vatican Museum

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Narbonne – 4th c ‘Arles’ style sarcophagus

A mid 4th c sarcophagus with trees, in Preconnesos marble. Arles

The ‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus that is in Sant’Ambrogio basilica, Milan, is dated to the last two decades of the 4th century. It is carved on all four sides. The front shows Christ seated amongst the apostles, none of whom has any feature that would enable them to be identified individually. At his feet are the deceased adoring the symbolic Lamb of God. The deceased also appear on the front of the lid between, on the left, the idol of Nebuchadnezzar and three youths, and, to the right, the Epiphany. On this panel the sculptor has created five divisions by inserting a structured framework in the background. This format was to be repeated on the two side panels.

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4th c ‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus, Milan – Front panel On the right panel, below the scene of the Nativity on the lid, Elijah is shown ascending to Heaven in a chariot of fire with, below the horses; then the Original Sin; Noah sending out the dove whilst standing in a very small tub that represents the ark, and Moses receives the Law. The left panel illustrates Abraham’s sacrifice of his son, and four saints turning towards the front scene.

‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus, Milan – Right & left side panels At the corners of the ‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus are four masks that wear ornate hair styles. These featured on pagan sarcophagi such as the 3rd century pagan 23

sarcophagus that is in the Louvre; the main scene is taken from the Endymion cycle and continued into the Christian era. These heads usually represented the heads of theatre masks, but also Medusa, Mithras or even young men. In South-west France at Aire-sur-Ardour, there is a 4th century sarcophagus known as the ‘Sarcophagus of Sainte Quitterie’. The front panel has a complicated repertoire of biblical scenes indicating that it was a Christian sarcophagus; at the corners of the lid are heads of Medusa. In Rome there is an early 3rd century sarcophagus with heads representing the sun and the moon, sometimes symbols of immortality, on the front. In Narbonne at the church of St Paul Serge is a late 3rd century Christian sarcophagus known as the ‘Lege Feliciter’ sarcophagus. At the two front corners the mask has been replaced by a head with a sun and a moon. To the sides are the heads representing the deceased supported by an angel: the wife by the left corner and the husband at the right corner. The inclusion of pagan motifs is not so much an acceptance at the time of the continued use of pagan motifs; but rather it is an example of the adoption and ‘Christianisation’ of the pagan motifs.

3rd c top of a sarcophagus – Arles

3rd c ‘Selene & Endymion’ sarcophagus now in Louvre

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Aire-sur-Ardour – Sarcophagus of Ste Quitterie; 4c

National museum, Rome – Early 3rd c sarcophagus

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The ‘Lege Feliciter’ sarcophagus at St Paul Serge, Narbonne; late 3rd c The use or re-use of sarcophagi for the burial of Christians was not uncommon. The museum at Arles provides several examples. One is the tomb of St Hilaire, who was bishop of Arles from 429 to 449. The main part of the sarcophagus, made in the late 3rd century, is now in the Louvre. It showed the legend of Prometheus. The top of the sarcophagus is at Arles. It is of stone and is plain except for a long inscription at one end: SACRO SANCTAELE GI ANTESTIS HILARIVS HIC QUIESCIT To the left of the last two lines is a small dove above the ‘Chi-Rho’; on the right side is an ivy leaf above another dove and a chalice.

In the Treasury Museum of St Peter’s, Rome there is another sarcophagus named after the Roman senator to whom it was dedicated: Junius Bassus, who died in 359 and was one of the first Christians to be buried in the recently built basilica of St Peter’s. This sarcophagus is generally agreed to be one of the masterpieces of early Christian sculpture. It has two registers each of four scenes; these are in niches that are almost square; these are formed by decorated columns topped by small Corinthian style capitals. Between the two registers the sculptor has inserted groups of small animals. The top of the sarcophagus has, unfortunately, been badly mutilated, but around the base of the lid is an inscription. One of the most striking things about the sculpture is

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the remarkable depth of the carving so that figures stand clear of others that are carved in light relief behind them.

The 4th c sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, Treasury museum of St Peter’s, Rome – Front panel The upper register has scenes, from the left, of Abraham’s sacrifice, the arrest of St Peter in Rome, Christ seated on a throne over a symbolic heaven, represented by the bearded head of Uranus (another example of a pagan symbol that was adopted by Christianity) and between Saints Peter and Paul; Christ is passing a scroll, the Gospels, to St Peter; this is followed by two scenes of Christ being presented to Pilate, who, in the last scene, is about to wash his hands. Christ is shown holding a scroll. The scene of Christ enthroned is also described as ‘Traditio Legis’. The lower register shows Job seated on a dung hill in front of his wife and a friend, the Original Sin, Christ’s entry into Jerusalem with Nicodemus in the tree, Daniel, who is clothed in this version the result of a restoration in the 18th century, in the lions’ den and St Paul being led to his death, a story that is not in the gospels; St Paul is usually identified as having a bald head. The side panels show putti gathering grapes and the seasons. Here the carving lacks the depth of that on the front panel.

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The sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, Treasury museum of St Peter’s, Rome – A side panel In the museum at Arles there is a spectacular sarcophagus from the first half of the 4th century that was found at Les-Saintes-Maries; it is known as ‘The Trinity’ or ‘The Spouses (Les Epoux)’. It has three registers including the lid, with a remarkable variety of scenes from the Old and New Testaments and from the apocrypha. Throughout the sculptures show extensive detailed working including deep carving and the use of the trepan drill. The two dedication discs are blank so the names of the deceased are unknown, but these were obviously important members of the community. They are richly attired and were probably members of the administrative elite. The side panels of the sarcophagus are almost plain.

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4th c sarcophagus known as ‘The Trinity’ or ‘The Spouses (Les Epoux)’ in Arles

One scene needs further explanation. It is to be found to the left of the disc with the busts of the two deceased. There are two scenes; the one nearer the centre shows a young Christ beside an older man who is presenting his young son to Christ who is in the act of curing the child’s infirmity. The scene to the left shows the same young Christ looking to a much older seated man. Behind this seated figure and behind Christ are two middle aged men. In front of Christ are two small naked figures; Christ has his right hand on the head of one, a young female; the other is male. A somewhat similar scene is on the left side of a sarcophagus in the Vatican that is known as the ‘Dogmatic’ or ‘Trinity’ sarcophagus. In this one, which is to the left of the scene of a young looking, clean shaven Christ holding a sheaf of corn in his right hand and a dead hare in the other; he is standing between Adam and Eve, there are three bearded, middle aged men. The man on the right of these has his hand on the head of a naked girl. Behind her is another prone figure, that of a naked boy. Both scenes have been interpreted as being the Creation on Man. The three middle aged men represent the Trinity. The two small figures are Adam and Eve at the moment of their creation. The figures are naked, perhaps because in the 4th century baptism was conducted with the person to be baptised being naked. The hare and sheaf of corn may represent the labour and toil to which the sinners were to be sent.

4th c sarcophagus known as ‘The Trinity’ or ‘The Spouses (Les Epoux)’ in Arles, detail of scenes left of the deceased

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‘Dogmatic’ or ‘Trinity’ sarcophagus, AD 330-340. Vatican museum. Detail A 4th century sarcophagus, known after the deceased as ‘The Crispina sarcophagus’, shows the deceased holding a scroll with her name, Crispina, and the ‘Chi-Rho’ symbol at the top. The carving of the figures on this lacks the depth and quality seen on others, such as that of Junius Bassus.

4th c ‘Crispina’ sarcophagus, now in the Vatican – Detail ‘Traditio Legis’ was to be a theme that was to be used regularly. The museum at Arles has a fine late 4th century example in Carrara marble. Christ towers over his disciples as he passes a long scroll containing the Law to St Peter. At Christ’s feet are two lambs, symbolising Christ’s role as shepherd of his flock. To the left of Christ there are two figures separated by a palm. One is carrying a phoenix, a symbol of the resurrection. Scenes with Christ set between his disciples became frequent in the second half of the 4th century. A fragment of a late 4c sarcophagus in the Vatican shows a group of apostles carrying a paten in one hand and, in the other, a scroll that symbolises authority. Above each there is a star and a hand that holds a crowning

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wreath. A late 4th century sarcophagus at Arles, known at the ‘Cross of Anàstasis sarcophagus’ has the same detail of a wreath over the heads of the apostles.

4th c sarcophagus at Arles - Traditio Legis’

Fragment of late 4th c sarcophagus in the Vatican museum - Apostles The mystery of the incarnation of the Son of Man and his revelation to mankind at the Epiphany are cornerstones of the ‘stories of Christian Salvation’. The early decades of the 4th century saw the introduction of the liturgical festival of the Nativity. With it sculptors developed detailed illustrations of the Nativity and the coming of the Magi. Some of the details, such as the ox and ass in the manger, are derived from apocryphal accounts in the Gnostic gospels (see The Nativity & the Assumption of Mary –

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Origins of the Imagery at http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesquedecoration ). Strangely, the figure of Joseph does not appear in the earlier images of the Nativity. Examples are to be found on two late 4th century sarcophagi at Arles and in another in the Vatican museum. In all the examples the Magi are wearing Phrygian caps and pointing upwards; in the one from the Vatican the star and the heads of two camels have been added. The Epiphany was frequently illustrated using the three Magi. As with Daniel, who defied a tyrant king in defence of his faith in God, so the Magi had also defied a tyrant king so as to protect the new-born Christ. On the left of the lower example is the less frequently illustrated scene of Ezekiel raising the dry bones, taken from Ezekiel 37: 1-10.

Detail from two late 4th c sarcophagi at Arles

4th c sarcophagus of the Nativity in the Vatican museum Another 4th century sarcophagus in the Vatican museum that illustrates the story of Ezekiel restoring life to dry bone shows Ezekiel addressing Christ as he restores life to the son of the widow of Nain. The deceased is to the right of Christ. She is making a sign with two fingers of her right hand towards another image of Christ who stands to her left; she holds a book or codex in the other hand. This arrangement indicates that she is communicating with Christ through the activity of reading the scriptures.

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Early 4th c ‘Ezekiel’ sarcophagus in the Vatican museum The ‘Marcus Claudius’ sarcophagus fails to include Mary watching over her child; instead Joseph is shown leaning on a stave as he watches the child. In the ‘Dogmatic’ sarcophagus a male figure is shown behind Mary as she receives the Magi at the Epiphany. This is possibly Joseph or the prophet Balaam.

Detail of ‘Marcus Claudius’ sarcophagus AD 330 (left) & ‘Dogmatic’ sarcophagus, AD 325-350 (right) The sarcophagus known as ‘The Two Brothers’, after the two heads in the ‘imago clipeata’; the head on the left was probably originally intended to be female, judging by the positioning of the body and the outstretched right arm and hand. The scenes that are illustrated include many that are already familiar including Daniel naked in the lions’ den. But top left shows the resurrection of Lazarus and the foretelling of the denial of Christ by St Peter. Below the central disc with the two brothers is a small apocryphal scene of St Peter teaching a centurion, Corneillius, and another warden; they were later converted to Christianity by St Peter. That scenes of events in the life of St Peter feature so frequently is perhaps due to the fact that it was in Rome that the events took place and his name was therefore closely associated with Rome in the minds of its Christians. There was no concern that the events are not recorded in the New Testament.

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Sarcophagus of ‘The Two Brothers’ AD 325 now in the Vatican museum In the Vatican museum there is a fragment of a sarcophagus that dates from AD 325; it shows Christ in a boat rowed by three disciples, John, Luke and Mark. It has an interesting resemblance to a 12th century fragment from the West door of the great Catalan abbey of Sant Pere de Rodes. This fragment, by the ‘Maître de Cabestany’, shows Christ before Saints Andrew and Peter and is now in Barcelona.

Fragment of a sarcophagus from AD 325 now in the Vatican – Christ with three disciples

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Sant Pere de Rodes – A fragment of the 12th c West door, now in the Fredric Marès museum, Barcelona The Greek word for Resurrection is ‘Anàstasis’. The term is used to refer to the triumphal banner that is placed in the centre of the front panel; it combines the two arms of the cross with the monogram of Christ’s name, the ‘Chi Rho’ or XP, crowned with a laurel wreath and flanked by two doves. The name alludes to the Easter victory of Christ and it transforms the humiliating image of the cross into a symbol of victory. Below the banner are two soldiers. The scenes to the sides refer to Christ’s Passion; two more are on the end panels; the scenes are separated by trees, which effectively replace the more usual architectural columns. This sarcophagus is sometimes referred to as ‘The Sarcophagus of the Resurrection’.

Sarcophagus with ‘Anàstasis’ and trees from AD 340 now in the Vatican museum An ‘Anàstasis’ sarcophagus in Carrara marble, known as the ‘Constantine II’, is in the Arles museum. It dates from the late 4th century. The top has at the centre a blank

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dedication plaque that is held by two winged cherubs. Either side are imago clipeata with the heads of the deceased. At the ends of the lid are two masks. The centre of the front panel is dominated by the cross of ‘Anàstasis’ crowned by a wreath. Each side of the cross are six apostles, each holding a book or scroll. Their heads are all crowned with a small wreath. The side panels are decorated with the baptism of Christ at one end and Moses and St Peter with his jailer. These side panels are executed in a different style to that used on the front.

Sarcophagus with ‘Anàstasis’ known as ‘Constantine II’ at Arles. Late 4th c. Front panel

Sarcophagus with ‘Anàstasis’ known as ‘Constantine II’ at Arles. Late 4th c. End panels From the 2nd century through to the end of the 4th century a number of themes that had no religious connotation remained popular: hunting scenes in particular but also scenes of rural life and women playing musical instruments. These represented elements in the social life of the senatorial class. After the Empire converted to Christianity such themes continued to be used but the dedication plaque gave a clear indication that the deceased was Christian. A damaged early 4th century sarcophagus in marble from Carrara provides an example. It shows naked cherub-like figures harvesting olives. It is from Arles and was probably produced in a local workshop there.

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Early 4th c Cararra marble sarcophagus fragment with olive harvesting; Arles In the introduction it was stated that the raw material for sarcophagi was shipped from as far away as Proconnessos, near the Dardanelles; several sarcophagi at Arles are carved in Cararra marble; there is one in marble from St Béat, in Haute Garonne. Christ stands at the centre holding in his left had the Law. Each side are two disciples; those nearest him carry a basket of bread and a dish of small fish, symbols of the Eucharist. At the ends are Abraham, who is about to sacrifice his son, and Daniel, who is slaying the dragon of Babylon, who is poisoning the dragon of Babylon. The inclusion of these two Old Testament figures is probably to draw attention to the fact that these Jewish scenes and narratives have been superseded by the new Law. Each person is framed by fluted columns and is set within a deep recess in the form of a scallop shell arch.

Mid 4th c sarcophagus in St Béat marble showing symbols of the Eucharist. Arles The Louvre and Arles museum have sarcophagi that have several features in common. Both are known as the ‘Concordus’ sarcophagus and date from the late 4th century. In both Christ is shown seated between the apostles. Christ is bearded and rests his feet

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on a low stool. He holds an open book on which is inscribed: Dominus legem dat. The apostles hold scrolls or codices. Four are inscribed with the names of the evangelists, Matthew and Mark to Christ’s right and Luke and John on his left. Behind the apostles, in light relief, is a line of heads, probably representing disciples. At the left end of the Arles sarcophagus is a small roof, below which a woman is seated; she holds a child that she appears to be offering or presenting to Christ. The sarcophagus in Arles has a lengthy epitaph to Bishop Concordius, who died in about 390. This sarcophagus is decorated with griffins on the short sides.

4th c ‘Concordius’ sarcophagus in Arles

4th c ‘Concordius’ sarcophagus in the Louvre The crypt of St Victor basilica at Marseille has several interesting and unusual sarcophagi. Amongst them is 5th century one known as the ‘Allegorical’ sarcophagus. The central scene of the lamb has been restored using 17th and early 19th century drawings. The frieze on the lid shows three lambs with palm trees each side of the ‘Chi-Rho’. On the main panel, in the centre, is a lamb that symbolizes Christ. It is standing on a mountain from which flow the Four Rivers of Paradise (Genesis 2;10); a large sheep drinks from one river and a deer from another. Rising up on each side of the mountain are palm trees. Each side are scenes that are associated with the Eucharist; on the left is the Feast of Cana and on the right, badly damaged, is the Feeding of the 5,000. This is one of four sarcophagi in the crypt which include the central position of the Four Rivers of Paradise. Two of the others, also from the 5th century are known as the ‘Companions of Sainte Ursule’ sarcophagus and the

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‘Companions of Saint Maurice’ sarcophagus. Both show Christ at the centre standing on a flat mountain with the four rivers flowing down the sides.

St Victor crypt, Marseille – 5th c, ‘Allegorical sarcophagus’

St Victor crypt, Marseille – 5th c ‘Companions of Ste Ursule’ sarcophagus The fourth sarcophagus with the Four Rivers of Paradise that is at St Victor is in the basilica proper and it is known as ‘Traditio Legis’. At the centre Christ is standing bare footed on the mountain down which flow the four rivers. Behind Christ are palms. He is passing a scroll to a disciple whilst greeting another who stands to his right. On the left side is the scene of Abraham about to sacrifice his son, Isaac, who is seated with his hands bound and his back to his father. The hand of God is in the upper corner; a lamb is in the lower one. At the other end there is an illustration of Christ restoring the sight to a blind man.

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St Victor, Marseille – 5th c sarcophagus ‘Traditio Legis’

Child mortality was considerably more prevalent then than it is today in Europe. There are a small number of examples of sarcophagi that were intended for children. The example below shows, from the left, the Miracle at Cana, a female figure in the ‘orans’ position between two saints and, on the right, the resurrection of the son of the widow of Nain. A second sarcophagus for a child, also in the Vatican museum, has a fuller repertoire of scenes: the Magi, St Peter and his jailers, Jonah, Abraham and Isaac, the arrest of St Peter by Processus and Martinianus and a very naked Daniel.

Sarcophagus for a child from circa AD 300, now in the Vatican museum

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4th c sarcophagus for a child, now in the Vatican museum It is possible that some confusion may be caused when a sarcophagus is re-used. An example is to be seen in the so-called ‘Gayole sarcophagus’ at Brignoles, in Provence. In Preconnesos marble and dating from the mid 3rd century, it was not manufactured in Gaul; the style is more reminiscent of works from Greece. This damaged sarcophagus is decorated, from left to right, with a helios bust, a fisherman, a tree with a bird in it, three lying rams and an anchor, an ‘Orans’ figure, another tree with a bird in it, a seated person and a smaller standing person, the Good Shepherd and one behind him, another tree with a bird in it and finally a seated man with a long stick and another ram. The ‘Orans’ figure and the Good Shepherd have been interpreted as having a Christian context. The epigraph would indicate that it was re-employed in the late 5th century.

Brignoles, 3rd c Gayole sarcophagus, re-used in the late 5th c. Some early sarcophagi lacked the detailed sculptures; instead the front panel was decorated with a pattern of thin ripples known as ‘Strigilate’. The Metropolitan Museum, New York has a fine example that is dated as AD 220 and it is, therefore, pre-Christian; the ‘Strigilate’ format first appeared in the 1st century AD. The ‘Strigilate’ or ‘Strigils’ are named after the curved implements used by Greek and Roman athletes to scrape dirt and moisture from their skin after intense exercise.

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Roman ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus from AD 220, now Met, NY

‘Julia Latronilla’ sarcophagus from Rome AD 330, now Jerusalem

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Roman ‘Strigil’, Walters Art Museum By the end of the 4th century increasing numbers of ’Strigilate’ sarcophagi were used. They were usually decorated with a central sculpture that was between two blocks of ‘Strigilate’ decoration. At the corners were two more sculptures. The end panels were usually covered with more ‘Strigilate’ decoration that might contain a small motif in the centre, such as a flower. In the museum at Arles there is a 4th century example which has a sculpture of a young-looking, long-haired Christ holding a cross, showing that the cross was now an accepted symbol and was no longer associated with humiliation. At each corner is an unidentifiable apostle. A second one, also 4th century and at Arles, shows a woman in the ‘Orans’ position with apostles at each end. All three figures have a rolled scroll at their feet, indicating that they are learned people. Another, at Apt, shows Christ standing in the centre panel holding a cross; at either end of the front panels are apostles; on the short end panels are twin panels with figures of disciples, whilst the back panel is decorated with ‘Imbrication’.

Late 4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus now in Arles

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Late 4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus now in Arles

4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus now in Apt The Barcelona archaeological museum has an unusual sarcophagus. The sculpture on the central panel shows a veiled woman between two male figures, the left one much younger than the one on the right. Perhaps this is a scene of Mary being comforted by St John and another apostle after the Crucifixion. Further, this might be to comfort the widow of the deceased for whom this sarcophagus was intended. At the left end two soldiers are arresting St Peter in Rome; at the right corner Christ is shown healing the son of a Roman soldier; both stories are apocryphal.

4th c sarcophagus in Barcelona archaeological museum – Mary and apostles

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5th c Roman ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus with ‘The Law-giver’, now in Tarragona Supporting an altar in a side chapel in St Trophime, at Arles, is a sarcophagus from the first decade of the 5th century that is known as the ‘Geminus sarcophagus’; it is named after Paulus Geminus, who was responsible for the financial administration for five provinces of Gaul, working from Vienne some time before 395; he almost certainly lived some time in Arles and was buried in the first decade of the 5th century. Made using a Carrara marble with grey horizontal streaks, it has three bays divided by fluted columns on the front panel; Christ is seated on a throne in the centre; he has an elliptical halo that has a small crucifix at the apex; this is a Latinised ‘Chi Rho’. In his right hand he holds a book, the Bible. To his right is St Peter, holding a cross; the figure at Christ’s left side is probably St Paul.

‘Geminus Sarcophagus’ at St Trophime, Arles; early 5th c; Christ and two apostles A second example of a sarcophagus indicating that the decision to move the centre of administration South to Arles brought about the relocation of key staff is to be seen in a fragment of a late 4th or early 5th century sarcophagus lid at Arles. The fragment shows three dolphins; across two of the dolphins there is an epitaph that is inscribed either side of a cross: HIC CONDITVS I NOMINE TOLO BRITANNVS N

ACET SANVS ATIONE

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PROCONSVL

IS DOLOR

This implies that Tolosanus was transferred from Brittany to Arles at time of the move of the Prefecture of the Pretorius to Arles

Fragment of a late 4th c sarcophagus lid named after Tolosanus, now in Arles

A 4th century sarcophagus from St Cizy that is now in Toulouse shows a further reduction in the amount of sculpture so that the only motif is the ‘Chi Rho’ symbol. However, the lid has an interesting decorative pattern called ‘Imbrication’, that is found on later works of Merovingian origin after the end of Gallo-Roman France. It is possible that this decoration was intended to represent the roofing of an earthly home for the deceased; the pattern closely resembles Roman tiles of the 4th and 5th centuries. The patterns of ‘Strigilate’ used to decorate the front of sarcophagi were not consistent.

4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus with ‘Imbrication’ on the lid from St Cizy, now in St Raymond museum, Toulouse

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A late 5th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus with ‘Imbrication’ in the church of Pujols, Lot-etGarrone

5th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus at St Vincent, Mas d’Agenais At St André-le-Bas church, Vienne, a 6th century sarcophagus front combines the ‘Chi Rho’ symbol with ‘Imbrication’ patterns each side.

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6th c sarcophagus front at St André-le-Bas, Vienne From the end of the 4th century the fashion began to change. There was a significant decline in the sculpturing of the human figure. The use of floral and foliage decoration began to feature increasingly. An example is provided by a damaged sarcophagus that is at St Guilhem-le-Désert, in the Languedoc. It is known as ‘Albane and Bertrane’ sarcophagus and dates from the early 6th century. The main part of the front panel is decorated with biblical scenes divided by decorated columns, whilst the front of the lid has elaborate foliage patterns.

6th c ‘Albane and Bertrane’ sarcophagus at St Guilhem-le-Désert By the end of the 6th century the use of figures on the sarcophagi was reduced to three: Christ at the centre between two apostles. They were replaced by sarcophagi that carried floral and foliage decoration, but with the added Christian symbol of the ‘Chi Rho’ to confirm that the deceased was Christian. By the 6th century such sarcophagi had become the norm. Particularly fine examples are in the Musée St Raymond in Toulouse, Musée du Périgord, in Périgueux and in Bordeaux museum. They are ornately decorated with swirls of vines bearing leaves and fruit. The vine had featured on 2nd and 3rd century pagan sarcophagi as part of a scene showing the grape harvest. In the early years of Christianity it was a symbol of a Christian life;

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later it came to symbolise the Church and even to symbolise the Eucharist. But it must be said that the vine was often used in an entirely decorative context.

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, AD 350; side panel. Now in Vatican Treasury museum The sarcophagus in Toulouse has on the front panel three vases from which rise vines with luxurious foliage and fruits, symbolising biblical ‘True Vine’. On the example in Périgueux the ‘Chi Rho’ is set within a wreath that has a flower head at the top. The laurel wreath in Roman times was a symbol of victory and, consequently, of immortality. Some from this period have no over Christian symbol such as the ‘Chi Rho’. There are examples in the cloisters of Elne Cathedral.

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4th c sarcophagus from St Sauveur, Toulouse now in the Musée St Raymond, Toulouse

6th c sarcophagus now in the Musée du Périgord, Périgueux

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6th c sarcophagus now in the Bordeaux museum

6th c sarcophagus at Elne Cathedral cloisters

A sarcophagus that is now in the Louvre but which was for a long time at Soissons, in Northern France, had originally been made in the Midi; it provides an example of local export. It is richly decorated with vines around a ‘Chi Rho’ that is set within a wreath signifying victory and immortality. At the corners are slim columns with small Corinthian-style capitals.

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6th c. sarcophagus from Soissons, now in the Louvre A 5th century sarcophagus in Tarragona shows the Roman symbolism of the laurel wreath had spread across to the western edges of the Roman Empire. At each end of a ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus stands a figure in Roman clothing looking as if they were important state officials of magistrates; however it is considered by some that they represent Saints Peter and Paul. In the centre a laurel wreath surrounds a blank dedication plaque. In the corners are small flower heads. Below the disk are the Four Rivers of Paradise.

Sarcophagus from early 5th c now in Tarragona

In the Cité museum at Carcassonne there is a Merovingian sarcophagus from Floure; it has similar foliage decoration but it also has each side of the front panel a sheaf of wheat. A 5th century sarcophagus with similar motifs is to be seen at Moissac, in the Quercy; this is an indication that both the custom of using sarcophagi and the adoption of styles and motifs used in Septimania had acceptance in Aquitaine. The sarcophagus at Moissac has the additional Christian symbolism of the Eucharist in the form the early Christian symbol of two small doves drinking from a chalice that is below the ‘Chi-Rho’.

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6th c sarcophagus from Floure, now in Carcassonne

5th c sarcophagus at Moissac

A fragment from a late 6th century sarcophagus has been secured to the wall of the cloisters at Vaison-la-Romaine. It shows an unusual combination of motifs: tendrils of vines with grapes, a chalice that has a small rosette on the bowl and, above the chalice, a small cross.

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Late 6th c sarcophagus fragment, Vaison-la-Romaine The Italian city of Ravenna provides a significant contrast in the development of style and decoration. In the 5th century Ravenna became the Western capital of the Roman empire instead of Rome as the emperor sought safety from invading Huns. From the 6th century until 751 it was the seat of the Ostrogoth king; at the invitation of the Byzantine emperor, Theodoric invaded Northern Italy and captured Ravenna in 493. Though Christian, he was an Arian, but sought to recreate the glories of the old Roman Empire. With the flourishing new artistic developments came wealth and the rich citizens advertised their status in death as they had done in life. Some of the surviving sarcophagi are huge. Many were produced in Constantinople using marble extracted from the quarries on Proconnesus. By the late 5th century some workshops were established in Ravenna. An early sarcophagus in a local museum was made for a eunuch called Seda, from the court of Theodoric. Between two simple arches is a long epitaph that specifies his court duties and status.

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Ravenna, Archiepiscopal Museum. Early 5c sarcophagus for Seda, a court eunuch As happened elsewhere, the epigraph fell out of fashion and sarcophagi were decorated with Christian themes and symbols. Near the tourist entrance to San Vitale, in Ravenna is a fine example on a very large sarcophagus. The front shows the three Magi, wearing Phrygian caps, running to present their gifts to Christ. On the back are two peacocks with the Chi-Rho between them whilst on one end is the scene of Daniel standing between two lions. In the church of San Francesco a 5c sarcophagus does follow the earlier Roman traditional style. Known as ‘The apostles’, it shows Christ between four apostles. Each is set within a scalloped niche. The remaining apostles are shown on the sides and back. Another late 5th century sarcophagus in the Archiepiscopal Museum shows, on the front, two lambs standing almost head to head; behind each are bays with a large cross and, on the outer bay, palm trees. The rear face is similar except that the lambs are replaced by two large birds with a chalice between them and a ‘Chi rho’ above the chalice. This sarcophagus is thought to be of local manufacture because it is less ornate than imported models and there are locally defined changes.

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Ravenna, San Vitale. A 5c sarcophagus with the Epiphany scene

Ravenna, San Francesco. ‘Apostles’ sarcophagus, 5th c

Ravenna, Archiepiscopal Museum. A late 5th c sarcophagus of local manufacture In general there are few sarcophagi with the lavishly sculptured biblical scenes that were prevalent in Rome and Gaul in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Those biblical scenes that were produced were comparatively simple. An example is found in the Ravenna National Museum, where there is a 5th century sarcophagus made from attractively grey veined Proconnessus marble; it illustrates ‘Traditio Legis’; it is, however, a more sophisticated product than most from the same period that were produced in Gaul. The ends are decorated with a scene of Daniel and the lions and the raising of the son of the widow of Nain. More typical of the period is one in Sant’Apollinare in Classe.

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This 6th century sarcophagus has two lambs, each carrying a cross, on the front panel with a crudely made ‘Chi Rho’ between them. On the lid are two peacocks approaching a chalice; this symbolizes the Mass.

Ravenna National Museum. 5th c sarcophagus of ‘Traditio Legis’

Sant’ Apollinare in Classe – 6th c sarcophagus with lambs and peacocks Still in Sant’Apollinare in Classe, there is a 5th century sarcophagus; it was to be reused in the late 7th century for Archbishop Theodorus’ tomb. There are three bays on the front; the outer two have a large cross. The centre bay is much larger and shows a gabled arch supported by two large columns. Across the arch are curtains that are partially opened. This is intended to represent an altar. The ends are decorated with a lamb that has a halo around the head and which stands below two birds and a wreathed ‘Chi Rho’ and two chalices each with a pair of birds. The symbolic altar is most unusual; however, in the Cleveland Museum, in America, there is an altar with

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reliquary that was made in the first half of the 6th century for the church of San Carlino, in Ravenna. The similarities are remarkable.

Sant’Apollinare in Classe. 5th c sarcophagus illustrating an altar

Ravenna, San Carlino. Early 5th c altar, now Cleveland Museum, US An 8th century sarcophagus in the Civic museum at Pavia is decorated with two peacocks drinking from a chalice on top of which is a small cross. In so doing they are combining the old pagan symbols of Roman worship with the new Christian ones. 58

The panel is decorated with flowers, swirls and small rosettes with flowers, leaves and birds. These are motifs that were to be carried West across Europe to Spain by the Visigoths. A late 6th century sarcophagus from Jaen has two birds below vine branches; set within four rosettes is a disk with a most unusual scene: there is the seated figure of Mary; on her lap is Christ; Mary holds a tall cross in her right hand.

Lombard sarcophagus of Abbess Theodata from Sta Maria della Pusterola, AD 735, now Pavia civic museum

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Late 6th c Visigoth sarcophagus from Jaen, now in private hands, with detail of central disk From the 6th century a new motif made its appearance; it was the six pointed star. The St Raymond museum, Toulouse has a fragment of the front of a 6th century sarcophagus with this simple motif set between ‘Strigilate’. An example in Narbonne has a more complicated star motif that is at the centre of panels with plants and foliage that were typical of that century. Another in Narbonne replaces the star motif with the sun.

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Fragment of a 6c sarcophagus now in the St Raymond museum, Toulouse

Detail of the front of a 6c sarcophagus in Narbonne

Late 6th c ‘strigilate’ sarcophagus with sun motif at Narbonne Along with the star motif came an interlocking circle motif, one that was to be used extensively in the Romanesque sculpture of the 11th and 12th centuries. A 7th century example from Narbonne has the motif beside a cartouche with Adam & Eve in the Garden of Eden at one end and foliage at the other. The reverse side is decorated with ‘Imbrication’ patterns. This sarcophagus is of marble when most of those found in Narbonne from the late 6th century onwards are from limestone.

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7th c sarcophagus in Narbonne

Conclusions and Summary The sculptural programmes on the early Christian sarcophagi of the Roman Empire were a logical development from those used for the deceased of wealthy families during the first two centuries of that millennium. The subjects and styles reflected the dogmas of the new religion and its development after the uncertain and dangerous period of persecution. There is a noticeable decline in the ambitions of the sculptors from the 4th century onwards. The programmes were simpler and less demanding of both the time and skills of the artisans. During the 3rd to 5th centuries there was some consistency in the styles used in Rome and in the regions of Western Europe. Rome’s influence as an economic, commercial and political centre was already much diminished; following the sack of Rome in 455, the provinces developed their own formats and styles; this was particularly the case in France (Gaul), where most production seems to have been concentrated in the area of Septimania; this area ceased to be Roman after it was seized by the Visigoths in 411. Production was concentrated around Arles, Marseilles and Narbonne. There is evidence that Rome imported sarcophagi from Gaul to fulfil local needs. Local workshops in Provence had flourished from the 2nd century with the construction and decoration of arcs of triumph. Examples of such monuments stand still in cities such as Saintes, in the West of Gaul, to Trier, Vienne, Orange and Nîmes in the East of Gaul. However, the Rhineland and upper Rhone centres were to decline towards the latter decades of the 4th century, whilst that at Arles was to flourish. In part, this may be attributed to the decision in 308 to make Arles a residence for the Emperor Constantine. This gave special economic importance to the Rhone valley and its port at Arles. Around 395 the administrative centre and mint were transferred from Trier. From the 5th and 6th centuries some production does seem to have taken place further West, towards Aquitaine, which had been ceded to the Visigoths by Honorius in AD 413. In Spain production seems to have been confined to the Mediterranean coast and mostly around Tarragona, the capital of Roman Iberia. Although they were Christian, the arrival of the Visigoths in AD 411 led to a tailing off of production in Iberia, unlike Visigoth ruled Septimania where it continued for a further two centuries. On the other hand the Ostrogoth conquest of North-east Italy and the installation of their capital in Ravenna led to the development of a renewed artistic style that was to continue and evolve in the area for five centuries.

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It is striking that throughout the period under review that there was consistency in the choice of narratives that were used and, as a consequence, those that were neglected. From the Old Testament Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, Noah and the ark, the Exodus and Red Sea Crossing, several stories from Daniel including Susanna, which is apocryphal, Abraham & Isaac and Elijah’s chariot to heaven and Jonah. But amongst those that were mainly ignored are Moses, Cain & Abel, David and Samson, all of which were common subjects for Romanesque sculptors. From the New Testament there are naturally many examples of the events of Christ’s life from the Nativity through to his appearance before Pontius Pilate with a particular emphasis given to his miracles. But there are no illustrations of the Temptations, the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, his burial, the empty tomb or of Christ’s appearances after his Resurrection and none of the Ascension. Other New Testament scenes that were used are those concerning the life and death of St Peter and, to a lesser extent, St Paul. In this regard, many are apocryphal but seem to have had general acceptance despite the strictures against the use of non-canonical and heretical books and manuscripts that emanated from the Synods of Carthage of AD 397 and 419. (See http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesque-decoration and The Nativity & the Assumption of Mary – Origins of the Imagery). Events from the life of Mary that are common in Romanesque sculpture are ignored; examples include the Annunciation, Visitation, the flight to Egypt, the Presentation of Christ at the Temple and her Assumption into Heaven. It was not until the 12th century that Western Europe was to see such quality in the sculpting of the human figure, the vivid depiction of biblical scenes and works of sculpture on a comparable scale. It is very probable that in the early decades of the Romanesque period the artisans would have referred to the many surviving sarcophagi for the models.

References: Benoit, Fernand. ‘Sarcophages Paléochrétiens d’Arles et de Marseille’. Supplément à Gallia V. 1954. Davies, Richard E. ‘Carving in Faith; preliminary thoughts on Constantinian era sarcophagi in the Vatican museum Pio Cristiano’. Morrow, Georgia. 2014. Elsner, Jaś. ‘The Christian Museum in Southern France; Antiquity, Display and Liturgy from the Counter-Revolution to the Aftermath of Vatican II’. Oxford Art Journal 32.2. 2009. Février, Paul-Albert. ‘Le sarcophagi à inscription ‘x lege filiciter’ (Narbonne, Aude)’. Anales du Midi, Vol 73, issue 53, 1961. Février, Paul-Albert. ‘Sarcophages d’Arles’. Congrès Archéologique de France – Pays d’Arles’ Tome 134, 1979. Huskinson, Janet. ‘Degrees of Differentiation: Role Models on Early Christian Sarcophagi’. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Supplementary Volumes No. 7. 2008. Huskinson, Janet. ‘Reading Identity on Roman Strigilated Sarcophagi’. Anthropology & Aesthetics, 61/62, 2012. Huskinson, Janet. ‘Some Pagan Mythological Figures and their Significance in Early Christian Art’. Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol 42, 1974.

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Huskinson, Janet. ‘Unfinished Portrait Heads on later Roman Sarcophagi: Some New Perspectives’. Papers from the British School at Rome, Vol 66, 1998. Krikken, Mariska. ‘The Sheep Bearer in Christian Art’. Bachelor Thesis at Leiden. June 2012. Lawrence, Marion. ‘City Gate Sarcophagi’. The Art Bulletin, Vol 10, No 1. 1927. Lawrence, Marion. ‘Columnar Sarcophagi in the Latin west: Ateliers, Chronology, Style’. The Art Bulletin, Vol 14, No 2. 1932. Lawrence, Marion. ‘Ships, Monsters and Jonah’. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol 66, No 3, 1962. Markov, Deborah. ‘Some Born-Again Christians of the Fourth Century’. The Art Bulletin Vol. 63, No. 7. 1981. McCann, Anna Marguerite. ‘Roman Sarcophagi in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’. New York, 1978. Morey, Charles R. ‘The Christian Sarcophagus in S Maria Antiqua’. Supplementary Papers of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, Vol 1, 1905. Sassier, Aymeric. ‘L’évolution de la sculpture paléochrétienne et préromane en Septimanie’. Etudes Roussillonnaises Tome VI 1957. Soper, Alexander Coburn. ‘The Latin Style on Christian Sarcophagi of the fourth Century’. The Art Bulletin, Vol 19, No 2, 1937. Sorabella, Jean. ‘A Roman Sarcophagus and its Patron’. Metropolitan Museum Journal No. 36, 2001. Webb, Matilda. ‘The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome’. Sussex Academic Press, Canada. 2010. http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesque-decoration & From Antiquity to Romanesque http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesque-decoration & The Nativity & the Assumption of Mary – Origins of the Imagery A selection of internet sites that provide some further information: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rsar/hd_rsar.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagi https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christian_sarcophagi http://www.christianiconography.info/sarcophagi.html http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/early-christian-artarchitecture-sculpture.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture http://study.com/academy/lesson/early-christian-art-and-architecture.html http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture/early-christian.htm https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/early-christian1/a/earlychristian-art

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https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/early-christian1/a/santamaria-antiqua-sarcophagus https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/19841/bathesis0739901.pdf?s equence=1 https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/70067/3/Couzin_Robert_201311_Ph D_thesis.pdf https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophage_pal%C3%A9ochr%C3%A9tien http://www.kornbluthphoto.com/Roman14.html

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