Sculpture [PDF]

Sculpture “Sculptor” redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor (disambiguation) and Sculpture (disambiguation). Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates

The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE Capitoline Museums, Rome

Michelangelo's Moses, (c. 1513–1515), San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, for the tomb of Pope Julius II.

Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE

in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materi- Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory als but, since Modernism, there has been an almost com- with shell inlay plete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. 1

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2 PURPOSES AND SUBJECTS buildings, and for small-scale sculpture decorating other objects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions. Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving techniques, which remove material from an existing block or lump, for example of stone or wood, and modelling techniques which shape or build up the work from the material. Techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work; many of these allow the production of several copies.

The Angel of the North by Antony Gormley, 1998

in perishable materials, and often represents the majority of the surviving works (other than pottery) from ancient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in wood may have vanished almost entirely. However, most ancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has been lost.[2] Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many cultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, too expensive for private individuals to create, were usually an expression of religion or politics. Those cultures whose Open air Buddhist rock reliefs at the Longmen Grottos, China sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well as many in South America and Africa. The Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith. The revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelo's David. Modernist sculpture moved away from traditional processes and the emphasis on the depiction of the human body, with the making of constructed sculpture, and the presentation of found objects as ﬁnished art works.

1

Types of sculpture

A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round, free-standing sculpture, such as statues, not attached (except possibly at the base) to any other surface, and the various types of relief, which are at least partly attached to a background surface. Relief is often classiﬁed by the degree of projection from the wall into low or basrelief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate midrelief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large ﬁgure groups and narrative subjects, which are diﬃcult to accomplish in the round, and is the typical technique used both for architectural sculpture, which is attached to

The term “sculpture” is often used mainly to describe large works, which are sometimes called monumental sculpture, meaning either or both of sculpture that is large, or that is attached to a building. But the term properly covers many types of small works in three dimensions using the same techniques, including coins and medals, hardstone carvings, a term for small carvings in stone that can take detailed work. The very large or “colossal” statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity; the largest on record at 128 m (420 ft) is the 2002 Chinese Spring Temple Buddha. Another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the “head”, showing just that, or the bust, a representation of a person from the chest up. Small forms of sculpture include the ﬁgurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches (46 cm) tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Modern and contemporary art have added a number of non-traditional forms of sculpture, including sound sculpture, light sculpture, environmental art, environmental sculpture, street art sculpture, kinetic sculpture (involving aspects of physical motion), land art, and site-speciﬁc art. Sculpture is an important form of public art. A collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden.

3 some more than twice human size, have disturbed many ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only much smaller bronzes were previously known.[4] Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated ﬁgurines and seals. The Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone ﬁgures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous resources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from a very early stage.

Moai from Easter Island, where the concentration of resources on large sculpture may have had serious political eﬀects.

2

Purposes and subjects

One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in some form of association with religion. Cult images are common in many cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were evidently rather small, even in the largest temples. The same is often true in Hinduism, where the very simple and ancient form of the lingam is the most common. Buddhism brought the sculpture of religious ﬁgures to East Asia, where there seems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition, though again simple shapes like the bi and cong probably had religious signiﬁcance. Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the earliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculpture as public art, especially to impress the viewer with the power of a ruler, goes back at least to the Great Sphinx of some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art history the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of large or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of great signiﬁcance, though tracing the emergence is often complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in wood and other perishable materials of which no record remains;[3] the totem pole is an example of a tradition of monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no traces for archaeology. The ability to summon the resources to create monumental sculpture, by transporting usually very heavy materials and arranging for the payment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors, is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in terms of social organization. Recent unexpected discoveries of ancient Chinese bronze age ﬁgures at Sanxingdui,

Medal of John VIII Palaeologus, c. 1435, by Pisanello, the ﬁrst portrait medal, a medium essentially made for collecting.

The collecting of sculpture, including that of earlier periods, goes back some 2,000 years in Greece, China and Mesoamerica, and many collections were available on semi-public display long before the modern museum was invented. From the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, and the ability to transport and store the increasingly large works is a factor in their construction. Small decorative ﬁgurines, most often in ceramics, are as popular today (though strangely neglected by modern and Contemporary art) as they were in the Rococo, or in ancient Greece when Tanagra ﬁgurines were a major industry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Small sculpted ﬁttings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and ﬁnds from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, and Mesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues of Gudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 – 2124 BCE. In ancient Greece and Rome, the erection of a portrait statue

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3

MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

in a public place was almost the highest mark of honour, and the ambition of the elite, who might also be depicted on a coin.[5] In other cultures such as Egypt and the Near East public statues were almost exclusively the preserve of the ruler, with other wealthy people only being portrayed in their tombs. Rulers are typically the only people given portraits in Pre-Columbian cultures, beginning with the Olmec colossal heads of about 3,000 years ago. East Asian portrait sculpture was entirely religious, with leading clergy being commemorated with statues, especially the founders of monasteries, but not rulers, or ancestors. The Mediterranean tradition revived, initially only for tomb eﬃgies and coins, in the Middle Ages, but expanded greatly in the Renaissance, which invented new forms such as the personal portrait medal. Animals are, with the human ﬁgure, the earliest subject for sculpture, and have always been popular, sometimes realistic, but often imaginary monsters; in China animals and monsters are almost the only traditional subjects for stone sculpture outside tombs and temples. The kingdom of plants is important only in jewellery and decorative reliefs, but these form almost all the large sculpture of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and are very important in most Eurasian traditions, where motifs such as the palmette and vine scroll have passed east and west for Sumerian male worshipper, alabaster with shell eyes, 2750−2600 B.C.E. over two millennia. One form of sculpture found in many prehistoric cultures around the world is specially enlarged versions of ordinary tools, weapons or vessels created in impractical precious materials, for either some form of ceremonial use or display or as oﬀerings. Jade or other types of greenstone were used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Europe, and in early Mesopotamia large pottery shapes were produced in stone. Bronze was used in Europe and China for large axes and blades, like the Oxborough Dirk.

paint to time, or restorers. Many diﬀerent painting techniques have been used in making sculpture, including tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol, enamel and sandblasting.[2][6]

Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art. One of Pablo Picasso's most famous sculptures included bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists made spectacular use of painted steel. Since the 1960s, acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. Andy Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures from almost entirely natural materials in natural settings. 3 Materials and techniques Some sculpture, such as ice sculpture, sand sculpture, and gas sculpture, is deliberately short-lived. Recent sculptors The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware throughout history. The classic materials, with outstand- and consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculping durability, are metal, especially bronze, stone and pot- tors sometimes use found objects, and Chinese scholars’ tery, with wood, bone and antler less durable but cheaper rocks have been appreciated for many centuries. options. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade, and ivory are often used for small luxury works, and sometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues. 3.1 Stone More common and less expensive materials were used for sculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of (such as oak, box/boxwood, and lime/linden); terracotta rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, evmodels for casting, and receiving the impressions of idence can be found that even the earliest societies incylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals such dulged in some form of stone work, though not all aras pewter and zinc (spelter). But a vast number of other eas of the world have such abundance of good stone for materials have been used as part of sculptures, in ethno- carving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe. graphic and ancient works as much as modern ones. Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps the Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their earliest form: images created by removing part of a rock

3.3

Glass

Modern reconstruction of the original painted appearance (based on scientiﬁc pigment analysis) of a Late Archaic Greek marble ﬁgure from the Temple of Aphaea, c. 500 BCE

surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers large works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate, onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, and a general term for an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineral gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as seal rings.

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Ludwig Gies, cast iron plaquette, 8 x 9.8 cm, “Refugees 1914– 1915”

Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process,[8] although a ﬁnal stage of “cold work” may follow on the ﬁnished cast. Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise diﬃcult or uneconomical to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC.[9] Speciﬁc techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.

The copying of an original statue in stone, which was very important for ancient Greek statues, which are nearly all known from copies, was traditionally achieved by "pointing", along with more freehand methods. Pointing involved setting up a grid of string squares on a wooden frame surrounding the original, and then measuring the position on the grid and the distance between grid and 3.3 statue of a series of individual points, and then using this information to carve into the block from which the copy is made.[7]

3.2

Glass

Metal

Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still the most popular metals for cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a “bronze”. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus ﬁlling the ﬁnest details of a mold. Their strength and lack of brittleness (ductility) is an advantage when ﬁgures in action are to be created, especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture for several examples). Gold is the softest and most precious metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools as well as cast; repoussé and chasing are among the techniques used in gold and silversmithing.

Dale Chihuly, 2006, (Blown glass)

Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of working techniques, though the use of it for large works is a recent development. It can be carved, with considerable diﬃculty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but

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4

SOCIAL STATUS OF SCULPTORS

unique.[10] Hot casting can be done by ladling molten glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes into sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds. Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a kiln until they are liquid and ﬂow into a waiting mold below it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part of a blown object.

Detail of Jesus just dead, Spanish, wood and polychrome, 1793.

than the wood, and is often missing in surviving pieces. Painted wood is often technically described as “wood and polychrome". Typically a layer of gesso or plaster is applied to the wood, and then the paint is applied to that.

A carved wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty 960–1279, Shanghai Museum

3.4

4 Social status of sculptors

Pottery

Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as well as clay being the medium in which many sculptures cast in metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptors often build small preliminary works called maquettes of ephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris, wax, unﬁred clay, or plasticine.[11] Many cultures have produced pottery which combines a function as a vessel with a sculptural form, and small ﬁgurines have often been as popular as they are in modern Western culture. Stamps and moulds were used by most ancient civilizations, from ancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China.[12]

3.5

Wood carving

Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but survives much less well than the other main materials, being vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and ﬁre. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures.[3] Outdoor wood sculpture does not last long in most parts of the world, so that we have little idea how the totem pole tradition developed. Many Nuremberg sculptor Adam Kraft, self-portrait from St Lorenz of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in Church, 1490s. particular are in wood, and the great majority of African sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions. Worldwide, sculptors have usually been tradesmen whose Wood is light, so suitable for masks and other sculpture work is unsigned; in some traditions, for example China, intended to be carried, and can take very ﬁne detail. It where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati paintis also much easier to work than stone. It has been very ing, this has aﬀected the status of sculpture itself.[13] often painted after carving, but the paint wears less well Even in ancient Greece, where sculptors such as Phidias

6.1

Prehistoric periods

became famous, they appear to have retained much the same social status as other artisans, and perhaps not much greater ﬁnancial rewards, although some signed their works.[14] In the Middle Ages artists such as the 12th century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and were sought after by diﬀerent cities, especially from the Trecento onwards in Italy, with ﬁgures such as Arnolfo di Cambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni. Goldsmiths and jewellers, dealing with precious materials and often doubling as bankers, belonged to powerful guilds and had considerable status, often holding civic oﬃce. Many sculptors also practised in other arts; Andrea del Verrocchio also painted, and Giovanni Pisano, Michelangelo, and Jacopo Sansovino were architects. Some sculptors maintained large workshops. Even in the Renaissance the physical nature of the work was perceived by Leonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the status of sculpture in the arts, though the reputation of Michelangelo perhaps put this long-held idea to rest. From the High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy, and ennobled, and enter the circle of princes, after a period of sharp argument over the relative status of sculpture and painting.[15] Much decorative sculpture on buildings remained a trade, but sculptors producing individual pieces were recognised on a level with painters. From the 18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middleclass students, although it was slower to do so than painting. Women sculptors took longer to appear than women painters, and were less prominent until the 20th century.

5

Anti-sculpture movements

Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did not accept ﬁgurative sculpture until the 19th century,[16] before expanding to Early Buddhism and Early Christianity, neither of which initially accepted large sculptures. In both Christianity and Buddhism these early views were later reversed, and sculpture became very signiﬁcant, especially in Buddhism. Christian Eastern Orthodoxy has never accepted monumental sculpture, and Islam has consistently rejected nearly all ﬁgurative sculpture, except for very small ﬁgures in reliefs and some animal ﬁgures that fulﬁll a useful function, like the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra. Many forms of Protestantism also do not approve of religious sculpture. There has been much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious motives, from the Early Christians, the Beeldenstorm of the Protestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan by the Taliban.

6

History of sculpture

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Venus of Hohle Fels (also known as the Venus of Schelklingen; is an Upper Paleolithic Venus ﬁgurine hewn from ivory of a mammoth tusk found in 2008 near Schelklingen, Germany. It is dated to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago, belonging to the early Aurignacian, at the very beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). Along with the Löwenmensch, it is the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and ﬁgurative prehistoric art in general.

6.1 Prehistoric periods The earliest undisputed examples of sculpture belong to the Aurignacian culture, which was located in Europe and southwest Asia and active at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of the earliest known cave art, the people of this culture developed ﬁnely-crafted stone tools, manufacturing pendants, bracelets, ivory beads, and bone-ﬂutes, as well as threedimensional ﬁgurines.[17][18] The 30 cm tall Löwenmensch found in the Hohlenstein Stadel area of Germany is an anthropomorphic lion-man ﬁgure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has been dated to about 35-40,000 BP, making it, along with the Venus of Hohle Fels, the oldest known uncontested example of ﬁgurative art.[19] Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculptures, with a small group of female Venus ﬁgurines such as the Venus of Willendorf (24-26,000 BP) found across central Europe.[20] The Swimming Reindeer of about 13,000 years ago is one of the ﬁnest of a number of Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in the art of the Upper Paleolithic, although they are outnumbered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classiﬁed as sculpture.[21] Two of the largest prehistoric sculptures can be found at the Tuc d'Audobert caves in France, where around 12-17,000 years ago a masterful sculptor used a spatula-like stone tool and ﬁngers to model a pair of large bison in clay against a limestone rock.[22] With the beginning of the Mesolithic in Europe ﬁgurative sculpture greatly reduced,[23] and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such

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6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age Stone stelae, votive oﬀerings, or ones probably commemand the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot.[24] orating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more oﬃcial ones lack inscriptions [30] of the • Löwenmensch, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, now that would explain them; the fragmentary Stele[31] Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type, and in Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany, the oldest the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and known anthropomorphic animal-human statuette, solid late one.[32] Aurignacian era, c. 35-40,000 BP • Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,000−26,000 BP • Magdalenian Horse, c. 17,000 BP Musée d'Archéologie Nationale, France • Creeping Hyena, c. 12-17,000 BP, mammoth ivory, found in La Madeleine, France • Swimming Reindeer c. 13,000 BP, female and male swimming reindeer - late Magdalenian period, found at Montastruc, Tarn et Garonne, France • The Trundholm sun chariot, perhaps 1800–1500 BCE; this side is gilded, the other is “dark”. • Venus of Laussel c. 27,000 BP, an Upper Palaeolithic carving, Bordeaux museum, France • A Jōmon statue, Japan

6.2

Ancient Near East

Main articles: Art of Mesopotamia and Persian art The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone ﬁgure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part human and part lioness.[25] A little later there are a number of ﬁgures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived.[26] Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two ﬁgures of a Ram in a Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bull’s head on one of the Lyres of Ur.[27] From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCE Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small ﬁgures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not.[28] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches, 50 x 37 cm) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BCE, and may also be moulded.[29]

The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very ﬁnely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian ﬁgures, often the human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads eﬀectively in the round (and also ﬁve legs, so that both views seem complete). Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and reﬁned.[33] • The Guennol Lioness, 3rd millennium BCE, 3.25 inches (8.3 cm) high • One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090 BCE • The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800 BCE • Assyrian relief from Nimrud, from c. 728 BCE

6.3 Ancient Egypt See also: Art of ancient Egypt and Amarna art The monumental sculpture of ancient Egypt is worldfamous, but reﬁned and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main ﬁgures in reliefs adhere to the same ﬁgure convention as in painting, with parted legs (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the ﬁgure, using 18 “ﬁsts” to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead.[34] This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I. However, there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor ﬁgures shown engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses.[35] Other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before 2,780 BCE,[36] and with the exception of the art of the Amarna period of Ahkenaten,[37] and some other periods

6.4

Europe

9 already shows the canonical Egyptian proﬁle view and proportions of the ﬁgure. • Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen, Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4, 2490–2472 BC. The formality of the pose is reduced by the queen’s arm round her husband. • Wooden tomb models, Dynasty XI; a high administrator counts his cattle. • Tutankhamun’s mask, c. late Eighteenth dynasty, Egyptian Museum • The Younger Memnon c. 1250 BC, British Museum • Osiris on a lapis lazuli pillar in the middle, ﬂanked by Horus on the left, and Isis on the right, 22nd dynasty, Louvre • The ka statue provided a physical place for the ka to manifest. Egyptian Museum, Cairo • Block statue of Pa-Ankh-Ra, ship master, bearing a statue of Ptah. Late Period, ca. 650–633 BC, Cabinet des Médailles.

Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of Berlin

6.4 Europe 6.4.1 Ancient Greece

such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers, like other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until after the Greek conquest.[38] Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, but other deities are much less common in large statues, except when they represent the pharaoh as another deity; however the other deities are frequently shown in paintings and reliefs. The famous row of four colossal statues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each show Rameses II, a typical scheme, though here exceptionally large.[39] Small ﬁgures of deities, or their animal personiﬁcations, are very common, and found in popular materials such as pottery. Most larger sculpture survives from Egyptian temples or tombs; by Dynasty IV (2680–2565 BCE) at the latest the idea of the Ka statue was ﬁrmly established. These were put in tombs as a resting place for the ka portion of the soul, and so we have a good number of less conventionalized statues of well-oﬀ administrators and their wives, many in wood as Egypt is one of the few places in the world where the climate allows wood to survive over millennia. The so-called reserve heads, plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic. Early tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals, buildings and objects such as boats necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld, and later Ushabti ﬁgures.[40]

Charioteer of Delphi, ancient Greek bronze sculpture, 5th century BCE, close up head detail

Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture

The ﬁrst distinctive style of ancient Greek sculpture developed in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rd millennium BCE), where marble ﬁgures, usually female and small, are represented in an elegantly simpliﬁed geometrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with arms crossed in front, but other ﬁgures are shown in diﬀerent poses, including a complicated ﬁgure of a harpist seated • Facsimile of the Narmer Palette, c. 3100 BC, which on a chair.[41]

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6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures developed sculpture further, under inﬂuence from Syria and elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equivalent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the "archaic smile". They seem to have served a number of functions, perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes the person buried in a grave, as with the Kroisos Kouros. They are clearly inﬂuenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles, but the Greek artists were much more ready to experiment within the style. During the 6th century Greek sculpture developed rapidly, becoming more naturalistic, and with much more active and varied ﬁgure poses in narrative scenes, though still within idealized conventions. Sculptured pediments were added to temples, including the Parthenon in Athens, where the remains of the pediment of around 520 using ﬁgures in the round were fortunately used as inﬁll for new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BCE, and recovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered condition. Other signiﬁcant remains of architectural sculpture come from Paestum in Italy, Corfu, Delphi and the Temple of Aphaea in Aegina (much now in Munich).[42]

High Classical high relief from the Elgin Marbles, which originally decorated the Parthenon, c. 447–433 BCE

and the harmonious structure of sculpted ﬁgures, and the pursuit of naturalistic representation as an aim, which had not been present before. Excavations at the Temple of Zeus, Olympia since 1829 have revealed the largest group of remains, from about 460, of which many are in the • Cycladic statue 2700–2300 BC. Head from the ﬁg- Louvre.[43] ure of a woman, H. 27 centimetres (11 in) The “High Classical” period lasted only a few decades • Cycladic Female Figurine, c. 2500–2400 BCE, 41.5 cm (16.3 in) high • Mycenae, 1600−1500 BC. Silver rhyton with gold horns and rosette on the forehead • Lifesize kouros, c. 590–580 BCE, Metropolitan Museum of Art • The "Naxian Sphinx" from Delphi, 570–560 BC, the ﬁgure 222 cm (87 in) high • Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum • Late Archaic warrior from the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaea, c. 500

from about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous inﬂuence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite a very restricted number of original survivals. The best known works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally (since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most famous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias, active from about 465–425, who was in his own day more famous for his colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c. 432), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, his Athena Parthenos (438), the cult image of the Parthenon, and Athena Promachos, a colossal bronze ﬁgure that stood next to the Parthenon; all of these are lost but are known from many representations. He is also credited as the creator of some life-size bronze statues known only from later copies whose identiﬁcation is controversial, including the Ludovisi Hermes.[44]

• The Amathus sarcophagus, from Amathus, Cyprus, 2nd quarter of the 5th century BC Archaic period, The High Classical style continued to develop realism and sophistication in the human ﬁgure, and improved the deMetropolitan Museum of Art piction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the impact of active poses. Facial expressions were usually very Classical There are fewer original remains from the restrained, even in combat scenes. The composition of ﬁrst phase of the Classical period, often called the Severe groups of ﬁgures in reliefs and on pediments combined style; free-standing statues were now mostly made in complexity and harmony in a way that had a permanent bronze, which always had value as scrap. The Severe style inﬂuence on Western art. Relief could be very high inlasted from around 500 in reliefs, and soon after 480 in deed, as in the Parthenon illustration below, where most statues, to about 450. The relatively rigid poses of ﬁgures of the leg of the warrior is completely detached from the relaxed, and asymmetrical turning positions and oblique background, as were the missing parts; relief this high views became common, and deliberately sought. This made sculptures more subject to damage.[45] The Late was combined with a better understanding of anatomy Classical style developed the free-standing female nude

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11

statue, supposedly an innovation of Praxiteles, and developed increasingly complex and subtle poses that were interesting when viewed from a number of angles, as well as more expressive faces; both trends were to be taken much further in the Hellenistic period.[46]

The Pergamene style of the Hellenistic period, from the Pergamon Altar, early 2nd century

Hellenistic The Hellenistic period is conventionally dated from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, and ending either with the ﬁnal conquest of the Greek heartlands by Rome in 146 BC or with the ﬁnal defeat of the last remaining successor-state to Alexander’s empire after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which also marks the end of Republican Rome.[47] It is thus much longer than the previous periods, and includes at least two major phases: a “Pergamene” style of experimentation, exuberance and some sentimentality and vulgarity, and in the 2nd century BC a classicising return to a more austere simplicity and elegance; beyond such generalizations dating is typically very uncertain, especially when only later copies are known, as is usually the case. The initial Pergamene style was not especially associated with Pergamon, from which it takes its name, but the very wealthy kings of that state were among the ﬁrst to collect and also copy Classical sculpture, and also commissioned much new work, including the famous Pergamon Altar whose sculpture is now mostly in Berlin and which exempliﬁes the new style, as do the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (another of the Seven Wonders), the famous Laocoön and his Sons in the Vatican Museums, a late example, and the bronze original of The Dying Gaul (illustrated at top), which we know was part of a group actually commissioned for Pergamon in about 228 BC, from which the Ludovisi Gaul was also a copy. The group called the Farnese Bull, possibly a 2nd-century marble original, is still larger and more complex,[48] Hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded the range of subjects represented, partly as a result of greater general prosperity, and the emergence of a very wealthy class who had large houses decorated with sculpture, although we know that some examples of subjects that seem best suited to the home, such as children with animals, were

Small Greek terracotta ﬁgurines were very popular as ornaments in the home

in fact placed in temples or other public places. For a much more popular home decoration market there were Tanagra ﬁgurines, and those from other centres where small pottery ﬁgures were produced on an industrial scale, some religious but others showing animals and elegantly dressed ladies. Sculptors became more technically skilled in representing facial expressions conveying a wide variety of emotions and the portraiture of individuals, as well representing diﬀerent ages and races. The reliefs from the Mausoleum are rather atypical in that respect; most work was free-standing, and group compositions with several ﬁgures to be seen in the round, like the Laocoon and the Pergamon group celebrating victory over the Gauls became popular, having been rare before. The Barberini Faun, showing a satyr sprawled asleep, presumably after drink, is an example of the moral relaxation of the period, and the readiness to create large and expensive sculptures of subjects that fall short of the heroic.[49] After the conquests of Alexander Hellenistic culture was dominant in the courts of most of the Near East, and some of Central Asia, and increasingly being adopted by European elites, especially in Italy, where Greek colonies initially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and artists, spread very widely, and was especially inﬂuential in the expanding Roman Republic and when it encountered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hel-

12

6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

lenistic area. The massive so-called Alexander Sarcophagus found in Sidon in modern Lebanon, was probably made there at the start of the period by expatriate Greek artists for a Hellenized Persian governor.[50] The wealth of the period led to a greatly increased production of luxury forms of small sculpture, including engraved gems and cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware.

expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at ﬁrst in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, oﬃcial and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which speciﬁcally Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.[51] By the 2nd century BCE, “most of the sculp[52] • The Riace Bronzes, very rare bronze ﬁgures recov- tors working at Rome” were Greek, often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BCE), and sculpered from the sea, c. 460–430 tors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose • Hermes and the Infant Dionysos, possibly an original names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the by Praxiteles, 4th century result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often • Two elegant ladies, pottery ﬁgurines, 350–300 decorated with re-used Greek works.[53]

• Bronze Statuette of a Horse, late 2nd – 1st century A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments, which very often featured portrait busts, of prosB.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art perous middle-class Romans, and portraiture is arguably • The Winged Victory of Samothrace, c. 190 BC, the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were Louvre worn in processions at the funerals of the great families • Venus de Milo, c. 130 – 100 BC, Greek, the Louvre and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral ﬁgures, per• Laocoön and his Sons, Greek, (Late Hellenistic), haps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the perhaps a copy, between 200 BC and 20 AD, White Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famarble, Vatican Museum mous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is • Leochares, Apollo Belvedere, c. 130 – 140 AD. Ro- very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of under the Republic, in the preferred medium man copy after a Greek bronze original of 330–320 Italic style[54] of bronze. Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen BC. Vatican Museums on coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main 6.4.2 Europe after the Greeks visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the Roman sculpture Main article: Roman sculpture [55] Early Roman art was inﬂuenced by the art of Greece and 30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.

Section of Trajan’s Column, CE 113, with scenes from the Dacian Wars

that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly inﬂuenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb eﬃgies in terracotta, usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the

Augustan state Greco-Roman style on the Ara Pacis, 13 BCE

The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113)

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Europe

and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis (“Altar of Peace”, 13 BCE) represents the oﬃcial Greco-Roman style at its most classical and reﬁned. Among other major examples are the earlier reused reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[56] Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[57] For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of pottery vessels and small ﬁgurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.[58]

13 the so-called Otricoli basilica in Lanuvium, Italy, Vatican Museums • Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the late imperial “baroque” style • The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anticlassical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice • The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of France", c. 23 CE, with an allegory of Augustus and his family

After moving through a late 2nd-century “baroque” phase,[59] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed ﬁgures in a harsh Silver monster on a chape, Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, St Ninian’s frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power Isle Treasure, c. 800? at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same “stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity — in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition”.[60] This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors. However, rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych.[61] • Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BCE • The "Capitoline Brutus", dated to the 3rd or 1st century BCE • Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century CE. Vatican Museums • Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 CE

The Gero Cross, c. 965–970, Cologne, Germany

Early Medieval and Byzantine The Early Chris• Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked tians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture, from a bust of emperor Caligula), It was found in though continuing Roman traditions in portrait busts and

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6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is known) of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration period, as seen in the objects found in the 6th-century burial treasure at Sutton Hoo, and the jewellery of Scythian art and the hybrid Christian and animal style productions of Insular art. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition, Carolingian art revived ivory carving, often in panels for the treasure bindings of grand illuminated manuscripts, as well as crozier heads and other small ﬁttings. Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs and architectural decorative carving, never returned to monumental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the round.[62] However, in the West during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods there was the beginnings of a production of monumental statues, in courts and major churches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11th century there are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches, probably of precious metal around a wooden frame, like the Golden Madonna of Essen. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,[63] and survivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before 1,000 are exceptionally rare. Much the ﬁnest is the Gero Cross, of 965–70, which is a cruciﬁx, which was evidently the commonest type of sculpture; Charlemagne had set one up in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800. These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. The rune stones of the Nordic world, the Pictish stones of Scotland and possibly the high cross reliefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculptural traditions that bridged the period of Christianization.

The Brunswick Lion, 1166, the ﬁrst large hollow casting of a ﬁgure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long

with sculpture include in France Vézelay and Moissac and in Spain Silos.[64]

Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. The capitals of columns were never more exciting than in this period, when they were often carved with complete scenes with several ﬁgures.[65] The large wooden cruciﬁx was a German innovation right at the start of the period, as were free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the high relief was above all the sculptural mode of the period. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be ﬂexible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of cap• Archangel Ivory, 525–550, Constantinople itals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes • Late Carolingian ivory panel, probably meant for a escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures book-cover still often varied in size in relation to their importance • The Harbaville Triptych, Byzantine ivory, mid-10th portraiture hardly existed. century Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metal had a very high status in the period, much more so than • Detail of Christ on the Gero Cross, Cologne 965– monumental sculpture — we know the names of more 970, the ﬁrst great example of the revival of large makers of these than painters, illuminators or architectsculpture masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, became very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the best Romanesque Main article: Romanesque art known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun. The bronze Gloucester canFrom about 1000 there was a general rebirth of artis- dlestick and the brass font of 1108–17 now in Liège are tic production in all Europe, led by general economic superb examples, very diﬀerent in style, of metal castgrowth in production and commerce, and the new style ing, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing on of Romanesque art was the ﬁrst medieval style to be used manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style in the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals and at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a pilgrim’s churches were increasingly decorated with ar- triumphal column and other ﬁttings at Hildesheim Cathechitectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpture dral, the Gniezno Doors, and the doors of the Basilica di developed, such as the tympanum over church doors in San Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. The the 12th century, and the inhabited capital with ﬁgures aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears and often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century,

6.4

Europe

15

and often took fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving examples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest.[66] The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory cruciﬁx, with complex carving including many ﬁgures of prophets and others, which has been attributed to one of the relatively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo, who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques, pectoral crosses and similar objects. • Baptismal font at St Bartholomew’s Church, Liège, Baptism of Christ, 1107–1118 • The tympanum of Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy, France, 1130s • Facade, Cathedral of Ourense 1160, Spain • Pórtico da Gloria, Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain, c. 12th–13th centuries Gothic Main article: Gothic art The Gothic period is essentially deﬁned by Gothic architecture, and does not entirely ﬁt with the development of style in sculpture in either its start or ﬁnish. The facades of large churches, especially around doors, continued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted ﬁgures spreading around them. The statues on the Western (Royal) Portal at Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) show an elegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but those on the south transept portal, from 1215 to 1220, show a more naturalistic style and increasing detachment from the wall behind, and some awareness of the classical tradition. These trends were continued in the west portal at Rheims Cathedral of a few years later, where the ﬁgures are almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spread across Europe.[67] In Italy Nicola Pisano (1258–78) and his son Giovanni developed a style that is often called Proto-Renaissance, with unmistakable inﬂuence from Roman sarcophagi and sophisticated and crowded compositions, including a sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels on their pulpit of Siena Cathedral (1265–68), the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia, and Giovanni’s pulpit in Pistoia of 1301.[68] Another revival of classical style is seen in the International Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his followers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400.[69] Late Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increasingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expressive ﬁgures; most surviving examples are in Germany, after much iconoclasm elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschneider, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into

French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high, curving to ﬁt the shape of the ivory tusk

the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance inﬂuences.[70] Life-size tomb eﬃgies in stone or alabaster became popular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved, with the Scaliger Tombs of Verona so large they had to be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there was an industry exporting Nottingham alabaster altar reliefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for economical parishes who could not aﬀord stone retables.[71] Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in Paris and some other centres. Types of ivories included small devotional polyptychs, single ﬁgures, especially of the Virgin, mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes from Romances, used as engagement presents.[72] The very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like the Duc de Berry's Holy Thorn Reliquary, until they ran short of money, when they were melted down again for cash.[73]

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6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

• West portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) • South portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1215–20) • West portal at Rheims Cathedral, Annunciation group • Nicola Pisano, Nativity and Adoration of the Magi from the pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery • The Bamberg Horseman 1237, life-size stone equestrian statue, the ﬁrst such antiquity • Lid of the Walters Casket, with the Siege of the Castle of Love at left, and jousting. Paris, 1330–1350 • Siege of the Castle of Love on a mirror-case in the Louvre, 1350–1370; the ladies are losing. • Central German Pietà, 1330–40 • Claus Sluter, David and a prophet from the Well of Moses • Base of the Holy Thorn Reliquary, a Resurrection of the Dead in gold, enamel and gems • Section of a panelled altarpiece with Resurrection Michelangelo, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, c. 1545, with statues of Christ, English, 1450–90, Nottingham alabaster of Rachel and Leah on the left and the right of his Moses. with remains of colour • Detail of the Last Supper from Tilman Riemen- Baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models subschneider's Altar of the Holy Blood, 1501–05, mitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Filippo Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Bavaria Brunelleschi survive. Ghiberti’s doors are still in place, but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the other entrance, the so-called “Gates of Paradise”, which 6.4.3 Renaissance took him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly conﬁdent classicizing compositions with varied depths of relief allowing extensive backgrounds.[74] The intervening years had seen Ghiberti’s early assistant Donatello develop with seminal statues including his Davids in marble (1408–09) and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, as well as reliefs.[75] A leading ﬁgure in the later period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice;[76] his pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed an equine sculpture in 1482 The Horse for Milan-but only succeeded in making a 24-foot (7.3 m) clay model which was destroyed by French archers in 1499, and his other ambitious sculptural plans were never completed.[77] The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by the wealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculpture remains a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centres. Church sculpture mostly moved inside just as outside public monuments became common. Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular in Michelangelo, Pietà, 1499. Italy around 1450, with the Neapolitan Francesco Laurana specializing in young women in meditative poses, Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depicted the famous competition for the doors of the Florence knobbly-faced men of aﬀairs, but also young children.[78]

6.4

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17

The portrait medal invented by Pisanello also often depicted women; relief plaquettes were another new small form of sculpture in cast metal. Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to 1520, and his great masterpieces including his David, Pietà, Moses, and pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius II and Medici Chapel could not be ignored by subsequent sculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a contrapposto pose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It diﬀers from previous representations of the subject in that David is depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the giant’s defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Donatello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense and battle ready.[79] • Lorenzo Ghiberti, panel of the Sacriﬁce of Isaac from the Florence Baptistry doors; oblique view here • Luca della Robbia, detail of Cantoria, c. 1438, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence • Donatello, David c. Florence

1440s, Bargello Museum,

• Donatello, Judith and Holofernes, c. 1460, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence • Francesco Laurana, female bust (cast) • Verrocchio, Doubting Orsanmichele, Florence • Michelangelo, David, c. dell'Accademia, Florence

Thomas,

1467–83,

1504,

• Michelangelo, Dying Slave, c. 1513–1516

Galleria Adriaen de Vries, Mercury and Psyche Northern Mannerist lifesize bronze, made in 1593 for Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor.

with eight angles of view, another Mannerist characteristic, but is indeed mannered compared to the Davids of Michelangelo and Donatello.[81] Originally a goldsmith, 6.4.4 Mannerist his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was his ﬁrst sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.[82] As these Main article: Mannerism examples show, the period extended the range of secular subjects for large works beyond portraits, with mythoAs in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very logical ﬁgures especially favoured; previously these had largely an attempt to ﬁnd an original style that would top mostly been found in small works. the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculpture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the Small bronze ﬁgures for collector’s cabinets, often mythostruggle to achieve this was played out in commissions logical subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance to ﬁll other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Flo- form at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but based rence, next to Michelangelo’s David. Baccio Bandinelli in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century, also took over the project of Hercules and Cacus from the creating life-size sculptures, of which two joined the colmaster himself, but it was little more popular than it is lection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to devised elegant elongated examples of the ﬁgura serpenti“a sack of melons”, though it had a long-lasting eﬀect nata, often of two intertwined ﬁgures, that were interest[83] in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of ing from all angles. statues. Like other works of his and other Mannerists it • Stucco overdoor at Fontainebleau, probably deremoves far more of the original block than Michelansigned by Primaticcio, who painted the oval inset, gelo would have done.[80] Cellini’s bronze Perseus with the head of Medusa is certainly a masterpiece, designed 1530s or 1540s

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• Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with the head of Medusa, 1545–1554

• Franz Anton Bustelli, Rococo Nymphenburg Porcelain group

• Giambologna, Samson Slaying a Philistine, about 6.4.6 Neo-Classical 1562 • Giambologna, The Rape of the Sabine Women, Main article: Neoclassical sculpture The Neoclassical style that arrived in the late 18th cen1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6” (4.1 m) high, marble 6.4.5

Baroque and Rococo

Main article: Baroque sculpture In Baroque sculpture, groups of ﬁgures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles, and reﬂected a general continuation of the Renaissance move away from the relief to sculpture created in the round, and designed to be placed in the middle of a large space – elaborate fountains such as Bernini’s Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651), or those in the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. The Baroque style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with Gian Lorenzo Bernini the dominating ﬁgure of the age in works such as The Ecstasy of St Theresa (1647–1652).[84] Much Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fused sculpture and architecture to create a transformative experience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as in the classical tradition, but admired Hellenistic and later Roman sculpture, rather than that of the more “Classical” periods as they are seen today.[85] The Protestant Reformation brought an almost total stop to religious sculpture in much of Northern Europe, and though secular sculpture, especially for portrait busts and tomb monuments, continued, the Dutch Golden Age has no signiﬁcant sculptural component outside goldsmithing.[86] Partly in direct reaction, sculpture was as prominent in Catholicism as in the late Middle Ages. Statues of rulers and the nobility became increasingly popular. In the 18th century much sculpture continued on Baroque lines – the Trevi Fountain was only completed in 1762. Rococo style was better suited to smaller works, and arguably found its ideal sculptural form in early European porcelain, and interior decorative schemes in wood or plaster such as those in French domestic interiors and Austrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches.[87] • Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Apollo and Daphne in the Galleria Borghese, 1622–1625

Antonio Canova: Psyche Revived by Love’s Kiss, 1787

tury gave great emphasis to sculpture. Jean-Antoine Houdon exempliﬁes the penetrating portrait sculpture the style could produce, and Antonio Canova's nudes the idealist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical period was one of the great ages of public sculpture, though its “classical” prototypes were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most familiar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, the Englishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen. The European neoclassical manner also took hold in the United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhat later and is exempliﬁed in the sculptures of Hiram Powers. • Jean-Antoine Houdon, Bust of Benjamin Franklin, 1778, Metropolitan Museum of Art

• Bust of Louis XIV, 1686, by Antoine Coysevox

• Bertel Thorvaldsen: Jason and the Golden Fleece (1803)

• Pierre Paul Puget, Perseus and Andromeda, 1715, Musée du Louvre

• John Flaxman, Memorial in the church at Badger, Shropshire, c. 1780s

6.5

Asia

19

• Hiram Powers, 1851, The Greek Slave, Yale Univer- adopted while others did not spread beyond the Grecosity Art Gallery Buddhist area; in particular the standing ﬁgure, often with a relaxed pose and one leg ﬂexed, and the ﬂying cupids or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras. 6.5 Asia Greek foliage decoration was also inﬂuential, with Indian versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.[88] 6.5.1 Greco-Buddhist sculpture and Asia The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE – 130 BCE), located in today’s Afghanistan, from which Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture ﬂourished in the area of Gandhara, in today’s northern Pakistan, before spreading further into India, inﬂuencing the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East Asia. The inﬂuence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread northward towards Central Asia, strongly aﬀecting the art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ultimately the sculpted ﬁgure in China, Korea, and Japan.[89] • Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum • Fragment of the wind god Boreas, Hadda, Afghanistan. • Coin of Demetrius I of Bactria, who reigned circa 200–180 BC and invaded Northern India • Buddha head from Hadda, Afghanistan, 3rd–4th centuries • Gandhara Poseidon (Ancient Orient Museum)

One of the ﬁrst representations of the Buddha, 1st–2nd century CE, Gandhara

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of GrecoBuddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the ﬁrst representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped deﬁne the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were

• The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), 3rd century, Gandhara • Taller Buddha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 and in 2008 after they were dynamited and destroyed in March 2001 by the Taliban • Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD, Afghanistan 6.5.2 China Main articles: Chinese art, Chinese ceramics, Lacquerware, and Chinese jade Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties come from a period of over a thousand years from c. 1500 BC, and have exerted a continuing inﬂuence over Chinese art. They are cast with complex patterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid the human ﬁgure, unlike the huge ﬁgures only recently discovered at Sanxingdui.[90] The spectacular Terracotta Army was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang,

20

6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE cave-complexes, and as outside rock reliefs. These were mostly originally painted. Sculptors of all sorts were regarded as artisans and very few names are recorded.[95] From the Ming dynasty onwards, statuettes of religious and secular ﬁgures were produced in Chinese porcelain and other media, which became an important export. • A bronze ding from late Shang dynasty (13th century BC-10th century BC) • A tomb guardian usually placed inside the doors of the tomb to protect or guide the soul, Warring States period, ca. 3rd century BCE • Lifesize calvalryman from the Terracotta Army, Qin dynasty, ca. 3rd century BC • Gold stag with eagle’s head, Xiongnu tomb on the Mongolian frontier, 4th-3rd century BC • Tomb ﬁgure of dancing girl, Han Dynasty (202 BC220 AD)

A Liao dynasty polychrome wood-carved statue of Guan Yin, Shanxi Province, China, (907–1125 AD)

the ﬁrst emperor of a uniﬁed China from 221–210 BCE, as a grand imperial version of the ﬁgures long placed in tombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the same lifestyle in the afterlife as when alive, replacing actual sacriﬁces of very early periods. Smaller ﬁgures in pottery or wood were placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards, reaching a peak of quality in the Tang dynasty.[91] The tradition of unusually large pottery ﬁgures persisted in China, through Tang sancai tomb ﬁgures to later Buddhist statues such as the near life-size set of Yixian glazed pottery luohans and later ﬁgures for temples and tombs. These came to replace earlier equivalents in wood. Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to some other areas, in medieval China even painted images of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt, and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.[92] Small Buddhist ﬁgures and groups were produced to a very high quality in a range of media,[93] as was relief decoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metalwork and jade.[94] In the earlier periods, large quantities of sculpture were cut from the living rock in pilgrimage

• Bronze cowrie container with yaks, from the Dian Kingdom (4th century BC - 109 BC) tradition of the Western Han • Northern Wei dynasty Maitreya (386–534) • Sancai pottery, tomb ﬁgure of horse and groom, Tang dynasty (618-907) • Seated Buddha, Tang dynasty ca. 650. • An agate cup shaped in an animal head, Tang dynasty • The Leshan Giant Buddha, Tang dynasty, completed in 803. • A wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty (960– 1279) • Seated Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), wood and pigment, 11th century, Chinese Northern Song dynasty, St. Louis Art Museum • Chinese jade Cup with Dragon Handles, Song dynasty, 12th century • Guanyin Bodhisattva in Blanc de Chine (Dehua porcelain), by He Chaozong, Ming dynasty, early 17th century • Blue underglaze statue of a man with his pipe, from Jingdezhen, Ming Wanli period (1573-1620) • A Chinese guardian lion outside Yonghe Temple, Beijing, Qing dynasty, ca. 1694 • The giant wooden bodhisattva of Puning Temple, Chengde, Hebei province, built in 1755 under the Qianlong Emperor

6.5 6.5.3

Asia

21

Japan

Almost all subsequent signiﬁcant large sculpture in Japan was Buddhist, with some Shinto equivalents, and after See also: Japanese art, Japanese sculpture, and List of Buddhism declined in Japan in the 15th century, monNational Treasures of Japan (sculptures) umental sculpture became largely architectural decoraTowards the end of the long Neolithic Jōmon period, tion and less signiﬁcant.[98] However sculptural work in the decorative arts was developed to a remarkable level of technical achievement and reﬁnement in small objects such as inro and netsuke in many materials, and metal tosogu or Japanese sword mountings. In the 19th century there were export industries of small bronze sculptures of extreme virtuosity, ivory and porcelain ﬁgurines, and other types of small sculpture, increasingly emphasizing technical accomplishment. • Dogū with “snow-goggle” eyes, 1000–400 BC. • 6th century haniwa ﬁgure • Kongo Rishiki (Guardian Deity) at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji • Priest Ganjin (Jianzhen), Nara period, 8th century • Jōchō, Amida Buddha, Heian Period, 1053, Byōdōin, Kyoto • Tsuba sword ﬁtting with a “Rabbit Viewing the Autumn Moon”, bronze, gold and silver, between 1670 and 1744 • Izumiya Tomotada, netsuke in the form of a dog, late 18th century Nara Daibutsu, c. 752, Nara, Japan

some pottery vessels were “ﬂame-rimmed” with extravagant extensions to the rim that can only be called sculptural,[96] and very stylized pottery dogū ﬁgures were produced, many with the characteristic “snow-goggle” eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th century CE, haniwa terracotta ﬁgures of humans and animals in a simplistic style were erected outside important tombs. The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with it sophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles mediated via Korea. The 7th century Hōryū-ji and its contents have survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhist temple of its date, with works including a Shaka Trinity of 623 in bronze, showing the historical Buddha ﬂanked by two bodhisattvas and also the Guardian Kings of the Four Directions.[97] The wooden image (9th century) of Shakyamuni, the “historic” Buddha, enshrined in a secondary building at the Murō-ji, is typical of the early Heian sculpture, with its ponderous body, covered by thick drapery folds carved in the hompa-shiki (rolling-wave) style, and its austere, withdrawn facial expression. The Kei school of sculptors, particularly Unkei, created a new, more realistic style of sculpture.

• Yamada Chōzaburō, Wind God in repoussé iron, c. 1915

6.5.4 India See also: Sculpture in South Asia, List of rock-cut temples in India, and Sculpture of Bangladesh The ﬁrst known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BC), found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modernday Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze female dancer. However, such ﬁgures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery ﬁgurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very ﬁnely depicted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper ﬁgures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.[99] Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin, relative to other cultures, and the development of Indian civilization, relatively late, with the reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of

22

6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE • Ashoka Pillar, Vaishali, Bihar, c. 250 BCE • Stupa gateway at Sanchi, c. 100 CE or perhaps earlier, with densely packed reliefs • Buddha from Sarnath, 5–6th century CE • The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves • Rock-cut temples at Ellora • Hindu, Chola period, 1000 • Typical medieval frontal standing statue of Vishnu, 950–1150 • In Khajuraho • Marble Sculpture of female yakshi in typical curving pose, c. 1450, Rajasthan • Gopuram of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, densely packed with rows of painted statues

Hindu Gupta terracotta relief, 5th century CE, of Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

• Sculpture of Guardian at the entrance of the Mandapam of Sri Jalagandeeswarar Temple, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 6.5.5 South-East Asia

[100]

which six survive. Large amounts of ﬁgurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism.[101] The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reﬂected both native Indian traditions and the Western inﬂuences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and eﬀectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture.[101] The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550) which remains a “classical” period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[102] though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.[103] Later large-scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main ﬁgure in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja,[104] with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty.[105]

9th century Khmer lintel

The sculpture of the region tends to be characterised by a high degree of ornamentation, as seen in the great monuments of Hindu and Buddhist Khmer sculpture (9th to 13th centuries) at Angkor Wat and elsewhere, the enormous 9th-century Buddhist complex at Borobudur in Java, and the Hindu monuments of Bali.[106] Both of these include many reliefs as well as ﬁgures in the round; Borobudur has 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha statues, many semi-concealed in openwork stupas, and many large guardian ﬁgures.

In Thailand and Laos, sculpture was mainly of Buddha images, often gilded, both large for temples and monasteries, and small ﬁgurines for private homes. Traditional sculpture in Myanmar emerged before the Bagan period. As elsewhere in the region, most of the wood sculptures of the Bagan and Ava periods have been lost. In later periods Chinese inﬂuence predominated in Vietnam, Laos • The “dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro", 3rd millen- and Cambodia, and more wooden sculpture survives from nium BCE (replica) across the region.

6.7

Africa

23

• Apsara and Gandarva pedestal, Trà Kiệu, Cham art, Figures of animals in the round were often acceptable for Vietnam, c.7th–8th century works used in private contexts if the object was clearly practical, so medieval Islamic art contains many metal an• Relief sculpture from Borobudur temple, Indonesia, imals that are aquamaniles, incense burners or supporters c. 760–830 for fountains, as in the stone lions supporting the famous one in the Alhambra, culminating in the largest medieval • Vairocana Buddha from Borobudur temple, Islamic animal ﬁgure known, the Pisa Griﬃn. In the Indonesia, c. 760–830 same way, luxury hardstone carvings such as dagger hilts • Bronze Avalokiteshvara torso from Chaiya, and cups may be formed as animals, especially in Mughal art. The degree of acceptability of such relaxations of Southern Thailand, Srivijayan art, c. 8th century strict Islamic rules varies between periods and regions, • Bronze Avalokiteshvara from Bidor, Perak, with Islamic Spain, Persia and India often leading relaxation, and is typically highest in courtly contexts.[108] Malaysia, c. 8th-9th century • Vishnu from Prasat Rup Arak, Kulen, Khmer art, Cambodia, c. 800-875 • Dragon head palace decoration from the Lý dynasty, Vietnam, c. 1009–1225 • Buddha in Ananda Temple, Bagan, Myanmar, c. 1105 • Stone bas-relief of apsaras from Bayon temple, Cambodia, c. 1200 • Prajnaparamita Singhasari art, East Java, Indonesia, c. 13th century

• The Mshatta Facade, from a palace near Damascus, 740s • The Pisa Griﬃn, 107 cm high, probably 11th century • Part of a 15th-century ceramic panel from Samarkand with white calligraphy on a blue arabesque background. • Mughal dagger with hilt in jade, gold, rubies and emeralds. Blade of damascened steel inlaid with gold.

• Phra Achana, Wat Si Chum, Big Buddha image in 6.7 Sukhothai, Thailand, c. 14th century

Africa

• “the Buddha calling the earth to witness”, The Buddha’s hands are in the bhūmisparsa mudrā (subduing Māra) position. Ho Phra Kaeo temple, Vientiane, Laos

6.6

Islam

Ivory with traces of paint, 11th–12th century, Egypt

Islam is famously aniconic, so the vast majority of sculpture is arabesque decoration in relief or openwork, based on vegetable motifs, but tending to geometrical abstract forms. In the very early Mshatta Facade (740s), now mostly in Berlin, there are animals within the dense arabesques in high relief, and ﬁgures of animals and men in mostly low relief are found in conjunction with decoration on many later pieces in various materials, including Mask from Gabon metalwork, ivory and ceramics.[107]

24

6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE the same region make pieces of wood with broad, ﬂat surfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders. In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and dots.

Populations in the African Great Lakes are not known for their sculpture.[109] However, one style from the region is pole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decorated with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with ﬁgures of animals, people, and various objects. These poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associated with death and the ancestral world. The culture known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe Birds appear to have had a special signiﬁcance and were mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in Two Chiwara c. late 19th early 20th centuries, Art Institute of soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africa’s oldest known clay ﬁgures date Chicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a mixture of human and animal features. Historically, with the exception of some monumental Egyptian sculpture, most African sculpture was created in wood and other organic materials that have not survived from earlier than a few centuries ago; older pottery ﬁgures are found from a number of areas. Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human ﬁgures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of styles, often varying within the same context of origin depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends are apparent; sculpture is most common among “groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and Congo rivers" in West Africa.[109] Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for religious ceremonies; today many are made for tourists as “airport art”.[110] African masks were an inﬂuence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction. The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and 500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay ﬁgures typically with elongated bodies and angular shapes. Later West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs to decorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and very ﬁne naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba town of Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th–14th centuries. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculptures produced over the period 1400–1900, some apparently representing proverbs and so with a narrative element rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia included impressive gold sculptured elements.[111]

• Nok terracotta, 6th century BC–6th century CE • Ife head, terracotta, probably 12–14th centuries CE • Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century • Sculpture of a 'Queen Mother' from Benin, 16th century. • 16th century ivory mask from Benin • One of the Benin Bronzes, 16th–18th century, Nigeria. • Mask from Burkina Faso, 19th century • Mambila ﬁgure, Nigeria

6.8 The Americas See also: Sculpture of the United States, Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas, Pre-Columbian art, Northwest Coast art, and Inuit art

Sculpture in what is now Latin America developed in two separate and distinct areas, Mesoamerica in the north and Peru in the south. In both areas, sculpture was initially of stone, and later of terracotta and metal as the civilizations in these areas became more technologically proﬁcient.[112] The Mesoamerican region produced more monumental sculpture, from the massive block-like works of the Olmec and Toltec cultures, to the superb low Many West African ﬁgures are used in religious rituals reliefs that characterize the Mayan and Aztec cultures. In and are often coated with materials placed on them for the Andean region, sculptures were typically small, but ceremonial oﬀerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of often show superb skill.

6.9 6.8.1

Moving toward modern art

25

Pre-Columbian

• Olmec Baby Figure 1200-900 BCE • Olmec Jadeite Mask 1000–600 BCE • Olmec Colossal Head No. 3 1200–900 BCE • La Mojarra Stela 1 2nd century CE • Chalchiuhtlicue from Teotihuacán 200–500 CE • Teotihuacan mask 200–600 CE • Teotihuacan- Detail of the Temple of the Feathered Serpent 200–250 CE • A funerary urn in the shape of a “bat god” or a jaguar, Oaxaca, 300–650 CE • Moche portrait vessel with stirrup spout, Peru, 100 BCE-700 CE • K'inich Janaab Pakal I of Palenque, Maya, 603–683 • Ahkal Mo' Naab III Of Palenque, 8th century • Upakal K'inich 8th century AD, Palenque • Jaina Island type ﬁgure (Mayan) 650–800

St. James panel, from reredos in Cristo Rey Church, Santa Fe, New Mexico, c. 1760

• Classic Veracruz culture face 600–900 was carved by peasant habitant labourers. Later, artists trained in the Western academic tradition followed European styles until in the late 19th century they began to • Double-headed serpent, Turquoise, red and white draw again on indigenous inﬂuences, notably in the Mexmosaic on wood, Aztec (possibly) Mixtec, c. 1400– ican baroque grotesque style known as Churrigueresque. Aboriginal peoples also adapted church sculpture in vari1521, ations on Carpenter Gothic; one famous example is the Church of the Holy Cross in Skookumchuck Hot Springs, British Columbia. 6.9 Moving toward modern art • Atlante from Tollan-Xicocotitlan also known as Tula 1000

6.9.1

North America

In North America, wood was sculpted for totem poles, masks, utensils, War canoes and a variety of other uses, with distinct variation between diﬀerent cultures and regions. The most developed styles are those of the Paciﬁc Northwest Coast, where a group of elaborate and highly stylized formal styles developed forming the basis of a tradition that continues today. In addition to the famous totem poles, painted and carved house fronts were complemented by carved posts inside and out, as well as mortuary ﬁgures and other items. Among the Inuit of the far north, traditional carving styles in ivory and soapstone are still continued.[113] The arrival of European Catholic culture readily adapted local skills to the prevailing Baroque style, producing enormously elaborate retablos and other mostly church sculptures in a variety of hybrid styles.[114] The most famous of such examples in Canada is the altar area of the Notre Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which

The history of sculpture in the United States after Europeans’ arrival reﬂects the country’s 18th-century foundation in Roman republican civic values and Protestant Christianity. Compared to areas colonized by the Spanish, sculpture got oﬀ to an extremely slow start in the British colonies, with next to no place in churches, and was only given impetus by the need to assert nationality after independence. American sculpture of the midto late-19th century was often classical, often romantic, but showed a bent for a dramatic, narrative, almost journalistic realism. Public buildings during the last quarter of the 19th century and the ﬁrst half of the 20th century often provided an architectural setting for sculpture, especially in relief. By the 1930s the International Style of architecture and design and art deco characterized by the work of Paul Manship and Lee Lawrie and others became popular. By the 1950s, traditional sculpture education would almost be completely replaced by a Bauhausinﬂuenced concern for abstract design. Minimalist sculpture replaced the ﬁgure in public settings and architects almost completely stopped using sculpture in or on their

26

6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

designs. Modern sculptors (21st century) use both classical and abstract inspired designs. Beginning in the 1980s, there was a swing back toward ﬁgurative public sculpture; by 2000, many of the new public pieces in the United States were ﬁgurative in design. • Gutzon Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum, Mount Rushmore, 1927–1941. L-R, George Washington, Thomas Jeﬀerson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln. • Robert Gould Shaw Memorial by Augustus SaintGaudens, 1884–1897, plaster version • Lee Lawrie, The Sower, 1928 Art Deco relief on Beaumont Tower, Michigan State University • Daniel Chester French, Abraham Lincoln (1920) in the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C. • The K'alyaan Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks.ádi Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of Sitka • Frederic Remington, The Bronco Buster, limited Auguste Rodin, The Thinker, 1902, Musée Rodin, Paris edition #17 of 20, 1909. • Paul Manship, Dancer and Gazelles, 1916, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C. • Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, The Scout, 1924, commemorating Buﬀalo Bill in Cody, Wyoming

6.10 19th–early 20th century, early Modernism and continuing realism • François Rude, a Romantic Jeanne d' Arc, 1852, Louvre

• Jan Štursa, Before the Bath, 1906, National Gallery in Prague • Constantin Brâncuși, Portrait of Mademoiselle Pogany 1912, White marble; limestone block, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show • Amedeo Modigliani, Female Head, 1911/1912, Tate • Aristide Maillol, The Night, 1920, Stuttgart

Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the clas• Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Ugolino and His Sons, sical sculpture of the 19th century which was charac1857–1860, Metropolitan Museum of Art terized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis Barye)—the melodramatic (François Rude) sentimen• Edgar Degas, Little Dancer of Fourteen Years, cast tality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux)-- or a kind of stately in 1922 from a mixed-media sculpture modeled ca. grandiosity (Lord Leighton). Several diﬀerent directions 1879–80, Bronze, partly tinted, with cotton in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned, • Auguste Rodin The Burghers of Calais 1889, Calais, but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance tradition was still fundamental to them. Auguste Rodin France was the most renowned European sculptor of the early • Alfred Gilbert, the so-called Eros, 1893, the world’s 20th century.[115][116] He is often considered a sculpﬁrst aluminium statue, Piccadilly Circus, London tural Impressionist, as are his students including Camille Claudel, and Hugo Rheinhold, attempting to model of • Detail of the grave of Cyprian Kamil Norwid in a ﬂeeting moment of ordinary life. Modern classicism Wawel Cathedral, Kraków by Czesław Dźwigaj showed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater inter• Sculpture on the Discoveries Age and Portuguese est in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to the rhythms of volumes and spaces—as well as greater attennavigators in Lisbon, Portugal tion to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed, • Antoine Bourdelle, Day and Night, marble, 1903, planar, broken etc.) while less attention was paid to storyMusée Bourdelle, Paris telling and convincing details of anatomy or costume.

27 throughout eastern Europe and parts of the Middle East. By the year 2000, the European classical tradition retains a wide appeal to the public but awaits an educational tradition to revive its contemporary development. Some of the modern classical became either more decorative/art deco (Paul Manship, Jose de Creeft, Carl Milles) or more abstractly stylized or more expressive (and Gothic) (Anton Hanak, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Ernst Barlach, Arturo Martini)—or turned more to the Renaissance (Giacomo Manzù, Venanzo Crocetti) or stayed the same (Charles Despiau, Marcel Gimond).

7 Modernism

Paul Gauguin, 1894, Oviri (Sauvage), partially glazed stoneware, 75 x 19 x 27 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris

Gaston Lachaise, Floating Figure 1927, bronze, no. 5 from an edition of 7, National Gallery of Australia

Main article: Modern sculpture

Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism, Greater attention was given to psychological eﬀect than to Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism, physical realism, and inﬂuences from earlier styles worldConstructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, wide were used. Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art, Early masters of modern classicism included: Aristide Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art among Maillol, Alexander Matveyev, Joseph Bernard, Antoine others. Bourdelle, Georg Kolbe, Libero Andreotti, Gustav Vigeland, Jan Stursa, Constantin Brâncuși. As the century progressed, modern classicism was adopted as the national style of the two great European totalitarian empires: Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, who co-opted the work of earlier artists such as Kolbe and Wilhelm Lehmbruck in Germany[117] and Matveyev in Russia. Over the 70 years of the USSR, new generations of sculptors were trained and chosen within their system, and a distinct style, socialist realism, developed, that returned to the 19th century’s emphasis on melodrama and naturalism. Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1951, Fitzwilliam Museum, Classical training was rooted out of art education in Western Europe (and the Americas) by 1970 and the classical variants of the 20th century were marginalized in the history of modernism. But classicism continued as the foundation of art education in the Soviet academies until 1990, providing a foundation for expressive ﬁgurative art

Cambridge

In the early days of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso revolutionized the art of sculpture when he began creating his constructions fashioned by combining disparate objects and materials into one constructed piece of sculp-

28

7

MODERNISM

with Modernist sculpture and large public commissions both abstract and ﬁgurative became common. Picasso was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50foot (15 m)-high public sculpture, the so-called Chicago Picasso (1967). His design was ambiguous and somewhat controversial, and what the ﬁgure represents is not clear; it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape. During the late 1950s and the 1960s abstract sculptors began experimenting with a wide array of new materials and diﬀerent approaches to creating their work. Surrealist imagery, anthropomorphic abstraction, new materials and combinations of new energy sources and varied surfaces and objects became characteristic of much new modernist sculpture. Collaborative projects with landscape designers, architects, and landscape architects expanded the outdoor site and contextual integration. Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, Alexander Calder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey, Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson came to characterize the look of modern sculpture.

David Smith, CUBI VI, (1963), Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

ture; the sculptural equivalent of the collage in twodimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to things occasionally being described as “sculpture” that would not have been so previously, such as “involuntary sculpture” in several senses, including coulage. In later years Picasso became a proliﬁc potter, leading, with interest in historic pottery from around the world, to a revival of ceramic art, with ﬁgures such as George E. Ohr and subsequently Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Arneson. Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "found object" (French: objet trouvé) or readymade with pieces such as Fountain (1917).

By the 1960s Abstract expressionism, Geometric abstraction and Minimalism, which reduces sculpture to its most essential and fundamental features, predominated. Some works of the period are: the Cubi works of David Smith, and the welded steel works of Sir Anthony Caro, as well as welded sculpture by a large variety of sculptors, the largescale work of John Chamberlain, and environmental installation scale works by Mark di Suvero. Other Minimalists include Tony Smith, Donald Judd, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, Giacomo Benevelli, Arnaldo Pomodoro, Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, and John Safer who added motion and monumentality to the theme of purity of line.[120]

During the 1960s and 1970s ﬁgurative sculpture by modernist artists in stylized forms was made by artists such as Leonard Baskin, Ernest Trova, George Segal, Marisol Escobar, Paul Thek, Robert Graham in a classic articulated style, and Fernando Botero bringing his painting’s Similarly, the work of Constantin Brâncuși at the begin'oversized ﬁgures’ into monumental sculptures. ning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculpture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his late-19th-century contemporaries, Brâncuși distilled subjects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantly 7.1 Gallery of modernist sculpture reﬁned forms of his Bird in Space series (1924).[118] • Henri Matisse, The Back Series, bronze, left to right: Brâncuși’s impact, with his vocabulary of reduction and The Back I, 1908–09, The Back II, 1913, The Back abstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and III 1916, The Back IV, c. 1931, all Museum of Modexempliﬁed by artists such as Gaston Lachaise, Sir Jacob ern Art, New York City Epstein, Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Miró, Julio González, Pablo Serrano, Jacques Lipchitz[119] and • Otto Gutfreund, Cellist, 1912–13 by the 1940s abstract sculpture was impacted and expanded by Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely, • Alexander Archipenko, La Vie Familiale (Family and Frederick Kiesler who were pioneers of Kinetic art. Life), 1912 Modernist sculptors largely missed out on the huge boom in public art resulting from the demand for war memori• Joseph Csaky, Tête, ca.1920 (front and side view), als for the two World Wars, but from the 1950s the publimestone, 60 cm, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, lic and commissioning bodies became more comfortable Holland

7.3

Minimalism

29

• Jacob Epstein, Day and Night, carved for the London Underground's headquarters, 1928. • Käthe Kollwitz, The Grieving Parents, 1932, World War I memorial (for her son Peter), Vladslo German war cemetery • Jacques Lipchitz, Birth of the Muses, (1944–1950) • Barbara Hepworth, Monolith-Empyrean, 1953 • John Chamberlain, S, 1959, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC. • Henry Moore, Three Piece Reclining ﬁgure No.1, 1961, Yorkshire

Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Umbrellas 1991, Japan [121]

• Marcel Duchamp, Fountain 1917; 1964 artistauthorized replica made by the artist’s dealer, Arturo art or 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works exSchwarz, based on a photograph by Alfred Stieglitz. empliﬁed by artists such as Robert Smithson, Michael Porcelain, Tate Modern, London Heizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). Eva Hesse, Sol • Pablo Picasso, Public Sculpture, 1967, Chicago, Illi- LeWitt, Jackie Winsor, Keith Sonnier, and Bruce Nauman, among others were pioneers of Postminimalist nois sculpture. • Isamu Noguchi, Heimar, 1968, at the Billy Rose Also during the 1960s and 1970s artists as diverse as Sculpture Garden, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel Eduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George Se• George Rickey, Four Squares in Geviert, 1969, ter- gal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, race of the New National Gallery, Berlin, Germany, Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction, imagery and ﬁguration through video art, environment, Rickey is considered a Kinetic sculptor light sculpture, and installation art in new ways. • Alexander Calder, Crinkly avec disc rouge, 1973, Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) Schlossplatz, Stuttgart involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Works include One • Louise Nevelson, Atmosphere and Environment XII, and Three Chairs, 1965, is by Joseph Kosuth, and An 1970–1973, Philadelphia Museum of Art Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and those of Joseph • Sir Anthony Caro, Black Cover Flat, 1974, steel, Tel Beuys, James Turrell and Jacek Tylicki. Aviv Museum of Art • Joan Miró, Woman and Bird, 1982, Barcelona, 7.3 Spain • • George Segal, Street Crossing, 1992, permanently installed on a public sidewalk at Montclair State University, in Montclair, New Jersey • • Mark di Suvero, Aurora, 1992–1993 • Louise Bourgeois, Maman, 1999, outside Museo Guggenheim

7.2

Contemporary movements

Minimalism Tony Smith, Free Ride, 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (the height of a standard US door opening), Museum of Modern Art, New York Larry Bell, Untitled 1964, bismuth, chromium, gold, and rhodium on gold-plated brass; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

• Richard Serra, Fulcrum 1987, 55 ft high free standing sculpture of Cor-ten steel near Liverpool Street station, London

• Donald Judd, Untitled, 1991, Israel Museum Art Site speciﬁc and environmental art works are represented Garden, Jerusalem by artists: Andy Goldsworthy, Walter De Maria,[122] Richard Long, Richard Serra, Robert Irwin,[123] George Rickey and Christo and Jeanne-Claude led contempo- 7.3.1 Postminimalism rary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists created environmental sculpture on expansive sites in the 'land • Bruce Nauman, Human/Need/Desire, 1983, Neon art in the American West' group of projects. These land sculpture

30 • Richard Long, South Bank Circle, 1991 Tate Liverpool, England

10 NOTES

8 Conservation

• Jean-Yves Lechevallier, Fettered wing. 1991 • Anish Kapoor, Turning the World Upside Down, Israel Museum, 2010 • Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living. 1991 • Rachel Whiteread, Holocaust Monument 2000 Judenplatz, Vienna • Guardians of Time, light sculpture by Manfred Kielnhofer at the Light Art Biennale Austria 2010 • The Spire of Dublin oﬃcially titled the Monument Visible damage due to acid rain on a sculpture of Light, stainless steel, 121.2 metres (398 feet), the world’s tallest sculpture Sculptures are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and ultraviolet light. Acid rain can also cause damage to cer7.3.2 Contemporary genres tain building materials and historical monuments. This results when sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then ﬂakes oﬀ.

Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, in 2005

Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced outdoors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture, often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture, street art sculpture and site-speciﬁc art also often make use of the environment. Ice sculpture is a form of ephemeral sculpture that uses ice as the raw material. It is popular in China, Japan, Canada, Sweden, and Russia. Ice sculptures feature decoratively in some cuisines, especially in Asia. Kinetic sculptures are sculptures that are designed to move, which include mobiles. Snow sculptures are usually carved out of a single block of snow about 6 to 15 feet (1.8 to 4.6 m) on each side and weighing about 20–30 tons. The snow is densely packed into a form after having been produced by artiﬁcial means or collected from the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures take the form of indoor sound installations, outdoor installations such as aeolian harps, automatons, or be more or less near conventional musical instruments. Sound sculpture is often site-speciﬁc. Art toys have become another format for contemporary artists since the late 1990s, such as those produced by Takashi Murakami and Kid Robot, designed by Michael Lau, or hand-made by Michael Leavitt (artist).[124]

At any time many contemporary sculptures have usually been on display in public places; theft was not a problem as pieces were instantly recognisable. In the early 21st century the value of metal rose to such an extent that theft of massive bronze sculpture for the value of the metal became a problem; sculpture worth millions being stolen and melted down for the relatively low value of the metal, a tiny fraction of the value of the artwork.[125]

9 See also 10 Notes [1] [2] “Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity” September 2007 to January 2008, The Arthur M. Sackler Museum [3] See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history of Greek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-521-28084-6 [4] NGA, Washington feature on exhibition. [5] The Ptolemies began the Hellenistic tradition of rulerportraits on coins, and the Romans began to show dead politicians in the 1st century BC, with Julius Caesar the ﬁrst living ﬁgure to be portrayed; under the emperors portraits of the Imperial family became standard. See Burnett, 34-35; Howgego, 63-70 [6] Article by Morris Cox

31

[7] Cook, 147; he notes that ancient Greek copyists seem to have used many fewer points than some later ones, and copies often vary considerably in the composition as well as the ﬁnish. [8] “Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process”. James Peniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2008-11-30. [9] Ravi, B. (2004). “Metal Casting – Overview” (PDF). Bureau of Energy Eﬃciency, India.

[36] Smith, 21–24 [37] Smith, 170–178; 192–194 [38] Smith, 102–103; 133–134 [39] Smith, 4–5; 208–209 [40] Smith, 89–90 [41] images of Getty Villa 85.AA.103

[10] British Museum - The Lycurgus Cup

[42] Cook, 72, 85–109; Boardman, 47–59

[11] V&A Museum, Sculpture techniques: modelling in clay, accessed August 31, 2012

[43] Cook, 109–119; Boardman, 87–95

[12] Rawson, 140–144; Frankfort 112–113; Henig, 179–180

[44] Lapatin, Kenneth D. S., Phidias, Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24, 2012

[13] Rawson, 134–135

[45] Cook, 119–131

[14] Burford, Alison, “Greece, ancient, §IV, 1: Monumental sculpture: Overview, 5 c)" in Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24th, 2012

[46] Cook, 131–141

[15] Olsen, 150–151; Blunt [16] Jewish virtual library, History of Jewish sculpture [17] P.Mellars, Archeology and the Dispersal of Modern Humans in Europe: Deconstructing the Aurignacian, Evolutionary Anthropology, vol. 15 (2006), pp. 167–182.

[47] Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 [48] Cook, 142–156 [49] Cook, 142–154 [50] Cook, 155–158 [51] Strong, 58–63; Hennig, 66-69

[18] de Laet, Sigfried J. (1994). History of Humanity: Prehistory and the beginnings of civilization. UNESCO. p. 211.

[52] Hennig, 24

[19] Cook, J. (2013) Ice Age art: arrival of the modern mind, The British Museum, ISBN 978-0714123332

[53] Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of Verres, former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his depredations of art collections at great length.

[20] Sandars, 8−16, 29−31 [21] Hahn, Joachim, “Prehistoric Europe, §II: Palaeolithic 3. Portable art” in Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24, 2012; Sandars, 37−40 [22] Kleiner, Fred (2009). Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, Volume 1. p. 36. [23] Sandars, 75–80 [24] Sandars, 253−257, 183−185 [25] Frankfort, 24–37

[54] Henig, 23–24 [55] Henig, 66–71 [56] Henig, 73–82;Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–117, 128–132, 141–159, 177–182, 197–211 [57] Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–315 [58] Henig, Chapter 8 [59] Strong, 171–176, 211–214

[26] Frankfort, 45–59

[60] Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; Strong, 250–257, 264–266, 272–280

[27] Frankfort, 61–66

[61] Strong, 287–291, 305–308, 315–318; Henig, 234–240

[28] Frankfort, Chapters 2–5

[62] Robinson, 12, 15

[29] Frankfort, 110–112

[63] Dodwell, Chapter 2

[30] Frankfort, 66–74

[64] Calkins, 79–80; 90–102

[31] Frankfort, 71–73

[65] Calkins, 107–114

[32] Frankfort, 66–74; 167

[66] Calkins, 115–132

[33] Frankfort, 141–193

[67] Honour and Fleming, 297–300; Henderson, 55, 82-84

[34] Smith, 33

[68] Olson, 11–24; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41

[35] Smith, 12–13 and note 17

[69] Snyder, 65-69

32

[70] Snyder, 305-311

11

[106] Honour & Fleming, 196–200

[71] V&A Museum feature on the Nottingham alabaster [107] Swansea Altarpiece [108] [72] Calkins, 193-198 [109] [73] Cherry, 25-48; Henderson, 134-141 [110] [74] Olson, 41–46, 62–63 [75] Olson, 45–52, and see index

REFERENCES

Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 26-27, 33-37 Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 33-37 Honour & Fleming, 557 Honour & Fleming, 559–561

[111] Honour & Fleming, 556–561

[77] Olson, 149–150

[112] Castedo, Leopoldo, A History of Latin American Art and architecture, Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher, New York, 1969

[78] Olson, 103–110, 131–132

[113] Honour & Fleming, 553–556

[79] Olson, Chapter 8, 179–181

[114] Neumeyer, Alfred, The Indian Contribution to Architectural Decoration in Spanish Colonial America. The Art Bulletin, June 1948, Volume XXX, Number two

[76] Olson, 114–118, 149–150

[80] Olson, 179–182 [81] Olson, 183–187 [82] Olson, 182–183 [83] Olson, 194–202

[115] Elsen, Albert E. (2003). Rodin’s Art: The Rodin Collection of the Iris & Gerald B. Cantor Center for the Visual Arts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19513381-1.

[84] Boucher, 134-142 on the Cornaro chapel; see index for [116] Rodin to Now: Modern Sculpture, Palm Springs Desert Bernini generally Museum [85] Boucher, 16–18 [86] Honour and Fleming, 450 [87] Honour and Fleming, 460-467 [88] Boardman, 370–378; Harle, 71–84 [89] Boardman, 370–378; Sickman, 85–90; Paine, 29–30 [90] Rawson, Chapter 1, 135–136 [91] Rawson, 138-138 [92] Rawson, 135–145; 145–163 [93] Rawson, 163–165 [94] Rawson, Chapters 4 and 6 [95] Rawson, 135

[117] Curtis, Penelpoe, Taking Positions: Figurative Sculpture and the Third Reich, Henry Moore Institute, London, 2002 [118] Visual arts in the 20th century, Author Edward LucieSmith, Edition illustrated, Publisher Harry N. Abrams, 1997,Original from the University of Michigan, ISBN 978-0-8109-3934-9 [119] The Oxford dictionary of American art and artists, Author Ann Lee Morgan, Publisher Oxford University Press, 2007,Original from the University of Michigan,ISBN 019-512878-8, ISBN 978-0-19-512878-9 [120] National Air and Space Museum Receives “Ascent” Sculpture for display at Udvar-Hazy Center [121] NY Times, Umbrella Crushes Woman

[96] Middle Jomon Sub-Period, Niigata Prefectural Museum [122] Guggenheim museum of History, accessed August 15, 2012 [123] Dia Foundation [97] Paine & Soper, 30–31 [98] Paine & Soper, 121 [99] Harle, 17–20 [100] Harle, 22–24

[124] “Art Army by Michael Leavitt”, hypediss.com, December 13, 2006. [125] BBC: Barbara Hepworth sculpture stolen from Dulwich Park, 20 December 2011. Example of theft of large bronze sculpture for the value of the metal.

[101] Harle, 26–38 [102] Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period

11 References

[103] Harle, 124 [104] Harle, 301-310, 325-327 [105] Harle, 276–284

• Boucher, Bruce, Italian Baroque Sculpture, 1998, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 0500203075

33 • Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1660, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0198810504 • Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869 • Burnett, Andrew, Coins; Interpreting the Past, University of California/British Museum, 1991, ISBN 0520076281 • Calkins, Robert G.; Monuments of Medieval Art, Dutton, 1979, ISBN 0525475613 • Cherry, John. The Holy Thorn Reliquary, 2010, British Museum Press (British Museum objects in focus), ISBN 0-7141-2820-1 • Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of 1972), ISBN 0140218661 • Dodwell, C. R., Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective, 1982, Manchester UP, ISBN 0-7190-0926-X • Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN 0140561072 • Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176 • Henderson, George. Gothic, 1967, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-020806-2 • Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140 • Paine, Robert Treat, in: Paine, R. T. & Soper A, The Art and Architecture of Japan, 3rd ed 1981, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0140561080 • Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. ISBN 0333371852 • Howgego, Christopher, Ancient History from Coins, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 041508993X • Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd–7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, ISBN 0571111548 (US: Cambridge UP, 1977) • Olson, Roberta J.M., Italian Renaissance Sculpture, 1992, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 978-0-500-20253-1 • Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714124469

• Piotrovsky M.B. and Rogers, J.M. (eds), Heaven on Earth: Art from Islamic Lands, 2004, Prestel, ISBN 3791330551 • Robinson, James, Masterpieces of Medieval Art, 2008, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-71412815-3 • Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb 1st edn.; early datings now superseded) • Scholten, Frits (2011). European sculpture and metalwork. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588394415. • Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L & Soper A, “The Art and Architecture of China”, Pelican History of Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675 • Smith, W. Stevenson, and Simpson, William Kelly. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, 3rd edn. 1998, Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History of Art), ISBN 0300077475 • Snyder, James. Northern Renaissance Art, 1985, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0136235964 • Strong, Donald, et al., Roman Art, 1995 (2nd edn.), Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History of Art), ISBN 0300052936 • Williams, Dyfri. Masterpieces of Classical Art, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714122540

12 External links • Sculpture “hub” at the Victoria and Albert Museum • Essays on sculpture from Sweet Briar College, Department of Art History • International Sculpture Center • Stone Carvers Guild of America (oﬃcial website). • Sculpture artists listings from the-artists.org • Corning Museum of Glass • Weird, Wonderful Modern Sculptures, a slideshow by Life magazine • Cass Sculpture Foundation, a charity dedicated to commissioning monumental sculpture. • Public sculpture in Perth Australia • Archive.org The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Sculpture, pp. 488 to 517

34

13

13 13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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13.2

13.2

Images

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• File:26_colonna_traiana_da_estt_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/26_colonna_traiana_da_ estt_05.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:MatthiasKabel • File:Adam_Kraft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Adam_Kraft.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PetrusSilesius • File:Angel_Of_The_North.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Angel_Of_The_North.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: taken by The Halo Original artist: The Halo • File:Ara_Pacis_Relief_Pax.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Ara_Pacis_Relief_Pax.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Manfred Heyde • File:Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/ Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Brunswyk • File:Chihuly_glass_in_boat,_morning,_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ CC wikipedia/commons/0/08/Chihuly_glass_in_boat%2C_morning%2C_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg License: BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Eric Baker • File:Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Helen Cook • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Detalle_crucificado_Luján_Pérez,_1793.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Detalle_ crucificado_Luj%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez%2C_1793.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jafd88 • File:Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys), 2006 - crop of File:Devries-mercurio&psique5b.jpg Original artist: Adriaen de Vries (1556-1626) • File:Dying_gaul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: [1] Original artist: antmoose • File:Fregio_della_gigantomachia_02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Fregio_della_ gigantomachia_02.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko • File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29. jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gaston_lachaise_floating_figure.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Gaston_lachaise_floating_ figure.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Creator:Gaston Lachaise upload by Cﬁtzart at en.wikipedia • File:Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Elya assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:HenryMoore_RecliningFigure_1951.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/HenryMoore_ RecliningFigure_1951.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell'antichità_08_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell%27antichit%C3% A0_08_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Krishna_Killing_the_Horse_Demon_Keshi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Krishna_ Killing_the_Horse_Demon_Keshi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi Original artist: Claire H. • File:Lammasu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Lammasu.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Trjames (Own work) Original artist: ? • File:Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_ Yin_statue.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Bodhisattva Guanyin Original artist: Rebecca Arnett from Castleton, Vermont, USA • File:Linteau_Musée_Guimet_1097_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Linteau_Mus%C3%A9e_ Guimet_1097_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vassil • File:Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ji-Elle • File:Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/ Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Rosemaniakos from Bejing (hometown) • File:Michelangelo’{}s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/ Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Edited version of (cloned object out of background) Image:Michelangelo’{}s Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg) Original artist: Stanislav Traykov • File:Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ Public domain Contribucommons/8/8c/Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg License: tors: Walters Art Museum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Miyasaka Hakuryu II (Japanese, active mid 19th century) • File:Moses_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Moses_San_Pietro_in_ Vincoli.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Prasenberg (transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Leoboudv using CommonsHelper). Original artist: Michelangelo • File:Moáis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Mo%C3%A1is.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This ﬁle was derived from Moai Rano raraku.jpg: Original artist: Aurbina • File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.,_pisanello,_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_bisanzio_recto.JPG Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.%2C_pisanello%2C_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_ bisanzio_recto.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work (my camera) Original artist: sailko • File:Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Philip Pikart • File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Panel_ hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2006) Original artist: Unknown • File:Paul_Gauguin,_1894,_Oviri_(Sauvage),_partially_glazed_stoneware,_75_x_19_x_27_cm,_Musée_d'Orsay,_Paris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Paul_Gauguin%2C_1894%2C_Oviri_%28Sauvage%29%2C_partially_ glazed_stoneware%2C_75_x_19_x_27_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay%2C_Paris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Coldcreation photographed this sculpture by Paul Gauguin at the Musée d'Orsay, Paris, 17 April 2013 Original artist: Paul Gauguin, Oviri, photograph by Alex Mittelmann, aka, Coldcreation • File:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_ by_acid_rain.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nino Barbieri • File:Psyché.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Psych%C3%A9.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Eric Pouhier (May 2007) Original artist: Antonio Canova (Italian, 1757–1822) • File:Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Refugees_medal_DSCF9937. JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod • File:Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/ d0/Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JeanChristophe BENOIST • File:SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Talmoryair (talk) Original artist: ,‫ אמריקני‬,'‫ דייויד סמית‬:‫עברית‬1965-1906 • File:South_metope_27_Parthenon_BM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/South_metope_27_ Parthenon_BM.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (User:Jastrow), 2007 Original artist: Phidias • File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point. png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Sculpture: Robert Smithson 1938-1973 • File:St_James_-Cristo_del_Rey.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/St_James_-Cristo_del_Rey.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: I (Carptrash (talk)) aka Einar E. Kvaran created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Carptrash (talk) • File:St_Ninian’{}s_Isle_TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/St_Ninian%27s_ Isle_TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod • File:Tanagra_o_corinto,_figura_di_donna_seduta,_325-150_ac_ca._11.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/e4/Tanagra_o_corinto%2C_figura_di_donna_seduta%2C_325-150_ac_ca._11.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sailko • File:The_Thinker,_Rodin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/The_Thinker%2C_Rodin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: I (AndrewHorne (talk)) created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: AndrewHorne (talk)

13.3

Content license

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• File:Umbrella_Project1991_10_27.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Umbrella_Project1991_10_ 27.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Photo taken by Dddeco Original artist: Dddeco • File:Venus-of-Schelklingen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/92/Venus-of-Schelklingen.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: http://www.nature.com/nature/videoarchive/prehistoricpinup/ image copyright H. Jensen / Universität Tübingen Original artist: ? • File:Vierge_a_l'Enfant_debout.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Vierge_a_l%27Enfant_debout.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Siren-Com • File:Vognstyreren-fra_Delfi2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Vognstyreren-fra_Delfi2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Gunnar Bach Pedersen • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur • File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally created by Smurrayinchester • File:Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photo by Mountain • File: -Buddha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8-Buddha.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: A1AA1A

13.3

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