Idea Transcript
STUilIAISLAilIIKA
Volume 4, Number 3, 1997
ISLAM AND INDONESIAN NATIONALISM
THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OF HAJIACUS SNLIVI Erni HarYanti Kahfi
KYA\
AND
JnpRn
esr
M
t
ltrnnv
Kobayashi Yasuko
ItrtOOrurStRrrt lSLRHI BETWEEN
PnnrtCUmnlTY AND UrutVrRSRitrv
Johan Hendrik Meuleman
lssN
021 5-0492
STI]ilIA ISTAIIII|A lndonesian Journal for lslamic Sludies
Volume 4. Number 3, 1997 EDITORIAL BOARD:
Harun Nasution Mastubu M. Quraisb Sbibab A. Aziz
Dablan
M. Satria Effendi
Nabilah Lubis M. YunanYttsuf Komaruddin Hidal,at M. Din Syamsuddin Muslim Nasution \Vabib Mu'thi EDITOR-IN.CHIEF:
Azyumardi Azra EDITORS:
Saiful Mujani Hendro Prasetyo Joban H. Meuleman
Didin Syafruddin Ali Munbanif ASSISTANTS TO THE EDITOB
Arief Subban Oman Fathurrabman Heni Nuroni ENGLISH LANGUAGE ADVISOR: Kay Bridger
AMBIC LANGUAGE ADVISOR: Nursanacl
COVER DESIGNER: S.
Prinka
STUDIA ISLAMIKA (ISSN 0211-0492) is a journal published quarterly by the Institut Agama Islam
Negerl (IAIN, The State Institute tbr Islamic Studies) Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta. (STT DIPPEN No. 1291SK',DITJENfPG/STT/1976) and sponsored by the Department of Religious All.airs of the Republic oflndonesia. It specializes in Indonesian Islamic studies, and is intended to conrntunicate original researches and current issues on the subiect. This journal warmly welcomes
contributions liom scholars of related disciplines. All articles published do not necessarily represent the views of the journal, or other institutions to which it
is
afliliated. Theyare solely the views ofthe authors. The articles contained in this iournal have
been relereed bv the Board of Editors.
I oh an Hendrik, Meuleman
Indonesian Islam Between Particul arlty and Universality*
Abstraksi: Persoalan apakab dan seiauh rnana Islarn Indonesia adalah bagian dari agama dan peradaban universal Islam ata.u rnerupakan gejala khas setempat, telah dijauab dengan cdrd ydng berbeda oleh berbagai ilrnuuan dan politisi. Perdebatan tentdng masalah ini pern.ah muncul pada masa penjajahan dan terus berlaniut sampai kini. Artikel ini mulai dengan analisis tentang perdebaan tersebut pada m asa p enj aj ah an. P e nu Ii s rn em ban din gkdn antar d pe n diri an L. V C. v an den Berg dan C. Snouck. Hurgronje. Yang pertama mendekati Islam di Hindia Belanda pada paruh kedua abad XIX rnelalui berbagai tulisan bukum klasik yang berasal dari Timur Tengah. Oleh karena itu, ia mernandang Islam Nusdntara sebagai bagian integral dari Islarn
universal. Sernentara itu, Snouck Hurgronje rnenekankan babua kehidupan nyatd umdt Islarn Hindia Belanda jauh berbeda dari aturan Islarn yang "resni"; ia rnemandang bahua kehidupan mereka justru ditentukan oleh "adat" dengan tambahan unsur sdngatterbatas darifikih Islam. Ia tidak mengdngdp Islarn Nusantara sebagai bagian dari Islarn unirsersal, tetapi sebaliknya menekankan kekhususdnnyt. Maka dari itu ia rnenaruh perhatian besar pada kenyataan sosial umat Islam di Hindia gkan par adi grna kei I rn uan b abu a te ks -te ks I am a yangberasal dari Tirnur Tengah tidak rneuakili Islam secdrd sernpurnd' Be / an
da dan m
en ge m b an
Di situlah terletak sumbangannyd ydng besar kepada kajian Narnun, dari
Islarn.
lain, ia terperangkap dalam kelemahan dan kesalahan Islamologi Barat tradisional. Di sini, penulis menjelaskan hubungan erat 99
sisi
Studia Islaniba, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1997
loban
Hendih
L[euleman
antdrd pdnddngdn Snouck Hurgranje sebagai ilmuuan dan kebijakan kolonial. Selanjutnyat penulis menjelaskan bahua berbagai aspek aisi Snouck Hurgronje mdsih bertahan dalam kajian ilmiah pada masa lebib belakangan, meskipun pada saat ydng sdmd juga telah terjadi berbagai pergeserdn metode dan temapenelitian. Kecenderungdn umum tetap sdma,
yaitu mempertentangkan dntdrd Islam Timur Tengah dan Islant Nusantara, d.ntdrd "teori' dan "praktek", sertd antard "ortodoksi" dan "heterodoksi". Ketiga prtentdngdn 'biner" tersebut bukan tidak berkaiun sarna sekali dan sejurnlah peneliti sampai-sampai menyarnakan ortodohsi, Islan Timur Tengah atau Arab, dan/atau teori di satu pihdk, serta heterodoksi, Islarn Indonesia, dan/atau praktek di lain pihak.
Penulis kemudian menunjukkan bahwa kontrorsersi tentang kekhususan dan keuniversalan Islarn Indonesia terus berlanjut sampai
deuasa
ini. Diskusi tercermin dalam
berbagai perdebatan ilrniah,
terutdrnd menyangkut sejarah Islam Indonesia. Namun, kontroaersi tidak terbatas pada diskusi yang bercorak, ilrniah, rnelainkan juga
rnenjangkau perdebatan politis. Sebagairnana halnya pada masa penjajahan, diskusi ilmiah dan diskusi politis bukan tidak berkaitan. Penulis mengernukakan bahuafaktor penting dalarn perdebatan adalah adanya dua kecenderungdn yang berlauanan di kalangan umat Islant Indonesia deuasa ini. Di satu pihak, terdapat kelompok yang, sebagai reaksi rerhadap berbagai tuduhan dari zaman penjajahan dan periode I ebi h b e /akan gan, c en der un g m en e kankan " ke m urn i an " I s I arn In d o n e s ia. Kebanyakan kelompok ini rnengaitkan penilaian tersebut dengan kenyatazn babwa Islarn Indonesia adalah bagian dari Islam universal, sehingga sesuai dengannya. Sedangkan sebagian utnat Islam Indonesia yang lain lebih didorong kebanggaan nasional. Mereka cenderung rnen ekan kan kekh ususan Islam In don esia dan m ernperten tan gkan nya dengan Islarn di Tirnur Tengah. Menurut penulis, suatu pendekdtdn yang lebib bernuansa terhadap Islarn Indonesia, yang rnemberi rudng untuk kekhususan rnaupun ke un izt er s a I an, akan m e rnb an tu un t uk ke I uar dari ko n tr ot: er si I arn a y an g neniadi obiek bahasan ini.
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pnesia. Islaur presents a peaceful ancl tolerant fac-e, sct that Islam can live irt peace wirh other religions in Inclonesia." (original in Indonesian). Unfortnnately, I have llot been able to fintl back the exact reference of the reader's letter, of about early November 1993. 25. Q/ Johns, Anthony H., "lslam in Southeast Asia: Reflections ancl New Direcrions" , Intlonc.si.u (lthaca), 19 (1975), p. 35 f. 26. This rype of reasoning is basec{ on the tendency to consicler Micirlle Eastern Muslims .rs berrer or stricrer Muslirns tiran those of regions where Lslarn was intrcxlttcetl rnore recenrly. Nikki R. Keddie draws attendon to rhe fact that urany Mrrslirns and non-Musliurs are inclineri to this kind of fuclgment (Keddie, Nikki R., "Lslam anrl Srxieqv in Minangkabau and in the Midclle Eir^st: Courparative Reflections", Sojourn (Singapore),2, 1 (Feb. 1987), p.3 f.). However, she oppc.rses this vision'by stres-sing, like Snouck Hurgronje earlier, that the infltrence of lmal custorns on tlte tlevelc'rpurent of Muslirn law is not lirnited to the Indonesian Archipelago or certaitr other regions, but exi-st-s also in the Middle East. Only, she aclcls, Lslam developeci first in the Arab Micltlle East anci dris is the rnain reason why the legal system that wa-s shapetl there, relatively early, uncier the influence of several custours, scxial conclitions, and neecLs particular to that region, is often consiclered rnore authentically Islamic than legal systerns that cleveloped later in sirnilar ways, in other regions of the Muslim worki, such as the Indonesian Archipelago or one part of it, the Minangkabau (Vest Surnatra), which has her panicular attendon (op. cit., p' a ff).
\rudia Islaniha, Vol, 4, No. J, 1997
120
Johan
Hendih Meuleman
27. As 'officially" formulated as conclusion no. 1 of the "Seminar Masuknya Islam ke Indonesia" lSeminar on the Coming of Islam to Indonesia] organized in Medan, 17-20 March 1963: "[rhe participants conclude] that according ro sources which we know, Islam entered for the first time in Indonesia during the first centuq/ of the hijrah (seventh/eighth century of the Christian era) and directly from Arabia" Ioriginal in Indonesian] (A. Hasymi, Sejarah Mavrkdan Berhembang. nya klam di Indonesi"z (Kurnpulan Prasaran pada Seminar di Aceh) [The History of the Arrival and Developmenr of Islam in Indonesia (Collection of Preliminary Reports to the Aceh Seminar)l (s.1.: Almaarif ,19892), p.7). Among the Dutch scholars who argued that Islam had been brought reladvely late to the Indonesian archipelago and from India are Jan Pijnappel (who mentioned that Arabs from Gujarat and Malabar spread Islam here) and Snouck Hurgronje (who considers South India as the most probable origin of Indonesian Islam). They discarded opinions of earlier Dutch aurhors who had ascribed the spread of Islam in this region to Arabs from rhe Middle East. Larer Dutch authors who surmised an Indian origin of Indonesian Islam are J.P. Moquette, R.A. Kern, B.H.M. Vlekke, J. Gonda and BJ.O. Schrieke. They assumed that Islam had arrived in the region from rhe 12th century of the Christian era or later. For a more detailed survey of the debate, two of the most useful references are Drewes, G.,trflJ., "New Light on the Coming of Islam to Indonesia?', BKI, 124 (1968), 433-459 end, Azra, Azyumardi, Tbe Transmission of Islamic Reformism to Indoncsia: Netq.wrhs of Middle Eastern and MahyJndonesitn 'Ularni' in tbe Seoenteentb and Eighteenth Centuries, unpublished dis. Columbia Universiry, New York, 1992 lto be published by KITLV, Leiden; Indonesian trarislation: /a ringan IJla. rna. Timar Tengah clan Kepukuan Nusantara Abad XVII dan XVIil. Melacak AkarAkar Pernbaruan Pemikiran Islam di Indonesia, Bandung, Mizan, 19941, chapter
I. 28. Dobbin, Christine, Islamic Reztioalism in a Changing Peasant Economy. Central Sumatra, 1784-1847, London/Malmci, Curzon, 1983; Chatib, Adriams, Kaum Padri dan Reformasi Keagamaan di Minanghabau [The Padri Movemenr and Religious Reform in the Minangkabaul, Jakarta, unpublished dis., IAIN Syarif
Hidayatullah, J akuta,, 1992. 29. Lzra, o,c, 30. See among other places Snouck Hurgronje, Atjbh.verslag, in Gob6e and Adriaanse (eds), Ambtelijke Adrtiezen oan C. Snouch Hurgronje, I, p. 50 f.; Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjbhers,l, p.75, 163, 184. Although Snouck Hurgronje, in the framework of the political and milirary problems faced by the Dutch aurhor! ties, stresses tle role of the uleibalang as adat chiefs, he also menriones the irneums rnd the heutjhi' (h.euchiks) as adat leaders at the level of districa and villages, respectively (Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjbhers,I, p. 6l ff., 86 ss.). 31. Siegel, James, Tbe Rope of God, Berkeley, Universiry of California Press, 1969, esp. p. 9 ff. 32. Qf, Abdullah, Taufik, "Adat and Islam: An Examination of Conflict in Minangkabar" Indonesia, 2 (April 1966), p.3, referring ro HAMKA [Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullahl, ATahhu: Riuayat hidup Dn H. Abd. Karim Arnnrllah dan Perjuangan Kaum Agama di Sumdtera [My Father: a Biography of Dr. Abd. Karim Amrullah and the Struggle of the Religious People in Sumatral, Jakarta, 1958, p. 23-24. h should be added that at an earlier stage of his life HAMKA tended rather to conrrasx adat and Islam (d the (anonymous) "Pengantar" [Introduc-
Stadia klamiba, Vol, 1, No. 3, 1997
Iwlonesian Islam
tionl to HAMKA, Islam dan Adat Minanghabaullslam and Minangkabau Adat; a collection of writings by HAMKA from different periodsl, Jakarta, Pustaka Panjimas, 1984). 33. Abdullah, o.c.,p. l-24. 34. Mona Abaza also points to the promotion of different views on the history of Islam in South-East Asia as part of the debate on cultural identiry. She explains that within this discussion the relation of the region to the Middle East is the object of particular attention (Mona Abaza, "Islam in South-east Asia: Varying Impact and Images of the Middle East", in Hussin Mutalib and Taj ul-Islam Hashimi (eds), Islarn, Muslirns and the Modern State; Case-studies of Muslims in Thirteen Counties, London: MacMillan/New York: St. Martin Press, 1994, p. 148 f.). 35.Tania, loc. cit.; the same vision on the history of Islam is presenrcd in Tanja, Vicror I., Hirnpunan Mahasisua Islam,Jrkarta, Sinar Flarapan, 1982, p.21. 36. Steenbrink, Karel A., Beberapa Aspeh tentdng lsldn di Indonesia Abad ke-l9lSome Aspects of Islam in 19th Century Indonesial, Jakarta, Bulan Bintang,1984, p. 173
f.
37. Voodward, Mark Rhey, Islarn in Jaoa. Normatioe'Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta,Trtcson, University of Arizona Press, 1989, 38. See esp. op. cit.,244 ff.. 39. Azra,, op. cit., passim. 40. See esp. Woodward, op. cit., p.247, critkizing in;particular Geertz. 41. Simuh, Mistik IsLam Kejatuen Raden Ngaltehi Ranggauarsita. Saatu Studi Terhadap Serat \Virid Hidayat JatilThe Javanese Islamic Mysticism of Raden Ngabehi Ranggawarsita. A Study on rhe krat \Yirid Hidayat Jatil, lakarta, Penerbit Universitas Indonesia, i988; Ardhani, Moh., Al Qur'an dan Sufisme Mangkanagara IV (Sndi Serat-Sarat Piuulang) [The Qur'an and the Sufism of Mangkunagara IV (A Study of the Serat-Serat Piwakng)1, Dana Bhakti Vakaf, Yogyakarta, 1995.
Interesting to note that, although both authors strive at the rehabilitadon of Javanese Islamic mysticism, rhey do nor agree on details: Ardhani conrasc "his" Mangkunagara IV, as a Sunnite sufi, with several sufis of less orthodox ideas,
among whom Ranggawarsita, the demonstration of the "orthodox" character of whose works is precisely the objective of Simuh's book. Apparently, in his judge-
ment on Ranggawarsita Ardhani is led by earlier work by the Dutch scholar, D.A. Rinkes, vrithout referring to Simuh's dissertation, already available at the time Ardhani finished his one (see Ardhani, op. cit., p.366,369). 42. Siddiq, Achmad, Ishm, Pancasila dan Uhhuuah klamiyah [Islam, Pancasila and Ukbuuwah klimiyyah (Islamic Fraternity)1, Jakarta, Lajnah Ta'lif wan Nasyr PBNU/Sumber Barokah (transcript of an interview of Achmad Siddiq with Fahmi Saifuddin), p. 25. See Feillard, Andr6e, Islam et armde dans I'lndondsie contemporaine. Les pionniers de la tradition, Paris, Associadon Archipel/ L'Harmanan, 1995, p. 184 f. Achmad Siddiq (1926-1992), was rols aam (ra'k 'imm - general chairman) of the (Syuriah llajnah slar'iyyaD Consultative Commissionl) of the NU from 1983 until his death. The NU is called traditionalist because, more than adherents of Islamic reformism, it attaches particular value to the tradition of Islamic jurisprudence, theology and mysticism as developed during the long period of ir existence. Obviously, at least for the NU figures referred to here, this traditionalism included a positive atrirude ro specifically Indonesian customs and values.
Studia [slamiba, Vol. 4, No, 3, 1997
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43. Siddiq, loc. cit.;Feillard,, loc. cit. 44. See Feillard, op. cit., p. 179 ff. for details. 45. Abdurrahman Wahid (born 1940) has been the general chainnan of the Tanfidzi' ab (lajnah tanfidblyyah - Executive Commission) of the NU since 1984.
46. Qf, Feillard, op. cil., p. 200 f., 280. 47. Among the proposals rejected were those to give equal rights to men and women in heritage and to rnake adopted children eligible to heritage. Cf, oqt. cit., p. 29r ff. 48. Q/ Eickelman, op. cit., p. l. 49. Feillard, Andr6e, "Indonesia's Emerging Muslim Feminism: Wornen Leaders on Equality, Inheritance and Other Gender Issues", Studia klamikr, p. 88 f., 103,105. 50. Op. clt., p. 103. 51. Op. clt., p.88, 101 ff. Jt. vP. crt., p. rvt. 53. An example is the large movement of solidarity with the Bosnian Muslims (y' Aqsha, Darul; Dick van der Meij and Johan Hendrik Meuleman, klam in Indonesia. A Survq of Eztents and Deoelopments from 1988 to March 1993, Jakarta, INIS, 1995, p. 26 fl., 50 If .). 54. For exarnple the efforts of Munawir Sjadzali, mentioned earlier. 55. Cl,, Abaza, op, cit., p. 139 IL also points to the presence of confiicting irnages on the Middle East in South-East Asia -including Indonesia- and their impact in
political life. 56, Cf,, in relation to literature concerning the Muslim woman, Meuleman, Johan Hendrik, "Analisis Buku-Buku tentang \iflanita Islam yang Beredar di Indonesia", in Marcoes-Natsir, Lies; Meuleman, Johan Hendrik, Vanita Islam Indonesia dalarn Kajian Tehstual dan KontekstuallThe Indonesian Muslim Wornan Studied frorn a Textual and Contexrual Point of Viewl, Jakarta, INIS, 1993, p.175205; rnore in general, forthcoming publications by Jeroen Peeters, International Institute of Asian Studies, Leiden.
Johan Hendrik Meuleman is an INIS oisiting lecturer dt post-graduate prograftt, Sate Institute for Islarnic Studies (AIN), Jakarta
Stuclia Islatniha, VoL 4, No. 3, 1997