Idea Transcript
CHAPTER 1: THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Introduction
ee intertwined There are at least thr ical approach (BIO) log strands to the bio are studies of the to psychology. These the use of evolution brain and its actions, e, and the recent as an explanatory devic enetic studies. development of DNA/g ed completely They cannot be separat genetics only today, but behavioural ereas the other began in the 1990s, wh m the explosion fro ely two date effectiv ding during the in scientific understan eteenth century. second half of the nin complex biological The brain is the most . Until the entity known to humans uter, the main mp co the of development g din the brain came methods of understan studies and animal from dissections, case of these methods experimentation. None rtial glimpses of gave any more than pa ical and physical brain operation. Chem orders were often treatments of brain dis or explanation without understanding ting a car engine – the equivalent of hit it started. Modern with a hammer to get
e revolutionised scanning methods hav and made direct biological investigation tion possible. real-time visual observa human lain Using evolution to exp nineteenth e lat the behaviour began in problematic century but has been no concrete ever since, as there is behaviour an evidence of actual hum not show do sils in prehistory – fos st theories mo y, ntl ue eq ns behaviour! Co t abou our modern demonstrate as much out prehistoric ab attitudes as they do humans. n to answer DNA analysis has begu t the development some questions abou e of genes in of humans, but the rol r of scientific tte ma a behaviour is still te (especially investigation and dispu netic adaptation). human language and ge rks is the wo Exactly how the brain ry of our ste my c greatest scientifi as far t os alm em se time and we o, fMRI ag ars ye 50 re we off as we notwithstanding.
The question: 1a) Outline tw o assumptions of the biological approach (4)
Assumption 1: Behaviour can be explained with reference to specific structures in the brain
All behaviour is ultimately produc ed by the operation of systems tha t connect specific localised regions of the brain. The cortex is largely responsible for thought, lang uage, vision and movement, whereas fine movement and skill execution are dominated by the acti on of the cerebellum.
Assumption 2: Aspects of behaviour can be explained by the action of neurotransmitte rs
These chemicals are agents of com munication between neurons at the synapse, stimulating or inhibiting the action of the receptiv e neuron. Examples include melatonin (influen ces sleep/wake cycles) and serotonin (sleep, arousa l and mood).
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GGP WJEC AS Ch01.indd 2-3
All living organisms have to react to changes in their environment, whether automatically or with a subsequent learnt response. Hans Selye (1947) experimented on rats to see how their body chemistry responded to threats in their environment. He theorised that the basic changes in mammals were the same regardless of the nature of the threat (e.g. extreme temperature, drugs, over-exercise) and that this ‘triad’ of ‘non-specific’ responses – the body’s defence against stress – was named the Gene ral Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
Alarm reaction
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activa tes the body for action. This is called the ‘fight or flight’ response. There is temporary diver sion of blood to the large muscles of the body, pain detection is suppressed and the body perfo rms an involuntar y set of movements called the ‘orienting response’ (move sensors towards the potential threat, tense the muscles and make evasive moves). The hypothalamus trigge rs adrenaline and noradrenaline release from the adrenal medulla, which in turn triggers mech anisms to combat the stress for a longer period of time.
Resistance or adaptation
If the threat does not go away, the body moves towards longterm protection. It secretes further hormones, including corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex that increase blood sugar levels to sustain energy and raise blood pressure. Over use by the body’s defence mechanism in this phase eventually leads to disease. If this adaptation phase continues for a prolonged period of time, fatigue will occur, pain will increase and concentration will lapse. This period varies greatly depending on the nature of the threat and the body’s already existing ▲ Figure 1.2 The biological approach is the study of the brain and its actions reser ves.
Exhaustion In this stage, the body has run out of its reser ve of body energy and immunity. Mental, physical and emotional resources suffer heavily. The body experiences ‘adrenal exhaustion’. Blood sugar levels decrease as the adrenals beco me depleted, leading to decreased stress tolerance, progressive mental and 01_ 01cal Gro ss_n,Gu physi exhaustio _AQ A_A illneside _AS s and collap se. Cont inually high cortisol levels lead to suppression of the immu ne syste Barking Dog Artm.
Alternative assumption: Beha viour can be explained with reference to ▲ Figure 1.1 Can behaviour be exp lained human evolutionary history with reference to our evolutiona ry hist
ory? Much of our behaviour is determi ned to some extent by our primate inheritance and the environment that shaped our uniq ue adaptation for survival. Humans are, as a result, intensely social animals, who developed coo perative and planning skills in hos tile food-gathering environments.
The question: 1b) Describe the General Adaptat ion Syndrome (GAS) (8)
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CHAPTER 1: THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
The question: 2) Describe how the biological approach has been applied in either psychosurgery or chemotherapy (12) Psychosurgery approach is of the biological main assumption e ference to Th re th wi n be explained ca r What is the main ou vi ha be ain. at th e nctions of the br assumption of th structures and fu ic if ec sp ch? ring biological approa are based on alte ogical therapies ol order to Bi in n on ai ti br mp e su th How does this as or functions of es ur ct ru ysically or st ph neral way, whether link with the ge behaviour in some ge an ch aim of biological chemically. in the brain, therapies? alter structures surgery aims to ho yc order to Ps in of ontal lobes, What is the aim ecifically the fr sp re behaviour as mo of ns at er wh d desirable patt un te psychosurgery, an le de or r alte tions biological assump a consequence. ? is link with th A process called a long history. s ha y er rg su ho g a hole in the edure of Psyc ephining – cuttin tr What is the proc or ng ni an ep tr sure – has been intracranial pres psychosurgery? d is still an skull to relieve 40,000 years, an ly ib ss po r fo d practise today. l procedure used emergency medica Moniz noticed ery was born when Modern psychosurg ed less anxiety that chimps show a research report ally severed. rg cortex was su ic al nt ro ef pr e th when using a wire loop y this on humans hole He went on to tr ontal lobe by a rted into the fr r ve se or (leucotome) inse ve mo re d then rotated to in the skull, an e pieces of lobe. lter Freeman brok nced by Moniz, Wa d an e ud cr Initially influe a d se ri 1940s and popula ewith him in the omy, using an ic ot uc le e th of n io rs ve t of s bi ou or er e ng da rough th even hammered th ). He my to bo lo pick inserted or l orbita the brain (trans tic he st ae an l the eye up into ca lo e road’, with th n ‘o is th d di often es! tiseptic procedur and negligent an r, especially came very popula Psychosurgery be an estimated World War, with after the Second 00 in the UK ,0 17 in the USA, es mi to bo lo 00 ,0 40 These procedures roughout Europe. and many more th troduction of ute due to the in fell into disrep cal and legal and major politi rs se li il qu an tr major 1960s and 1970s. e USA during the th in es ng le al ch locate precise uses MRI scans to ry ge ur os ur ne Modern rnt away via on. Areas are bu . areas to operate ion (gamma knife) at di ing focused ra eiv ss se ob r fo electrodes or us used are successfully ng ti ea These operations , sion er (OCD), depres compulsive disord e. as se di s n’ so in rk disorders and Pa
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GGP WJEC AS Ch01.indd 4-5
Chemotherapy What is the main assumption of the biological approach?
The main assumption of the biological approach is that behaviour can be explained with reference to specific structures and functions of the brain.
How does this assumption link with the general aim of biological therapies?
Biological therapies are based on altering structures or functions of the brain in order to change behaviour in some way, whether physically or chemically.
What is the aim of chemotherapy, and what biological assumptions link with this?
Chemotherapy aims generally to alter the chemistry of the brain, usually in transmission at the synaps e. This changes the nature of a behaviour or emotio n governed by the action of those neurons.
What is the procedure of chemotherapy?
Psychotropic (mind-changing) drugs are classified according to their target behaviours; the main groupings are of drugs to tackle anxiety–based disorders, depression, and psychotic conditions such as schizophrenia. Anxiolytics reduce anxiety, and since they tend to calm patients are also known as minor tranquillise rs. In larger doses they have sedative effects (i.e. induce sleep) and they are also very addictive. There are many antidepressants, such as modified tricyclics, which have a variety of blocking effects on various neurotransmitters or the enzyme s that break down the transmitters. SSRIs (specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are the more common drug of choice today; they make more serotonin available at the synapse by blocking its reabsorption, and therefore lighten moods. Antipsychotics are also known as major tranquillise rs and are used to treat the unusual (or positive) symptoms of major disorders, such as hallucinatio ns, delusions and psychomotor excitement. Delivery of drugs is either oral or by injection. Oral delivery gives slower absorption and requires a higher dose due to losses during digestion, but is a very flexible method; injection requires a second person, has potential for infection, is invasive, but is more effective for a smaller dosage.
▲ Figure 1.3 Psychosurgery aims to physically alter the structure of the brain
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GGP WJEC AS Ch01.indd 6-7
➲ Takes a long time (over 20 minutes)
➲ Participant has to be fully cooperative and lie still!
➲ Very detailed and no radiation hazards
➲ Shows where activity is taking place but not what activity specifically
MRI
Hydrogen atoms are ‘wobbled’ by magnetic fields; different densities of tissue wobble differently; detectors provide detailed images Brain scan
PET
The metabolism of radioactive glucose in the brain is detected
Maguire’s study of London taxi drivers’ memories pinpointed changes in the hippocampus following extensive route learning (‘The Knowledge’)
➲ Somewhat risky (radiation)
➲ Costly
➲ Shows which brain structures are active during tasks
➲ Does not target specific structures easily ➲ Detailed information in real time
Brain scan
Raine’s study of brain dysfunction in violent criminals
➲ Can only give general information about brain activity ➲ Very useful for monitoring levels and types of consciousness
Surface sensors on the scalp detect electrical currents caused by chemical changes in the brain. These are recordable as waves of activity. EEG
Used extensively in sleep research (e.g. by Dement) to monitor levels of consciousness
➲ Information about behaviour in life is retrospective and subject to distortion or lack of relevant detail ➲ Highly reliable and detailed information from millions of post-mortems
➲ Person has to be dead, so cannot respond!
➲ Has given most of our information about structures in the brain
Brains of dead people are taken to pieces and structures detected and mapped. Damage to an area can be linked to the person’s behaviour in life.
Routine post-mortem (e.g. Broca’s study of ‘Tan’)
➲ Validity issues as data collection by the researcher(s) may be distorted by their hypotheses
➲ A starting point for all other neurological investigations
➲ Reliability issues – findings have to be repeated ➲ Provides a large amount of information
Dissection
pp.52–6
A single person is studied in depth, usually because some brain damage has occurred
Each strength and weakness should be explained using the Point – Explain – Example (PEE) structure. Maximum marks are obtained for: ● detailed and technically correct ‘Explain’ ● detailed and technically correct ‘Example’.
Case study
Maximising the marks
EXAMPLE
l approach (6)
✘ BIO ignores everything except biological effects, and especially ignores social causes of behaviour. This is a reductionist approach. As social animals, much of our social behaviour is determined and influenced by other people, so to ignore these effects is to ignore a major cause of behaviour. We can overrule our biology in some cases, for social and moral reasons. For example, instead of mating with any partner, who we mate with is strongly influenced by culture, such as what is currently fashionable ✘ In BIO, individual differences are ignored and gener alisations made about all humans in a way that diminishes and ignores the individual (called a ‘nomothetic approach’). The person, their personality and what makes them unique is ignored. Individual body chem istry differences can mean totally different responses and behaviours – for example, for the same dosag e of a drug. The tranquilliser Valium produces emotional disconnection in most patients, but violent rage for some, when provoked. Unlike males, female hormone cycles alter body chemistry and behaviour. Equal ly, gender differences do not mean automatic differences in behaviour.
STRENGTHS
03.17 Psychology AS for AQA (A) Barking Dog Art
Famous examples include Phineas Gage (prefrontal lobes and personality), HM, Clive Wearing (severe amnesia)
WEAKNESSES ▲ Figure 1.3 The biological approach has enabled the development of important drug therapies
The question: 3b) Evaluate two weaknesses of the biologica
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The question: 5) Explain and evaluate the methodology used by the biological approach (12)
DESCRIPTION
tific methods, ✔ BIO uses the scientific approach and scien rimental tests to expe gh proceeding from observations throu in a systematic out d carrie is g application of knowledge. Testin ern brain Mod ts. resul le way and repeated to provide reliab of the brain parts e locat to research uses scanning techniques identified has rch resea Brain . that function during specific tasks then is ledge know This neurochemicals and their functions. ulotomy, caps as such s ation applied – for example, in brain oper and in chemotherapy with SSRIs. cially chemotherapy, ✔ BIO has provided physical therapies, espe the effects of that have been massively effective in treating treatment of mental disease and psychological disorder. Drug to lead relatively mental disorder has enabled millions of people with bipolar normal lives. The use of lithium has helped those SSRIs such as disorder to have controlled moods; the use of tranquillisers and n, essio depr with le Prozac has helped peop more normal have enabled people with schizophrenia to lead lives, though with side effects.
biological approach (6)
METHOD
The question: 3a) Evaluate two strengths of the
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CHAPTER 2: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH Introduction
teenth In the late nine re several we e er th y centur ychology in ps approaches to experimental existence. Many re looking at psychologists we the sensory the operation of ory, and Freud em systems and m his particular was developing d psychology brand of applie mic approach) (the psychodyna eutic work . ap through his ther psychologists Many of these inking about also relied on th ur as well their own behavio . (introspection) t approach The behaviouris ly from the wish (BEH) grew part
logy on the to model psycho es, partly from physical scienc trospection a rejection of in e a basis for as too subjectiv a little bit from d psychology, an for wealth and Watson’s desire ical starting status. Its histor presidential n’s point was Watso American e th to s es dr ad sociation Psychological As two main in 1915, and its rs were Pavlov’s theoretical pilla ciation of so work on the as nditioning) co al ic ss stimuli (cla r’s work on and, later, Skinne t the environmen how changes in ur ge behavio operate to chan oning). iti nd (operant co
rning theory The question: 1b) Describe the social lea sion Theory 1 Social learning theory of aggres
two animals, which may or may not Aggression is a social transaction between animal (and human) behaviour and a involve violence. It is a normal aspect of tory or possession of objects. major form of communication about terri the environment will strongly Social learning theory (SLT) assumes that observation will take place. influence behaviour, and that learning by y) or model (do generally Humans are predisposed to imitate (cop reinforced by consequences similar behaviour). This behaviour is then will observe others using (operant conditioning). Therefore humans that aggression in similar aggression successfully, and then imitate l (rewarded), the behaviour is circumstances. If they are also successfu g tried in different situations reinforced and will continue, often bein (generalised).
Theory 2
The question: 1a) Outline two assumptions of the behaviourist approach (4)
Assumption 1: Human behaviour is caused and influenced by events in our environment alone
no Behaviourists see humans as born as blank slates, with through d create is iour behav n predetermined behaviours. Huma cal classi – ng learni of sses the operation of the principal proce ng. learni social and g conditioning, operant conditionin
Alternative Assumption 1: Skinner’s assumption
▲ Figure 2.1 The behaviourist approach sees humans as blank slates, with behaviours being learnt rather than innate
behaviour label as mental events are essentially fictions, and the Radical behaviourism assumes that the experiences we hts or thoug ions, intent to rse recou ut in other ways – that is, witho attributed to them can be more effectively explained ism. organ the of iour environment and the behav plans, and making causal links between events in the
Assumption 2: Psychologists should focus on to be scientific
observable, measurable events in order
red, they should not be included in scientific Since mental events cannot be directly observed or measu t approach rejects self-reports and opinions. explanations of behaviour. Therefore the behaviouris
Alternative assumption
g and operant conditioning as assumptions. WJEC also accepts descriptions of classical conditionin t – Explain – Example), making sure there is a If you wish to use these, follow the PEE method (Poin r. technically accurate ‘Explain’ at the core of your answe
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GGP WJEC AS Ch02.indd 8-9
of aggression (8)
pp.15–17, 38–9
theory of aggression Bandura set out to demonstrate the SLT 6 year s from the by taking 72 children aged between 3 and rated their natural Chicago University nursery. Having first play, he exposed aggression by observing them in normal lt model in adu an to tes minu them individually for 10 tly or quie d playe r eithe el a playroom. The adult mod inflatable, e, then poly , large a ards behaved aggressively tow in the USA). self-righting doll (known as a ‘Bobo doll’ , and they used were els Both male and female mod e in the abus al verb and ical were scripted to use phys aggression conditions. nd room The children were then taken to a seco attractive with play to ed allow not where they were . It was toys – this was to upset and arouse them ren thought that arousal would make the child ely. essiv aggr t reac more likely to a ‘Bobo’ The final room had attractive toys and was room doll. The children’s behaviour in that pling sam tes, observed and recorded for 20 minu behaviour ever y 5 seconds. ied Bandura found that children largely cop nonor e essiv aggr the behaviour of the model, the copy to likely aggressive. They were more more tly sligh were same-sex model and boys them of y Man . girls likely to be aggressive than el to be slightly found the aggression of the female mod ▲ Figure 2.2 A bobo doll disturbing.
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CHAPTER 2: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
The question: 2) Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied in either systematic desensitisation or aversion therapy (12) Systematic desensitisation What is the main e assumption of th oach? pr ap st ri ou behavi How does this with assumption link of m the general ai apies? er th l behavioura What is the aim of systematic desensitisation, ral and what behaviou with nk li assumptions this?
edure What is the proc of systematic desensitisation?
is ourist approach on of the behavi s ge an ch to The main assumpti sponse r is learnt in re that all behaviou t. in the environmen e that a maladaptiv apies all assume ed sh ui ng ti Behavioural ther ex or d our can be altere ng (problem) behavi e based on learni mm ra og pr ng ni ai tr le ab it su a by principles. nditioning a new lves classical co ly The therapy invo us that previous ion) to a stimul , a) bi ho response (relaxat (p se on ifiable fear resp s. evoked an unjust presence of bird e th er ov y et xi an e em s tr st ex ri ou as vi such on. Beha sponse substituti or nt This is called re relear responses can be believe that all ques. ni ch te ng ni io ndit modified using co ess of systematic steps to the proc There are three of a phobia: desensitisation response in a arns a relaxation e therapist. 1. The patient le ercises led by th ex ng ni ai tr of series others take a arn very quickly, le ts en ti pa me So long time. ts patient construc continuing, the w lo om fr 2. While this is , se on sp e of phobic re a graduated scal ) to extreme picture of a bird a . is anxiety (e.g the hand). This bird perched on y. ap er anxiety (e.g. a th in dder of progress then used as a la on the lowest step then exposed to . se on sp re on 3. The patient is xati actises the rela sed po ex e ar the ladder and pr ey th , lax consistently Once they can re l of anxiety. ve to the next le Success is judged tion being either by relaxa achieved at the most extreme step of the ladder, or when the patient judges their life to be acceptably improved.
Aversion therapy What is the main e assumption of th oach? pr ap st behaviouri How does this with assumption link of m ai l ra ne the ge apies? er th l ra ou vi ha be of What is the aim aversion therapy, ral and what behaviou with nk li s on assumpti ? this edure What is the proc apy? of aversion ther
is ourist approach on of the behavi anges ch to The main assumpti se on sp re r is learnt in that all behaviou t. en in the environm e that a maladaptiv apies all assume er th l ed ra sh ou ui vi ng ha Be d or exti our can be altere (problem) behavi based on learning e mm ra og aining pr by a suitable tr principles. undesirable lves removing an The therapy invo re and alcohol) ulus (e.g. pleasu im st a to se on resp another (e.g. e stimulus with by associating on classical re nausea) using alcohol and seve conditioning. In the case of alcohol, patients ne are given a sali solution with an emetic (drug to cause nausea and vomiting). They are then given a glass of whisky, which e they smell, tast k. and then drin If vomiting does not occur, they then get further whisky and beer plus the emetic. Further repeats involve a wider c range of alcoholi ioural n ▲ Figure 2.4 Aversion therapy, a behav ee tw be In drinks. treat alcoholism treatment, can be used to treatments, soft drinks are t develop to aversion does no provided so that of alcohol promote the use all drinks and to substitutes. treat sexual use has been to A controversial iring erotic preferences by pa orientation and wever, this ectric shocks; ho pictures with el e 1970s, th e disused sinc has been largely des. tu ti at al s in soci following change
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GGP WJEC AS Ch02.indd 10-11
▲ Figure 2.3 Systematic desensitisation can be used to treat phobias
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CHAPTER 2: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
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GGP WJEC AS Ch02.indd 12-13
➲ Generally ecologically valid
➲ Can inform further research
➲ Much information is subjective self-report from participants ➲ Usually conducted very ethically
➲ Cannot achieve high levels of control
➲ High levels of qualitative information
In-depth study of a single individual, often typical of therapies Case studies
Wolpe’s development of systematic desensitisation via study of animals and then treatment of anxiety disorders
➲ Ethical problem of fair treatment – many token economy studies used rewards that should be part of normal life (e.g. cinema visits)
➲ High levels of control ensure valid conclusions about cause-effect relationships can be made
➲ Ethical problem of freedom to leave the study
➲ Partly realistic situations (ecological validity)
➲ Ethical problem of consent from patients or children ➲ Actual human participants
Highly controlled studies in natural settings, usually some form of institution where considerable behavioural control is normal
Token economy studies in mental hospitals; Bandura’s study of aggression in children
➲ Animal behaviour in unnatural circumstances is abnormal
➲ can be harmed more than humans
➲ do not have to consent
➲ Animals are not direct analogues for humans in many behaviours (e.g. thoughts, sex)
➲ have faster reproductive cycles
➲ Ethical concerns have led to a huge reduction in animal experiments ➲ are cheap
Animals:
Pavlov’s use of dogs to investigate digestion, leading to the investigation of conditioning
Weaknesses
Human ‘field’ experiments
Each strength and weakness should be explained using the Point – Explain – Example (PEE) structure. Maximum marks are obtained for: ● detailed and technically correct ‘Explain’ ● detailed and technically correct ‘Example’.
Standard investigation of cause-effect relationships using highly controlled, laboratory-based studies
Maximising the marks
Animal experiments
vity
Strengths
es not accept mental ev ents as causes, althoug h they clearly can be. We can decide to do something we ha ve never done before (e.g. take a chance on a new expe rience), and people can resist reinfo rcements and punishmen ts purely for an idea they may have (e.g. resisting torture for a cause they believe in). A complete psychology has to acco un t for some forms of mental events to be credible. ✘ BEH can offer no ex planation at all of many important human behaviours, such as cre ativity and humour. Crea tivity involves producing something tha t has not been done befor e in the same way and is recognised by others as unique and wo rth while in some way. Examples are found in art and music. Be ha viourism may be able to point to the acquisition of influe nces and skills (e.g. keyboard tec hnique), but cannot sho w ho w these activities develop in tot al, because most of the un ique ▲ Figure 2.5 The behavi activities are thought pro ourist approach can cesses, and thus unobser vable. offer no explanation for creati
Example
The question: 3b) Evalua te of the behaviourist appr two weaknesses oach (6) ✘ BEH do
Description
ur of others causes and ✔ BEH highlights the way the behavio our behaviour, aggression) and other people reinforce of ing via observation (e.g. social learn We also ing). ition cond rant of things we do (ope such as parents approving or disapproving umption and cons food een betw internal states, such as learn associations between objects and pleasure (classical conditioning). observable and of psychology by shifting the focus onto ✔ BEH emphasises the scientific nature measurable events. be true, accurate or le, not directly measurable, so may not ✔ Ideas and thoughts are only reportab hology if it is to measurable events can be used in psyc reliable. To gain accurate knowledge, only be scientific in the same way as physics.
The question: 5) Explain and evaluate the methodology used by the behaviourist approach (12)
Method
hs of the behaviourist The question: 3a) Evaluate two strengt approach (6) reinforces our behaviour. We learn
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CHAPTER 6: CORE STUDIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
ASCH (1955): OPINIONS AND SOCIAL PRESSURE
Context ch was a Polish immrigaras na social t who
As ree Solomon distinguished ca ry e v . ence SA had a t in the U t came to promin ates is g lo o h c psy estim y firs conformit exploring group ants n o rk o W ip 2) jar. Partic after ess (193 with Jenn er of beans in a ts n e m e g mb jud of the nu conform in their imates. o st tended t their individual e xperiment on g n in situation t ed a e discuss ) conduc . This is where a 6 3 9 (1 f reted in rmity Sheri be interp es to ld nal confo u io o t c a it rm info for clu at is, ous – th We tend to look u ig b m a is y. n. n one wa more tha o make a decisio ect: a stationary t ff e e s u ic t le okine e, becaus enab d the aut ill appear to mov 0 times e s u f ri e 5 Sh mw ome 20– dark roo moving s He asked particly light in a t n a t s n ). is co ovements moved, the eye accadic m such a light had her (s d n o c a se w far of ot judge ho owledge ipants to ually and with kn answers became id of iciboth indiv sults. The range with part ge. re r ’s e le t case, ra t e v la a e peop p h t u the gro ower in much narr g to conform to ct that many din fa e pants ten terested in the under th in s e a v rm e n born Asch w fo t n s o c re e t t o in on an ts in the people d social pressure, e m move n e t c s n e a t g n is s stro f re history o from the r. a W d Worl Second
Critical assessment
us nambiguo with an u the rk o w o ided t lear to Asch dec e that is very c at normative n o , s would to look stimulu e aimed ther participants , even H . t n a ip partic is whe p norm y, which s a grou conformit ir answer toward therwise. This is o he ity, change t ement told them type of conform g l d u ju rf if their re powe l judgement and much mo a clearly a enial of a person hat is clearly t d g rm in o n ir u p req grou a f o e c n accepta of . t degree incorrect expect any grea articipants would ot tp He did n that mos y, rather it rm fo n co conform. refuse to
nt
rime ean expe s’s jelly b s e n n Je 6.1 ▲ Figure
Aim Asch aimed to test the strength of normative conformity by presenting participants with a group norm regarding a physical judgement that is clearly wrong.
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GGP WJEC AS Ch06.indd 28-29
Perrin and Spencer (19 80) suggested that the Asch effect was a ‘child time’. They carried out of its an exact replication of the original Asch experimen using engineering, mathe t matics and chemistr y stu dents as subjects. The res were clear-cut: on only ults one out of 396 trials did an obser ver join the err majority. They argue tha oneous t a cultural change has taken place in the value conformity and obedien placed on ce and in the position of students. In America in students were unobtru the 1950s sive members of society, whereas now they occu questioning role. This im py a free, plies that Asch’s results were not generalisable culturally. crossNicholson et al. (1985) were more positive, find ing that the number of responses obtained wa error s significantly lower tha n tho se repor ted by Asch, bu also significantly greate t it was r than zero (12 out of the UK sample of 38 an sample of 21 conformed d 8 of the US at least once). British an d American students did in their responses to un not differ animous peer-group op inio n. This provides some sup for Asch. port Lalancette & Standing (19 90) repeated the classi c experiment and variat no conformity was obser ions, yet ved. They concluded tha t the Asch effect appears unpredictable phenom to be an enon rather than a stable tendency of human be haviour.
Neto (1995) repeated the classic conform psychology st ity experimen udents in a Po t, using women rtuguese univ majority group er sity as mino , and control pa ri ty of one unanim rticipants. The as similarly as ous original proce possible using du a computer pr re was re-ena experimental ogram. Among cted condition, 59 participants in per cent conf 3 to 12 times ormed at leas the . Among partic t once, 28 per ipants in the co least once, 3.3 cent yielded ntrol conditio per cent mad n, 27 per cent e more than thre the experimen erred at e errors. The tal and contro differences be l groups was si of conformity tween gnificant. Thus to a unanimo this shows that us peer-group reported cons a degree opinion remai iderable distre ns obser vable. ss under the gr powerful supp Participants oup pressure. ort for Asch’s This provides original result. who used a pa recent and This was also nel judgemen tr ue of Boen et t task similar to dance contest al. (2006), that used in th Strictly Come D e popular tele ancing, and de when the pane vision monstrated co l heard each o nformity of opi ther’s feedback There are subs nion . tantial cultura l differences, le characterise co ad ing Smith & B untries as eith ond (1998) to er individualis – conformity t (e.g. USA) o being higher in r collectivist (e collectivist soci more importan .g. Japan) eties where th t than the indi e group is cons vidual. Summar y: norm idered s and conform ity to them ar When culture e made social s change, norm ly in a culture s and conform the results of . ity change too Asch replicatio , and so do ns. Asch’s stud reliability. Ev y is very striki er y replication ng, but has lo brings different w results. ment’. listed in ‘Critical assess As well as the studies : swered by also using This question can be an xt’ nte ‘co th studies in the ● comparison wi ‘evaluation of method’. ● criticisms from in total. points or comparisons Use at least four clear
pp.404–5 29
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CHAPTER 6: CORE STUDIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
ASCH (1955): OPINIONS AND SOCIAL PRESSURE
Findings
In the control conditio n, where confederates gave the correct line ea time, the naive particip ch ants answered correctl y 98 per cent of the tim (this gave Asch a basel e ine error rate). ● In the experimen tal condition, where the confederates gave the answers, the naive parti wrong cipants were only corre ct in 63.2 per cent of cases. ● Participants confo rmed to the incorrect an swer on 36.8 per cent of critical trials. ● 24 per cent of pa rticipants never conform ed and gave their own answer. ● 5 per cent of pa rticipants conformed on all trials all of the time. ● 75 per cent of pa rticipants conformed at least once on critical tri als. ● Participants were interviewed afterwards and asked why they conformed: ●
Procedure Sample: m four American ed on a voluntar y basis fro ect sel re we nts de stu e ● 123 male colleg universities. a visual judgement task. e in a study that involved pat tici par to $3 d pai s ● Each wa Design: e par ticipants. in groups of seven to nin ● They were tested (the naive par ticipant). up was a real par ticipant gro h eac in t pan tici par ● Only one of seven people. was seated sixth in a row ● The par ticipant n who acts as if (A confederate is a perso ch. As of s te ra de nfe co perimenter.) ● The others were the instructions of the ex ing low fol lly rea is t bu t s/he is a par ticipan ard’ line printed on it; of card. One had a ‘stand ces pie o tw wn sho s wa ● Each group of var ying length. the other had three lines
●
●
●
Distortion of perception – some participants be lieved the confederates were right. Some participants wante d to please the research er, and not ‘spoil’ the results.
Many of the participan ts thought they had a de ficiency in themselves (e.g. poor eyesight), wh ich they wanted to hide to avoid being laughed at.
Conclu
A B C
t was n, which line they though had to state aloud, in tur up gro the of er mb me ● Each ndard line. the the same length as the sta s was obviously a match, uld see that one of the line co t pan tici par e tru e Th ● others obviously wrong. in the room, and on in which they were seated er ord the in en giv re we s the matching line. ● The answers se the same line, which wa cho n rso pe ry eve nd the first rou up was unanimous. shown, and again the gro s wa ds car of set r the the ● Then ano derates unanimously gave eral later ones, the confe sev and l, tria rd thi the ● On wrong answer. nfederates were ‘critical’ in that the co ich wh of 12 ls, tria 18 re ● In all there we answers. deliberately gave wrong
▲
Figure 6.2
▲ Figure 6.3 Some teenagers take up smoking to conform with their group of friends 30
GGP WJEC AS Ch06.indd 30-31
sions
Some p eo when th ple will confor m to gr e answ oup no er is cle ● This rms eve a r ly wron shows n th g. a t conform our beh ity is a p aviour. owerful ● Asc influenc h (1955 e on to confo ) said: ‘That w e have rmity in fo our soc intellige iety so s und the tende nt ncy trong th willing to and well-mea at ning yo call whit ung pe reasonably e black ● How ople are ever, is a ma tter of c remain it is important oncern’. ed inde to note penden that the ● Par t on two p ticipan -thirds o articipants confede ts who did not f tr ials. fo rates he ld on to llow the lead of their ow n beliefs the . ●
pp.403–4 31
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CHAPTER 6: CORE STUDIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
ASCH (1955): OPINIONS AND SOCIAL PRESSURE
Evaluation of method – strengths and weaknesses
oratory was a lab ucted ✔ As this was cond it t n e m ri s. This expe condition d e ll o tr n in co rmine sch to dete allowed A n e effect wh cause and nformity. co measuring
✘ The experiment lacked ecological validity – it is not very often in everyday life that people are asked to judge the length of a line against three other lines!
Design
✔ The p articipa nts wer to give e not their full y inform able consen ed ta imposs s it would hav e been ible to c arry ou if the pa t the rti true na cipants had kn study ture of th o e exper wn the ✔ Parti iment. cipants did no suffer la sting ha t appear to rm. ✔ Parti cipants w e r e explain their ac allowed to tions in a debrie f.
Reliability ✔ The sam ple size of 123 particip was large. ants ✔ Using fo ur differen t unive prevented participants rsities being awa the researc re of h purpose s im of mouth (p ply by word articipant expectatio ✔ The fact ns). that they w ere all sim demograp il a r in hic details (age, sex, means tha e tc t they were .) with their p People are eers. more likely to conform peers in re with al life. ✔ The sim ilarity in de mographic also mean details s that pote ntial confo variables (e unding .g. gender differences were remo ) ved from th e experime nt.
Ethics
✘ Participants were subjected to a stressful situation and experienced temporary discomfort. ✘ No attempt was made to disco ver if lasting damage to self-esteem had occurred.
✘ The results of other studies suggest that no standard method of me asuring conformity works in ev ery culture and therefore ex ternal reliability is low.
Validity
Sample
✘ Estimating line lengths is not a valid surrogate (substitute) for social opinions and attitudes.
✘ Because the particip ants were all American males it may not be generalised to other groups, such as females or people in other cultures. This has been demonstrated to be important in subseq uent research. ✘ The peer group demo graphic may also be a weakness, as perhaps As ch had weighted the results in the direction of conformity. ▲ Figure 6.4 As Asch’s sample was made up of white American men, the results may not be generalisable to other groups
32
GGP WJEC AS Ch06.indd 32-33
33
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RAHE, MAHAN & ARTHUR (1970): STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS Context
vironment ens in a person’s en Anything that happ dy of reaction in the bo causes some form t events en ist rs Syndrome). Pe (General Adaptation l ica log ho yc ps ysical and the cause long-term ph on ain dr e Th ). ss ll stre effects (which we ca ss re st llowing continued body’s resources fo d makes e immune system an th causes damage to her ot or ns tio to get infec people more likely l states ica log ho yc ps as well physical illnesses, as such as depression. k between n (1958) found a lin ma ed Fri & an nm se Ro ey nt heart disease. Th stress and subseque damaging d ha at th ty ali person identified a type of ). ty (Type A personali reactions to stress ficulty of measuring dif e One problem is th equent d linking it with subs preceding stress an of no established ways ill-health. There were Thomas . rts cept by self-repo quantif ying stress ex ing ist ex ed Rahe develop Holmes and Richard tested nt scales that they me ure as life-event me and early ring the late 1960s in various forms du oach ap neers of a new pr 1970s. They were pio nt ce Re of e Schedule to stress testing. Th (Holmes s the original test wa ) RE (S Experiences loped ve at was used in its de & Hawkins 1957) th study. form by Rahe in this e ary people rated th din or ted A large sample of en es pr ts en ev list of life relative impact of a
were archers. The ratings to them by the rese of t se converted into a then averaged and ouse’ sp a of th , where ‘dea standardised scores nately her events proportio rated 100, and all ot ict ed en used to try to pr eir less. This list was th th up d individuals to ad ill-health by getting ey th if e se en ores and th recent life-event sc to do in a tually very difficult ac is is Th became ill. life! valid manner in real using were retrospective, Many of the studies looking d an l ita sp eady in ho people who were alr od is nt lives – this meth back over their rece 1964). of recall (e.g. Rahe very prone to errors that ta da y, which looks at A prospective stud subject t no is s, rd esent onwa emerge from the pr to this. rked student when he wo Rahe was a medical fied ali qu a hiatrist) and is with Holmes (a psyc medical ed lat -re ss ises in stre doctor who special for 20 d for the US Navy problems. He worke ive ss y was part of a ma years, and this stud and s 60 19 funded in the n research programme iso pr o’s rd ba (as was Zim how 1970s by the Navy nd ta rs de un to ed want study). The US Navy g. sed environments (e. clo in d te ac re people c ifi ec sp w ional craft), ho on board an operat better w ho d an ur, d behavio environments affecte affect e environments could management of thos health and behaviour.
Aim To investigate the impact of life events, as measured by a life-stress test (SRE) on health, in serving US Navy personnel, using a prospective research design.
Definitions
1. Retrospective design = measure variable 2, then look ba ck wards in time to try to measure varia ble 1. 2. Prospective design = measure variable 1, then wait for a period of time and measure variable 2. 40
GGP WJEC AS Ch07.indd 40-41
CHAPTER 7: CORE STUDIES IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Critical assessment The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) was tested with several samples of US populations and with Asian groups in Japan and South East Asia (Holmes & Masuda 1973). It became an established stres s test and is a good predictor of psychological and physical illness (Miller 1989 ). However, one of the major criticisms of the life-e vent approach was that many people do not experience these major events, yet seem to get stress-related illness. Goldberg & Comstock (1980) found that 15 per cent of a sample of 2,800 adults had not experienced any of the listed life even ts in the preceding year. This suggests that the link between stress and ill-health is not as straightforward as Holmes & Rahe’s study suggests. There is certainly a clear link for types of cance r. Palesh et al. (2007) found that relapses in breast cancer patients were linked to stressful life events, and there are links for other conditions such as hear t disease (Abraham et al. 2008). However, a major confounding issue is that some life even ts (e.g. loss of employment) may be symptoms of a developing illness (Penny 1996 ), and many over views of the field conclude that linking evidence in general is weak (Abraham 2008). The life-events list itself is not only well out of date (Lazarus 1999), but it does not take the context of the life event into account (Forshaw 2002). A divorce may be a positive event for one or both people conc erned.This suggests that Holmes & Rahe’s finding is out of date.
Kanner (1981) suggested it was the minor stres sors of day-to-day life that had a bigger effect on health overall. A scale was deve loped to measure this, which Kanner called the Hassles and Uplifts Scale. This was based on the idea that good events could have a positive effect on health as well. The Hassles Scale was a better predictor of psychological health than Holmes & Rahe’s SRRS. Research has suggested that there is a substantia l cumulative effect of hassles (Almeida 2005) and it is likely that hassles disru pt healthy lifestyles, disrupt self-care procedures and make existing symptoms wors e with the increased release of stress hormones (Gross 2010). Because ever yone experiences a stressor in differ ent ways, a Perceived Stress Scale was developed (Cohen 1986). This has been extensively used in the late twentieth century and the early twenty-first, because it has been easily modified for different cultures and does not rely on specific life even ts to measure stress, unlike the relatively culture-bound SRRS. Despite the considerable limitations of the appr oach developed by Holmes & Rahe, the number of studies increases ever y decade (Dohrenwend 2006). ment’. listed in ‘Critical assess As well as the studies : swered by also using This question can be an xt’ nte ‘co th studies in the ● comparison wi ‘evaluation of method’. ● criticisms from in total. points or comparisons Use at least four clear
pp.185–94 41
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CHAPTER 7: CORE STUDIES IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
RAHE, MAHAN & ARTHUR (1970): STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS
Findings
Procedure Sample:
1+2
d on the front nnel (women not allowe rso pe vy Na US g vin ser sample of
All-male line at that time). e. ee carriers on active ser vic ● 2,664 men on thr s 22.3. ● Average age wa duates. men were high school gra ● Two-thirds of the e ranged up to 30 years. ● Length of ser vic men on the ships. ted over 90 per cent of the ● Sample represen
●
LCU bands
3+4+5
6+7+8
9 + 10 ●
● ●
Mean illness score 1.405 1.541 1.676 2.066
The only positive correlat ion was between LCU (6 months prior to cruise) and medical score.
+ 0.118 is high for such
The higher the LCU sco
a large sample.
re, the higher the mean illness rate. The highest LCU scores (195–1,000) – a small minority – had much higher illness rates tha n the majority (0–194). ● There was a cle ar relationship between TLCU (total life change score and later illness rat unit) es. ● Both TLCU scores and illness rates were low relative to a general population. ● More accurate predictive po wer in old er sailors than younger. ● The strongest co rrelation between LCU scores and illness rates found on the two ships was that did not see action. ●
s prior to 6 month her illness e th in scores with hig her LCU re associated ● Hig uty. re we departu g the tour of d and in r er men u ld d o s r e t fo r ra stronge nk was li ed a e h T ● predict n. ly e t c m e r d r ie o e and hc marr CU scor pproac L a t n n e e e v etw life-e lation b ● The nt corre tive validity). a c ifi n sig dic ate (pre illness r
ons
si Conclu ▲
Figure 7.1
Design: analysing medical the sample nor the staff er ith ne t tha in dy stu d ● A double-blin se of the study. records knew the purpo nths over a period of E) completed every 6 mo (SR RS SR of n sio ver ed ● A modifi 2 years. estionnaire d from the established qu ate cul cal s wa U) (LC re its sco ● Life Change Un ). RS (SR s. r of duty of 6 to 8 month ● Followed by a tou dical files. re recorded on ship’s me researcher ● All illnesses we essed independently of the ass and ed nis uti scr n the of s were ● Medical record number, type and severity alth score compiled using he a and ff, sta al dic me by illness. nor were those conditions were not used, wn kno y usl vio pre h wit ● Any par ticipants faking or shirking work. who were reported to be Analysis: higher the LCU band, the to 10) and grouped – the (1 d de ban re we res sco ● LCU ing. higher the mean illness rat lated. health scores were corre ● LCU scores and 42
GGP WJEC AS Ch07.indd 42-43
▲ Figure 7.2 Stress makes people vulnerable to physical illnesses 43
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CHAPTER 7: CORE STUDIES IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
RAHE, MAHAN & ARTHUR (1970): STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS
Evaluation of methodology – strengths and weaknesses ✔ This was prospective , not retrospe ctive (a much more powe rful and valid design) ✔ Restricte d environm ent enables co ntrol and scrutiny of a ll variables ✔ Double-b lind study reduces de mand characterist ics to a minimum
✔ Relatively homogeneous sample ✔ Reduction in number of extraneous variables (e.g. gender, gender interactions) ✔ Opportunity sample, easy to acquire once permission was granted! ✔ It was customary for crew to report even minor illnesses, so data were comprehensive
✔ Once perm by the U ission was gr an S there w Navy Comman ted ere no d iss consen t or dec ues with ep Navy he ld those tion, as the permiss not the men ions,
44
GGP WJEC AS Ch07.indd 44-45
Design
sign ective de largely ✔ Prosp alid and v s e id v pro ta inated da uncontam r positive very clea stress d e w o h n ✔S n betwee correlatio ) and illness CU score (TL g TLCU is y, showin dictive c n e u q e fr re st (high p a valid te validity)
Validity
✘ Confounding factor was combat stress, which tended to obscure other stresses (cruiser 2)
Figure 7.3 The Navy personnel were all fit; in the general population the relationship between stress and illness might be even stronger
Sample
✘ Biased sample: Rahe suggests that in a more normal population the correlation between the two variables would probably be larger, as the sample was very fit peop le with heightened resistan ce to illness
✔ The m edical r werPsychology s e comp ecordAS 04.08 rehensiv and sys e temaArt Barking Dog tic, so the meth o reliable d was highly
for AQA (A)
Reliability
✘ The reliability of self-reporting of stress is questionable; people tend to change their reports over time (R aphael et al. 1991)
Ethics
45
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CHAPTER 11: DOING THE METHODS QUESTION
DOING THE METHODS QUESTION
The question: D) Outline one advant age and one disadvantage [of a sampling method] in this research (3)
f
isadvantage o
ed ntage and on a v d a e n o e : A) Outlin (3) The question this research in ] d o th e m n methods. using [a of the commo
for each oth. e disadvantage n o d an dvantage or b e sa di ag e nt th va r ad o e e n ag ● O e her the advant Disadvantag LINK for eit – K s IN H T ● r any variable o control ove N ● Advantage recording ral ay be biased in Method our in its natu m vi r ha ve be er e bs lif O l● ● Rea Observation data environment vironment ry artificial en ve a be ay M ● over ) ee of control (lacks realism gr de r he ig H ● all variables ) ab l control over ta to s Experiment (l ck La variables ● in its -life behaviour al re y) rl ai (F ● IV eld) nment ntrol over the Experiment (fi natural enviro ● No co s ur riable (IV) occ dependent va In ● ) d al rl o effect ur at e real w t show cause– Experiment (n naturally in th ● Canno ables between vari een tw ps hi be ns p o hi ti ns la o re ti rela ● Shows er cases or neralise to oth ge t Correlation no an C variables ● n ive the populatio tailed qualitat de f o ts Lo ● Case study information
The question :B this research ) Identify one issue of reli ab an with this issu d describe how you wou ility in e of reliabilit ld deal y (3) ● A definiti on of reliab
ility related to the scenario. ● THINK – LINK using o ne of the two ● One wa methods bel y of ensuring ow. reliability in re search. 1. Repeat the research usin g the same m 2. Repeat the ethod and th research usin e same samp g the same m le. ethod and a different sam ple. issue
Identify one The question: C) search and describe how re of validity in this sue of validity (3) is is th h it w l ea d you would .
nario ity related to the sce A definition of valid s below. e e of the thre method on ing us NK LI – asuring what it is ● THINK (DV) is actually me ble ria va t en nd pe de 1. Ensure that the uring. supposed to be meas you are investigating related to the problem e ar s ble ria va ur yo 2. Ensure that ). od or well(construct validity well-established meth a st ain ag lt su re d od an 3. Check your meth t validity). results (concurren of t se ed sh establi
●
88
GGP WJEC AS Ch11.indd 88-89
One advantage and one disadvantage for each of the common methods of sampling. ● THINK – LINK in eith er advantage or disadvantage or bot h. Sampling Advantage Disadvantage method ●
Opportunity
Overview Six questions are set. ● They occur in the same order. ● The only things that change are the words in the square brackets […]. All answers must contain a key phrase or sentence that quotes part of the scenario or uses material from the scenario. THINK – LINK ●
Self-selecting (volunteer)
Random Systematic Stratified
●
Easy to arrange and select participants
Not representative of the population ● May be biased by the exp erimenter towards their hypothesis ● No problems of consent ● Volunteers tend to be different from non-volunteers and not representative of population ● Initially very time-consum ing ● The most scientific ● People may refuse to take part method ● Difficult to organise ● A scientific method ● People may refuse to take part ● Difficult to organise ● Has correct proportions ● Time-consuming to gain a sample from the population ● People may refuse to take part (e.g. male and female)
The question: F) State one conclus ion that can be drawn from [some featur e of the results table] in this research (3) You must state the obvious from the table or chart. ■ You must include every detail, not just a conclusion. ■ Remember that three mar ks means 3 minutes of writing time – there should be at least two long sen tences: 1. Literal description of the data disp lay. 2. Conclusion to be drawn from the data display. ■
Mean recall of words in memory
Trained condition 13.4
e The question: E) Discuss on in ise ethical issue that might ar this research (3) ●
●
ical issue using Definition of a common eth . the words of the scenario the issue might THINK – LINK saying ho w arise.
●
test
Control condition 8.8
Bad: Memory was better in the train ed than the control condition. ■ Good: The mean recall in the trained condition (13.4) was substantially higher than the mean recall in the control condition (8.8). This suggests that the training regi me led to improved recall in this experiment. ■
●
common uses: Use one of the four most nt (say ho w it - Lack of informed conse ). might arise in this scenario might arise in this - Deception (say ho w it scenario). ipants physically - Failure to protect partic w it might arise or psychologically (say ho in this scenario). (say ho w it might - Inadequate debriefing arise in this scenario).
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