Idea Transcript
THE INFLUENCE OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP ON THE CASE STUDY WORK COMMITMENT OF AITC CENTRE IN CIHEA AGRICULTURE IN-SERVICE TRAININb • (AITC) IN INDONESIA
SYAHRIZAL Ir, Agriculture
THESIS in partial fulfilment for the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION Human Resource Studies
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA Sub-mission date: November 1995
r UNWERSflY OF I 1997
I
-j
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA - FACULTY OF EDUCATION
CANDIDATE'S CERTIFICATE
I certify that the thesis/project
t've
A
and submitted for the degree of is the result of my own research, except where otherwise acknowledged, and
that this thesis/project (or any part of it) has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other institution.
Signed
Date
:
11
Contents Page
Declaration Abbreviations Used List of Tables and Graph Acknowledgment Abstract
ii V
vi
viii ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
I
CHAPTER2
THE NATURE OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMS
3
Rationale for Undertaking the Research The Background Context of the Study
3 15
Summary
21
THE LITERATURE REVIEW
22
The definition of leadership and leadership effectiveness
22
Four approaches to leadership The traits approach The behaviour approach The situational approach The transformational approach
26 26 28
Transformational leadership: The characteristics Vision Practices Influences
36 36 39
Summary
53
CHAPTER 3
31
35
41
48
111
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER6
METHODOLOGY
56
Research approach Research Design Limitations of the study The research process The Respondent Research Techniques Conducting Field work Analysis of the Data
56 57 59 60 60 60 62
Summary
65
REPORTING AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
66
64
The Cihea AITC leader's characteristics The leader's charismatic power The leader's legitimate power The practice of Cihea AITC leader Providing and sharing the vision and values Declaration of the positioning of the vision Institutionalizing the vision and values in the organization Maintaining vision and values in the organization The leader's influence on trainers' commitment.
66 72 77 78
Summary
116
CONCLUSION
117
Consideration for effective leadership The future implications of the Study Future studies in the AITC
117 119 120
79 87 89 96 99
BIBLIOGRAPHY
121
LIST OF APPENDICES
128
LIST OF FIGURES
142
iv
ABBREVIATIONS USED AITB AITC CEO FAO HRM JICA LOQ LBDQ MOA OCQ
Agriculture In service Training Bureau Agriculture In service Training Centre Chief Executive Officer Food Agriculture Organization Human Resource Management Japan International Corporation Agency Leadership Opinion Questionnaires Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaires Ministry of Agriculture Organizational Commitment Questionnaire
V
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2-1
Model of relationships between leadership qualities, type of influences and commitment of the trainers to the organization
8
Table 2-2
Three main policy changes in AITB between 1991 and 1994
15
Table 3-1
Primary approaches to the study of effective leadership
25
Table 3-2
Overview of definitions of vision
40
Table 3-3
Overview of the practice of the transformational leader
41
Table 5-1
The Cihea AITC trainers' view on their belief in and acceptance of their leader's shared values for the Cihea AITC.
108
Table 5-2
The Cihea AITC trainers' view on their willingness to exert considerable effort on the behalf of the organization
111
Table 5-3
The Cihea AITC trainers' view on their strong desire to maintain membership in the organization.
113
Page
GRAPH
Graph 2-1
Trends in training budget resources in Cihea AITC
11
from 1991 -1 994.
vi
For my children Character, Dream, Concentration and Perseverance are the key to personal success
To be a model, an inspiration, a transformer are the key to leadership success Faith, Knowledge and Services are the key to life success
vii
Acknowledgment
Thanks to God (ALLAH SWI).
I would like to thank to Australian government through Aus AID which has given the scholarship to me to achieve the degree at University of South Australia. I would also like to acknowledge the professional and personal support of: Dr Barry Elsey, Course Co-ordinator and Supervisor Dr Helen Connole, Senior Lecturer.
Thanks also extended to:
The head of AITB, Cihea AITC leader, Gedung Johor AITC leader, Cihea AITC trainers and staff, Marylene Violaria Viola from Aus Aid, Bev Kokkien
from Educational Support Centre and Trish Mclaine for her editorial assistance.
Finally, for my wife Reny and my sons Pandu and Bayu. Without their understanding and encouragement this study would not have been finished.
viii
Abstract
THE INFLUENCE OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP ON THE WORK COMMITMENT OF AITC TRAINERS: A CASE STUDY IN CIHEA AGRICULTURE INDONESIA.
IN-SERVICE
TRAINING
CENTRE
(AITC)
IN
The Agriculture In-service Training Bureau (AITB), which coordinates 32 Agriculture In-service Training Centres (AITCs) in Indonesia, proposed some
changes to its policy. In order to implement the AITB policy effectively at a provincial level in Indonesia, the AITC's leaders were seen as the essential
people to instil changes in the AITCs. For this reason the AITB wanted to find the most effective leadership in the AITB.
This case study aims to understand an effective leader in the Cihea AITC. Specifically, it is intended to understand the leader's characteristics and
practices and how these practices influence the trainers' commitment to the Cihea AITC.
An interpretive approach was used to gain an understanding of the Cihea
AITC leader's perception of his characteristics and practices as a leader. The flexibility of this approach allowed changes to the original research plan if necessary, while continuing to address the research questions.
This case study has drawn some conclusions which provide criteria for leadership effectiveness in the AITB as well as having future implications for leadership training and development.
ix
This case study investigates how an effective leader can influence the trainers in the Cihea' Agriculture In-service Training Centre (AITC) in
Indonesia. Using the theory of transformational leadership in the context of
AITC, the project argues that the leader does influence the trainers' performance in Cihea AITC, especially their commitment to the organization. Additionally, it is considered that the characteristics of the leader and the
practices that he employed do influence the trainer's commitment to the
Cihea AITC organization (Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Kouzes & Pousner, 1987).
The thesis is struOtured into 6 main categories. Firstly in chapter 2, the focus
and the nature of the research problems are described and the rationale for undertaking the study is justified. In order to relate the research problem to
the wider context of the organization, the background to the study is discussed. Relevant issues in environmental changes, such as political and
economic, as well as cultural changes in the Agriculture In-service Training Bureau (AITB) which affect the Cihea AITC, are discussed. The importance
of the leader's role in anticipating changes in the organization are also discussed.
Chapter 3 discusses the literature relating to the research problems. There are two main objectives in this chapter. Firstly, major approaches to the study
1Cihea is the name of the organization (See Figure 1-1, p 143)
of leadership in organizations are discussed. The theory of leadership effectiveness from the point of view of traits, style, situational and transformational approaches is discussed briefly.
A rationalisation for
choosing the transformational approach as the main framework of the study
is then justified.
Next, the literature review examines the transformational
leadership approach in greater detail. The characteristics, vision, practices and their influence on the commitment of the trainers in the organization are discussed.
In Chapter 4
,
the research methodology and research design used in the
study are justified.
In
this
chapter the argument for choosing the
interpretative research is discussed. Then, in the study design, the rationale for choosing the case study method is explained, as well as the limitations of
the study.
The processes of the research and the explanation for each
method used are then described, and finally the data analysis and data interpretation are discussed.
Chapter 5 reports, analyses and interprets the data from the study. In this chapter three sub-categories are used. They are the characteristics of the leader; the practices of the leader in the Cihea AITC; and finally the influence of the leader on the trainer's commitment to the organization.
Finally, chapter 6 presents the conclusions drawn from the study. These conclusions may be considered useful for providing criteria for leadership effectiveness and future leadership training and development in the AITB.
2
In this chapter two main themes are developed. In the first part, the
focus of
the the study and the nature of the research problem are described and,
rationale for undertaking the research
in Cihea Agriculture In-service
Training Centre (AITC) is justified.
The background context of the study is analysed towards the end of the chapter and relevant features of the policy changes from 1991-1994 in the Agriculture
In-service
Training
Bureau
(AITB)
are
presented.
The
consequences of policies which could have affected the Cihea AITC leader's
practices are then categorised and three aspects are discussed: the economic aspect of AITB policy; political aspects of AITB policy and finally, the cultural climate which exists in the Cihea AITC.
2.1. Rationale for undertaking the research In this section, before discussing the rationale for undertaking the research, the focus and the nature of the research problem are described.
The project is located within the field of Human Resource Management (HRM). Leadership is an essential factor in managing human resources in an
organization especially in a strongly hierarchical organization like the Agriculture In-service Training Centre (AITC). Leadership is considered important because the leader in the AITC has the authority and power to formulate a vision for the organization, and to provide practices that could and influence the organization and its subordinates to achieve the vision
goals of the organization (Bennis & Nanus 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986b; Clemmer & McNeil, 1988).
The efforts made by a leader to influence his or her subordinates can be regarded
as
effective when the latter consequently enhance their
commitment in order to achieve or to succeed within the organization's vision
and goals (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, I 986b). The focus of
this project is the national model of AITC's best practices for leadership effectiveness, with particular emphasis on the trainers' commitment to the organization. Following consultation with the AITB, Cihea AITC was chosen from among 32 AITCs in Indonesia.
It
is considered that the characteristics of a leader and the practices
employed by that leader could affect the commitment of Cihea AITC trainers
to the organization (Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Sashkin, 1986b). Therefore, this study will endeavour to:
I .Understand and describe one of the best leaders from among the 32
AITCs in the Agriculture In 6ervice Training Bureau, Indonesia, in terms of
his: a. personal characteristics. b. practices that influence the commitment of the trainers
2.Establish possible relationships between the leader's practices and the trainers' commitment to the Cihea AITC organization.
More specifically, this study addresses the following questions.
•
What are the characteristics of the Cihea AITC leader?
4
•
Does the Cihea AITC leader consider it his responsibility to ensure that his practices influence the trainers' commitment?
•
How do the Cihea AITC trainers perceive the characteristics and practices of their leader in connection with their commitment to achieving
the vision and goals of the organization?
•
How do the Cihea AITC leader's practices influence the trainers' commitment to the organization?
The term characteristics in this study refers to an aggregate of the leader's qualities, that is, the sources of the leader's power to influence his
subordinates. Power refers to
"an agent's potential influence over the
attitudes of one or more designated target persons" (Yukl, 1994, p 195). There are two kinds of power, that is, position power and personal power.
Position power consists of three kinds of power: firstly, there is the power of
reward, which means that the leader may give some reward to his or her subordinates in order to influence the subordinate's commitment; secondly,
there is coercive power, where the leader may punish and discipline his or
her subordinates; thirdly, there is legitimate power, which means that the
leader understands that he or she has the legal authority to influence subordinates (Reiner & Morris, 1986; Yukl, 1994).
Personal power also consists of different kinds of power.
Firstly, there is
expert power, where the leader advises and assists his or her subordinates
in a manner based on rational persuasion.
Secondly, there is charismatic
power which means that the leader is regarded as "an extraordinary [person
5
who] can be trusted to lead a group or the organization"
&
Falbe, 1991,
p416). Legitimate position power is an important source of power in influencing the that in subordinates in an organization. However, YukI & Falbe (1991) assert
general, personal power is more important than position power as the source
of a leader's power in influencing the commitment of subordinates to the
work. The specific influence of the personal power of the leader to the organization and to the members of the organization could be a product of the vision and the values that the leader tries to instil.
Vision refers to "a mental image of a possible and desirable future state of words, vision is an the organization" (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p 89). In other
expression of "a view of a realistic, credible, attractive future for the organization, a condition that is better in some important ways than what now
exists". Vision "may be vague as a dream or as precise as a goal or mission statement" (Bennis and Nanus, 1985, p 89), whereas values are a set of
general beliefs that can guide the practice of the people in the organization. individual or a "A value is that which is explicitly or implicitly desirable to an modes, means and group and which influences the selection from available action" (Adler, 1991, p 16).
The success of a leader's effort to instil vision and values into the organization through rational persuasion can be seen when the subordinates
regard their leader as a person who has outstanding qualities, and when they share and accept their leader's vision and values as part of their own 1992). These values in the organization (Dilenscheineider, 1990; Bryman, commitment to the types of influence could enhance the subordinates'
6
organization because they have accepted the vision and these values as part of their own worthy meaning (Bennis & Nanus, 1985).
Other types of influence that a leader may exert relate to leadership practice
at the organizational level as well as at the individual level. In this regard, one of the practices that could enhance the commitment of subordinates to the organization is a process of empowering the subordinates. Empowering is the process of enhancing the "seff efficacy expectation" of the
subordinates. The self efficacy expectation means "a sense of personal mastery or a can do attitude regardless of hopes for favourable performance
outcomes" (Conger & Kanungo, 1986, p 476). Practices of the leader such
as requesting the subordinates' participation, providing autonomy and support for the subordinates, modeling directions according to the vision and
the values, and providing persuasive communication, can influence the self
efficacy of the subordinates.
Commitment of empowered subordinates to
their organization is enhanced because they feel powerful enough to
achieve the vision and the goals of the organization that are worthy and have a desirable meaning for themselves (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Bandura, 1988; Conger & Kanungo, 1988).
These two types of influence through the vision and values that the leader
tries to instil and the empowerment practice that enhance the self efficacy expectation of the subordinates have a strong influence on the commitment
of the subordinates to the organization (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, Conger & Kanungo, 1988, Bandura, 1988).
In this context, commitment is not compliance. Instead, it is a considered identification of vision and values, providing extra effort to achieve the vision
7
and goal of the organization as well as maintaining loyalty to the organization.
The basic idea and the focus of the study can be seen in the model below which shows the possible relationship between the leadership qualities, types of influence and the work commitment of the trainers in the Cihea AITC.
Table 2-1 Model of relationships between leadership qualities, type of influence and commitment of the trainers to the organization
Commitment
Leadership qualities
Types of influence
Personal power
Practices of the leader
Charismatic power as the source
of
the
•
Providing and sharing the vision and values
leaders
subordinates
power.
•
for the organization and the through
lnstitutionalizrng and and
who
has
leading the organization.
• vision
person
exceptional qualities for
rational
persuasion.
•
Regarding the leader as the
Accepting the vision and
maintaning the
the values that the leader
the
instils in the organization the of part as
values
through
empowerment process.
werthy
subordinates meaning.
1 ..At the organizational level
through modelling, asking for
•
Exerting extra effort for sake
participation,
the
providing autonomy and
organization
support.
•
of
the
Maintaining loyalty to the organization
2..At the individual level
through pygmalion effect and persuasive communication. Position power
Especially legitimate power as
the
source
of
the
•
Using legitimate power as a means to enhance commitment
leaders authority
Based on the model described in Table 2-1, the rationale for undertaking project in Cihea AITC is further discussed in detail. 8
As a strong hierarchical organization the AITB, which falls under the banner
of the Ministry of Agriculture in Indonesia, has the authority to govern the AITC, because the AITCs are subordinate to the AITB. (See Appendix 1, the
structure of the AITB organization).
The Ministry of Agriculture decree, in
describing the function of the AITB and the AITC states: "The AITC is a unit of training implementation for Agricultural officers in the Department of
Agriculture. The AITC is the subordinate of and is responsible to the AITB" (MOA, 1982, p 284). In this structure the AITB has a role as the policy maker
of the organization. More specifically the AITB's role
is
to make the
organization's policies and to review and evaluate the implementation of the
AITB program in the AITC. The AITC's role in this structure is to implement
policy programs decided by the AITB. The AITB is located at the national level, whereas the AITC is at the provincial level.
In order to encourage, empower and motivate AITC leaders, trainers and staff, the AITB as coordinator of AITC, has been aiming towards the most effective leadership in AITB Indonesia. For this study, three AITCs were put
forwarded by the AITB, as representing best leadership practices in AITB. One of these three was the Cihea AITC leader.
The leader of the Cihea AITC was chosen for this study because, since he was appointed as a leader in 1990, the Cihea AITC has shown some of its best performances and has implemented some beneficial changes, especially
the funding for its training budget.
The trainers, who are subordinate to the leader in the Cihea AITC, have also
shown outstanding performances. They have been appointed as the consultants for developing agriculture in the transmigration area since 1993.
Moreover, during the time of this leader, the Cihea AITC trainers have 9
produced three national training modules; on Environment Sustainability, on Agribusinesses and Agro Industry and on Population (Cihea AITC, 1993).
During this leader's time, the Cihea AITC has succeeded in selling Cihea
AITC services to the society. For example, at the provincial level, the Cihea
AITC has collaborated with the West Java Food Crop Irrigation Project to conduct training activities. Moreover, since 1991 the Cihea AITC has been
involved in sustainable' collaboration with the Agriculture Research and Development Agency in conducting training activities
.
As well, since 1992
the Cihea AITC also has entered collaboration with the Department of Transmigration
in
designing
and
conducting
the
training
activities.
Furthermore, the Cihea AITC has conducted training activities with the International agencies such as, the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA) (Cihea AITC, 1991; Cihea AITC, 1992; Cihea AITC, 1993; Cihea AITC, 1994a; Cihea AITC, 1994b).
More specifically the success of the Cihea AITC, during its leader's time, in
selling its services to the society, can be seen in data from the training budget of Cihea AITC
Currently Cihea AITC operates two types of training budget, internal and external. The internal training budget is taken from both the routine AITC national budget and the AITB project budget. The external training budget comes from other sources, for example; from other government institutions and agricultural society.
10
Since 1991 Cihea AITC has been successful in increasing their training budget sources from the external sources. The graph below shows the trends.
Figure 2-1 Trends in training budget resources in Cihea AITC from 1991 -1 994.
Source: Cihea AITC, Five year report (1994)
[ • External Budget Internal Budget
Year
0
200
400
000
800
1000
Total Amount of Budget In Million
Note: $ I Australian currency equals approximately 1500 Indonesian rupiah.
This figure shows that in 1991, the internal and external training budget resources in Cihea AITC were relatively similar, at about Rp 252,2 million.
From 1992 to 1993, the internal training budget decreased from Rp 177,3 million to Rp 144,7 million, and the external training budget increased from Rp 613,2 million to Rp 932, 9 million. By 1994, although the internal training
budget had increased to Rp 418 million, the external training budget, still played an essential role at Cihea AITC by providing about Rp 700,6 million. 11
These external training amounts should be higher than the data shows because the other external training budget, which comes from collaboration between Cihea AITC and the Department of Transmigration, is not available (Cihea AITC, 1994b).
The success of Cihea AITC in increasing external sources as a major proportion of their budget indicates that Cihea AITC's leader has succeeded in transforming the organization to sell its services to the society.
A further indication of the leader's ability is that, in 1994, the leader received
a letter of recognition from the Minister of Planning for his success with Integrated Pest Management Training and Development in the province of West Java, Indonesia.
To summarise, Cihea AITC's leader has been chosen as the subject of this
study because, since his time in office, the trainers have demonstrated outstanding performance, and Cihea AITC has been more successful in
selling its services to the society. Finally, the leader received a letter of recognition from the Ministry of Planning in 1994.
The performances of Cihea AITC are thought to be affected by many factors,
such as, the structure of the organization and the human resource system in the organization.
However, in a strongly hierarchical organization like AITC, it could be said that the performance of the AITC as a training institution is dependent on the
quality of its leadership. It is because it is the leader who formulates the organization's vision, instils the organization's culture and influences the staff
to achieve the vision; the leader also has authoritative power and takes final
12
responsibility for the success of the organization ( MOA, 1982; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Bryman, 1992)
In concordance with this, Luthan (1985) believes that the most important factor for success in an organization is the leader. Further support for the importance of good leadership in an organization can be found in Szilagyi Jr
& Wallace Jr (1990), who conclude that the leader is the essential factor in achieving organizational performance.
Considering that an effective leader will influence subordinates, this study emphasises the leader's influence, especially on the trainers' commitment to
achieving the vision of Cihea AITC
(See appendix 2, the organization
structure of the Cihea AITC). The leader's influence on Cihea AITC's trainers
is considered essential because the trainers are the key persons in the organization who transfer skill and knowledge to the trainees. And also because those trainers who act as training coordinators also provide services directly to the consumers of Cihea AITC.
A number of factors may influence the trainers commitment to Cihea AITC. Worker (trainer) characteristics include factors such as age and competency (Morris & Sherman 1981), while job characteristics factor such as role conflict
and the skill level of the worker (trainer) (Stevens, Beyer, & Trice, 1978; Morris & Sherman, 1981).
However, it is believed that, in a strongly hierarchical organization like Cihea
AITC, the essential factor influencing the trainers' commitment to the organization is the effective leader. There are three arguments to support this statement. Firstly, in Cihea AITC the leader has the authority to assess the performance of the trainers. Secondly, the trainers are responsible to and 13
report directly to the leader. Thirdly, the leader influences the organizational culture, that is its vision and values, and its practices in order to boost trainer commitment (MOA, 1982; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986b).
Further support for this. arguments is provided by Glisson & Durick (1986),
who have found that effective leadership may be an excellent predictor of workers' (trainers) commitment to the organization. Consequently, it could be
said that the leader's effectiveness
in
Cihea AITC
is
the salient key
influencing the commitment of Cihea AITC's trainers. Thus in this study, other
factors that could influence the trainers' commitment to the organization will not be taken into account.
Effective leadership in an organization
is
clearly influenced by the
characteristics of the leader and the practices that the leader employs to influence the trainer's commitment to the organization therefore the study will
attempt to understand the Cihea AITC leader's characteristics and best practices in influencing the trainers' commitment to Cihea AITC (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986b; Bryman, 1992)
This study could be worthwhile for the AITB because it hopes to provide
guidelines for AITB decision makers in Indonesia to introduce possible criteria for leadership effectiveness in the AITB. Moreover, the study could
be a benchmark for other AITCs in Indonesia, which would be appropriate because the other AITCs in Indonesia are in relatively similar circumstances
to those of Cihea AITC. Furthermore, the research results should provide a
valuable resource in reviewing the leadership development program in the Agriculture
In-service
Training
Bureau
(AITB)
in
Indonesia
and
in
understanding how leaders can make positive changes in the organization.
14
2.2. The background context of the study AITB policy changes from 1991-1994 are discussed in order to provide a background context for the case study. The choice to analyse the policies over these years is because they correspond with the start of the leader's time at Cihea AITC. Policy changes in the AITB have necessarily influenced the Cihea AITC leader's practices because it is the AITC's duty to implement AITB policy at the provincial level.
Organization policy, according to Pace & Paules (1989, p 91), is "a general statement that is designed to guide a person's thinking about decision making
In the AITC context, a policy does not simply serve as a
in an
guideline in decision making but also directs the AITC practices.
Three main policy changes between 1991 and 1994 in the AITB can be seen in Table 2-2 below.
Table 2-2 Three main policy changes in AITB between 1991 and 1994.
Year
Policy Changes in:
1991-1992
The orientation service of AITB
1992-1993
The marketing strategy of AITB
1993-1994
The accountability of AITB
The first change was to AITB 's orientation services. Until 1990 orientation services of AITB were provided through AITC only for Agriculture officers in
the provincial areas. In fact, the Ministry of Agriculture decreed that:
"the
AITC has to conduct training activities for the technical agriculture officers, for
the functional agricultural officers and for the administrative agricultural officers at the provincial level "(MÔA, 1982, p 284). 15
However, between 1990 and 1992 , some policy changes were introduced
into the orientation services of the AITC. From 1990 the emphasis of the orientation service changed to include not only the agricultural officers but
also the farmers. This was known as the policy of
Mobile Training and
Integrated training. The strategy presented in this policy was that the AITC would train agricultural officers who would in turn conduct similar training for
farmers in their areas. During this time, the orientation service of AITC
changed so that AITC trained the officers to train the farmers, under supervision byAlTC (AITB, 1990; AITB, 1991).
Since 1992, the training policy has been known as the Field Training Model. This model is based on the idea that training alone will not solve the farmer's
problems if not followed up by other workshops to develop the skills which
were learned during training activity. One example of this model
is the
Integrated Pest Management Field Training. In this training, the first step is
the formulation of a training curriculum based on real problems of the farmers. AITC then trains the agriculture officers in the farmers' area. And the
third step is when both the trainers and the officer train the farmers. After training in the field, the farmers apply their newly learned skills on their farms under supervision of the agriculture officer and AITC. This model can be seen
as a cycle to solve the local agricultural problems which can be solved and may lead to new agricultural solutions. In this Field Training Model the AITC's
role has also changed; it is now sees not only as a training institution but also
as the architect of human resource development in agriculture at the provincial level (AITB, 1992).
The second policy change was the marketing strategy of AITB. In this regard, the AITB policy was "to ask for agricultural and the private sector's motivation initiation, participation and investment in the training activities." (AITB, 1993, 16
p 1). In other words it could be said that this AITB policy encourages the AITC to "sell" its services to the agricultural and private sectors.
In order to support these changes, AITB policy-makers communicated the
need to make AITC services more competitive and accountable in the agricultural development process at a provincial level.
In 1994 the AITB
endorsed the policy of "preparing and forming the AITC's setvices to be the centre of excellence at a provincial level"
(AITB, 1994, p 2). Centre of
excellence means that AITC should become a centre to develop human resources in agriculture at the provincial level. In other words AITC should be
a good model and the architect of agricultural development at provincial levels (AITB, 1994).
In order to implement these policies in the thirty two AITCs in Indonesia, AITB
conducted annual national workshops for the AITC leaders. The core message of these workshops concerned how the leaders should implement AITB policy in the AITC organization in Indonesia. Consequently, in the AITB
context, the leader's role in implementing AITB policy in the AITCs has become essential, and is achieved through his or her authority, and his or
her responsibility to put into place the AITB policies in Indonesia.
In
implementing AITB policies at the AITC level, AITC leaders have to face the consequences
of these
policies
on
their
practices.
Three
possible
consequences of this position are discussed below.
Economical aspect of the AITB policy is a primary consideration. Policy changes in AITC orientation service, and the policy to sell AITC service to the
agricultural sector may influence the leader to develop or change some AITC practices if the AITB policy is to be successful. The AITC's leader needs to.
17
instil new strategies so as to change their practice from an internally oriented
approach to an excellence oriented approach. The internally oriented approach means that, for instance, training services of the AITC are only for
agriculture officers, while the excellence oriented approach means that the
AITC could answer the needs of the agricultural society and could attract their interest in using AITC services. In these circumstances the leader needs
to accomplish change in the organization's practice by asking the employees' (trainers') participation and commitment to the excellence-oriented approach. Such practices should be emphasised on the entrepreneurial side of the AITC
so that they can sell their services to the agricultural sector (Tichy and Devana, 1986b; AITB, 1994).
Implementation of AITB policies in the AITC will become problematic, or will not take place, if AITC's leader does not have the qualities to influence his or
her subordinates in selling their services to the agricultural society as discussed.
Another aspect that could influence an AITC leader's practices is the political
aspect of AITB policies. In order to implement AITB policies so as to become the centre of excellence, the AITC leader should consider the power that they have.
In the AITC context, the use of power to influence subordinates to accept the AITB policy could become problematic. This is because, on the one hand the
leader has been given the position power to implement changes. Position power means that the leader has to instruct, control and compel the AITC trainers to implement the program. If the leader uses only position power to
influence the trainer's commitment, the new policies might not be put into place because the absolute use of position's power in the organization could 18
have a detrimental effect on the employees' commitment (Staheiski & Frost, 1987; Yukl, 1994).
which aims at On the other hand, the worth while nature of the program AITCs being the centre of excellence means, that the leaders should actually persuade, influence and inspire the AITC staff to be committed to the policies.
The leader here, should probably use their personal power in this situation
because the use of this type of power will have a stronger correlation with excellent performance of the employees (Yukl & Falbe, 1991; Yukl & Tracey, 1992).
The leader, of course may not have that kind of personal power. If the leader does not display personal power, then the program may not be put into place in the AITC. It is in this context of AITB power that the study was undertaken, in order to understand how the Cihea AITC leader has used his power so that his AITC trainers adopt AITB policies.
A further aspect that could influence the Cihea AITC leader's practices is the
cultural climate which exists in the Cihea AITC.
Two cultural issues are
predominantly in the context of the AITC organisations.
Firstly, as part of a top down government organization, the leader has authority to act as the instruction provider in the AITC. In other words, the leader tends to be the authoritative centre of the organization. The leader's
role as instruction provider
in
the AITC organization becomes central,
because it is their duty, responsibility and their authority to implement the policies of the AITB (MOA, 1982).
19
-4
As a result of the central role of the leader, it could be said that the people within the organization become dependent on the instructions of their leader. Thus, the leader's position power, as the head of AITC becomes stronger.
One example of such power is that the leader directly evaluates the employees' (trainers') annual performance, which is the essential gauge for the employees' promotion prospects, and for their career in the organization.
Another example of the leader's power is that he or she could propose to the Ministry of Finance to stop the salary of an employee who does not appear to
be adhere appropriately to the disciplinary government ethic. As a result of this power dependency, the employees' resistance to propose changes or their criticisms of their leader's practice or policy becomes minimised (AITB, 1979; MOA, 1982; AITB, 1994, Yukl, 1994).
The second cultural issue concerns the community values which exist in the
organization. The spirit of familiarity, community and helping
each other have persuaded the values of Cihea AITC. For example, voluntarism, that is doing something in the interests of the community, will
always take place in the AITC context. Furthermore, the decision making process in such voluntarism has always been conducted with community discussion and consensus towards the benefit of the AITC or for the society in general ( BP7, 1993; Cihea AITC, 1994b)
The tension between these two cultures has become phenomenological. On the one hand, leader has to instruct the community because it is his authority,
duty and responsibility to do so. On the other hand, the spirit of community discussion and consensus persuade the culture of the AITC society. In this situation, the leader should be the essential figure to change or minimise the effect of this status quo if the AITB is to take place successfully (Kotter 1990).
20
'4
This study is undertaken in the context of AITB policy changes which affect
the economical, political and cultural aspects of the Cihea AITC and its leader.
Summary
Since 1991 the AITB, as policy maker for the AITC organisations, has introduced some policy changes affecting orientation services of the AITC; emphasising the importance of selling AITC services to the agricultural sector
and preparing the AITC as a centre of excellence at the provincial level. To encourage the AITCs to implement and to succeed in these changes, and in order to review the new policies, the AITB identified the most effective leader
in the AITB organization, because the leader is the authoritative and responsible person to implement AITB policy in the AITC. The Cihea AITC
leader was chosen for this study as the most effective leader in the AITC. This choice was based on consultation with the AITB, and on the outstanding performance shown by Cihea AITC between 1991 and 1994.
The characteristics and practices of the Cihea AITC leader, and his effectiveness in influencing the trainers' commitment to the Cihea AITC organization, provide the focus of this study.
Literature relating to leadership effectiveness in an organization is reviewed in Chapter three.
21
A
In this section the literature relating to the research problem is reviewed. The aim of this chapter is two-fold. Firstly, the major approaches to the study of
leadership
effectiveness
in
organizations
are
outlined
and
the
rationalisation for choosing the transformational leadership approach as the
framework of the study is discussed. Secondly, the characteristics, vision and practices of transformational leadership and the influence of this type of leadership on organization members are examined.
This chapter is divided into three sub-sections. Leadership and leadership effectiveness in an organization are first defined. The theory of leadership
effectiveness is then discussed from the point of view of traits, behaviour, situational and transformational approaches. Finally, the review examines
transformational leadership in greater detail, focusing on characteristics, vision, practices of the leader in an organization, and the influence of these practices on the trainers' commitment to the organization.
3.1. Leadership and leadership effectiveness There are several definitions of leadership in the related literature I .Leadership is "the process of moving a group or groups in some direction through mostly non coercive means" (Kotter, 1988, p 5).
2.Leadership is "a process of giving purpose, meaningful direction, to collective effort, and causing willlng effort to be expended to achieve
purpose" (Jacob & Jaques, 1990 in Yukl 1994, p 3)..
A
3.Leadership is "a process in which one person attempts to influence another to accomplish some goal or goals" (Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990, p 385).
4.Leadership is "typically defined in terms of a process of social influence whereby a leader steers members of a group toward a goal" (Bryman, 1992, p 2).
5.Leadership is defined as" influence processes affecting the interpretation of events for followers, the choice of objectives for the group or organization, the organization of work activities to accomplish the objectives, the motivation of followers to achieve
objectives, the maintenance of cooperative relationship and team work and the enlistment of support and cooperation from people outside the group or organization" (Yukl, 1994, p 5).
In summary, it could be said that the most common theme from these definitions is the influence leaders can exert in an organization, best
expressed in behaviour which encourages staff to be committed to the
values and goals of the organization and being actively involved in its everyday operations and practices.
Like definitions of leadership, the terminology used to determine leadership effectiveness also varies. The most general measure
of leadership
effectiveness is said to be "the extent to which the leader's organizational
unit performs its task successfully and attains its goal" (Yukl, 1994, p 5). Luthans et al (in O'Driscoll et al., 1991, p 315), conclude that "effectiveness is defined as a combination of quality and quantity of performance within the unit or section which the manager had responsibility for".
23
A
Bennis & Nanus propose a slightly different definition, they suggest that the
thrust of a leader's effort to make the organization succeed is not only focused on the employees, but also on the organizational practices that affect the employee and the organization in general. More specifically, they define leadership effectiveness as when the
leader "can move the
organization from current to future states, create visions of potential opportunities for organizations, instill within employees commitment to change and instill new cultures and strategies in organizations that mobilize
and focus energy and resources" (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p 17-18). This kind of leadership is valued most in a context where there is an undercurrent
of change; where there is a lack of commitment to the organization and a need to develop the entrepreneur-ship side of the organization. This kind of
leadership effectiveness is called 'transformational leadership' (Bennis &
Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986b). In the words of House et al., "charismatic or transformational theories take as their dependant variables
followers' emotional responses to work-related stimuli, as well as their values, seff esteem, trust and confidence in the leader, and motivation to perform above and beyond call of the duty" (cited in Bryman, 1992, p 144).
Leadership effectiveness is defined in terms of the efforts of a leader to influence the worker's commitment in order to successfully achieve the
vision and the goals of the organization.
Commitment, according to
Mowday, Porter & Steers (1982, p 27) is refers to "the relative strength of an
individual identification with and involvement in a particular organization".
More specifically, they define three factors that could characterise the commitment of the workers to the organization: firstly, "a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and
secondly, "a willingness
to exert considerable effort on the behaff of the organization
24
A
and finally, "a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization".
If it
is assumed that a leader
is
the person who can influence an
organization's vision and values, then that the leader could be said to be effective when their vision and values in the organization are accepted by their subordinates who, as a result, provide extra considerable effort as well
as loyalty to the organization. Hence, the characteristics and practices of a
leader that the leader employs which could influence the organizational practices and enhance the trainers' commitment to the organization are important themes in understanding the effectiveness of the leader (Bass,
1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Yukl, 1994).
It
is the characteristics and
practices of a certain leader, and the ways in which these influence the trainer's commitment which form the focus of this study.
Leadership effectiveness in influencing both goals and employees, display a
certain degree of similarity. Four major approaches describe the leadership
phenomena in organizations. Table 3-1 below summarises the major approaches to the study of leadership effectiveness.
Table 3-1 Primary approaches to the study of effective leadership Approach
Assumption
Essential proposition
Traits
The effective leader has good
Leadership traits are hereditary
personal qualities
Behaviour
The important factors are what the leader actually does
Leadership
effectiveness
is
connected with how the leader acts
Situational
existing The important
situation
is
Effective leadership depends on conditions arising from the
circumstances for both leader and subordinates
Transformational
leaders characteristics and practices provide the core element of leadership
The
The effective leader vision through empowerment
directs and
25
Each of the four approaches should be seen as an effort to understand
leadership from a different point of view, distinguished by the different emphases on certain assumptions and propositions which determine an effective leader.
Each approach is discussed in more detail in the sub-
section below.
3.2. Four approaches to leadership — traits, behaviour, situational and transformational. In this sub section the traits, behaviour, situational and transformational
approaches are discussed and analysed briefly. The rationalisation for choosing the transformational approach for this study is then presented.
3.2.1. The Traits approach Many writers using the traits approach assume that the characteristics of an
effective leader are different from those of less effective leaders, non leaders or followers. The core of their thesis is that leaders are born rather than made. There are three kinds of traits discussed in the literature. Firstly,
there are physical traits such as height, weight, appearance and age. Secondly, there are intellectual traits such as intelligence, judgment, fluency of speech. Finally, there are personality skills such as self confidence and
independence (Luthans, 1985; Bryman,
1992).
One study of traits
leadership describes effective leaders as having at least three critical traits,
that is technical skills, conceptual skills and human relations skills (Katz, 1974 in Luthans 1985). Another writer discusses in more detail the personal
traits that influence a leader's capacity to be effective. He divides the skills into six categories: physical characteristics such as height, appearance and age; social background characteristics such as education, social status and
mobility of the leader;
intelligence characteristics such as knowledge,
judgement, decisiveness and oral fluency; task-related characteristics such 26
as need for achievement, responsibility, persistency and concern for people; social
characteristics
such
as
integrity
and
cooperativeness;
and
personality characteristics of the leader such as self confidence and dominance (Bryman, 1986).
However, other writers show that these characteristics do not necessarily have a strong impact on the effectiveness of a leader, and that interpretation
of these characteristics are inconsistent. Many writers would say that characteristics are not inherited; in other words, traits could be due to training. Secondly, leadership characteristics themselves do not predict the
behavioural pattern of the leader. Finally, the traits approach tends to neglect the effect of the followers on the leader (Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990; Marquis & Huston, 1992; Tossi, Rizzo & Stephen, 1994).
One writer suggests that personal characteristics should be considered as
one factor in the leader's ability to be effective (Curtin,1988). Similarly, Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991, in Bryman, 1992) also argue that traits should
be considered as a single factor in leadership effectiveness. They refer to personal characteristics as the "potential for leadership" (p 21).
Curtin (1988); Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991, in Bryman 1992) agree that in
order to understand leader effectiveness, the potential for leadership or personal characteristics of a leader should be integrated with other factors such as behaviour.
The issue of integration is discussed in the next sub-section, from the transformational leadership point of view. First the behavioural approach to leadership effectiveness is discussed.
27
2.2. The Behavioural I Style approach The behavioural or style approach appeared to answer a perceived lack of confidence in the traits approach. The essence of this approach is that the effectiveness of a leader is dependent on how the leader behaves with their subordinates.
One well known research effort into this approach was conducted by Ohio State University Studies in the late of 1940s (Roberts & Hunt, 1991). These
researchers in leadership studies used questionnaires as their source of data collection.
Two questionnaires were used: one was to measure
leadership behaviour by the leaders themselves through Leadership Opinion
Questionaries (LOQ); the other was to measure leadership behaviour from the subordinates' point of view, that is through Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaires (LBDQ) (Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990).
From this study it was proposed that there are two types of effective leadership behaviour that could influence the performance and satisfaction of subordinates.
Firstly, consideration behaviour is concerned with improving and maintaining
good interaction or relationships between the leader and subordinates. For example: "behaviour items such as leaders' supportiveness, representation of subordinate interest and openness of communication with subordinates" is
described as consideration behaviour in the leader.
Secondly, initiating
structure behaviour focuses on clarification of the subordinate's role, and what is expected from them. For example: "behaviour items such as directing subordinates, coordinating, problem solving, criticising poor work" are
described as the initiating structure of behaviour (Yukl, 1981, p 103-113).
28
In this study, the responses to the questionnaires were converted into scores. High scores in consideration behaviour and high scores in initiating structure behaviour indicated effective leadership, which in turn affected the
leader, impacting favourably on the subordinates' job satisfaction and the
performance of the group
(YukI, 1981, Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990;
Halpin, 1957 in Bryman, 1992).
However, the results of this study, which supported high scores
in
consideration and initiating structure as being necessary for leadership effectiveness, were met with some criticism. There are four major criticisms of this behaviour I style approach.
Firstly, there are inconsistent findings in the approach. Field experience and
longitudinal field studies show that high consideration and high initiating behaviour does indeed affect subordinate satisfaction and performance but
only in some conditions (Yukl, 1981). One study shows that high initiating structure behaviour and high consideration behaviour were correlated with performance and workers satisfaction, but in other studies, these behaviours
did not show a significant correlation (Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990).
Secondly, there is a causality problem in the behaviour approach, in that the
leader's behaviour will influence the performance of the subordinates. Such causality is described in the model below: Leadership behaviour —* employee satisfaction and performance
However, this assumption is not truly correct in the interactive process between the leader and subordinates. As Bryman (1992, p 7) states "it is extremely risky to deduce a cause-effect relationship from the correlation of
29
two variables. Indeed, such a deduction has quite a strong prima facie set of
reasons for being incorrect". This is because in order to be effective the leaders could change their own behaviour
in their
interaction with
subordinates. For example: in the case of a subordinate's poor performance,
a leaders could change their behaviour in order to respond to the subordinate's performances. Hence the behaviour of the leader may be
caused by the subordinate, not the other way around (Bryman, 1986; Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990).
Thirdly, there are problems of measurement. The Ohio State study depends
entirely on the questionnaires as its only source of data. This raises problems. For example, in the questionnaires, subordinates may have described their leader in a "favourable but untrue manner" (Bryman, 1992, p 10).
Finally, the behaviour approach tends to ignore situational factors such as
job stress and the internal motivation of the subordinates to perform. Looking at Schriesheim & Murphy's (1976) research in a social services organization using the Ohio study approach, Bryman concluded that "when
jobs are stressful, greater initiating structure enhances subordinates performance, but when they are not stressful, it reduces performances" (1992, p 7).
Accordingly, it could be said that situational factors may influence the
behaviour of both leader and subordinates. Another example of situational
factors is the internal motivation of the subordinates. One study found that
the internal motivation of the subordinates could affect the relationship between consideration behaviour and job satisfaction and performance. Also, when there is internal motivation of the subordinates in an interaction, 30
the relationship between job satisfaction and initiating structure behaviour employed by the leader does not show positive correlation (Kerr et al., 1974 in Bryman, 1992).
This kind of criticism of the behaviour approach has caused some researchers to propose alternatives through which to understand the leadership approach. Luthans & Lockwood (1984), for example believe that leadership is a "reciprocal, interactive process" among organizational
environments which include subordinates' behaviour and organizational structure (p 117).
Another school of thought takes situational or contingency factors into account in the study of effective leadership; this is discussed in the subsection below.
3.2.3. The Situational Approach
The situational approach assumes that leadership is dependent on the situation. In other words effective leadership behaviour depends on
situational factors such as the maturity of the subordinates or the
characteristics of a task. The proponents of this approach believe that there are no best behaviours which always indicate effectiveness in leadership. A
certain type of behaviour may be appropriate for one situation but not for another.
The major theory in this approach was proposed by House and Mitchell (1974 in Tossi, Rizzo & Stephen, 1994), and is well known as the path-goal
theory of leadership. The essence of this approach implements the expectancy theory of work motivation, that is, that people (subordinates) will 31
produce high levels of effort and hence performance if they believe that their effort will lead them to desirable outcomes such as higher pay or prestige.
This approach assumes that the leader
is
the salient source of the
subordinate's motivation. "The motivational functions of the leader consist of
increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work goal attainment, and
making the path to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing
roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction en route" (House, 1974 in Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990, p 403).
Here, the leader's role "is to ensure that the path to goals is clearly understood by the subordinate and that there are no barriers to achievement of the goals "(Tossi, Rizzo & Stephen, 1994, p 522).
Consequently, the leader's behaviour is regarded as effective by the subordinates if it provides present or future motivational sources for the subordinates. The effectiveness of the leader's behaviour is also influenced
by situational factors amongst the subordinates. Situational factors include characteristics of the subordinates such as locus of control, authoritarianism
and ability and environmental factors such as subordinate tasks and work groups (Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1990; Tossi, Rizzo & Stephen, 1994).
There are four types of leadership behaviour in this theory which may influence the performance of the subordinates.
I .Directive behaviour: The core objective of a leader's behaviour here is to
direct the subordinates so that they can understand what is expected from them. Directive behaviour such as clarifying the subordinates' roles and
32
controlling what should be done by the subordinates and how is provided by the leaders.
2.Supportive behaviour: The leaders provide supportive behaviour in order to maintain the subordinates' well-being. Leaders consider the subordinates' interest, provide openness in communication and support their subordinates.
3.Participative behaviour: The leader provides participative behaviour by ensuring that all subordinates participate in the process of decision-making
in the organization. For example, the subordinates' recommendations and
advice is taken into account by the leader before the leader makes the important decisions in the organization.
4.Achievement-oriented behaviour: Leaders set ever higher achievement goals for the subordinates believing that the subordinates can achieve that goals.
In order to be effective these kinds of leader behaviour should match situational factors such as subordinates' characteristics and environmental factors. For example, when subordinates retain a locus of control, meaning
that they understand and can do their jobs by themselves, participative leadership behaviour
is
appropriate.
Directive behaviour would be
appropriate for those subordinates who do not have an internal locus of control; in this case, the subordinates have to be instructed by the leader. When the task structure in an organization is not clear, directive behaviour
may be effective, whereas, when the task structure is clear, participative
behaviour is more likely to be effective (Szilagyi Jr & Wallace Jr, 1992; Tossi, Rizzo & Stephen, 1994).
33
In summary, to be an effective leader requires certain factors. Firstly, the leader should clarify expected goals with their subordinates. Secondly, the
leader should remove barriers that could hinder the subordinates' effort in
achieving a high level of performance. Thirdly, the leader should increase their subordinates' motivation to achieve the expected goals. Finally, leaders
should match their directive, supportive, participative and achievementoriented behaviour with their subordinates' situational factors which may include the subordinates' characteristics, and environmental factors.
The path goal theory of leadership has been criticised by some writers. The
opponents of this theory argue that firstly, the path-goal theory is difficult to
test as a whole theory. Most research using the path-goal theory approach
emphasises only some parts of the theory. For example, one study has shown that supportive behaviour can enhance subordinates' satisfaction in
conducting stressful and frustrating tasks (Luthans, 1989); the path goal theory proposes that the leader should choose from four behaviour patterns
and should match these with the situational factors.
Hence this theory is
difficult to test as a whole theory.
The path-goal theory has shown inconsistent findings. Although, directive
leadership behaviour shows a strong correlation with subordinates' job satisfaction in ambiguous tasks, in fact, one authority asserts that there is only
a
small
correlation between
the
leader's
behaviour and the
subordinate's satisfaction when situational variables like individual growth
needs and task structure are either high or low (Griffin, 1980 in Bryman, 1992)
As a result of these criticisms, other researchers have attempted to provide
alternatives for understanding the leadership phenomenon. One of these 34
alternatives is called the transformational leadership approach which is
discussed below (Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, I 986b).
3.2.4. The Transformational approach Transformational leadership
is
generally concerned to transform the
organization; more specifically, this kind of leader is in the "process of
building commitment to the organization's objectives and empowering followers to accomplish these objectives" (YukI, 1994, p 350). In order to achieve this, transformational leaders display charismatic characteristics as
the basis of their leadership potential and then provide strategies and practices which encourage their subordinates to achieve the organization's
vision or the objectives instilled by the leader (Bass, 1985; Conger
&
Kanungo, 1987).
The genesis of the transformational approach emerged in the 1980's to provide
an
alternative approach to lie phenomenon of
leadership
effectiveness. It seems that the traits, behaviour and situational approaches
discussed in the previous sub-sections faced problems of causality and measurement, as well as inconsistent findings.
This is because these
approaches try to understand and describe only some factors of the leadership effectiveness phenomenon.
In
contrast, proponents of the
transformational leadership approach seem to combine or integrate those
approaches. As Bryman states "the new leaders hip [transformational leadership] writers view leadership as a complex amalgam of personal and
behavioural factors, thereby superseding the old questions of whether leadership is a matter of traits or behaviour that can be learned" (1992, p 144).
35
Most studies of traits, behavioural and situational approaches have investigated part of an organization
such as the leader and their
subordinates or the supervisor and their teams. They tend to have neglected
the notion that the leader can influence the organizational practices as well
as individual practice practices. The transformational leadership point of view asserts that as well as directly influencing subordinates, a leader can influence organizational practices which in turn, can indirectly influence the effectiveness of the subordinates (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986b; YukI, 1994).
An integrated approach such as transformational leadership seems to be appropriate to the nature of research problems posed in this study. Hence
the concept of transformational leadership was chosen as a framework for the
study.
The
characteristics,
vision,
practices
and
influence
of
transformational leadership are discussed in more detail in the next subsection.
3.3 Transformational leadership — Characteristics, Vision, Practices and Influence.
3.3.1 The characteristics of transformational leadership Unlike the traits approach which tends to see that the personal traits as the
only factors that influence the effectiveness of a leader, in transformational
leadership, personal characteristics are seen as a potential for leadership (Curtin, 1988; Kirkpatrick & Locke, In Bryman, 1992). This kind of potential should then be integrated with leadership practices.
36
Transformational leadership in an organization seems to display six major characteristics. Firstly, a transformational leader should have self integrity.
They should be honest , open and responsible in their work. This kind of integrity comes from their self awareness — their understanding about their
strengths and weaknesses, and their understanding about their business and organization. These understandings enable them to have a sense of control when they interact with other people or their environment (Kirkpatrick
& Locke In Bryman, 1992; Bennis, 1989). In Covey's words, they have "the ability to choose [their] response" in any circumstances (1992, p 40).
Secondly, effective leaders should be value-driven and have a future perspective or personal vision for their organization. In other words, they base their actions on the values and vision of what they chosen to achieve
in the future. They know what they want to do and why they want to do it (Tichy & Devana, 1986; Bennis, 1989).
Thirdly, they identify themselves as the person who can transform the organization. In other words, they are the people who take responsibility and
risks to change what they want to change in a positive manner for the organization (Tichy & Devana, 1986).
Fourthly, they are life-long learners. They consider learning to be essential.
In this context learning implies a generative learning effort, which means that their effort in learning has a connection with their efforts to achieve their vision (Tichy & Devana, 1986; Bennis, 1989; Senge, 1992).
Fifthly, they have the ability to cope with complications and unpredictable problems (Tichy & Devana, 1986; Kirkpatrick & Locke in Bryman 1992). This
37
kind of leader regards their difficulties as part of a natural process that
should exist in order to achieve their vision, but they also enjoy the challenges that difficulties present (Senge, 1992).
Finally, they can trust and show concern for other people. They believe that
their subordinates are responsible and capable to perform their tasks. They
are willing to help other people, or to perform as a colleague with their subordinates (Tichy & Devana, 1986; Javidan, 1991).
These studies of characteristics of a transformational leader appear to be based on the effective leader's point of view about their own characteristics.
However, Bass (1985) and Bryman (1992) propose that transformational leadership should also be viewed from the subordinates' point of view.
The transformational leader should also display charismatic characteristics
from their subordinates' perspective. The leader may be considered as charismatic when he or she provides vision and values for the organization,
enhances the subordinates' pride and is respected and trusted by' their subordinates (Bass, 1985; Bass, 1990).
More
comprehensively,
Bryman
(1992)
proposes
three
charismatic
characteristics in an effective leader. The leader should have vision for their organization, and should be regarded by their subordinates as a person who
has exceptional qualities.
Finally, the "leader is regarded by his or her
followers with a mixture of reverence, unflinching dedication and awe" (Bryman, 1992, p 41).
It seems that the charismatic characteristics that Bass (1985; 1990) and Bryman (1992) propose are both similar and different to those proposed by 38
Tichy & Devana (1986a) and Bennis (1989). The difference is that from the former point of view the leader should be regarded as a person who has an exceptional qualities, and is respected and trusted by their subordinates as part
of a social
reciprocal
process between the leader and their
subordinates. The similarity is that the leader should provide vision for their organization. This issue of vision is the focus of the next sub-section.
3.3.2. Vision
The notion of vision is regarded as a new term in leadership literature. It
emerged in the 1980's and therefore is now considered important to be discussed in detail (Bryman, 1992).
Several writers have provided definitions of vision. Vision is "some idealized goal that the leader wants the organization to achieve in the future" (Conger
& Kanungo, 1987, p 640). Bennis & Nanus propose vision as "a mental image of a possible and desirable future state of the organization". In other
words vision is the expression of "a view of realistic, credible, attractive future for the organization, a condition that is better in some important ways
than what now exists" (1985, p 89). Clemmer & McNeil (1988) break the concept of vision down into two specific mental models. Firstly, vision is a
"picture of the preferred future" (p62). Secondly, vision is the "reason for being" (p,62). Vision has also been defined as "a picture of desired future" and "something you desire for its intrinsic value" (Senge, 1992, p 149). In a
similar way, Tichy and Devana (1 986b, p, 130) propose two elements of visions, that is, a "conceptual framework or paradigm for understanding the organization purpose-the vision includes a road map" and "emotional
39
appeal: the part of the vision that has a motivational pull with which people can identify". Definitions of vision are outlined in Table 3-2 below.
Table 3-2 Overview of definitions of Vision
Author and date Bennis
& Nanus
a mental image of a possible and desirable future state of the organization
(1985)
Tichy
Definition
& Devana a conceptual framework for understanding the
(1986)
organization purpose and emotional appeal that has a motivational pull with which people can identify
Conger & Kanungo
some idealized goal in the future
(1987)
Clemmer & McNeil
a picture of the preferred future and reason for being
(1988)
Senge (1992)
a picture of a desired future and something you desire for its intrinsic value
It could be summarised that vision is a group's concept of future directions and values in their organization, which contains some worthy and internally
desirable expectations that motivate and direct the people to achieve that vision.
Vision is an important part of people's consciousness that really can align them to achieve the vision itself. When a leader can provide the vision in an
organization, and this vision has been accepted by the members of the organization, it becomes a source of intrinsic motivation for the members of
the organization and defines direction for the organization to accomplish (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Clemmer & McNeil, 1988).
40
3.3.3 The Practices of Transformational Leadership The practices of transformational leaders are discussed in this sub-section,
with particular reference to the research done by Bennis & Nanus (1985),
Tichy & Devana (1986), Conger & Kanungo (1987), Conger (1989,
in
Bryman 1992) and Kouzes & Posner (1987). The main themes arising from this research are then summarized.
In general it can be said that the transformational leader should engender a series of practices in order to be effective. Table 3-3 below summarises the
practices that the transformational leader should use according to the different perspective of the authors.
Table 3-3 Overview of the practice of the transformational leader Bennis & Nanus (1985) Practice the of transformational leader
•
•
•
Asking attention through vision
for
Sharing meaning through communication
& Tichy Devana (1986)
Kouzes (1987)
•
•
Deployment of self, based on the vision
Creating and
and
recognising need for revitalisation
formulating the vision •
•
Articulating the vision Building trust in the vision
•
•
Empowering other people to achieve the vision
• •
a new •
Introducing institutionalized change
Disputing reforming the in status the organization lnspinng the shared vision enabling others to act
in accordance the vision
Creating
vision
Building trust through positioning
•
& Conger Kanungo (1987); Conger (1989) • Sensing opportunity
•
•
Modelling the way according to the vision Asking to members persevere the vision
Leadership practices in this table show some similarities and differences. Each is discussed in more detail below.
41
In their study of ninety successful leaders at the Chief Executive Officer
(CEO) level in the business and public sectors, Bennis & Nanus (1985) concluded that there are four strategies that transformational leaders should practise. Firstly,
leaders have to manage the organization members'
"attention through vision" (p 87) where vision means" a mental image of a
possible and desirable future state of the organization" (p 89). This vision
becomes the direction and focus of the organization's actions. When the
vision has been shared in the organization, people can easily make decisions because they know the end goal. In other words, subordinates
will not depend on the higher levels in the organization for their decision making.
Secondly, in order to persuade people in the organization to accept the vision, the leaders have to create "meaning through communication" (p 110). In
short, the leaders need to instil the new values or culture in the
organization so that the vision works and is accepted as a new direction. Bennis & Nanus (1985) call this "social architecture" that "governs the way
people act, the values and the norms that are subtly transmitted to groups and individuals, and the construct of binding and bonding within a company"
(p 110-111). Communication of meaning may be conducted through training or even through symbols and stories in the organization.
Once the vision has been clearly formulated, the third strategy that leaders
should develop is building "trust through positioning" (p 152). The core message here is that the leaders should be open, predictable and consistent
with the vision and values that they try to instil. Overall, leaders have to show "personal and organizational qualities that engender trust such as mutual respect, competency and integrity" (p 184).
42
The fourth strategy of transformational leaders
is
to
practise the
"deployment of self" (p 187). The leader should know their own strengths and weaknesses and should use their strengths to have an effect on the
organization's members. In other words they never stop reflecting and learning in order to achieve their vision. They also encourage other people in the organization to learn, to make changes, to create and to innovate for the benefit of the organization.
Like Bennis & Nanus (1985), Conger and Kanungo (1987) and Conger (1989 in Bryman 1992) discuss the series of practices that the leader should
employ, beginning with the formulation of a vision. They see the first task of
the transformational leader as "sensing opportunity and formulating the vision" Through the vision, leaders should provide a sense of direction to the organization. Formulating the vision should bring about changes in the
organization. This vision should be a worthy thing for the people in the organization so that they can see the future state of the organization and reasons for the changes. Thus, the vision can enhance people's motivation in the organization.
The second practice suggested by Conger & Kanungo is "articulating the vision" by communicating it to all the people in the organization. The leader should play an oratory role so as to convince the people in the organization
about the importance of the formulated vision. The, leader should use metaphor, symbol, images or stories which contain the new values and can provide a compass for the organization.
The third practice is to build "trust in the vision". The leader's role in building
trust in the formulated vision is a critical part of the practice. Leaders must
43
show exceptional effort and be a good model for the vision and shared values.
Finally, the leader should empower other people in the organization in the process of "achieving the vision". In this process, the leader should empower
people so that they are actively involved and committed to achieving the vision itself. The leader's role here is as a teacher who can help people to
become empowered through learning
in
the organization (Conger &
Kanungo, 1987; Conger, 1989 in Bryman 1992).
Like Bennis & Nanus (1985), Conger & Kanungo (1987) and Kanungo (1989
in Bryman 1992), Tichy and Devana (1986b) also suggest a series of practices which need to be followed in a set order to ensure success for transformational leaders. However Tichy & Devana (1986b) do not see the
first practice as creating the vision. They conducted research on twelve CEOs using in-depth interview techniques, and concluded that there are three main practices that transformational leaders should perform.
The first of these practices is "recognizing the need for revitalization" in the
organization (p 35). The people in the organizations studied tended to be conservative, therefore the leaders first had to create dissatisfaction with the
status quo. A crisis in the organization provided a momentum issue through which to engender dissatisfaction with existing conditions. One strategy that
the leaders used in order to make people fell dissatisfied with existing conditions was to encourage people to compare their organization with other organizations so that they could see new ways of doing things.
When the leaders have succeeded creating the dissatisfaction with the existing conditions, they should create a new vision, which motivates people 44
in the organization for two reasons. Firstly, "it provides the challenge for which the organization and its members strive, it is the reach for excellence
and the source of self esteem for the members" (p 128).
Secondly, the
vision provide "a conceptual road map or a set of blue prints for what the
organization will be in the future" (p 128). The leaders then have to communicate with their colleagues and instil the new vision and values into the whole organization. Of course they must also be committed to the vision
themselves. This is critical, because the leaders have to make and communicate new scripts to change the old practices in the organization.
Finally, the leader moves towards "institutionalizing change" (p 183). In other
words, the leader should match the structure of the organization with the new direction of the organization in order to accomplish the vision. Tichy & Devana (1986b) call this kind of organization "self renewing organization" (p,
266). In an organization of this kind "control is primarily self control" (p 266), learning is encouraging, participating
is a must and trust among the
organization members must be apparent. The 'institutionalizing changes' strategy includes selecting people according to the values and vision of the
organization, rewarding people, individual consideration and developing people through training and development, all of which need to be done in order to effect the changes.
Like Tichy & Devana (198b), Kouzes and Posner (1987) suggest that before
the vision can be formulated, the leader should recognise a need for change. Kouzes & Posner (1987) conclude that five practices contribute to being a successful transformational leader.
Firstly, leaders should
"challeng[e] the process" (p 29). In this practice,
leaders dispute and reform the status quo in the organization. Then they are 45
prepared to take risks and they always propose new ways to do things in order to change the status quo.
Secondly, leaders "inspir[e] a shared vision" (p 79). Kouzes & Posner (1967)
define vision "as an ideal and unique image of the future" (p 85). The vision
could incorporate a special direction for the organization to pursue in the future. The leaders' effective communication becomes important in sharing
the vision with other people in the organization. The leader's charisma, in terms of nonverbal expressiveness in communicating the vision, is essential
because it could influence the effects of the communication. Characteristics
of a charismatic communicator such as those expressed in: "They smiled more, spoke faster, pronounced words more clearly, and move their head and body more often [and] they were also more likely to touch others during
greetings" (Friedman et al., 1980, in Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p 123-124), could contribute to the effectiveness of communicating the shared vision.
Thirdly, where leaders are "enabling others to act" (p 131), the organization
can be seen to be successful. The leader urges cooperation
and
collaboration among the people in the organization in order to achieve the
shared vision. Trust, autonomy and recognition for success seem to be important issues for the leader to take into account.
Fourthly, The leader should aim at "modelling the way" (p 187). This means that he
she should behave consistently within the vision and values of the
organization.
Small successes which could engender confidence in the
vision should be recognised and celebrated in the organization.
Finally, the leaders "encourag[e] the heart" (p 239) of the organizational
members to persevere with the vision. By raising high but achievable 46
expectations and rewarding people's contributions to the organization by using a variety of rewards, the leaders encourage people to give their best to the organization.
From
the
four
studies
discussed
above,
the
main
strategies
of
transformational leaders can be interpreted as a series of practices. Firstly,
all the four studies are concerned with the vision of the organization. In order to transform the organization, leaders need to provide a vision and as
a new sense of direction for the future. This vision should be attractive and achievable
for
all
the
members
of
the
organization.
Secondly,
communication of the vision is a central theme in all the studies, and should
be taken into account because, without this, the new vision will not be shared in the organization. The leader's role as communicator of the vision should be based on the new vision and values. Dissemination mechanisms
such. as rhetorical strategies and training enhance the effect of the communication. Thirdly, leaders have to be trusted by other people in the organization. This is the critical point in transforming the organization. The leader should show integrity, openness and predictable behaviour. Overall, the leader should model the way in order to achieve the vision. Finally, the
leader should institutionalize and maintain their vision and values by empowering the members of the organization to accomplish the vision. In other words, more autonomy is given to the members of the organization.
Empowering techniques such as motivating, individual consideration, inspiring and supporting enhance the organization members' desire to achieve the vision.
The practices discussed above are thought to influence the performance of
subordinates, especially their commitment to the organization (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Yukl, 1994; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Bandura, 1988). The 47
influence of transformational leaders on the commitment of members to the organization is discussed in more detail in the next sub-section.
3.4. The influence of the transformational leader on the commitment of the members to the organization From the discussion so far, it arises that the transformational leader exerts
two main types of influence on the organization members. These are indirect influence on the organizational practices, and direct influence on the members of the organization (Yukl, 1994). A leader's indirect influence
can be created through a shared meaning among the organization members. This could be "a set of beliefs or values that can guide the organization and the actions of its members" ( Sashkin, 1986a, p 24). Shared meaning may be instilled by the leader by a series of practices that
is, creating the vision for the organization then communicating and sharing
the vision and values with the members of the organization (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Kouzes & Posner, 1987).
The leader's capacity to influence members of the organization to accept shared
meaning
becomes
a
critical
part
of the
success
of the
transformational leader. As Dilenscheineder (1992) concludes, the leader should be a master in communicating their great vision through judgement,
integrity and values, not through style. In this communication process the
leader should persuade through rationalising the need for revitalisation of the organization in order to achieve the vision of the organization (Bennis &
Nanus, 1985). The essence of this communication process is that the members of the organization must understand where they want to go and
why they are going there (Clemmer and McNeil, 1988).
People in the
organization will consider whether they are doing the right thing in the right 48
way both for themselves and for the organization (Dilenscheineder, 1990). Dissemination mechanisms such as rhetorical strategies, newsletters and training are tools that can be used in communicating the vision to members of the organization (Kouzes & Posner, 1987).
Once vision and values have been shared and accepted by the members of the organization, they become the source of worthy meaning through which the organization members to contribute to the organization. In other words,
the vision and values become the source of motivation for members of the organization.
The reason why this kind of motivation works is because, primarily, it
is
assumed that people's efforts and practices are influenced by their mental
picture which includes their vision, values, beliefs, images or even the stories which live in their awareness (Shamir, 1991). As Senge says "Our mental models determine not only how we make sense of the world, but how
we take action "(1992, p 175). Some writers see vision as a script, or "a set way of dealing with different problems" Such scripts become part of our self
image, and may influence our practices (Tichy & Devana, 1986, p 132). Furthermore
Gardner (1985 in Senge, 1992, p 175) conclude that our
behaviour is actively influenced by "a level of mental representation", that is,
the mental pictures that live in people's consciousness which influence and motivate our practices in everyday life.
Another reason for the success for shared meaning as motivation is that, the vision can influence people's fundamental human nature. In terms of pride in
their usefulness as a human being, Bennis & Nanus (1985, p 93) state that "great leaders often inspire their followers to high levels of achievement by
showing them their work contributes to worthwhile ends. It is an emotional 49
appeal to some of the most fundamental human needs—the needs to be important, to make a difference, to feel useful, to be part of a successful and
worthwhile enterprise ". This kind of self-image can give people a sense of energy to accomplish a vision.
Vision also gives a reason for being, a reason that influences the internal
paradigm of human consciousness to have meaning as a human being
(Covey, 1994; Boldt, 1993). Finally, a sense of vision can make an
organization become focused and directed to the vision itself. This is because the vision shows the members of the organization where they are going and why they are going there (Clemmer & McNeil, 1988).
The leader's role is to manage the meaning that they have instilled. By
providing and sharing vision and values in the organization, the leader provides a meaningful and worthy direction as a focus for the members of the organization. When the members of the organization have accepted the
vision and values, their leader's influence will work for them because they
have been part of something worthy and meaningful for themselves, and
they realize that they could make an active contributive to achieve the vision; hence they become proud as members of the organization (Bennis &
Nanus, 1985).
In addition to indirect influence, a leader can also have direct effects on
members of the organization. Direct influence should be exerted by a transformational leader at the organizational level as well as the individual level.
The motivational direction and focus instilled by a leader will be more acceptable at all
levels
of the
organization
once
the
leader
has 50
institutionalized and maintained the new vision and the values through the empowerment process.
Empowerment in this context is a motivational construct that encourages subordinates to act autonomously on the leader's vision and values in the organization.
Empowerment is "a process of enhancing feelings of self-
efficacy among organizational members" that can be provided by the leader
both at the organizational and the individual level (Conger & Kanungo, 1988, p 474). Self efficacy is "a sense of personal mastery or a can do attitude regardless of hopes for favourable performance outcomes" (Conger
& Kanungo, 1988, p 476). In other words, self-efficacy means the people's (subordinates') belief in their own capabilities to do their tasks.
Some practices may be provided by a leader at the organizational level to enhance the self-efficacy of subordinates. Participation is one such practice.
When subordinates are afforded the space to influence the decision making
process, their self efficacy will be enhanced. Another issue is autonomy.
With broader autonomy, the subordinates' sense of self-efficacy in their
work will be enhanced (Block, 1987; Conger,& Kanungo, 1988). Thirdly, there is the effect of modelling in the organization itself. People will become
more empowered when they can see a model who performs successfully,
especially a person who is admired (Wilson & O'Leary, 1980; Bandura, 1988).
Finally, trust,
and a supportive learning environment
in
the
organization, can reduce the emotional arousal state of workers for instance,
their stress and anxiety levels, and so enhance their sense of self-efficacy (Neilsen 1986 in Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Kostenbaum 1991).
As well as practices at the organization level, other practices may be pursued by the leader in order to enhance the self-efficacy of individuals in 51
the organization. Firstly, there is the "pygmalion effect" in which confidence is
expressed
in
expectations (Bass,
subordinates,
accompanied
Secondly,
1988).
by
high
performance
persuasive and encouraging
communication by their leader will enhance the self efficacy of subordinates. As Bandura, states "people who are persuaded verbally that they posses the
capabilities to master given tasks are likely to mobilise greater sustained effort than if they harbor self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies when difficulties arise" (1986, p 400).
When direct and indirect influences of the transformational leader occur simultaneously the commitment to an organization by its members is likely to
be enhanced. In other words, when the vision and values of the leader have been accepted by the subordinates, and at the same time the empowerment
process is in place, these two influences become the source of enhanced motivation and even greater commitment to the organization will result.
In this situation, when members have accepted and identified themselves with their leader's vision and the values for the organization, this will be the source of their own meaningful sense of worthiness and will result in extra
effort to achieve the organization's vision (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, Tichy & Devana, 1986; Kouzes & Posner, 1987).
The empowerment process, which encourages subordinates to achieve the
vision and the goals of the organization, enhances their sense of selfefficacy, which in turn makes the subordinates willingly provide extra effort
for the sake of the organization. This is because the self-efficacy of the workers will determine "how much effort they will exert in an endeavour and
how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles "in their work setting
(Bandura, 1988, p 283).
In other words, subordinates with higher self52
efficacy in their work have not only a higher work commitment, but also maintain a stronger commitment to achieve what they want to achieve. This
is because they regard "difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered", they
"exercise some control over situations" and "they judge their capabilities more in terms of personal progress" (Bandura, 1988 p 286-287).
This perception "fosters the [subordinate's] interest and strong involvement in their work" as well as fostering their "positive well being and performance
accomplishment" in the organization (Bandura, 1988, p 286-287). This is effective
in
helping
subordinates to
"increase
their sense of self
determination and to help them feel more powerful" (Conger, 1989 in Javidan, 1991, p 32).
In summary, when the source of motivation is something meaningful and worthy, provided by the vision and values which have been accepted in the
organization as its focus and direction, and when this is also supported by the empowerment process, both at organizational and individual levels, then
commitment to the organization by its members is enhanced (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Gist, 1987; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Bass, 1988; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Bandura, 1988).
Summary
This study attempts to understand how an effective leader's practices influence his subordinates' (trainers') commitment to the organization.
The literature suggests that there are four approaches to describe the leadership phenomena in an organization. These are the traits, behaviour, situational
and
transformational
approaches.
In
this
study
the
transformational approach was chosen as the framework for the study. This approach is an attempt to integrate the personal and behaviour approaches 53
and therefore it seems to be most appropriate for the nature of the research problem in this study (Bryman, 1992).
The literature relating to the transformational approach suggests that the personal characteristics and practices of a leader, through providing and sharing vision and values, and through instituting an empowerment process at the organizational level as well as at the individual level will exert a strong
influence on the subordinates' commitment to the organization (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Gist, 1987; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Bass, 1988; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Bandura, 1988).
The characteristics of transformational leaders include not only their own personal
characteristics,
but
also
the
social
dimensions
of
their
characteristics (Bass, 1990; Bryman, 1992).
The practice of a transformational leader provides and shares the vision and
values with the members of the organization. Such vision and values
become the source of worthy and meaningful motivation, as well as providing direction and focus for the organization. The vision and values of the organization will not be accepted if the leader cannot communicate them
successfully. The persuasive approach to communication seems to be the best approach in communicating the vision and values. Moreover, the leader
should institutionalize and maintain the vision and the values through an empowerment process at both organizational and individual levels (Bennis &
Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devana, 1986; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Conger & Kanungo ,1987).
The core theme of this empowerment process at the organizational level is that the leader should model behaviours based on the vision and the values, 54
give ample space for participation, provide autonomy and build trust and a
supportive learning environment. At the individual level, the leader should
express confidence and high performance expectations, and build on persuasive and encouraging communication (Gist,
1987;
Conger &
Kanungo, 1988, Bandura, 1988).
Chapter 4 describes the research approach, the research design and the limitations of this study and its research processes.
55
Three main aspects of the research methodology are discussed in this chapter. The rationale for an interpretive approach to the study is first presented, followed by a discussion related to the research design which employs a case study method, and the limitations of the study. Finally, the research processes are described.
4.1. Research Approach
The interpretive approach was chosen to gain an understanding of the Cihea AITC leader's best practices in influencing the trainers' commitment to the organization. There are four arguments to support this choice.
Firstly, the interpretive approach is appropriate to this study because it
enables the researcher to gain insights into the way the leader makes meaning out of what he has achieved in Cihea AITC. People are always interpreting their way of life, thought processes and actions according the meanings they construct about their situation . The Cihea AITC leader's role
and strategies are employed in order to influence a trainer's commitment to the Cihea AITC, and this is the result of the leader's subjective construction of meaning.
Another reason for using the interpretive approach is provided by Moore (1971, in Wiseman, 1978, p 3) who asserts that "Men act in accordance with their perception of the situation and action must be explained in terms of this
actual perception". Consequently, it is important to understand people's
perceptions in order to understand their actions. For example, the leader
who is a middle manager in the AITB organization, might be expected by his
superior to play certain roles.
Hence, asking for the leader's perceptions
about this may provide a better understanding of his actions.
Thirdly, the interpretive approach to research is appropriate in this study because its nature is to encourage the research subjects or respondents to participate in the research process. In other words respondents may
influence the interview results and change or add to the interview content if necessary. In this study, this characteristics of such participation are
relevant because the researcher, who is also a trainer in the AITB, does not
act as a knowledge provider for the Cihea AITC. Moreover, this approach suits the researcher because it provides the flexibility to modify the research
questions or tools that have been formulated. A cultural difference exists between the leadership literature in western society and the Cihea AITC context; hence the flexibility to adapt to the research situation, in Indonesia, is useful.
Finally, interactions with the trainers could create specific meaning and
patterns about the leader himself. In other words it could be said that subjective meanings arise from interactions between the people in the organization. Asking the trainers about their leader could provide a better understanding of the leader's practices.
4.2. Research design
A case study was conducted in order to understand the nature of the leader's practice and the influence of the leader's practices on the trainer's
commitment. This methodology was chosen primarily because the main objective of the study was to understand and portray rich and descriptive
meanings through a comprehensive understanding of the Cihea AITC 57
leader's perception, meaning and experiences, and to explore how these practices influence the trainer's commitment to the organization. The case
study method is appropriate here because of the types of research questions asked. Yin (1989, p 19) claims that "how and why questions are likely to favor the use of case studies".
The case study is appropriate because of the flexibility it allows to change
the plan of the research, the detail of research questions or even the techniques if the findings are unclear as the study progresses. As Yin (1989,
p 64) says the researcher "must remember the original purpose of the investigation, but then must be willing to change procedures or plans if unanticipated events occur" in the data collection process. For example, the
use of semi-structured questionnaires was considered suitably flexible for this study, because if the questions did not elicit clear data, it was possible to add more questions for clarification in the interviewing process.
From a practical point of view, the case study techniques were thought to be
useful in clarifying the details of how the leader influences the Cihea AITC trainers. Hence, this case study could become a tool for other AITC leaders
in Indonesia to reflect on, and so to develop their own ways of influencing
their trainers. The results of the study could provide insights into how the Cihea AITC leader acts and could then provide an example for the other AITCs to follow (Burns, 1994; Bryman, 1989).
Finally, it was considered wise to choose the case study methodology
because of the limited time and resources available to conduct this study in Indonesia (Bryman, 1989; Burns, 1994).
58
4.2.1. Limitations of the study As is the nature of the case study there were no variables to control in this study. However, four limiting factors were taken into account when this case study was conducted.
Firstly, there is the issue of the "Guinea pig" effect. People being studied have a tendency to change their actions in the presence of an observer or researcher. This occurrence could lead a respondent to behave in a more "normative and idealized" manner (Scmitt & Klimoski, 1991, p124).
In this
case study, the leader and the trainers all knew that they were being observed, and the potential existed therefore for their actions to have had a
tendency to change through the presence of the observer. This situation is acknowledged as a potential problem in this study.
Secondly, there is the possibility of observer bias. Because the researcher
comes from the same AITB as the respondents being studied, there could have been a tendency to select positive data when observing and collecting data.
A third limitation in the research methodology could exist in the power relationship between the Cihea AITC leader and the researcher. The cultural
context dictated that the leader had the authority to evaluate the researcher
as subordinate, and this could have influenced the results of the interview
interaction. However, to minimise this factor the researcher always asked the leader for concrete examples of what he had done. Moreover, there was
the potential tendency for the leader being interviewed to say what he should have done rather than answering what in fact he had done. This
tendency to say what should have been done often occurs when the interviewee feels that the result of the interviews will be used by other 59
people. In order to minimise this tendency, the researcher, in interviewing
the respondent, always asked the respondent to specify how a particular task was handled.
Finally, because the study was conducted
in
Indonesia, there was a
potential problem in the translation of the research data from Indonesian to English. However, help was sought from an English translator to verify that
the data used was accurately based on the meaning and contents of the original data.
4.3 The research process. This case study utilised a number of steps including the choice of the respondent, the choice of research techniques, conducting field work in Indonesia and analysis of the data.
4.3.1. The Respondents The Cihea AITC was chosen from among 32 AITCs in Indonesia as the site
of the research because it was considered to be a best model for other AITCs in Indonesia. This emerged through consultation with the AITB. The leader of the Cihea AITC provided the main source of data, along with the
Cihea AITC trainers. Seven of the 22 Cihea AITC trainers were invited to participate. The criteria for choosing the trainers were that.they had worked
in the Cihea AITC for a minimum of 3 years, and that they were willing to
participate in the study. These criteria are based on the assumption that, after three years' work in the Cihea AITC a trainer has a sound knowledge of the tasks and the role required as a trainer (See Appendix 3).
4.3.2. Research Techniques It is the nature of a case study to be concerned with using many sources of
data as evidence; thus documentary literature research, semi-structured 60
interviews, observations and questionnaires were chosen as the main data gathering instruments (Yin, 1989).
A documentary literature research was conducted in order to gain a descriptive
of
understanding
the
setting
and
its
organizational
circumstances.
Semi-structured interviews were used to elicit information, beliefs and opinions from the leader's perspective, especially regarding his leadership
characteristics and what he had done in order to influence the commitment
of the Cihea AITC trainers (See Appendix 4). The interviewing technique was also used to understand the trainers' perceptions about their leader's practices and the impact on them of those practices (See Appendix 5). A tape recorder was used to keep a record of the data during the interview.
The observation techniques were intended to understand and describe the practices of the leader in the organizational setting. The observation log and
field notes was used as a basis for understanding the patterns and content
of the leader's practices in relation to his interaction with the trainers (See
Appendix 6). This method complemented the interview techniques
in
understanding the leadership practices.
The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) used in this study
was adapted from the work of Mowday, Porter & Steers (1982) in order to investigate the trainers' organizational commitment to the Cihea AITC. This
questionnaire was used because it has been tested on a wide range of organizations such
as
public
employees,
hospital employees,
retail
management trainees, scientist and engineers and bank employees. In other words,
the questionnaire's
reliability and validity has been proven. 61
Adaptations were made to the questionnaire so as to emphasise the importance of the leader's influence on the vision and values of the organization (See Appendix 7). A translation from English to Indonesian was made in order to minimise bias in responding to the questions.
4.3.3. Conducting field-work in Indonesia. Three stages of the study were conducted during field-work in Indonesia. First was the preliminary visit. Before leaving Adelaide, the researcher held initial consultations with the AITB and Cihea AITC leader, who agreed to the
research being conducted in the Cihea AITC. However, written permission
was also requested from the head of AITB. A general outline of the study was explained to the Cihea AITC's leader and to the trainers. This included
the goal of the research, the research method to be employed and the rationale for the research. Consent forms were then signed by leader of the Cihea AITC and the 7 trainers who agreed to participate in the study.
The second stage of the field work was the data collection. Triangulation to ensure multiple data source entailed interviewing the leader and trainers, a documentary search, observations and questionnaires, thus increasing the data validity and reliability of the case study.
The first set of data was collected through four interviews with the leader using a semi-structured questionnaire (See Appendix 8). The total interview
time was about 4 hours. These interviews were conducted in an informal way. Sensitivity was required of the researcher so as to understand to the leader's meanings and words concerning his characteristics and practices. A tendency of the leader to dominate the talks was minimised by asking for
clarification and examples of what the leader had done in particular circumstances.
The use of a tape-recorder was an advantage to the 62
researcher, enabling natural and critical interaction with the leader. Another
advantage of the tape recorder was that additional questions arising during the interview process could also be taped. Following the interview, the taped
data was transcribed and transcriptions were then given to the leader to edit and to add or supplement where necessary.
After the interview process, direct observation of the leader was carried out. This was conducted during working hours, which allowed observations to be
undertaken while training activities at Cihea AITC were in process. The
leader was observed for 5 working days. During this observation the researcher played an authentic observer role by minimising interaction between himself and the leader. The nature of the leader's activities during the working day were written down in a log and in field notes. Wherever the leader went around the Cihea AITC, so did the researcher. The original plan
to use a second observer in order to increase the reliability of the observations was cancelled because the researcher could not obtain permission to do so. However, at the end of each observed working day, the researcher asked the leader for clarification of his activities.
The next step was collection of data from the trainers. The seven trainers in
this study were interviewed separately in a comfortable environment (See
Appendix 8). The trainers were asked about their perceptions of their leader's characteristics and practices, and about the leader's influence on
them. Conditions of mutual respect and trust were built up before the
interviews were conducted. The interviewees were reminded of their anonymity and of the confidentiality of the research. All seven respondents agreed to be taped. Each interview took approximately forty five minutes to one hour.
63
Following the interviews, the trainers were asked to complete the
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). The researcher provided
time for clarification of the OCQ, then allowed an appropriate amount of time for the trainers to respond to and return the OCQ.
The final stage of field work was to make a documentary search in order to understand the setting of the organization. Specifically, descriptive evidence
relating to of the AITB had changed between 1991 and 1994, and the performance of the Cihea AITC had changed during the Cihea AITC leader's
time. As part of this stage, complementary interviews were conducted with
the head of the AITB in order to understand the background. context of the study. This concluded the researcher's field work in Indonesia.
4.3.4. Analysis of the data
Analysis of the documentary search data was used to outline the circumstances of the Cihea AITC in relation to with the objectives of this study. Evidence of the effectiveness of the Cihea AITC during the leader's
time in office is supported by the background context and organizational setting of the study.
Interviews with the leader and the trainers provide the main data for the study. The transcriptions which had been given to the leader to be edited,
and the data from the trainers was coded and categorised. As Connole, Smith & Wiseman say (1993, p 151) "the purpose of categorisation is to attempt to define what is to be counted as a relevant data in showing what it
is that is happening; the coding is to interpret and give names to what have been picked out as the relevant data ".
64
Comparisons were made between the interviews of leader and trainers, the
observation data and OCQ data relating to the trainers views of the organization. Patterns of similarity and contradictions were re-categorised
under three main headings, that is, the characteristics of the leader, the practices of the leader and the influence of the leader's practices on the trainer's commitment to Cihea AITC organization.
The analysed data results were interpreted in light of the reviewed literature
using the explanation building method of analysis. As Yin says (1994, p 110), the aim of this method is "to analyse (and interpret) the case study data by building an explanation about the case" and "to stipulate a set of
causal links about it".
In this case, interpretation of the data tries to
establish possible relationships between the practices of the leader and the commitment of the trainers to the organization.
Summary The use of an interpretative approach, specifically case study methodology,
was considered appropriate to this study because of its ability to make
meaning about the characteristics and practices of the leader, and its flexibility to change the previous plans so long as the research still related to the research questions.
Case studies do not try to generalise their findings, but the case study method can in this study, provide an explanatory link between the leadership
characteristics and practices of the leader and the trainer's commitment to the organization. Chapter five reports, analyses and interprets the data from the study.
65
This case study
is
intended to understand the Cihea AITC leader's
characteristics and practices and how these practices influence the trainers'
commitment to the organization. In this chapter the researcher reports and
analyses the data from the study and interprets the data in the light of the reviewed literature.
Three main categories are used in this chapter: the characteristics of the
Cihea AITC leader; the practices of the Cihea AITC leader; and the influences of the leader's practices on the trainers' commitment to the organization.
5. 1 The Cihea AITC leader's characteristics The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader claimed that his personal power as a leader was based on his personal characteristics as a leader. There are
six characteristics that the leader believed to be the source of his personal power in influencing the organization and especially the trainers.
Firstly, the Cihea AITC leader possessed the characteristic of self integrity.
He asserted that his understanding about his personal strengths and weaknesses as a leader was one of the sources of his personal power.
"I am an open minded person. / don't like to lie to myself. That means I have to choose and to be responsible for the steps that I take. Whether it is red, black or white I will take responsibility for that".
Self integrity means that a person considers their actions and dares to accept the risk of their actions. It is the result of a person's strengths and weaknesses, so that people can choose their actions based on their free will
to choose an action. This kind of person can be categorised as honest with themselves, open and taking responsibility for their work (Bennis, 1989).
The leader said "I am open minded person...! don't like to lie to my self...! have to choose and to be responsible for the steps that I take." The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader could be seen as a person who has self integrity. The findings also showed that the leader was someone who dared
to take a stand for his actions and took responsibility for every move that he made in the organization. The leader accepted that he had "to choose and to
be responsible for the steps that [he] take[s], whether it is red, black or white
[he] will take responsibility for that.
In this regard the leader could be
categorised as a person who has "the ability to choose (his) response" in any circumstances and take responsibility for his action (Covey, 1992, p 40).
Secondly, the Cihea AITC leader was value-driven and had a future perspective for the Cihea AITC organization. He himself mentioned that one of his characteristics as a leader was that he always based his actions on his
values and his vision. The leader claimed: "I am a value-driven person. I believe all my expression as a leader here is
based on my values and my vision...! will not do something that contradicts my values and vision...! feel guilty if steps that I take are not based on my values."
The evidence points to the following interpretation. The Cihea AITC leader
believed that he was a person who based his actions on his values and vision for the organization.
His statement: "I will not do something that 67
contradicts my values and vision" tells that he was consistent with his actions.
He also believed that his values and vision were based on his understanding about the a AITC. He responded as follows:
"I know what! am doing in this Cihea A!TC. / could say that my life is in this Agriculture education. / know the ups and downs of this organization,!
am always invited to make some suggestions and con tributions to the development of the A!TB."
The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader understood what he wanted to do in the organization. His response: "! know what! am doing in this AITC" indicates that he was fully aware of his actions in the organization. He also
believed that his 25 years experience in agricultural education and his professional background2 in education, made him consider his actions in the
Cihea AITC. In other words, it can be said that the Cihea AITC leader not only knew what he wanted to do but also recognised why. The Cihea AITC leader said:
"It should be remembered that the Cihea A!TC is a government institution
which is an agent of change in agricultural development. For me, as an educational institution, / believe that this A!TC should try to instil values in sustainable ways to agricultural society...! believe as an educator we have
to be the model first before we can train other people. We have to remain
active to change and learn new ways, to create new opportunities; to provide the best services in a sustainable and accountable way so that we can try to fulfil the agricultural society's needs, hopes and wants."
2 The Cihea MTC leader hold a master education degree in vocational education from South
Huntsville State University Texas USA, 1979. 68
Effective leaders should be value-driven and have a future perspective for their organization. Most importantly, they know what they want to do and why
they want to do it (Tichy & Devana, 1986; Bennis, 1989). It seems that the Cihea AITC case supports what the reviewed literature suggests about the characteristics of effective leaders.
Thirdly, the Cihea AITC leader characterised himself as the agent of change: "I am a person who always tries to do the best that / can. / always strive to
be the best. / always express myself actively and proactively. / am the
man who is never satisfied in a positive way... / always try to change everything to be something better. / always try to develop new things for
the institution; of course, we have to make strategies and plans to do that."
This personal image as the agent of change means that the leader saw himself as the person who wanted to make changes for improvement in the organization. Most important here is that the leader believed that his efforts
to change things to be the best for the organization should be done in a
sustainable way. The leader's view that he was "the man who is never satisfied in a positive way" indicates that he had a strong image to be the agent of change for the organization.
Fourthly, the Cihea AITC leader regarded himself as a life-long learner. He said:" how can / be a leader of the training institution if! stop studying. In my
opinion that is impossible". For the Cihea AITC leader, his own learning should be connected with his efforts to achieve his vision. In other words, the effort of learning should be generative.
69
Generative learning is different to adaptive learning. Adaptive learning
means to learn in order to adapt to external conditions. It is responsive to external conditions. Generative learning on the other hand means that the effort of learning should be connected with one action to achieve the desired
end. It contains active and proactive effort from the learner him or herself (Senge, 1992).
It seems that the Cihea AITC leader supports what Senge (1992) claims about the importance of generative learning in the organization. The leader's
statements: "I always express my self actively and proactively in order to achieve my vision in the organization" indicates his generative learning effort in the organization.
More specifically his generative learning contained two things. Firstly, there was the self introspection effort. He said:
"If we understand our weaknesses we become aware of what is wrong with ourselves. Hence that makes me learn to change my self, my effort, my strategy in order to achieve our vision."
Moreover, during observations of the leader in the Cihea AITC, it was evident that he managed his time every day to develop his capacity in generative learning. For example, the leader read some books and journals connected with Cihea AITC business, and had discussions with other people to make and review a national education module on population.
A second aspect of generative learning is that the Cihea AITC leader believed failure was a beneficial error for learning. For him failure was something that he could learn from. "It doesn't mean I never fail. The important thing is that I always learn from the failure."
70
The fifth personal characteristic of the Cihea AITC leader was the ability to
cope with complications and unpredictable problems. For the Cihea AITC leader, complicated problems were not only a natural process in achieving the vision of the organization, but Were tasks he regarded a challenge to be achieved. He stated that:
"I always see problems as part of a natural process if we want to achieve
something; / can see that an obstacle is an opportunity to be the best. I always regard every task that I begin as a challenge to be met."
It seems that the Cihea AITC leader supports Tichy & Devana's (1986) claim, that an effective leader should have the ability
to cope with
complications and unpredictable problems of the organization. As well as
this the Cihea AITC leader believed that he could cope with complications and unpredictable problems because he could manage himself and control what he wanted to do in the organization. He responded in this way: "I think / can manage my stress, / believe it is because each act that I take
is always based on my vision and my values and I choose to do my task with responsible... In other words I can manage my stress because I can manage my self."
Finally, a personal characteristic of the Cihea AITC leader was that he could trust and show concern for his subordinates. The Cihea AITC leader always regarded his subordinates as his partners.
"I always tell my staff that they are not my assistants. I always remind them that they are my partners. This is based on my belief that people cannot be forced to do good work. It always depends on them to do the
good things. My task
I think is to inspire,
motivate and provide
opportunities for my staff."
71
These six personal characteristics of the leader, enabled him to be an
effective leader and to have charismatic power over his subordinates. Bryman (1992) proposes that such a claim of charismatic power should, in fact, be made from the subordinates and not claimed by the leader. In other
words, a leader can only be said to have charismatic power when the subordinates say so.
5.1.1 The leader's charismatic power. The charismatic power of the leader is his source of power to influence the trainers' commitment to the Cihea AITC organization.
One criterion of the charismatic characteristics of a leader is that the leader should have a vision for their organization (Bryman, 1992). It is evident from
the data findings that the Cihea AITC leader provides the vision for the Cihea AITC. Consider what the leader said: "I have always seen this AITC as a model for other agricultural institutions,
a service oriented-professional organization and architect of agricultural development especially for
agricultural
mechanization
and
water
management in this province."
According to Bennis & Nanus (1985), vision refers to "a mental image of a possible and desirable future state of the organization". Vision is not a goal
but it is the people's future concept of and value in the organization, which contains some worthy and internally desirable expectations. It seems that
the Cihea AITC leader's vision meets the vision criterion. The Cihea AITC leader's vision contains two main components; Firstly, the words " Cihea A!TC as a model... Professional.. .Architect in Agricultural mechanization and
water management " indicate a clear future focus for the Cihea AITC. 72
Secondly, this vision also contains an emotional, intellectual and social character. "As a model for other agricultural institutions" indicates that his
vision has a good character:
"a
professional organization" indicates
competence of the organization and "architect of agriculture development especially agriculture mechanization and water management in this province" indicates the social dimension of the organization. These vision components
indicate that the Cihea AITC leader's vision represents a future conceptual
state of the Cihea AITC organization which contains some worthy and internally desirable expectations for the members of the organization, It is
clear then, that the Cihea AITC leader meets the charismatic criterion proposed by Bryman (1992).
A second characteristic of a charismatic leader should be seen from the
social relationship perspective. The leader should be regarded by their subordinates as a person who has exceptional qualities (Bryman, 1992).
When the leader was asked about his relationship with his subordinates. He described it in this way.
"I always tell my staff that it is our duty to develop this Cihea AITC because it is our AITC, it is not my AITC. . . My aim is simple, / want them to
be encouraged and involved to achieve the vision and the goals of the organization. I want their involvement not because / am the head of the Cihea AITC, not because I instruct them, but because of my values which I share with them."
It can be said that the Cihea AITC leader believed that his relationship with his subordinates was based on a mutual relationship of respect. He believed
that the trainers' involvement and encouragement in the Cihea AITC should
be based on shared values, and that the relationship between the trainers 73
and himself should not be based on his instructions as the head of Cihea AITC.
From the interview data with the Cihea AITC trainers, it was evident that the
Cihea AITC leader was considered as having some negative as well as positive qualities. A few trainers perceived that the Cihea AITC leader was "inconsistent", "irritating", "sometimes gets angry" and "sometimes doesn't
want to listen". However, in general, the leader was characterised as having
exceptional qualities. They saw their leader as "charismatic", "energetic", "a wise man", "value driven" and "inspirational".
From the evidence it is apparent that the Cihea AITC leader fulfilled the
second charismatic criterion of social reciprocal processes between the leader and the subordinates. It is evident that the Cihea AITC leader encouraged social interaction between himself and the trainers. Moreover,
the leader was regarded as a person with exceptional qualities by his subordinates in the organization. The trainers' views of their leader as "charismatic", "energetic", "a wise man", "value driven", and "inspirational"
support the view of the Cihea AITC leader as a person with exceptional qualities.
The third criterion for charismatic characteristics is that the leader in the organization "is regarded by his or her followers with a mixture of reverence, unflinching dedication and awe" (Bryman, 1992, p, 41). The data shows that
the Cihea AITC leader also enjoyed reverence and awe from
his
subordinates. Consider how most trainers expressed their admiration for the Cihea AITC leader:
"I think my leader is a person who has special power which can make
other persons follow him. He is an optimistic old guy and never gives up.. .Another thing is that when he makes a speech other people feel that 74
he is always right, because of his analysis, and his voice; such a gifted and inspiring speaker".
"What makes me admire him is that he can usually see another perspective that we cannot see... Then at a critical point when we have a
problem, he himself easily will solve that problem.. .Another thing he always encourages our work zest and also, in my opinion, his concern is for the benefit of this Cihea AITC and for the prosperity of all the staff"
"I salute his plan and his capabilities to convince other people concerning
his efforts to sell the Cihea AITC to the agricultural community... I think he is a person who can always give value to other people."
"I
admire him because he has been able to totally change the
management system of his predecessor. I think he is a person who can inspire other people to do good things... I think he is the person who can convince other people because of the essence of his speech."
The data shows that the trainers admiration for their leader based on five things. Firstly, they admired their leader because of the vision and values that he tried to instil in the Cihea AITC. The trainers viewed their leader as "a person who can inspire other people to do good things", "the person who
can always give value to other
and as a person who "can usually
see another perspective that we cannot see". These comments indicate that the Cihea AITC trainers admire their leader because of the vision and values that Cihea AITC leader has instilled in the organization.
Secondly, the trainers admired the Cihea AITC leader because of his capacity to solve critical problems in the Cihea AITC. The data shows that 75
the Cihea AITC leader easily solved critical problems in the organization. Comments like "at a critical point when we have a problem, he himseff easily
will solve that problem" show how closely the Cihea AITC leader was involved in solving critical problems.
Thirdly, the trainers admired their leader because they saw that the leader had made a total transformation of the organization. The comment, "he has
been able to totally change the management system of his predecessor" is an example of several comments made that support the view that leader was
admired for the way in which he had transformed the organization
Fourthly, the trainers admire their leader for his efforts in promoting the
Cihea AITC for the sake of the organization. "I salute his plan and his capabilities to sell the Cihea AITC to the agriculture community"; "In my opinion his concern is for the benefit of the Cihea A!TC and for the prosperity
for all staff" It is clear that the promotional efforts of the Cihea AITC leader caused admiration for him.
Finally, the trainers admired their leader because they think he can easily convince other people. This was supported by comments like "I think he is a person who can convince other people."
The Cihea AITC leader can clearly be described as meeting all three criteria
for charismatic power provided by Bryman (1992). Not only does he provide
the vision for the organization, but he is regarded as a person who has exceptional qualities and he is a leader who enjoys the reverence and awe of his subordinates. In other words, the Cihea AITC leader has a charismatic power over his subordinates.
76
5.1.2 The leader's legitimate power
As well as the charismatic power of the Cihea AITC leader, he also considered that he had legitimate power as a leader. The Cihea AITC leader
expressed it in this way:
"I consider that there are two kinds of power in this AITC. Firstly, / was
given the authority by the A/TB to govern this AITC. Secondly, my persona! power as a leader... / want the trainers here to follow me not because / am the head of A/TC but because / am a good leader. I want them to be inspired and motivated by me so that they can think and act to develop their professionalism.
I will use my authority as the head of AITC
only if it is important."
The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader acknowledged both his personal
power and his legitimate power. He also considered the latter power as a
source to enhance his influence to transform the organization. The leader stated: "/ want them to be inspired and motivated from me", which indicates that the Cihea AITC leader prioritized his personal charismatic power as the
main source of his power. He would make use of his legitimate power in order to enhance his influence on his subordinates. "I will use my authority
as the head of A/TC only if it is important". It was evident that the Cihea AITC leader could use his power in a wise manner. He believed that his personal power was his primary source of power to influence the trainers and he would use his authority power only when he thought it was necessary to do so.
The use of power adopted by the Cihea AITC leader supports the finding of
Yukl & Falbe (1991) who assert in their study that, in general, personal power is more important than position power as the source of a leader's power to influence their subordinates. It seems that the Cihea AITC leader 77
had a strong understanding of how to use his power in a wise manner in the context of the Cihea AITC.
Bryman (1992) claims that the charisma of a leader may not be a personal characteristic of the leader.
It
depends on the perceptions of the
subordinates. The Cihea AITC leader is seen to have met the three criteria
suggested by Bryman (1992) and can be identified as having charismatic power and in this way, personal power. However, in the case the Cihea AITC
leader, it is evident that his characteristics also include personal power and legitimate power.
The Cihea AITC leader can specifically be characterised as a person with charismatic power, who considers his instructional power as the means to enhance his influence. Moreover, the Cihea AITC leader fully considered his
responsibility to ensure that his practices do influence the trainers' commitment to the Cihea AITC organization. He said: "I am the type of person who always thinks as well as taking action. only thinks and never acts".
/ am not the man who
In other words his power should be put into
practice. These practices will be discussed below.
5.2. The practices of Cihea AITC leader.
Discussing his responsibilities, the Cihea AITC leader believed that he provided a series of practices that he encouraged in others to enhance the trainers' commitment to the organization. The four practices that the leader employed are discussed below.
78
5.2.1. Providing and sharing vision and values
The Cihea AITC leader believed that the role of Cihea AITC as governmental educational and training institution should be as a provider of
values. In other words, he believed that his source of influence in the organization were his vision and values. He said:
"This is an educational institution so that! believe we have to think about values first before talking about capabilities and skills or professionalism. I
believe every move that I make here should be based on the vision and values that! try to share."
The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader's values and attitudes were the essential key features in the Cihea AITC. His response, "I believe, we have to think about values and attitudes first before talking about capabilities and skills or professionalism" indicate his position on the importance of values in
the Cihea AITC.
He clearly provided the vision for the Cihea AITC. His
vision for the organization was:
"Cihea A!TC as a model for other agricultural institutions, a serviceoriented
professional
development
especially
organization
for
and
agriculture
architect
of
mechanisation
agricultural
and
water
management in this province. In other words, I can say all the people here
should be three steps ahead of other Ministry of Agricultural officers and the farmers... a model, professional and a motor to generate agricultural development."
Moreover, the Cihea AITC leader said that he wanted to share his values with his subordinates:
"I believe that we cannot separate the individual, the position and the organization. Therefore I try to share three categories of values in this organization. At the personal level, I always say that we have to be honest 79
and open first, in other words we have to understand our strengths and
weaknesses. By understanding these, we can accept ourselves and choose what we want to develop in ourselves. After that we have to put
ourselves in other people's places. The point is how we can try to be accepted by other people on their terms and not expect other people to understand us. Of course in order to achieve this we have to do our task actively and proactively all our lives.. .At the position level, for example, a
trainer has to know and apply what he or she wants to train other people
to do, and so they have to consider their responsibility as a trainer. Of course they have to train themselves first before training other people, therefore development through learning and creativity are essential values that / want to share.. .At the organizational level, I believe there is a ,need
for integration. A trainer cannot train the trainee in a good way, if the catering people do not do their job properly, the catering people cannot do
a good job, if the drivers do not do their job in a good manner and so on. I
believe in one organization we have to be integrated... In short I can say
that the values I want to share in this organization are at the individual level to be honest, open and adaptable. At the positional level the values are responsibility and development through learning and creativity. At the organizational level it is essential to have cooperation and integrity."
Furthermore, the Cihea AITC leader believed that his vision should be linked with the values that he tries to instil. He responded:
"How can we become a model if we are not honest and open with our selves? How can we become a professional people if we do not provide
responsibility and learn all my life ? How can we become an architect of
agricultural development if we are not a good model ? How can we become an architect in this province if we do not provide professional services ?" 80
The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader does provide the vision and values that he wants to share in the organization. His understanding of the
vision and the values of the Cihea AITC organization indicate that he was fully aware of what he wanted to achieve in the Cihea AITC. For him, the vision of the organization should be linked closely with the values.
It seems clear that the Cihea AITC leader's priority was to manage the meaning of the organization through his vision of the organization. His view:
"every move that I take should be based on the vision and the values that / try to share" shows that his vision and values were the central theme of his
influence as well as an essential consideration in every action in the organization.
It is evident from the data that the Cihea AITC leader was fully aware of what
the Cihea AITC wanted to pursue in the future. The clarity of his vision and
values as the basis for action would not be clearly understood if he did not try to communicate and share his vision with all members of the
organization. As the literature suggests, communication of the vision
is
critical in order to share vision and values in an organization.
The Cihea AITC leader's case seems to support what the literature suggests.
He believed that sharing his vision and values with his trainers is an important theme of his influence. When he was asked about his relationship with his subordinates, the Cihea AITC leader responded: "I think I
try to share my values with my staff here. / want their
involvement not just because I am the head of Cihea A!TC. / believe that
the green line3 that can integrate all of the organization members is the vision and values themselves." Green line, in Indonesian terms means a good relationship between one and another. 81
In sharing his vision and values with his trainers, the Cihea AITC leader
used two main media, that is, informal training and formal or informal communication with his subordinates.
One medium of communication chosen by the Cihea AITC leader to share
his vision and values with the trainers was informal training. When he had the opportunity to train the trainees in the Cihea AITC, he would also ask his staff to attend the session that he provided. He explained:
"When there are training activities here, / usually train the trainees here with a session on the development of attitude and personality based on
Pancasila.4 I always ask my staff to attend the session. In that session
which is concern with developing the values and attitudes of the civil seivant, / always discuss the vision and the values that I try to share in this institution."
Most of the trainers interviewed, responded that they had attended sessions
on the development of attitude and personality based on Pancasila, conducted by their leader.
Another medium used by the Cihea AITC leader was formal or informal communication with his staff. The Cihea AITC leader always used every opportunity to communicate his vision and values. Events such as making a
speech at the flag assembly every 17th of the month (See Figure 5-1, p 144), trainers meeting and discussing, weekly meetings and even personal communications with his subordinates was used by the leader to
4Pancasila are the five basic principles of the Republic of Indonesia: The belief in one God
Almighty; Humanity that is just and civilised; The unity of Indonesia; Democracy guided by the wisdom of representative deliberation; and Social justice for all Indonesians. 82
communicate his vision and values. The Cihea AITC leader said: "I always emphasise vision and values when / get the opportunity to make
a speech. Occasionally I also communicate the vision and values when there are trainers' meetings and discussions and when we have a weekly meeting among staff or inter-personal communication."
From the observations of the leader, it seems that the Cihea AITC leader could be described as a good orator. Although, there was one trainer who did not like the leader's style of communication, most trainers' perceptions supported their leader as a good orator: "He is a good orator." "His speech is understandable." "Systematic and full of examples." "He is a fiery speaker."
"His speech provides a good, different perspective." "He is a gifted and inspiring speaker."
The data indicates that the Cihea AITC leader had the capacity to express his vision and values through his speech. Trainers responded by saying that his speech was "understandable'c
"a good, different perspective"
which provides evidence that the essence of the Cihea AITC leader's speech
was inspiring. Moreover, trainers' responses such as "systematic", "full of examples", "fiery speaker" indicated the excellent style of the Cihea AITC leader's speech.
This perception was supported by observation data recorded by the researcher when the leader gave a speech. In that speech, he never used a
single note and always spoke about relevant issues
in
a clear and
systematic way. He used gestures frequently, included brief anecdotes, 83
made a summary of his speech and established good rapport by always taking the initiative to shake hands with other people during greetings.
This evidence makes it difficult to support Dilenscheineder'S (1992) proposal
that the effective leader should be a master in communicating their great vision through judgement, integrity and values not style. It is obvious that in
the Cihea AITC leader's case, to be a great communicator of his vision, he needed not only an inspiring theme, but also a unique style in expressing his message.
The Cihea AITC leader's case supports the findings of Friedman et al (1980
in Kouzes & Posner, 1987) that an effective leader, in communicating the of their vision
essence
should
also
express that
essence with a
communicative style so that they "smiled more, spoke faster, pronounced words more clearly, moved their head and body more often [and were] more t
likely to touch others during greetings" (p123-124). However, in the Cihea
AITC leader's case there is a further style of expression which uses anecdotes, examples and symbols to enhance the effectiveness of the communication, so enhancing the effectiveness of the vision and values communicated.
The effectiveness of the Cihea AITC leader's communication effort was evident. Most of the trainers interviewed said that the organization's vision shared by the leader was that the Cihea organization should be three steps ahead. They also spontaneously stated that the organization's vision was to be
a
model,
to
display
professionalism,
especially
in
agricultural
mechanization and water management training centre, and to be like the motor that generates agricultural development especially in the West Java province. 84
One trainer expressed his understanding about the Cihea AITC leader's shared vision in the organization in this way: "I think the vision that the leader shares is that we have to be three steps
ahead of other institutions. Its essence I think is that this Cihea AITC should be the model for other agricultural institutions because the Cihea AITC functions as an educational institution. Of course to be a model, we
have to develop our professional capacities in technical, managerial and networking areas.
Based on these two things therefore we can be a
motor to generate agricultural development in this province."
The effectiveness of the Cihea AITC leader's effort at communication is not
only evident in his shared vision of the organization, but also in the values
that he wanted to share with the members of the organization.
Consider
what most trainers perceived about the values that the leader tried to share in the organization.
"I think, in this organization, we have to be open, flexible, responsible, and remain active through learning, team working and cooperation."
"I think we have to be accountable, adaptable, responsible, and develop through learning and creativity and integration."
"I think the values we share are openness, responsibility, discipline, flexible learning and team working in an open friendly environment."
"I think openness, being flexible and changing, responsibility, creativity and
team working to sell our services."
Another unique finding in the Cihea AITC trainers' responses is that when
the Cihea AITC trainers were asked about stories and symbols that their 85
leader shared with them which contained the vision and values of the organization, they could easily respond:
"When talking about the organization's vision or values, my leader can easily simplify the difficult concepts. For example I think everyone in this
organization knows the story of a sweeper in this Cihea AITC. The sweeper in this Cihea AITC is different from other sweepers. This is because the Cihea A!TC sweeper has to understand how to sweep, to look after the broom and how to train others in sweeping."
"He simplifies the vision of this organization into being three steps ahead
of other institutions. We have to be a model, a professional trainer and a motor that generates action."
"When talking about the value of integrity, my leader says this organization
should be integrated like our hand. In our hand we have thumb, index finger, middle finger, ring finger and small finger. You cannot eat properly for example if one or two of your fingers are broken or injured. That is why we have to look after all of our fingers."
"Look at this spiral [see Figure 5-2, p 145]. It means that we as trainers
exist in the spiral of the Cihea AITC. The small spiral exists in the big spiral, and we as trainers should make big waves that can be felt by other
dots in the spiral. In other words, it reflects our values of integrity in this institution. I made the spiral but the idea is from my leader."
The data shows that, although no formal statements exists about the leader's
vision and values in the organization, most Cihea AITC trainers could in fact
easily explain the meaning of the stories about values and vision and
86
symbols that the Cihea AITC leader wanted to share with all the members of the organization.
This is supported by analysis of data that compares what the leader wanted to share with the trainers and the trainer's understanding about their leader's values. The responses used most frequently by the trainers about the shared
values of the organization can be divided into three categories reflecting the
values that the leader, in fact, wanted to share in the Cihea AITC. Values such as "openness, accountability; adaptability, being flexible and changing"
can be categorised as self values. "Responsibility, discipline, learning and creativity" can be categorised as positional values; and finally "integration, team working, and cooperation" can be grouped as organizational values.
These findings lead to the interpretation that the Cihea AITC leader provided
a vision and values for the Cihea AITC. His efforts in communicating his vision and values to the Cihea AITC trainers were effective.
So it can be
said that, in general, the Cihea AITC leader successfully shared his vision with the trainers in the organization.
5.2.2.Declaration of the positioning of the vision The Cihea AITC believed that, after communicating his vision and values,
the second practice that he employed was to declare the position of the organization's vision. This action by the Cihea AITC leader supports what Bennis & Nanus (1985) describe as positioning, that is, "the set of actions necessary to implement the vision of the leader.. .if vision is the idea, then positioning is the niche the leader establishes" (p 46).
87
The Cihea AITC leader considered that the choice of identity for the organization as technical specialist should be based on the resources of the
Cihea AITC. The leader specified that the Cihea AITC's specialisation was as an agricultural mechanization and water management training centre. But
he also developed other capabilities that the Cihea could provide to the agricultural communities. The leader said:
"This Cihea AITC does not lie in a strategic place and it is far from Bandung.5 Therefore we have to declare our specialty area if we want to compete with other institutions. With the resources that we have, we have
specialised ourselves as an agricultural mechanization and water management training centre. We believe that we have to be professional in this area."
In order to communicate the declaration that the Cihea AITC specialty area was as an agricultural mechanization and water management training centre,
it was decided by the leader to conduct a 3 day course on agricultural mechanization in the Cihea AITC. This was attended by most of the staff (See Figure 5-3, p146).
However, while positioning the Cihea AITC organization
in agricultural
mechanization and water management, the leader did not ignore other skills that were needed by the agricultural communities. He said: "Of course our specialization is as an agriculture mechanization and water
management training institution. However, this doesn't mean that we do not develop other agricultural capabilities in this Cihea AITC. To answer our consumers' needs and wants we have now made a catalogue which contains all the skills that we can provide training for."
Bandung is the capital city of West Java province. It is about 55 Km from Cihea A1TC 88
It is clear that the leader was aware of the importance of responding to the Cihea AITC's "consumers needs and wants". He also developed other skill
training capabilities at the Cihea AITC in order to answer consumer need and wants. During the leader's time in office, the Cihea AITC produced a 22 page catalogue which contained all the skills that could be trained for by the Cihea AITC (see Appendix 8 for example).
The identity of the Cihea AITC was
by the declaration that the Cihea
AITC was an agricultural mechanization and water management training centre, which also tries to understand and answer consumer needs and wants.
Clarity of the identity of an organization can lead to what Bennis & Nanus
(1985) claim as "a clear sense of what it is and what it is to do. That is another way of saying choosing a direction and staying with it" (p 48). By
positioning the Cihea AITC by specifying its organizational specialization,
the Cihea AITC leader had declared the focus and direction for the organization. Such clarity in focus of what the organization would be in the future, enhanced their understanding of the leader's vision by the members of the organization.
5.2.3. Institutionalizing the vision and values in the organization
In order to institutionalize his vision and values in the organization, the Cihea AITC leader believed that he had to follow the AITB's rule of play. In other words the Cihea AITC leader used the structure of the organization to institutionalize his vision and values. He said:
"As the head of Cihea A!TC, I have to used the structure of this organization (see Appendix 2). I always maintain that all of these groups
should be integrated therefore, we usually have a meeting every Sunday 89
morning with representatives of every group. I can say that in this meeting
my main point is to try to institutionalize the vision and values of the organization. Of course we also discuss weekly reports of activities, problems that may arise and making action plans."
He also believed that in the organization the concept of "we" was essential. He expressed it like this:
"I just want to build images that this is not my organization. It is our organization. I believe that in this institution everybody should move in a
moving spiral. Everybody in this organization is one dot on the spiral. A
wave in one spiral dot should surge along other dots in the spiral. Trainers of course have the highest wave in that spiral; this is because of
their tasks and roles as educators.
/ can say that every participation,
every con tribution and every activities that is done by one person should
be linked with other people.
Every sub-system should be linked with
every other sub-system organically to achieve the vision of the organization. That is what / call organizational integrity. In other words I cannot build this institution without other people's participation. / always
keep saying that each person is needed to participate and make contributions to the organization, even a small thing. By doing this my hope is simple. Every staff member will feel a sense of belonging to the organization's vision and to the organization."
It seems clear that the Cihea AITC leader's principle objective was to transform the organization's members to have a sense of belonging to the vision of the organization. His statement: "I want to build images that this is not my organization, it is our organization" shows that the leader tried to build
a sense of "our organization" a sense of "organizational integrity" with his subordinates. His symbol that the organization should be a moving spiral, 90
expressed his hope that all the people could generate "a wave" or participate and contribute to achieve the organization' vision.
The Cihea AITC's leader considered that, to boost the sense of "we", the sense of trust and the sense of belonging to the o(ganization, was the most
difficult task for him to achieve. However, he tried to employed such practices to institutionalize the sense of "we" in the organization.
One of the practices of the Cihea AITC leader was to behave consistently with the regard to the vision of the organization. He said:
"I believe we have to be a model first. If you tell the trainer to be a good trainer, you have to be a good trainer first. if! tell other people to do A, of
course I have to do A as welL It doesn't matter whether it is A+ or A-. / say
this because people are not like a prophet, so making mistakes is naturaL
The important thing is you are trying consistently to do A. To prove that / am trying to behave consistently with what / say, I always invite my staff to
criticise me, my weaknesses and my practices, as long as they provide proof and that it is done for the benefit of this institution."
The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader behaved consistently in relation
to his vision and the values of the organization. His claimed that "if I tell other people to do A of course / have to do A as well'ç indicating that he was
behaving consistently with what he said. His statement: "It doesn't matter whether it is A+ or A-. / say this because people are not like a prophet, so
making mistakes is natural... The important thing is you are trying consistently to do A" showed that he was aware that behaving consistently was a difficult thing to accomplish. However, the data shows that his effort in behaving consistently was supported
by
permitting
criticism of
his
weaknesses and practices. 91
This permitting of criticism from subordinates by the Cihea AITC's leader was tested by one of the trainers interviewed. The criticism concerned one of
the policies issued by the leader and the result was a change in the policy. One of the trainers said:
"1 criticised the leader's policy which had caused nervousness among the
farmers that we had trained here. He responded to that criticism by changing the policy and he thanked me for my criticism. However, if you
want to criticise you should have the data for that, othe,wise he will get angry."
As discussed in Chapter 2, it could be assumed in a the hierarchical governmental organization like Cihea AITC, the leader's role would be so powerful that the employees would resist proposing changes or criticising
their leader's practices or policy. However, in the case of the Cihea AITC leader, it is difficult to support this assumption. This is because he provided
space and asked his subordinates to criticise his weaknesses or his policy
providing they could provide evidence and so long as the criticism were made out of concern for the organization.
This incident, given the cultural context, is an indication, of the uniqueness of
the Cihea AITC leader, providing support for his consistent behaviour concerning his vision and values; it also supports his self integrity.
A second practice that the Cihea AITC leader adopted to boost a sense of
"we" in the organization was to behave as an ordinary person as well as showing individual consideration in the organization. In other words he tried not only to be a friend but also to be the father of the organization. He said:
"I always try to minimise my distance from my staff You can see, I call my
92
trainers by their given name2 or adik3. I always try to be their father who is
concerned about developing their capabilities and prosperity."
This is supported by the observation data. The Cihea AITC leader always
took time to walk around, exchanging chit chat and humour, and he ate
durian4 with his subordinates during the break time. He was always concerned about his staffs families and always shook hands or put his arm around his male5 staff.
Another practice used to enhance the sense of "we" in the organization was
for the Cihea AITC leader to show his personal commitment towards the
benefit of the Cihea AITC as a whole. In other words the leader wanted everyone in the organization to feel that they had made a contribution, and that the results would be of benefit to themselves. The leader expressed it in
this way:
"I always remind them that all / do here actually is for the benefit of this organization. Of course / have to prove this. One way / prove this is, we -
always share the bonus every han raya6. In my terms, for example, at a party if we eat a chicken, everybody gets some chicken, but the leader will get the breast of the chicken. I think this is because of my responsibility as the institution leader."
By his actions recorded by the researcher during the observation phase of
this study, the Cihea AITC leader showed his personal commitment to the 2 It is unusual in the Indonesian government office life to call someone by his or her given name. This practice show the intimacy and the unique relationship between the Cihea AITC leader and his
staff Adik in Indonesian terms is an intimate name for some one who is younger. This practice actually is unusual in Indonesian office life. 4Durian is a local fruit with a hard, prickly rind which has a distinctive flavour and smell. In the Indonesian community it is extremely impolite to put an arm around a female. 6Hari raya is an annual celebration for Moslem people especially to mark the end of one fasting month. -
93
organization in many ways. For instance, although he suffered from kidneystones, he still came to the office to do his work.
A fourth way that the Cihea AITC leader used to encourage a sense of "we"
was that he always asked for other people's participation in the decision making
He said:
"I believe that every decision in this institution should be the best decision
for the whole organization. Every decision should consider as many
people as possible. Of course I have to make the decision making process as participative as possible. Everybody has the same opportunity
to influence the decision making process in our meeting. However, because / am the subordinate of the A/TB, sometimes / have to make a decision my self because it is an instruction from the A!TB."
The Cihea AITC leader considered that "every decision should be the best decision
for the whole organization". By providing ample space
in
participating in the decision making process, the Cihea AITC leader encouraged his subordinates to be involved.
Another practice adopted by the Cihea AITC leader to enhance the feeling of
belonging to the organization was to ask the Cihea AITC trainers to contribute to the organization by giving them wider autonomy to do their tasks. He responded like this:
"I believe every trainer here knows their main tasks and roles, therefore / give them wider autonomy to manage themselves and their groups to do
their tasks and roles.
I think my essential task as a leader here is to
manage the vision and the values of the organization. For example, designing a competency based curriculum is the sole responsibility of the
94
trainers. However, in deciding who will train what and how many, we will discuss this because it is a matter of organizational interest."
Finally, the Cihea AITC leader supported his efforts to create a sense of "we" by providing support for learning and opportunities for the trainers to act which were based on the vision and values of the leader. He expressed it in this way:
"I try to provide them facilities, recommendations and infrastructure so they can develop for the benefit of themselves and for this institution... Also, I give them opportunities to develop their capacities, for example, by providing dispensation to leave the job in order to study in Bandung; or by
providing opportunities for them to join the team for making national
modules, or by providing opportunities for them to be agricultural transmigration consultants.
In general I can say that we want team
learning to exist in this organization."
As discussed in Chapter 3, trust in an organization's vision can only be built through modelling which is consistently based on the vision, and by showing
integrity, openness and predictable behaviour (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Conger & Kanungo, 1988).
It seems that, in the Cihea AITC leader's case, his efforts to build a sense of
"we" or the sense of "our" organization among his subordinates was an essential theme in institutionalizing his vision and values in the organization.
Practices such as behaving as a consistent model, behaving as an ordinary
person, showing personal commitment, asking for people's participation in decision making and giving wider autonomy to the trainers and support for learning and opportunities were evident as
his major
practices
in
institutionalizing his vision and values in the organization. 95
5.2.4 Maintaining vision and values in the organization. The Cihea AITC leader used several practices to maintain the vision and
values of the organization, for instance, through individual face to face communication, through weekly meetings and through other opportunities as they were presented.
One of the practices used by the Cihea AITC leader was to connect relevant
new issues with the importance of the vision and values of the organization. Consider what he said in one of his briefings (see Figure 5-4, p 147):
"..In a time of globalization which is indicated by the rapidly changing information and in an era of competition with other AITCs as well as with
other training institutions,
we have to be prepared as an agricultural
communicator... We have to be aware that the government officers are always left behind if we compare them with private enterprise... Because
of that we have to consider this and prepare our selves, so that we can actively and proactively answer the agricultural development issues in the
future.. .As I always say, as the agricultural education institution we have
to be three steps ahead... We have to be the modeL.. a service oriented
organization and the architect of problem solving in agricultural development in this province... If we want to exist as the best AITC, if we
want to play the role as a communicator or influencer in agricultural development, we have to be three steps ahead; we have to improve our understanding, our knowledge and our practice in our specialisation as an
agricultural
mechanization
and
agricultural
water
management
organization."
The data shows that the Cihea AITC leader effectively connected relevant
new issues able to influence the organization with the vision of the organization; with the existence of the Cihea AITC as well as with the role 96
that the Cihea AITC could play in the future. For example, issues such as "rapidly changing in formation" and "competition with other A!TCs as well as another training institutions" were connected with the efforts of Cihea AITC to
achieve their vision. This indicates that he tried to maintain his vision while incorporating relevant new issues.
Moreover, during the observation period, the Cihea AITC leader also used every opportunity such as the organization's birthday, to maintain the vision
of the organization. He used the organization's birthday as an occasion to implement the vision of the organization. For example, during the birthday of
the Cihea AITC, all the staff helped the Kemang7 village community
in
various ways.
A second practice used by the Cihea AITC leader to maintain his vision and values was through motivating his subordinates. He said:
"I believe that having values is a source of motivation therefore I always
emphasise the importance of organizational values to my trainers.
I
always try to inspire them, I want everyone here to be creative and try new things. I think someone dies if they stop being creative. In other words I always challenge them to be creative people."
It is clear that, for the Cihea AITC leader, sources of motivation were not external but through inspirational and challenging communication that could
enhance his trainers' creativity individually, as well as at the organizational level.
Kemang is the name of one the poorest villages. It is about 8 Km from the Cihea AITC office. The choice of Kemang village was connected with the issue of poverty alleviation in agsicultural areas. 97
A third way in which the Cihea AITC leader maintained his vision and values
was by continually encouraging people to evaluate, criticise, improve his personal actions for the benefit of the organization. He expressed this in a speech made during the observation period: "I do apologise if you think that my words and practice are not appropriate to you. However, my action is always based on the good of this institution,
for the benefit of ourselves...! always make the opportunity for all of you
to criticise my weaknesses and my practices in this institution. Do not. doubt this, come to me, talk to me, criticise me for the benefit of us all, for the good of our institution."
The Cihea AITC leader also maintained his vision and values in the organization by celebrating small successes, praising them publicly when there were opportunities to do so. The leader explained:
"I always express my appreciation when we have done good work. When
there is the opportunities to do so, when I talk to my staff, at the flag ceremony, or at a weekly meeting. However, I will always say that it is not only because of the individual contribution but also because of the team's contribution. The trainers exists because the Cihea A!TC exists. It doesn't
mean that we do not appreciate the individual. We just want to keep focusing on the fact that we are integrated."
His expression: "I will always say that it is not only because of the individual
contribution but also because of the team's contribution" indicates that the
leader consistently tried to maintain a sense of 'our organization' in the Cihea AITC.
98
In order to maintain his vision and values among the organization members,
the Cihea AITC leader also used a coercive push where necessary. He expressed it in this way:
"Sometimes getting angry is necessary. However, !f I get angry, I never
blame one person,
/
always tell the trainers that it is a group
responsibility... I always explain that I did it in order to educate my staff!
use this anger to remind them to achieve this institution's vision, this institution goal."
In summary, it can be said that to maintain his vision and values in the organization, the Cihea AITC leader used practices such as managing to
connect new relevant issues with the vision and the values of the organization, motivating subordinates, encouraging people to evaluate, criticise and improve the leader's personal action, praising small successes and providing a coercive push if necessary.
5.3.The Leader's influence on trainers' commitment. As discussed in Chapter 3 there are two main influences that an effective exert over the members of an organization, that is, an indirect influence and
a direct influence. The indirect influence of the leader can be regarded as
effective when the vision and values of the leader are accepted by their subordinates, whereas direct influence is the process of empowerment that
the leader uses to enhance the self efficacy of the subordinates, reflecting the leader's vision and values for the organization.
It seems clear that the Cihea AITC leader's influence on the trainers was through his vision and values for the organization. In this regard it can be
seen that his indirect influence has been successfully shared with his trainers. This was evident when the Cihea AITC trainers were asked about 99
why their leader's vision and values were important to them. They responded like this:
"I can see the organization's focus and I feel useful in achieving the vision.,'
"I feel, we are different because we can give added values to other people.
"I feel proud that we are three steps ahead."
"I can see the direction of this organization. / feel a meaningful role here."
"I believe if we want to enhance our quality of life, we must depend on our values, attitude and capacity."
"I think in the era of competition with other training institutions, we have
to achieve the vision if we want to be the leader in the agricultural development in this province."
"I see it positively because I can see a future way and / think it is time that we developed ourselves to be the best."
As discussed in Chapter 3 it seems that the vision and values can work as sources of internal motivation for these subordinates in three ways.
Firstly, views such as "I can see the organization's
"I can see the
direction of the organization'c "I can see a future way" indicate the trainers' understanding of the clear direction and focus of the organization (Clemmer & McNeil, 1988). 100
Secondly, views such as, "I feel use
"I feel we are
"I feel
proud" indicate a sense of self-worth felt by the trainers. This indicates that "fundamental human needs—the need to be important, to make a difference,
to feel useful, to be part of a successful and worthwhile enterprise" are being fulfilled in the organization (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p 93).
Thirdly, views such as "I believe if we want to enhance our quality of life we
must depend on our values'c "we want to be the leader in agricultural development'ç "I think it is time that we developed ourselves to be the best"
"feel a meaningful role" indicate that the leader's vision and values provide meaning for subordinates as human beings (Covey, 1994 & Boldt, 1993).
This data leads to the interpretation that the Cihea AITC leader's vision and
values for the organization has been accepted by the trainers and fulfils fundamental human needs, providing the source of feelings of self-worth as well as a direction for the organization.
As discussed in Chapter three, there are two types of direct influence that a
leader can exert on an organization at both the organizational and the individual levels. At the organizational level, four practices can be used by
the leader to enhance the self efficacy of the subordinates in doing their tasks in the organization. These practices are modelling within the
organization, the provision of space for participation in decision-making, high
levels of autonomy given to subordinates, and a supportive environment in which to build trust.
These practices are also evident in the case of the Cihea AITC leader. However, in this leader's case it seems that building trust in the vision and
101
enhancing a sense of "we" amongst all the organization members were the essential goals to accomplish.
In order to build trust in the organization's vision, the Cihea AITC leader tried
always to behave consistently with the vision of the organization, showing personal commitment as well as acting as an ordinary person. Because he
showed a good consistent model, that he did the job for the benefit of the organization, that he was also a part of the organization, the subordinates
could easily imitate him as a good model and achieve the vision of the organization (Wilson & O'leary, 1980; Bandura, 1988).
Moreover, by inviting his subordinates' participation in decision-making and
by providing wider autonomy to his subordinates, the leader turn provided space for his subordinates to become responsible and to have a control over
their work, as well as to take the initiative to achieve the vision of the organization (Block, 1987; Conger & Kanungo, 1988).
Furthermore, the practice of the Cihea AITC leader in providing support for learning and providing opportunities for trainers, also ensured the means by
which the trainers could act in ways which were based on the vision and values of the organization.
As well as at the organizational level, the Cihea AITC leader influenced his subordinates at the individual level. As discussed in Chapter three, there are
two practices that a leader can provide in order to enhance the self-efficacy
of his or her subordinates at the individual, level;
through expressing
confidence in the subordinates and through high performance expectations, and persuasive and encouraging communication.
102
The Cihea AITC
case appears to support the literature review in this
regard. He had specifically developed practices that would enhance his subordinates' self-efficacy, based on the vision and values that he wished to instil into the organization.
The influence of the Cihea AITC leader's practice at an individual level are described below.
By using every opportunity to connect new issues with the vision, the leader
showed the importance link between vision and reality. By constantly remaining people to evaluate, criticise and improve their actions the leader
encouraged the subordinates to change in order to achieve the vision. These practices constantly inspired and challenged his subordinates to achieve the vision of the organization.
Moreover,
by celebrating small successes
in
the
organization
and
sometimes by getting angry in. a wise manner where the practices of the
subordinates were not
in
keeping with the vision and values of the
organization, the leader was able to reinforce self-efficacy within the organization. This was because every member of the organization could
easily understand what was being appreciated or not
in the life the
organization.
In summary, the Cihea AITC leader's practices at both organizational and individual levels did maintain the prominence of his vision and values as well
as empowering the Cihea AITC trainers to act on the basis of their leader's vision and values in the organization. Consider the trainers' perception when asked about their leader's influence,
103
at the organizational level, on their jobs as trainers in the organization. The trainers responded:
"I think the leader gives us autonomy, opportunity, support for learning as
long as it is for the sake of the organization. Sometimes he will get angry
if something is wrong with our performance. In that case, however, he never blames anyone, he always blames the group and in the end he will
say whatever happens in this institution is ultimately his own responsibility."
"I think, I can make a contribution in every meeting and the autonomy that
has been given to me makes me have control and responsibility to do my
job. Then he also provides means for the trainers to become leaders. For
example, every trainer here has the opportunity to lead assembly every Monday morning."
"I feel encouraged, because the leader gives me opportunities and support, like facilities or even dispensation to leave the job to develop my abilities as long as I am responsible for my own duties."
"The leader gives me autonomy, and the use of facilities as well as providing funds to do an agribusiness project in this AITC. In this regard I
feel that my leader gives me trust and challenges me to develop my personal capabilities."
"The leader gives me trust and the full responsibility to do my own job. He
always provides support for morale, funding, space for consultation and helps to ease our movement up the promotion rank."
104
"The leader gives us authority, responsibility to manage our trainer's group, and opportunities to develop our tasks as trainers. For example, the leader gives us a chance to be consultants in the transmigration area around Indonesia."
As has been said, as well as at the organizational level, the Cihea AITC
leader influences his subordinates at the individual level. Consider the trainers' view about their leader's personal style of expression: "I think he is brilliant in praise and always willing to acknowledge thanks at
the trainers' meetings, general meetings, or at institution birthdays. But in
this organization the success and contribution of one worker is the success and contribution of all workers, because we are integrated."
"He always talks to us about our success at every opportunity. However, I
think he never says that success is because of individual contributions. He always emphasises that it is the team's contribution."
"On one occasion, he said:" / believe that for this special job, only you
yourself can do it. For me that was motivating. Another time he challenged me by saying, How come you cannot do the work like this ?"
"I think he acknowledges that we have personal problems and he is very flexible and provides support for us to solve those personal problems. For
example, when one of our family is ill, we can have dispensation as long as we still are responsible for our main job."
"We always talk face to face especially about the key to success in life. For example, how he became the head of Cihea AITC. He always shares
105
his ups and downs to succeed. That process always motivates me to give the best that / can for this organization."
"We are is encouraged here to develop our creativity as a trainer, for example, I have made a bamboo8 wate,w heel. Although it is not so
successful, in fact, I am encouraged by my leader not to give up."
From the trainers' perception on their leader's influence on them both at the
organizational level as well as at the individual levels, it can be interpreted
that the trainers' self-efficacy in their work is enhanced. The claims of the trainers that they can. "have
"make a
that they "feel
"feel encouraged not to give up" as well as being given "trust
and challenge in order to develop (their] personal capabilities"
is the
evidence that their self-efficacy in the organization is enhanced (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Bandura, 1988).
It can be concluded now that there are two main influences of the leader has
on the Cihea AITC' trainers. Firstly, the Cihea AITC leader exerts influence through the vision and values of the organization, through maintaining them with new issues relevant to the vision and values, and through encouraging
his subordinates to evaluate, criticise and improve the leader actions in the organization. These practices influence the achievement of the Cihea AITC's
future directions. Moreover, these practices also influence the trainers' internal values and motivation human beings, that is, "the need to be important, to make a difference, to feel useful, to be part of a successful and
worthwhile enterprise" (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p 93). As discussed, this claim is evident in the expressed awareness of the Cihea AITC trainers.
is any of the woody or tree-like tropical grasses of the genus Bambusa.
106
It can be said that, the Cihea AITC leader's vision and values generate the
direction and focus for the trainers to achieve their meaning as human beings as well as to satisfy their personal needs in the organization. In this
regard the trainers feel that their own personal purposes can be integrated with the organization's purposes. In other words, the trainers feel that they
are part of the whole organization's effort to fulfil their fundamental needs and meanings as human beings. This understanding enhances their sense of energy to accomplish the vision and the values of the organization.
The second way the leader exerted influence was through the empowerment
process that enhances the self efficacy of subordinates. Practices such as
being a good consistent model, acting as an ordinary person, providing
ample space for decision making, allowing high levels of autonomy, providing support and opportunities, praising the subordinates and getting
angry in a wise manner influence the self-efficacy of the trainers to act in accordance with the vision and the values of the organization.
This is because with a good consistent model to achieve the vision, the Cihea AITC trainers could see the model to follow. By providing ample space
to participate and by giving high levels of autonomy to the Cihea AITC trainers, the leader empowered the trainers to be responsible and to take
initiative. By providing support and opportunities, the leader provided the means for the trainers to act within the vision. And finally by means of praise
and by getting angry in a wise manner, the Cihea AITC leader was able to
show what was being praised and punished in the organization, thereby reinforcing Cihea AITC trainers' self-efficacy to act in accordance with the vision and values of the organization.
With these two influences occurring simultaneously in the organization the
subordinates' commitment to the organization was enhanced. This was 107
because the trainers felt that they were part of the whole effort of the organization which gave them a sense of worth; because their self efficacy to
do their work was based on the vision and the values of the leader, this sense of worth was enhanced.
Evidence of the trainers' commitment to the organization is discussed below.
As discussed in Chapter three, one indicator of commitment to an organization is "a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization goals
and values" (Mowday, Porter & Steer, 1982, p 27). Table 5-1 below shows
the trainers' views on their leader's shared values and vision of the organization. This view was derived from the trainers' response to questions number 5, 8, 9 and 10 in the OCQ (see Appendix 7).
Table 5-1 Cihea AITC trainers' views on their belief in and acceptance of their leader's shared values for the Cihea AITC. Statements that represent possible feelings that trainers might have about Cihea AITC 1.1 find that my values and the values (vision) that the Cihea AITC' leader instil are very similar. 2.The Cihea AITC leader really inspires the very best in me in the way of job performance. 3.1 am extremely glad that I choose this Cihea AITC to work for over others I was considering at the time I joined 4.Often, I find it difficult to agree with Cihea AITC' leader policies on important mafters relating to its employees. (R)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
2
3
4
3
3
2
2 2
5
Source : Primary data (1995) Notes: (1) strongly disagree; (2) moderately disagree; (3) slightly disagree; (4) neither disagree nor agree; (5) slightly agree; (6) moderately agree; (7) strongly agree. An R denotes a negatively phrased and reverse-scored item.
The data shows that most of Cihea AITC trainers found that their values and the vision that the Cihea AITC leader shared were very similar. Only two
108
trainers were founçl to 'slightly agree'.
In response to whether the Cihea AITC leader really inspired the very best in
them in the way of job performance, four of the trainers 'moderately agreed' whereas three of the trainers 'strongly agreed'.
When the trainers responded as to whether they were extremely glad that
they had chosen to work for the Cihea AITC, two of the trainers 'slightly agreed' and the remainder of the seven trainers 'moderately agreed' and 'strongly agreed'.
Finally, most of the trainers claimed that they 'moderately' and 'strongly disagreed' that the Cihea AITC leader's policies were difficult to accept.
These opinions were supported during interviews with the Cihea AITC trainers about their leader's policy on important matters relating to them. Most of the trainers responded that they believed their leader's policies were for the benefit of the organization. Consider what the trainers said:
"I believe him because he always apologises if he thinks he is wrong; he is always asking other people to criticise and I notice that every move that he makes always brings in the Cihea AITC flag."
"I support his policies, because I can see that all that he does is for the
benefit of the organization, for the benefit of us. This is evident, for example, when we can see the development of the Cihea A!TC hall and dormitory, and when we got bonuses for all the employees."
"I trust him because. I can see that every move that he makes will benefit
our organization and ourselves."
"We always try to talk frankly in this organization; I believe that every decision in this Cihea AITC is for the benefit of this institution." 109
"I see that not all issues can be discussed in this organization. However, I
can accept it because / can see many things that have been developed by my leader in this organization."
"I always accept what has been decided in this organization. This is because we can participate in decision-making and all we have decided here is for the benefit of the Cihea AITC."
"I can understand and trust the leader's decisions, because I can participate in decision-making and I can see the evidence that what he has done is for the sake of this organization."
The data shows that most of the trainers shared the vision and values of their leader and accepted them as part of their own values. This indicates that they were not only committed to the leader's shared vision and values in
the organization but also to their leader's policies relating to matters that were important to them.
The second indication of the trainer's commitment to the organization is their
"willingness to exert considerable extra effort on behaff of the organization" (Mowday, Porter & Steer, 1982, p 27). Table 5-2 below shows the trainers' views on their willingness to exert considerable extra effort on behalf of the organization. This view was derived from the trainers' response to questions number 1, 11, 4 and 3 in the OCQ (see Appendix 7).
110
Table 5-2. The Cihea AITC framers' views on their willingness to exert considerable effort on the behalf of the organization Statements that represent possible feeling that trainers might have about Cihea AITC 1.1 am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this Cihea AITC be successful. 2.1 really care about the fate of Cihea AITC.
3.1 would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for Cihea AITC 4.1 feel very little loyalty to this organization
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
4
6
7
3
4
3 2
3
4
1
(R)
Source: Pnmary data (1995) Notes: (1) strongly disagree; (2) moderately disagree; (3) slightly disagree; (4) neither disagree nor agree; (5) slightly agree; (6) moderately agree; (7) strongly agree. An R denotes a negatively phrased and reverse-scored item.
Most
of the trainers 'strongly' or 'moderately agreed' that they put in
considerable extra effort for the sake of the organization.
Most of the trainers claim that they really care about the fate of Cihea AITC. Only one responded with 'slightly agree'.
Four of the trainers 'strongly agreed' to accept any type of job assignment in
order to keep working for Cihea AITC; two responded as 'moderately agreeing' and one responded as 'slightly agreeing'.
In response to feeling very little loyalty to the organization, most of the Cihea
AITC trainers 'strongly' and 'moderately disagreed'. Only one response of 'slightly disagree' is recorded.
It can be seen that most of the Cihea AITC trainers were willing to exert considerable extra effort on behalf of their organization. When they were asked why they wanted to put in extra working hours in the organization,.
most of them felt that it was their responsibility for the organization to be successful. They responded: "I think I always make a target to accomplish the job here."
111
"I think it is because I feel responsible as well as dedicated to the success of this organization."
"I think it is because of my responsibility as a trainer."
"I think it is a matter of responsibility to achieve the vision of this Cihea AITC. I don't think we get much material praise."
"I believe I am working hard for the success of this organization. / feel that this is my organization therefore we have to take care and develop it."
"I feel this is because of a sense of belonging to this organization. / feel this is my life, therefore I think it is proper for us to work hard and to take care and develop this organization."
"I think this is my organization therefore I will take care and fertilise this organization."
The trainer's perceptions that they were willing to provided considerable extra effort is supported by data obtained through observation of the Cihea AITC trainers in action. Their willingness to give considerable extra effort to their organization was evident in the Cihea AITC. For example, every trainer
acted as leader for a voluntary group working to maintain the Cihea AITC park. These group worked every second Friday. (See Figure 5-5, p 148).
Another example of extra effort was when each Cihea AITC trainer on a roster basis every 8 days acted as supervisor to a voluntary group for
112
siskamling9 in their organization. (One of the interviews with a trainer was
done at three o'clock in the morning during the siskamling). Some of the trainers also started work at 6 o' clock in the morning to lead participants in agricultural practices in the Cihea AITC. And some of the trainers could still be seen in the office at 8 o'clock at the night (see Figure 5-6, p 149).
It
is evident that most of the trainers in the Cihea AITC showed their
willingness to exert considerable extra effort on the behalf of the
organization, whether it was their main job as trainer or their task as a group member in the organization
A third indication of the trainer's commitment to the organization is their "strong desire to maintain membership in the organization" (Mowday, Porter
& Steer, 1982, p 27). Table 5-3 below presents the trainers' views on their desire to maintain membership in the organization. This view was derived from the trainers response to questions number 2, 6, 12 and 7 in the OCQ (see Appendix 7).
Table 5-3 Cihea AITC trainer's view on their strong desire to maintain membership in the organization Statements that represent possible feeling that trainers might have about Cihea AITC 1.1 talk up this organization to my friend as a great organization to work for. 2.1 am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization. 3.For me this is the best of possible organization for which to work. 4.1 could just as well be working for a different organization as long as the type of work are similar (R)
i
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
4
1
2
3
2
2
2
3
5
Source : 'Primary data (1995)
Notes: (1) strongly disagree; (2) moderately disagree; (3) slightly disagree; (4) neither disagree nor agree; (5) slightly agree; (6) moderately agree; (7) strongly agree. An R denotes a negatively phrased and reverse-scored item.
Siskamling-sistem keamanan lingkungan, is a voluntaiy group (5-7 persons) of male staff who act as a night security patrol in the Cihea AITC office, from 9 PM to 5 AM. 113
Five of the seven trainers 'moderately' or 'strongly agreed' that the Cihea AITC was a great organization to work for. Two trainers 'slightly agreed'.
Three of the trainers 'moderately agreed' that they are proud that they are
part of Cihea AITC, while two responded with 'strong agreement' and two only 'slightly agreed'.
Three of the trainers 'strongly agree' that the Cihea AITC as the best. possible organization for which to work,
while two responded with
'moderately agreement' and only two responses 'slightly agreed'.
When responding to the statement that the trainers could just as well be
working for a different organization, five of the Cihea AITC trainers 'moderately disagreed' and two were 'strongly disagreed'.
This data leads to the interpretation that most of the trainers wanted to maintain membership in Cihea AITC. The view is supported by the interview
data. When the Cihea AITC trainers were asked if they would take the opportunity to transfer to another AITC in Indonesia, only one of the trainers
said they would agree to being transferred on the condition that the other AITC would be similar to the Cihea AITC, or that it involved a promotion to be head of that other AITC. However, most responded that they did not want to be transferred to another AITC, for these reasons:
"I would transfer as long as the specifications were still the same as this AITC or if I could become the head of that AITC."
"I choose to stay here. This is because I feel proud and feel valued as a person in this organization."
"I don't want to transfer because I enjoy myself and I can develop my capabilities here."
114
"Frankly,
if / had a choice,
I
wouldn't want to because
I
feel the
environment is conducive here and I can develop all of my talents and capacities here."
"Of course / would choose Cihea AITC. This is because I feel at home
here, moreover I feel I have self esteem and this is because my aspiration are in this Cihea A!TC."
"I don't want to because / can develop my capacity here, where / am appreciated and have benefits. / feel this is my life."
"I have fallen in love with this Cihea AITC. / feel I have self worth here."
The data shows that the most of Cihea AITC trainers willingly chose to maintain membership in the Cihea AITC organization because they felt that they could "develop themselves'ç be "proud'c
"love" and
have "self esteem" in the Cihea AITC.
The data indicates then, that the trainers of the Cihea AITC meet the criteria described by Mowday, Porter & Steer (1982) as indicators of commitment to
the organization. Most of the Cihea trainers have a strong belief in and acceptance of the Cihea AITC leader's vision and values for the Cihea AITC
organization; most of the Cihea AITC trainers willingly provide considerable
extra effort for the Cihea AITC organization; and most of the Cihea AITC
trainers wish to maintain membership in the organization. These three indicators strongly support the interpretation that most of the Cihea AITC trainers have a strong commitment to their organization.
115
Sum mary It
is clear that the Cihea AITC leader influences the Cihea AITC trainers
through a combination of his charismatic power and his legitimate power. Practices of the leader, such as providing and communicating the vision and
the values and positioning the vision and values, influence the focus of the organization as well providing a sense of worth and meaning for his trainers.
Practices of the leader such as institutionalising and maintaining the vision and values in the organization influence the self-efficacy of his trainers to do
their job according to the vision and the values of the leader. These two influences have the effects of enhancing the
Cihea AITC trainer's
commitment to the organization.
116
It would not be appropriate in a case study to make generalisations .about the effectiveness of one leader in one organization. However, this study has
drawn some conclusions which may be appropriate for consideration in the
implementation of leadership policies as well as leadership development in the AITB in the future.
Considerations for effective leadership
An effective leader needs to show the characteristics of an effective person.
Personal characteristics such as integrity, being value-driven and having a
personal vision for the organization, being an agent of change, pursuing
generative learning, having the ability to cope with complications and unpredictable problems, and showing trust and concern in the organization can be categorised as effective personal characteristics in a leader.
These personal characteristics can enable an effective leader to have charismatic power over subordinates. However, an effective leader can only
have charismatic power over subordinates when the subordinates regard
their leader as a person who has a vision for the organization, who has
exceptional qualities and who enjoys the reverence and trust of the subordinates. It is obvious that in the context of the Cihea AITC leader, the
effects of charismatic power combined with the leader's legitimate power used in a wise manner, enhances the influence of the effective leader.
As well as possessing these qualities the effective leader should also implement a series of practices in the organization. There are four practices that an effective leader should employ in the organization.
Firstly, the leader needs to provide and communicate the vision and values
of the organization. The vision should contain an image of the future direction of the organization as well as being a source for meanings of worth
for the organization members. Two important themes should be considered
in order to enhance the effectiveness of communicating the vision, that is,
the essence of the vision and the values themselves, and the style of communicating.
Secondly, the leader should declare the positioning of the vision which is
aimed at clarifying the identity of the organization through its technical specialisation. Having a clear identity for the organization will enhance the
subordinates' understanding of the focus of the organization and the organization's actions.
Thirdly, the leader needs to institutionalise the vision and values or the sense of "we" through the existing organizational structure. Practices such as behaving as a consistent model as well as showing personal commitment,
giving ample space for participation, giving autonomy, providing support for
learning, and providing opportunities for subordinates to perform, can enhance the self-efficacy of the subordinates.
Finally, the leader should maintain the vision and the values
in the
organization, through connecting relevant new issues to the importance of
the vision and values of the organization; should motivate his or her subordinates through inspirational and challenging communication; should 118
keep on encouraging people to evaluate, criticise and there by improve their
leader's actions and should behave as an ordinary person as well as
showing individual considerations and concern for the welfare of the subordinates' families. Finally, the leader should celebrate small successes
and use anger in a wise manner. All these practices can enhance the selfefficacy of subordinates.
Consideration of these four factors can lead to enhancing the workers' commitment to the organization in terms of:
•
enhancement of the workers' meaning to achieve the vision and the goals of the organization
•
an increase in the workers' loyalty to the leader and the organization
•
maintaining the worker's loyalty to the organization.
The future implications of the study
It is hoped that this study can be a contribution towards:
1.
Providing references for policy making with• regard to leadership
characteristics and roles in the AITB context.
2.
Providing references for developing effective leaders in future training and leadership programs in the context of the AITB.
3.
Providing criteria to promote effective leaders. 119
4. Providing criteria for leadership recruitment in the AITB.
Future Studies in The AITC.
Following this research, it is suggested that future studies be conducted to examine the following areas in the AITC:
•
Perception of the roles of the trainers and staff in the organization
•
The influences of facilities on staff performance
•
Team learning in the organization
Such future studies could result
in
significant
advantages for the
organization in achieving its vision and its goals.
120
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Wilson, Holly Skodal (1985). 'Extracts from chapter 4, how to analyse qualitative data'. in Research in Nursing. California: Addison Wesley Menlo Park, pages 408-413.
Wiseman, Roger (1978). 'The need to include subjective meanings' in A study of the structured and processes of ethnic interaction in secondary school. Unpublished doctoral thesis, pages 3-7.
Woods, Peter (1981). 'Understanding through talk'. In Uttering, muttering: collecting, using and reporting talk for social and educational research. Edited by Clem Adelman. London: Grant Mcintyre, pages 13-26. Yin, R K (1989). Case study research: Design and methods (revised edition). Newbury Park California, Sage. Yin, R K (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (revised edition). Newbury Park California: Sage. YukI, Gary A (1981). Leadership in Organization. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Yukl, Gary A & Falbe C, M (1991). 'Importance of different power sources in downward and lateral relations'. Journal of Applied Psychology, volume 76, number 3, pages 416-423. Yuki, Gary A & Tracey J, B (1992). 'Consequences of influences tactics used
with subordinates, peers and the boss. Journal of Applied Psychology, volume 77, number 4, pages 525-535.
YukI, Gary A (1994). Leadership in Organization. 3rd edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall International editions.
127
128
LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX
Page
I
The organizational structure of AITB
129
2
The organizational structure of Cihea AITC
130
3
Trainer's job descriptions and roles in CiheaAlTC
131
4
Checklist questions for Cihea AITC leader
132
5
Checklist questions for Cihea AITC trainers
134
6
Log of leader observation
137
7
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire
138
8.
Interview schedule with the respondents
140
9
Example of skills that can be learned in the Cihea AITC
141
128
:1
I
Appendix 1. The Organizational structure of AITB Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1993
I 29
Appendix 2. The Organizational Structure of Cihea AITC Source: Ministry of Agriculture Decree, 1982 No 368
130
Appendix 3. Trainers' job descriptions and roles in Cihea AITC
The main tasks of the Cihea AITC trainers: •
To educate and train the trainees in the Cihea AITC
•
To design the Competency Based Curriculum in the AITC
•
To conduct training evaluation in the AITC
•
To guide and facilitate the trainees
•
To guide and facilitate the junior trainers
•
To develop educational/training program and educational/training material.
•
To design the educational/training program of the Cihea AITC.
•
To conduct research and development in educational/training programs.
The main roles of the Cihea AITC trainers:
•
Trainer (Facilitator)
•
Subject-matter specialist
•
Training consultant
•
Training manager
•
Liaison officer
Source: AITB (1986a) and AITB (1986b).
131
Appendix 4. Checklist questions for Cihea AITC leader
Personal characteristics •
How do you characterise the personal characteristics that have helped you to be the Cihea AITC leader? Can you explain?
•
What has been the key to your success in the Cihea AITC ? Can you explain?
•
How would you characterise your relationship with your trainers?
•
What do you believe are your sources of personal power?
Vision •
What is your personal vision for the Cihea AITC ? Can You tell me more?
•
Why do you believe this vision is important?
•
What values do you try to share in the Cihea AITC ? Can you explain?
Practices •
What strategies have you used in order to communicate your vision and these values ? Can you explain?
•
What media did you use in order to communicate your vision and values?
•
What philosophy forms the basis of your practice at the organizational
level?
132
I,
Institutionalizing vision and values at the organizational level •
How do you institutionalize your vision and values in the organization ? Can you tell me more ? Can you explain?
•
Do the trainers have an opportunity to participate in the decision making in Cihea AITC? If so, to what extent?
•
What kind of autonomy do you give to the trainers and to what extent? Can you explain ? Can you give examples?
•
Do you provide support for trainers? Can you explain? Can you give examples?
•
If your staff (trainers) have performed well, what do you do?
•
How do you solve conflict within the organization?
•
As an instructional leader, what specifically do you do in order to influence the trainers' commitment?
Maintaining vision and values at the individual level •
What kind of roles do you play in order to influence the trainer's commitment? Can you tell me a little more? Can You explain? Can you give examples?
•
How do you motivate your trainers?
133
Appendix 5. Checklist questions for Cihea AITC trainers
Leadership character •
How do you describe your leader?
•
Which characteristics or practices of your leader make you admire him?
Vision and Values •
What do you see as the leader's vision for this organization?
•
What values has your leader shared in you as a member of the Cihea
AITC?
Practices •
What is your opinion of your leader's speech?
•
What stories or symbols which contains the vision and values of this organization has your leader shared with you ? Can you explain?
•
How would you characterise your relationship with your leader? Can you
explain?
•
Do you think your leader is effective influencing your commitment to the
success of the organization to succeed ? Why? Why not? Can you tell me a little more?
134
Institutionalizing vision and values at the organizational level •
Can you participate in the decision making process in this organization?
To what extent?
•
What kind of autonomy do you enjoy in this organization ? Can you explain?
•
What support do you think your leader has provided in order to enhance
your commitment to the organization ? Can you tell me a little more ? Can you explain?
•
Do you think that a learning environment exists in this organization ? What kind of learning environment?
•
Can you develop your idea or creativity in this organization ? Can you give examples?
•
What appreciation does your leader give you when you have performed your best work? Can you tell me a little more ? Can you explain
•
How do you solve conflict within the organization?
•
Does your leader control your performance ? To what extent?
Maintaining vision and values •
What kind of roles do you believe the leader has played in order to influence your commitment as a trainer? Can you explain?
135
The influence of the Cihea AITC leader's practice on the trainers commitment to the organization •
Why do you think this vision and values are important for you ? Can you
explain?
•
To what extent do you trust your leader and your leader policies in this organization?
•
Why do you want to provide extra working hours in this organization?
•
If you have given the opportunity to transfer to other AITC will you take the opportunity? Can you explain Why or Why not?
136
Appendix 6. Log of leader observation LOG OF LEADER OBSERVATION
DATE:
ACTI VIII ES
CONTENT ACTIVITIES
CLARI FICATION
137
Appendix 7. Organizational Commitment Questionnaire
Dear Cihea AITC trainers,
This questionnaire is a set out as a series of statements that represent possible feeling that individual might have about the Cihea AITC for which they work. With respect to your own feelings about the Cihea AITC for which you are now working, please indicate the degree of your agreement or disagreement with each statement by checking one of the seven alternatives below each statement.
Responses to each item are measured on a 7-point scale with scale point anchors labelled (1) strongly disagree; (2) moderately disagree; (3) slightly disagree; (4) neither disagree nor agree; (5) slightly agree; (6) moderately agree; (7) strongly agree. An R denotes a negatively phrased and reverse-scored item.
Your honest responses to the different items that follow can provide very useful data for the project conducted by this student-researcher. Please be assured that your responses will be treated in confidence. Thank you very much for your cooperation Sincerely your,
SYAHRIZAL
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire
Response
1234567 I I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond
that normally expected in order to help this Cihea AITC be successful 2.1 talk about this organization to my friends as a great organ ization to work for 138
3.1 feel very little loyalty to this organization. (R) 4.1 would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for this organization.
UUUUUUU
5. I find that my values and the values (vision) that the Cihea AITC's leader instil are very similar. 6.1 am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization.
7.1 could just as well be working for a different organization, as long as the type of work is similar. (R)
8.The Cihea AITC leader really inspires the very best in me in the way of job performance. 9. I am extremely glad that I chose this Cihea AITC to work for, over others I was considering at the time I joined.
JLIULJUU
1O.Often, I find it difficult to agree with Cihea AITC' leader policies on important matters relating to its employees. (R)
11. I really care about the fate of Cihea AITC
12.For me this is the best of possible organizations for which to work.
Source : Adapted from Mowday, Porter and Steers (1982). Employeeorganization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism and turnover. New York: Academic Press.
139
Appendix 8. Interview Schedule with the respondents
No
Activities
T
i
me
Venues
1St Interview with the leader.
Monday/I 2-12-94/ 11.15 a.m. 12.15 p.m.
Leader's room.
2nd Interview with the
Briefing room.
leader.
Tuesday/13-12-94/12.00 p.m. - 13.00 p.m.
3rd Interview with the leader.
Tuesday/20-1 2-94/I 2.00 p.m. - 13.00 p.m.
Staff's room.
4th Interview with the leader
Monday/09-0I -95/ 11.15 a.m. - 12.15 p.m.
room.
02
Interview with trainer 01
Wednesday/I 4-12-94/ 17.00 p.m. - 18.00 p.m.
Trainer's house.
03
Interview with trainer 02
Thursday/I 5-1 2-94/1 2.00 p.m. - 13.00 p.m.
Work-shop
01
.
Leader's
room.
04
Interview with trainer 03
Thursday/I 5-1 2-94/16.00 p.m. - 17.00 p.m.
Field - hut.
05
Interview with trainer 04
Friday/16-12-94/II.00 a.m. - 12.00 am.
Guess House.
06
Interview with trainer 05
Wednesday/21 -1294/1 2.00 p.m. -13.00 p.m.
Trainer's
Thursday/22-I 2-94/12.00 p.m. - 13.00 p.m.
Trainer's
Tuesday/I 0-01-95/03.00 a.m. - 04.00 a.m.
Trainer's
07
08
Interview with trainer 06
Interview with trainer 07
room.
room.
room.
140
Appendix 9. Example of skills that can be learned in the Cihea AITC No
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Subject matter Agriculture Mechanization Engine Mover 1.1.Service and maintenance of diesel engine 1 .2.Trouble shooting for hand tractor Hand Tractor. 2.1.Service&maintenance of hand tractor 2.2.Operation of a hand tractor Repair shop 3.1 .Operation of a lathe engine 3.2. Repair shop management 3.3.Agriculture-appropnate technology Agriculture machinery feasibility 4.1 .Calculating agriculture machinery feasibility 4.2.Analysing agriculture machinery feasibility 4.3.Measunng agriculture machinery capacity Water Pumps 5.1.Water pump feasibility 5.2.Water pump services and maintenance 5.3.Calculating water pump capacity Agriculture pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest machinery 6.1.Reaper (service&maintenance) 6.2.Seed drill (service&maintenace) 6.3.Thrasher (service&maintenance) 6.4. Husker (service&maintenance) 6.5. Corn sheller (service&maintenance)
Conducted by
v v
v v
v
v V
v v v
v v v
v v v
vv vv
Note: v indicates that this skill can be offered by the Cihea AITC. w indicates that this skill can be offered by the Cihea AITC working with other organization Source: Cihea AITCb (1993).
141
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1-1.
The Cihea AITC office at Bojong Picung, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia.
143
Figure 5-1..
The 17 Th monthly flag assembly. An occasion that the Cihea AITC leader always uses to share his vision and values with the members of the organization.
144
Figure 5-2.
The "waving spiral", a symbol created by one trainer 145 based on the Cihea AITC leader's shared values. This symbol can be found in a strategic place of the trainers' room.
Figure 5-3.
The declaration of Cihea AITC as the agricultural mechanization water management training, was made during a 3 day course on agricultural mechanization for almost all the Cihea AITC staff.
146
Figure 5-4.
The Cihea AITC leader briefing the staff.
147
Figure 5-5.
Voluntary groups works every second Friday to maintain the Cihea AITC park. Each group was led by one of Cihea AITC trainers.
148
Figure 5-6.
The trainers having a discussion at 8 P M in the office.
149
142
Figure 1-1. The Cihea AITC office at Bojong Picung, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia.
143
Figure 5-1. The 17 th monthly flag assembly. An occasion that the Cihea AITC leader always uses to share his vision and values with the members of the organization.
I
r
iv'
144
Figure 5-2. The "waving spiral", a symbol created by one trainer based on the Cihea AITC leader's shared values. This symbol can be found in a strategic place of the trainers' room.
i 3
-
WIiTrA :s A A
.aa t...
.t.M*. ..ZLAi
-._
-
i
145
Figure 5-3. The declaration of Cihea AITC as the agricultural mechanization and water management training centre, was made during a 3 day course on agricultural mechanization for almost all the Cihea AITC staff.
11
146
Figure 5-4. The Cihea AITC leader briefing the staff.
147
Figure 5-5. Voluntary group works every second Friday to maintain the Cihea AITC park. Each group was led by one of the Cihea AIIC trainers.
148
s:
-
_______