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MODELS OF EDUCATION IN PLUTARCH Author(s): TIMOTHY E. DUFF Source: The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 128 (2008), pp. 1-26 Published by: The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40651721 Accessed: 19-08-2015 10:48 UTC

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JournalofHellenicStudies128 (2008) 1-26

MODELS OF EDUCATION IN PLUTARCH* Abstract:ThispaperexaminesPlutarch's treatment ofeducationintheParallelLives. Beginning witha closereading ofThem.2, itidentifies twodistinct a subject's waysinwhichPlutarch exploitstheeducationofhissubjects:inthefirst, attitude to educationis used to illustrate a character presentedas basicallystatic(a 'static/illustrative' model);inthe and educationis assumedto affect second,a subject'seducationis lookedat in orderto explainhis adultcharacter, character formsofdiscourse: (a 'developmental' model). Thesetwomodelsare oftenassociatedwithtwodifferent anecdotalforthestatic/illustrative modelandanalytical forthedevelopmental. Thedevelopmental model,furthermore, is closerto Plutarch'sthinking in theoretical discussionsof character in theMoralia; thestatic/illustrative modelto Plutarch'streatment of character in theLives moregenerally, whereanecdotaltreatments predominate.The coexistenceofthesetwomodelsis probably tobe seenas theresultofa tensionbetweenPlutarch's and philosophical thinking hisbiographical modeloccurincontexts where practice:thosefewpassagesintheLiveswhichassumea developmental eitherPlatonictextsortheactivity ofphilosophers arebeingdiscussed.

ThispaperwillexaminePlutarch's ofeducationandchildhoodintheParallelLives. It treatment is wellknownthatmanyPlutarchan Livesincludeintheirearlychapters material on theeducation oftheirsubjects,andthatgood educationis oftenassociatedwithvirtuous behaviourin laterlife andpooreducationwithmoralfailings.ButhowdidPlutarch see educationas actuallyworking? Whatis itsrelationship toadultcharacter?The first halfofthispaperwillconsistofa closereadI of ch.2 of the Themistokles. to demonstrate thiscase studythatPlutarch's treathope ing through mentof educationcontainswithinit a tensionbetweentwo models forunderstanding the ofeducationto adultcharacter. The first as intheprocessof relationship approachsees character thewayinwhichcharacter beingformedin childhood,andeducationas affecting develops;the secondapproachsees character as constant andunchanging, andas revealedin childhoodbehavIn thesecondhalfofthispaperI willtestthistheory toeducation.1 iourandinattitude againstthe treatment ofeducationin severalotherLives(includingthePhilopoimen, Coriolanus,Lysander, to findan explanation forthecoexistence Perikles,Fabius,MarcellusandMarius),and attempt ofthesetwomodels. I. PLUTARCHAND EDUCATION: A DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF CHARACTER intheMoraliahave treatises themeinPlutarch's Educationis an important corpus.Twosurviving theeducationofchildrenas theirmaintheme(How a youngmanshouldlistentopoemsand On Plutarch'spopular-philosophical works,suchas On lack ofanger,reFurthermore, listening).2 in orderto improvecharacter.In the of adult education stress importance continuing peatedly thesetextseducationis assumedtobe a keyfactorin determining character; good educationproeducationhas correspondingly motesgoodbehaviourand a virtuous character; pooror deficient to say oftheeducation negativeresults.In theParallel Livestoo,Plutarchoftenhas something * Versionsof thispaperwerepresentedat theAusandthe tralianNationalUniversity, MacquarieUniversity andOtago. Universities ofMelbourne, Canterbury Sydney, I am grateful to Jeffrey Beneker,MarcDomingoGygax, AlfonsoMoreno,StephenOakley,ChristoHubertMartin, pherPelling,PhilipStädterand theanonymousreferees the forJHSfortheircomments.I gratefully acknowledge Hellenic StudCenter for of Harvard University's support ResearchCentre. ies andtheANU's Humanities 1Modern hastendedtosee Plutarch's presscholarship as characterized entation ofeducation bythefirst approach alone. Gill(1983) andPelling(1988) noticedthatdespite

as seenin the Plutarch'sbeliefin character development, to itinmanyLives. De viri,moral.,he paid littleattention I discusstheirviewsbelow,pp. 18-19. 2 Can virtuebe taught?(Ei Cf. the fragmentary ÔiôocKTÒv fi àp£TT)). Other works now lost appear in the

LampriasCatalogue:On howtouseschoolexercises(néòç bei toîç axoÀiKoîç [Par. Ven.: oxoXacrciKoîçNeap.] Y')UvócG|iaoixpfl^ö«1»no- 106); Achilles' education no. 187). Theextant workOn theedTiaiôeíoc, (AxiÀÀécoç ucationofchildrenis notin theCatalogueand is consideredspuriousbymosteditors.

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whichPlutarchascribesto theeducation ofhis subjects;recentworkhas stressedtheimportance In well-known ones. several the Roman of his protagonists, cases, moralfailureis especially criticized linkedtopoororunbalancededucation;insomeofthesecases,Romansareparticularly toeducation, andgivingsuchprimacy forrefusing tolearnGreek.3In accordingsuchimportance theimportant rolethatpaideia(education, Plutarch no doubtreflects to Greekeducation, culture) in the late first and second themselves élites defined in the members of the Greek way played AD.4 centuries howdidhe conButhowdidPlutarch see educationas actuallyworking?Morespecifically, viewson ceiveoftherelationship betweeneducationandadultcharacter?Plutarch'sconsidered virtue. the moral On thistopicareprobablybestsetoutin one of his moretheoretical treatises, Here,ina polemicagainstStoicviews,he defendsPlato'sdivisionofthesoulintoa 'rational'and consistsin he argues,drawingonAristotelian an 'irrational' or 'passionate'part.Virtue, thought, theattainment oftheright'mean'betweenopposingpassions,thatis,whenpassionsareharmonized theorderordirection (ethos),as he putsit,is a 'quality'of imposedbyreason.Character through theirrational habituation (ethos),as theirrational partofthe partofthesoul;itis acquiredthrough soulis 'moulded',or failstobe moulded,byreason(443c-d). In otherwords,a person'scharactowhichtherational ter,hisabilitytoexercise'moralvirtue',dependsontheextent partofhissoul inhim. The mostvitalperiodforthe is able to influence andchange,through habit,theirrational as formation ofcharacter is in childhood:hencetheimportance ofgood educationin Plutarchan, inPlatonic,thought, of the child is moulded reason. connected the character Closely whereby by withthenotionof themouldingor trainingof theirrational is thedistinction whichPlutarch observesthroughout theOn moralvirtuebetween'nature'(physis)and 'character'(êthos). A A person'scharperson'snatureis whathe is bornwithandis,generally speaking, unchanging.5 acteris relatedtohisnaturebutis producedandaffected the extent to which reason actsupon by itthrough andbythekindoflifehe habitually leads.6 education, Itis clearfromthissummary Plutarch assumeswhatwe mightcall that,intheOn moralvirtue, a 'developmental' modelto explaintherelationship betweenchildhoodand educationand adult in otherwords,is assumedin childhoodor youthto be in theprocessof character.Character, formation. Natureprovidestherawmaterial; buteducation, andchildhoodinfluences andhabits moregenerally, a in role the formation of this a adult character. adulthood, play determining By - thoughadultcharacter settledcharacter hasbeenattained still be the conmay improved through ofreasonandgoodhabits,as Plutarch tinuing application arguesintheHow torecognizethatone is making and adultcharacter progressin virtue, maybe moreor less stableorunstabledependon the extent to which nature has been 'mixed' ortempered ing byeducationandreason.7Atany 3 Mar. 2.2-4; Cato Maj. 23.1-3. See Pelling(1989); Swain(1989) 62-6;(1990); (1996) 140-4. 4 See e.g. Bowie (1991); Anderson(1993); Swain (1996); Whitmarsh (2001); (2005). 5 Though,as Gill (1983) 478-9 has argued,physisis notso occasionallyused by Plutarchto meansomething fardistant fromcharacter, andinsuchcases Plutarch does seemtoacceptthatphysis,without may propereducation, change(Sulla 30.6; Sert.10.6;cf.Alk.16.9). 6 On natureand cf. De sera num.55 Id; character, 562b. See Dihle(1956) 63-4,84-7;Bergen(1962) 62-94; Russell (1966) 144-7 (= repr.1995, 83-6); Wardman (1974) 132-7;Brenk(1977) 176-81;Gill (1983) 473-4, of 478-81; Swain (1989). For a moredetailedsummary theDe viri,moral.,and further see Duff bibliography, (1999) 72-8;Gill (2006) 219-38.

7 See Gill (1983) 473-5; (2006) 417-19; Duff(1999) 90-4. A settledcharacter haveinstability as may,therefore, one of itssettled,consistent features: see Pelling(1990a) 235-7 (= repr.2002a, 315-16). Stability of character is a virtue,andimpliescontrolofthepassionsandobedience toreason;instability orinconsistency impliestheopposite (and is e.g. themarkof theflatterer: Quomodoadulât. 52a-b,52f-53a:discussedin Russell(1973) 93-6). Both can be reflected in thefaceor thegait:a 'fixed'face,for or o')vecrcr|KOç is a example(m0£GTr|KOc rcpóccorcov) or postureis a bad sign: good sign;mobilityof features see Duff(1999) 214. In a fewcases intheLivesPlutarch seemstosuggestthatunderthestressofgreatsufferings or reversescharacter maydeteriorate (e.g. Sert.10.4-7);itis notclearwhether thisis to be seenas a resultofunderlysee ing instability.On such cases of character-change, Brenk(1977) 177-9;Gill (1983) 478-87; (2006) 416-21; Swain(1989); Lombardi(1997) 385-95.

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character is stillbeingformed; influences on children fromeducation orenvironrate,inchildhood mentwillmouldandaffect theircharacter. Thismodel,whichis assumedin manytextsof theMoralia, lies behindsomeof Plutarch's in theLivestoo.8 But,as I hopeto demonstrate, theoretical statements itcannotsimplybe 'read across'fromsuchtextsof theMoralia intotheLives. As we shallsee in theThemistokles and fundamental to the Lives is another model of childhood and the role of which elsewhere, education, coexistswithandis intensionwiththefirst. II. THEMISTOKLES Educationand Themistokles' character:a staticmodel(Them.2.1-6) We beginwiththeeducationofThemistokles. The issueofThemistokles' educationor lackofit inthecenturies was muchdebatedintheancienttradition afterhisdeath:didhe perform hisgreat deedsbynativeabilityalone,ormusthe havehad a teacherto instruct him?9Afteran introductionon Themistokles' andthequestionofthelegitimacy ofhisbirth, Plutarch confronts ancestry theissueofhiseducationhead-on: oWójiio^oyeíxai(popaçjneaxòçeivai, Kai xfjijièv(púaei«xdvexóç, (2.1) "Exiôè Ticciç xfjiôè rcpoaipéoei év yàp xaîç àvéaeai Kai o%oÀ,aîç arcòxcov(laornuáxcov |ieyatampayjicovKai 7uoà,ixikoç. yiyvójievoç, oúkercaiÇev oàô' éppaioújieiKaGarcep oi noKkoircaîôeç,òXk' eupíoKexoÀoycroç Kai xivàç jieXexcov èauxóv. T]oavô' oí taSyoiKaxrjyopía Gi)vxaxxó|i£voç Tcpòç xivòçr' cwnyopía xcovTiaíôcov.(2.2) o0ev eící)0ei^éyeivrcpòçaúxòvó ôiôocomÀoçcbç'cxùôèvëaei, rcaî,oh jiiKpóv,àXkà jiéyarcavxcoc àyaGòv f' KaKÓv'. (2.3) ènei Kai xcovTcaiÔeúaecov f' rcpòçr'òovr'vxiva Kai %ápw xàç jnèvr|0O7uoun)ç Kai ànpoQviiux; è^et)0épiovG7to')8aÇo|iévaç òicvripcòç é^ejxávGave,xcovô' eíç aiiveaw r' 7ipa^w | Àeyojiévcuv ôfj^oçr'vímepepôv7cap'fi?iiKÍav, àç xfji(púaeiTiiaxeixov.(2.4) o0ev ^Gxepovév xaîç Kai aGxeíaiç À,£yo|uivaiç étaruõepíoiç oiaxpißaic vnòxôv nenaioevoQaiÔokowccov xkzva^oiizvoq, àjiiiveaoai, ^éycovoxi Xitpavjnèvàp|Lióaaa9ai Kai jnexa%£ipíoao0ai (popxiKcibxepov fjvayKaÇexo o')K £7cíaxaixo,nòXiv ôè jiiKpàv Kai aôo^ov 7tapataxßa>vevôo^ov Kai jneyá^riv '|/aXxripiov a7uepyáaaa0ai. he was intelligent by nature,butby (2.1) It is agreedthatwhenhe was stilla boy he was impetuous; andleisure,whenhewas freefrom choicefondofgreatactionandpolitics.Forinhistimesofrelaxation ofotherboys,buthe was alwaystobe found hislessons,he didnotplayortakeiteasylikethemajority ordefences them to himself. These or speechesconsistedofindictments speeches rehearsing composing ofthechildren.(2.2) Hencehisteacherused to sayto him'You willnotturnoutto be anything small, it his studies he devoted For even when came to for either or bad.' but sure, child, (2.3) good great, my or arepursuedwitha viewto to thosewhichformcharacter andunenthusiastically himself reluctantly but he had a liberal or passionbeyondhisyearsforall thatwas said accomplishment, clearly anypleasant and action,becausehe trusted his nature.(2.4) Hence,whenhe witha view to practicalintelligence saidtobe liberalandcultivated was latermockedinthoseactivities bythosewhoseemedtobe educated, that didnotknowhowtotunethelyre he hewas forcedto defendhimselfina rather vulgarway,saying orplaytheharpbuthe didknowhowtotakea smallandinglorious cityandmakeitgreatandglorious. (Them.2.1-4) 8

4.7-9: e.g. Lyk.-Num. Especiallyin theLykourgos, 'in that was order first education, they priority Lykourgos' mightnot differor be confusedin theircharactersbut mightbe moulded and fashioned(7iXaxxó(ievoiKai in a single fromtheonsetto walktogether x')7ioi)U£voi) notonlypassedlaws commonpathofvirtue'.Lykourgos butby meansof his educationsystem'fusedthem[the laws] intothe charactersof the boys', so thattheyre-

'likea strongandpenemainedin forceforfivecenturies trating dye'(cf.Plato,Rep.4.429b-430c):below,n.90. Cf. also Galba 1.3. 9 E.g. Thuc.1.138.3;Xen.Mem.4.2.2;AischinesSoc. FGrH 107 Fl (= Plut.Them. SSR VI A 48; Stesimbrotos on 2.5): all discussedbelow. On the literarytradition see Frost(1980) 3-39; Piccirilli(1983) ixThemistokles, xiv.

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ForPlutarch, even'whenstilla boy'(i.e. as wellas laterwhenhewas an adult),was Themistokles, and nature but'by choicefondof greatactionandpolities'. Thisis impetuous, 'by intelligent', a of famous of Themistokles as havinga powerful plainly reworking Thucydides' description natureandoperating (oiKeiai ... ^dveg£i)withoutstudy(Thuc. by 'his ownnaturalintelligence' 1.138.3). 10 The 'iév and theôé marka contrast, whichrunsthroughout thispassage,between The latter is a common for word almostequivalentto character, physis('nature')andproairesis. ethos.u Themistokles' is a buthisbentto action,andspecifibrilliance, then, naturalendowment; Buttheliteralmeaningofthewordproairesis callytopolitics,is an aspectofhissettledcharacter. Themistokles will laterin thepassage be seen to focusdeliberately on ('choice') is important: in and the to real education. practicaltraining, process reject Themistokles' deliberate concentration on practicalactionis confirmed in thenextsentence, wherePlutarch remarks on histendency nottoplaywiththeotherchildren buton thecontrary to his free time of or defence: he has an to the spend composingspeeches prosecution eye practical fromthebeginning.12 Because of his precociousconcentration on practicalskills('hence'), Themistokles' teachertellshim,'You willnotturnoutto be anything small,mychild,butgreat, forsure,eithergoodorbad'. In thefirstinstancetheteacher'swordsarea confirmation ofanda comment on his energetic in the But the which the teacher's words notion, activity schoolyard. whowouldperform eithergreatgood imply,ofa talented youngmanwithgreatnaturalpotential or greatevil forhis city,confirms Themistokles' talentsbutalso suggeststhattherewas some doubtas totheendtowhichhistalents wouldbe usedandthrows thespotlight ontohiseducation.13 Plutarch has notedtheattention to thepracticalinhisleisure paidbytheyoungThemistokles time. He nowturnsto his attitude to his lessons,and findsthatthesamebias extendstheretoo. Once againwe havea contrast markedby|iévandôé. On theonehand(the|ievclause),Themistoklesneglects'character-forming' studies(lòcç|ièv t)0otcoioÍ)ç se. Ttociôeúaeiç).14 On theother hand(ôé), he had 'a passionbeyondhisyears'(ÛTtepepcov) forpracticaltraining, 'sincehe puthis trustin hisnature'.15 The contrast worksalongthesamelinesas thecontrast earlierin theparabetween nature and now Themistokles' 'choice' is made morespecific: character, graph although he rejectsrealeducationbutconcentrates on practicaltraining. No information is givenaboutwhatexactlysuchcharacter-forming educationconsistedof, Plutarch does on to talk of Themistokles' in 'liberal and cultivated and though go inability pursuits' hisbeingunabletoplaythelyreorharp(2.4). It is in facta feature ofPlutarch's Livesgenerally lackofeducationanditseffects areoftencommented is neververy that,although upon,Plutarch 10 Òr' (pÚGeooç ...ßeßaicmxTcx io%x)vÔti^cbaaç ...* and prosecutiondid not exist at this period (though oiKeiai yap ^vvéoei Kai oike TtpouaOœv oúôèv Plutarchdoes not claim thatThemistokles'speeches éç ocuTnv oik' £7ti|ia0còv .... Hornblower ad loe. translates theanobeyedtheformalrulesofrhetoric).Butwhether (1991) 'fromhisownnativeacuteness','without ornot,itis oneofa number ofschoolanystudyeither ecdoteis apocryphal beforeor at thetime'. Gomme(1945) ad loc. notesthe yardstoriesthatforetell theriseofgreatfigures: e.g. Hdt. ofthesentence(is oik' ETUfiaOcov 'notlearning 1.114ofCyrusI. Cf.also Xen. Oik. 11.22-5,whereIschoobscurity later"?). Martin(1961) 327-31 discussesPlutarch'sex- machospractisesmakingforensicspeeches,and Cyrop. oftheHerodotean andThucydidean material on 1.2.6-7,whereboyspresschargesagainsteach other. ploitation 13See below, 9-10; there Themistokles' synesis;see also Piccirilli(1983) xiv-xv. pp. maybe allusionto ReArrian7.28.2also exploitstheThucydidean of public6.491d-495bandXen.Mem.4. 1.3-4. Theteachers' description Themistokles to describetheforesight ofAlexanderthe wordsalso recallandconfirm thenotionofThemistokles' Great. in thefirstchapterin 'greatness',whichwas introduced 11On the see Duff whatis probablyhis mother'sepitaphin whichshe is meaningoìproairesisin Plutarch, As Gill (1983) 479- imaginedto say,'I declarethatfortheGreeksI gavebirth (1999) 39, withfurther bibliography. 80 pointsout,theuse ofproairesisforcharacter reflects a tothegreatThemistokles' (1.1). See Duff(2008) 159-68. 14For commonancientviewthatvirtue'is notjusta habitorconin thissense,see Duff(1999) 37 and f)0o7toióç ditionedreflexbutdependson somekindofrationaldeci- thepassagescitedthere. 15 sion'. Cf.Gill (1996) 71-2,249-50. is Madvig's emendationof MS ÚTtepepcov 12Frost On thetextualproblemsofthissentence, see (1980) ad loc. maybe rightinclaimingon the ûrcepopcov. basis of Cic. Brut.12.46thatformalspeechesof defence Duff(forthcoming, b).

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informative aboutwhatgood educationmightactuallyhaveconsistedof,perhapsbecausehe consideredtheanswerto be obviousanduncontroversial.16 Music and literature, andperathletics, are intended here to be contrasted withthepracticaltraining which hapsphilosophy, probably Themistokles didreceive.17In othercases intheLiveswhererealeducationis showntobe lackas here,a contrast withwhatthesubjectconcentrated on instead,thatis, 'pracing,thereis often, tical'training: hereapparently rhetorical andpolitical,inothercases military.18 Whatis clearhere is thatThemistokles deliberately rejectswhatPlutarchpresentsas thekindof 'real' education whichwouldleadtovirtue.Theemphasisis not,though, on thebad resultsofThemistokles' lack ofeducation.RatherPlutarch sees inThemistokles' attitude toeducationthatsamebias infavour ofpracticalaction,whichhe saw in his behaviourin theschoolyard.So itis nota questionof educationinfluencing thewayhischaracter turnedout. Rather, Themistokles' toeducaattitude tionis seenas revealingpre-existing characteristics. to hispracticalstudiesat theexThemistokles, then,paidpassionateand excessiveattention studies.Thereremainsthephraseœçxfji(púoeimoTeúcov penseofrealcharacter-forming ('since he puthistrustinhisnature'),whichis taggedon to theendofthesentencein a veryPlutarchan consideredhis naturalabilitiesto be greatenoughthathe way.19The pointis thatThemistokles didnotneedrealeducation, which'formedcharacter' (fiGorcoioúç), onlythepracticalkind.This continues thecontrast betweennatureandcharacter whichrunsthroughout thispassage:Themistoklesrejectsactivitieswhichwouldimprovehis character in and showsan excessiveinterest i.e. which did not 'form' character since he nature alone. trusted practicaltraining training is confirmed This interpretation own assessmentof his by whatis givenlateras Themistokles' it when 'he his nature as reason or without education' was, (2.7: axe xfji youth, employed just avei) Kai K(X0' (pt>G£i aüxTivxpcojLievoç, ^óyoi) rcaiôeíaç). 'Hence' (Ö0ev),Plutarchcontinues(2.4) - i.e. because of his rejectionof characterforming on thepractical- 'whenhe was latermockedinthoseactivities said educationandconcentration tobe (tayo|iévaiç)liberalandcultivated those who seemed to be educated nenaiòevadai (xœv by he hadnotlearntmusic,he had learnt'how to takea small he repliedthat,although ôokoÚvxcov)' was plainlywell andinglorious cityandmakeitgreatandglorious'.ThisbonmotofThemistokles knownandgoes backat leastto Ion ofChios(FGrH 392 F 13 = Plut.Kim.9.1). Butas so often Plutarch uses whathe mayhavefoundas an isolatedanecdoteinhissourcesto makeorillustrate a pointaboutcharacter.Themistokles' sayingsuggestsnotonlyhisrejectionofliberaleducation in favourofpracticalpolitics.It also suggestsan arroganceandboorishness (cf.cpopxiKcbxepov); Themistokles' ownthoughts or 'focalisation', is probablytobe takenas representing ÔOKoúvxcov educated.20 Similarmightbe andcontainsa sneeratthose'seemedtobe' (or 'thought theywere') thecase withÀeyonévaiç('activitiessaid to be liberaland cultivated').These wordsconvey Themistokles'disdainforpropercharacterformingeducation,and give an insightintohis This continues the contrast betweenpracticalskillandartistic then, ineptitude story, psychology. the thisanecdoteis meantto confirm setup in theprevioussentences.The 'hence'is important: 16See intwostages:thefirst ofmusic(or stageconsisted Pelling(1988) esp. 266 (= repr.2002a, 290); working and the second 232-5 321literature: 2002a, athletics, (= 313-15); (2002b) mousikê) stagecon(1990a) esp. repr. ofwhichis sisted of philosophicaleducation(e.g. Rep. 3.40ld-e, 2. Formusic,athletics andliterature (thefirst bibconfirmed by Them.2.4) cf.Per. 4.1, withStädter(1989) 403c-d,7.525b-c). See Gill (2006) 134,withfurther inmusicwouldthusbe Themistokles' ad loc, andAlex.7.2, withHamilton(1969) ad loc. For liography. inability as well as thefactthathe didnotstudywitha 'liberalpursuits' (éA,£D0épioi oiaxpißai) see also^/&.2.5- significant, Kai real Dem. 4.4 7; {Them.2.4-6). èA,ei)0épa>i (xcové|iU£À,cov 7ipoGT|KÓvTcov philosopher 18 of arcaiÔedtoç).Plutarch's TtaiôiuaOrijicxTcov description E.g. Phil 3.2-4.10;Aem.2.5-6;Pyrrh.8.3-7;Mar. toreform theyoungDionysios,laterII, of 2. 1: all discussedbelow. Dion's attempts 19On thisfeature ofPlutarch'sstyle(viz. thetendency some oftheelementsandvocabulary combines Syracuse clauses or phrasesafterthemain to pile up subordinate notedhere{Dion 9.1). 17Plutarch by Platonic verb)see Yaginuma(1992). maywell herebe influenced 20Noted Holden notions:Platoin theRepublichad talkedof educationas (1884) ad loc. by

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wherethestresswas on neglectofliberalstudiescombined statements oftheprevioussentence, didnotknowmusic,buthe didunderstand on practicalstudies:Themistokles withconcentration andlovepracticalactionandpolitics.21 hisdevelopment, Whatis atstakeso far,then,is nothowThemistokles' pooreducationaffected hereas whichis presented ofpropereducationrevealedabouthischaracter, butwhathisrejection Plutarch is the where static. This sentences, goes interpretationsupported by following basically studied.It was a commonplacefromthe on to discusstheteachersunderwhomThemistokles withteachers.22 onwardstoassociateleadingstatesmen Plutarch fourth rejectsonchronocentury claim that Themistokles studied under Stesimbrotos' Anaxagorasand Melissos logicalgrounds him to one who 'what was then calledwisdom(sophia), andrather assigns Mnesiphilos,23 taught Kai butwas in realitypoliticalclevernessand activeintelligence'(2.6: ôeivóirixatcoÀitiktìv that skills rather than what Plutarch had earlier termed is, ôpaaxripiovaúveoiv) practical political In asserting studies.24 thatThemistokles didnotin factlearnwisdom,Plutarch character-forming of Herodotos,who had severaltimescalled himwise (sophos)(8.110, 124). mightbe thinking For PlutarchThemistokles was notwise in thetruesense,butmerely- thoughimpressively and skilful.25 Forreaderswhoremember theirHerodotos,thepointis notso mucha intelligent correction ofHerodotos, buta pieceofsophisticated criticism: literary sophia,as Plutarch says,had a different and so hisreadershouldtakeHerodotos'ascription ofit meaningin thefifth century, inthislight.26 toThemistokles Thecontrast herebetweenintelligence andwisdomis important; itis alignedwiththecontrast, central tothispassage,betweenpractical andtrueeducation, andbetweennatureandchartraining acter. Plutarchhas alreadyemphasizedThemistokles'devotionto whathe termedxcov... eíç aúveaiv r' rcpa^ivt kzyo'iév(ùv and ac('what was said witha view to practicalintelligence The cróveaiv recalls this: his under tion'?).27 phraseôpocGiripiov ('activeintelligence') studying It also recallsxfji¡lèvyvcei Mnesiphilosis an exampleofthisdevotionto practicaltraining.28 of theuneducatedThemiscovexóç('intelligent by nature')in 2.1 and Thucydides'description in 'his own naturalintelligence'(1.138.3). All thisprovidesa new and very toklestrusting Plutarchan twisttotheThucydides ofwhich passage,whichPlutarch pressesandtheimplications he drawsout,emphasising Themistokles' lack of educationin real characterforming pursuits, that he must have had some thoughassuming practicaltraining. Themistokles' clevernessand skillwill,ofcourse,haveimportant results:Plutarchwilllater ascribethevictoryat Salamispartlyat leastto 'thejudgementand clevernessof Themistokles' 21Thissamecontrast willrecurin Them.5.3,theonly othermentionof musicin theLife:Themistokles 'when still young' persuadesthe famousharpistEpikles of Hermione topractiseathishouse.He didthisnotbecause he was interested in music,but 'because he was eager thatmanypeople would ask forhis ((piXoTiuxyojievoc) houseandcomeandvisithim'. 22Frost(1971): Cooper(2002) 318-19. 23 in Hdt.8.57-8as giving Mnesiphilosis mentioned Themistokles advicejust beforeSalamis,a storywhich Plutarch rejectsintheDe Herod,malig.(869d-f)anddoes notincludeintheLife(see belown.34);hisnameappears on some ostraka.He appearsas a speakerin Plutarch's andMneSymposium ofsevenwisemen.On Themistokles siphilos,see Ferrara(1964) 55-60;Frost(1971); Piccirilli (1983) ad loe. 24 ComparePlutarch'ssimilarclaim in Per. 4.2 that Perikles'teacherDamon,whowas reputed tobe a teacher ofta mousika, was reallyan 'extreme ao(psophist'(ocKpoç iOTT|ç)andused thenameofmusicas a coverto conceal

hisdemotes(see below,pp. 14-15).Deinotêsis cleverness - as Aristotle orskill,evencunning putsit,theabilitytoattain one's aim, whethergood or bad (NE 1144a). On deinotêsinPlutarch, see Frazier(1996) 210-12;for'political cleverness'(ôeivóxriç cf.Lys.2.4. noXixiKi]) 25 Notably Plutarchcharacterizesthe trickingof Xerxestowithdraw afterSalamis,whichHerodotossawas showingThemistoklesto be truly'wise and of sound judgement'(aouaXocKÒv alludes toRep. imo xò ë%(ov ^óyoi) rjGoç) 3.41la-b (coorcepoíoripové(iá^a^£ mi xpr|ai|xovéÇ The mentionof theolderBrutus' èrcovnaEv). à%ç>j'oTOV his thymos ('he ranhimselfaground... through thymos also makesclearthatallusionto this againstthetyrants') passageis intended. 90Cf. A.I-9 and Galba 1.3 (above, n.8). Lyk.-Num. Boththesepassagesare discussingeducationin general,

rather thantheeducationofa particular andso individual, itis perhapstobe expectedthattheywouldhavemuchin commonwithPlutarch'stheoreticaldiscussionsin the Moralia. Buttheimageofeducation as a dyeinLyk.-Num. 4.9 makesclearthatthisis an allusionto Plato's discussion of thefirstphase of educationat Rep. 4.429b-430c theref(cf.Cic. 32.7 withMoles (1988) 180-1). Similarly erencein Galba 1.3 to theneed forsoldiersto have 'a noblenatureanda philosophical whichblendsthe training, and activewiththecalmandhu(to thymoeides) spirited mane'is introduced as a Platonicidea,andprobexplicitly ably alludes to passages such as Rep. 2.376b-cwhich discussesthetraining requiredoftheguardians.

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thatitis thesepassageswhichlook to good educationto changethesubject,and that surprising theserarepassageshave muchin commonwiththeconceptof educationand character which Plutarch in his own works. propounds philosophical To claimthatthecoexistence ofthesetwomodelswithintheLives,orwithinthesamepassage ofa singleLife,is theresultofa tensionbetweenphilosophical andbiographical thinking practice is not,ofcourse,tosaythatPlutarch was confused inhisthinking. Weourselvesemploybothmodels in different contexts.Whenthinking in a primarily or sociologicalcontext, or psychological whenwe aremindedto be sympathetic, we tendto thinkofdevelopment andto have an interest inunderstanding; whenthinking inthecontextofjudgement orwhenwe aremindedto condemn - especiallyin a legalcontext - we ourselvestendto thinkin termsofa staticcharacter.Indeed withinourownlegalsystems childhoodmaybe usedbothwaysfordifferent purposes:to explain andtherefore toprovideearlyindications ofdelinquency.91 excuse,oralternatively Nor arewe dealingwithtwothought-out positions.We are dealingratherwithtwowaysof whichareintension, notincontradiction, butwhicharedeployedfordifferent thinking, purposes. thedevelopmental modelmighthavebeencloserto Plutarch'sconsideredviewson Presumably childhoodand education,thoughevenconsideredviewstendto fluctuate accordingto context. But an approachto character whichsaw it as staticwas moreappropriate fortheprojectof the withitsmoralconcernsand its focuson 'great' Lives,and to thegenreof politicalbiography, deeds. Itis not,then,thatincaseswherePlutarch character as staticthepossibility is expresents cludedthatdevelopment have taken The difference is rather one of in might place. emphasis: such cases (andtheyarethemajority intheLives)Plutarch does notinvitethereaderto thinkin those thestatic/illustrative modeofthinking, whichworksso well forthepresentation ofmoral terms', is dominant.92 exemplars, does thedevelopmental modelsquarewithPlutarch'sethicalconcerns?Even How,finally, modelis particularly suitedtomakingmoraljudgements, itis notthe thoughthestatic/illustrative case thatthedevelopmental modelexcludesa moralsensibility. As Gillpointsout,Plutarch's own in theprocessbywhichvirtueis attained, ethicalworks,whichshowa greatinterest havea promoralbentandareconcerned aboveall withhowto actvirtuously.93 Andthosefewpasfoundly in an in in the Lives which show interest the which character is formedare written sages way a moral the in from But moralism such contexts is itis ofa more different: equally perspective.94 less kind. It makes a difference to the waywejudgeCoriolanusifwe knowthat thoughtful, brittle, hisunsociability was causedbya lackofpropereducation, itselfa resultofRome'sowncultural And when Plutarch excessive ambition tohis impoverishment. explainsLysander's byreference and claims that nature should not education 'his be blamed too much for we this', are Spartan moreunderstanding sortofmoralattitude.95 Thesepassages,then,opena dealingwitha softer, moralregister whichis altogether deeperandmorecomplex.Butsuchpassagesare,as we have textsorterms, ortheactivity ofphilosophers themseen,rareandonlyoccurwherephilosophical in are such contexts does Plutarch a mode of common elseselves, discussed;only adopt thought whereinhiswritings, andlookto educationas an explanation. TIMOTHY E. DUFF University ofReading 91As Pelling(2002b) 322 has pointedout,muchof moderndebateaboutjusticeand thecourtsis concerned withhow to reconcilethesetwoapproaches:how fardo we aimto condemnortounderstand? 92 Gill (1983) 476-7. Cf. 93Gill (1983) 473-4. 94 Pelling(2002a) 312-3 ('Explanationis ... at the serviceofethicalassessment').

95 Pelling(1988) pointsto theLys.,withitstragicfeamoralism tures,as an exampleof 'descriptive' ('pointinga truth ofhumanexperience rather thanbuildinga modelfor crudeimitation or avoidance',p. 274 = repr.2002a,297). Thecomplexity intheLys.andthelackof ofthemoralism see also Duff(1999) easy answersare certainly striking: ch.6. Butmypointhereis a narrower one:thepresenceof thedevelopmental modelnecessarily bringswithita softer moralregister.

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TIMOTHY E. DUFF

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