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CONTENTS TROPICAL BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 1 e-ISBN: 978-1-84826-272-0 ISBN : 978-1-84826-722-0 No. of Pages: 266 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 2 e-ISBN: 978-1-84826-273-7 ISBN : 978-1-84826-723-7 No. of Pages: 252 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 3 e-ISBN: 978-1-84826-274-4 ISBN : 978-1-84826-724-4 No. of Pages: 268 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 4 e-ISBN: 978-1-84826-275-1 ISBN : 978-1-84826-725-1 No. of Pages: 406 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 5 e-ISBN: 978-1-84826-276-8 ISBN : 978-1-84826-726-8 No. of Pages: 322

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TROPICAL BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS VOLUME I Tropical Biology and Natural Resources: Historical Pathways and Perspectives K. Del-Claro, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

1

Introduction The Foundations of Tropical Biology 2.1. Linnaeus, Humboldt and the Illuminists. 2.2. The Victorian Naturalists. New Insights in Tropical Biology. Important Topics in Tropical Biology. 4.1. Tropical Ecology. 4.2. Tropical Botany. 4.3. Tropical Zoology. 4.4. Tropical Agriculture, Phytopathology and Entomology. 4.5. Other Topics. Conclusion and Outlook.

The Importance Of Natural History Studies To The Knowledge Of Tropical Plants 23 H. M. Torezan-Silingardi, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Uberlndia, Minas Gerais, Brazil 1. 2.

Introduction This Session

Seasonally Dry Deciduous Forests: Diversity And Soils In Arboreal Communities 27 A. R. T. Nascimento, G. M. Araújo, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Brazil J. M. Felfili, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília (UNB), Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Ecology and community structure Arboreal vegetation in seasonally dry tropical forests in Central Brazil Soils and Vegetation relationships Final Remarks

Morphology And Anatomy Of Tropical Flowers Luiz Antonio de Souza and Ismar Sebastião Moscheta, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Biologia, Avenida Colombo, 5790, (87020-900) Maringá, Paraná, Brasil 1. 2.

41

Introduction Flower morphology and anatomy 2.1. Hypsophylls 2.2. Floral Pedicel 2.3. Floral Receptacle 2.4. Anthophylls 2.5. Perianth/Perigone 2.5.1. Calyx 2.5.2. Corolla 2.5.3. Perigone 2.6. Hypanthium 2.7. Androecium

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

2.8. Gynoecium 2.9. Ovule Nectary Flower diagram and formula Prefloration or Aestivation Inflorescences Anthesis Pollination 8.1. Abiotic pollination 8.2. Biotic Pollination Fecundation

Tropical Aquatic Plants: Morphoanatomical Adaptations 84 Edna Scremin-Dias, Botany Laboratory, Biology Department, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

Introduction and Definition Origin, Distribution and Diversity of Aquatic Plants Life Forms of Aquatic Plants 3.1. Submerged Plants 3.2. Floating Plants 3.3. Emergent Plants 3.4. Amphibian Plants Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations Organs Structure – Morphology and Anatomy 5.1. Submerged Leaves: Structure and Adaptations 5.2. Floating Leaves: Structure and Adaptations 5.3. Emergent Leaves: Structure and Adaptations 5.4. Aeriferous Chambers: Characteristics and Function 5.5. Stem: Morphology and Anatomy 5.6. Root: Morphology and Anatomy Economic Importance Importance to Preserve Wetland and Wetland Plants

Natural History And Ecology Of Neotropical Mistletoes 133 Rafael Arruda and Rodrigo F. Fadini, Coordenao de Pesquisas em Ecologia - CPEC, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaznia - INPA, 69011-970, CP 478, Manaus - AM, Brazil Fabiana A. Mouro and Claudia M. Jacobi, Laboratrio de Interao Animal-Planta, Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Cincias Biolgicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG, 31270901, CP 486, Belo Horizonte - MG, Brazil Grazielle Sales Teodoro, Setor de Ecologia, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras - UFLA, Lavras - MG, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Introduction Taxonomical relationships, geographical distribution and mistletoe diversity in Brazil Effects of mistletoe infestations on plant communities Reproductive biology Mistletoe-host interactions Metapopulation dynamics of mistletoes in Brazilian savannas Economical relevance: are mistletoes pests on agricultural systems or natural plant populations? Conclusions and perspectives

Plant Strategies For Seed Dispersal In Tropical Habitats: Patterns And Implications 155 Natália O. Leiner, André R.T. Nascimento and Céline Melo, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Instituto de Biologia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil

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1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

Introduction 1.1. Megafaunal Syndrome Plant strategies to Attract Frugivores 2.1. Fruit/Seed Size Constraints 2.2. Visual and Olfactory Displays and Nutritional Rewards 2.3. Phenological Strategies 2.4. Opportunist x Specialist Plant Strategies Fruit Choice by Animals Deposition Patterns and Frugivore Efficiency as a Seed Disperser Seed Dispersal and Restoration Ecology

Index

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VOLUME II Impact Of Humanity On Tropical Ecosystems: An Overview Oswaldo Marçal Junior, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

1

Introduction Ecosystems 2.1. Tropical Ecosystems Relationships between Humans and Natural Ecosystems Consequences of the human population growth Environmental Impact 5.1. Natural Impacts 5.2. Anthropogenic impacts Evaluation of environmental impacts Perspectives of the tropical ecosystems conservation Scope and organization of the session chapters related to human impact on tropical ecosystems

Deforestation and Forest Fragmentation in the Amazon 23 William F. Laurance, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Balboa, Republic of Panama Heraldo L. Vasconcelos, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, C.P. 593, 38400902 Uberlândia, MG, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

Introduction Causes of deforestation Forest fragmentation Ecological impacts of forest fragmentation 4.1. Nonrandom Deforestation 4.2. Area Effects 4.3. Distance Effects 4.4. Edge Effects 4.5. Matrix Effects 4.6. Synergistic Effects Characteristics of fragmented communities 5.1. Changes in Species Composition 5.2. Changes in Trophic Structure 5.3. Changes in Ecological Processes 5.4. Changes in Ecosystem Processes 5.5. Ripple Effects

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6.

Conclusions and conservation implications

Human impact on tropical freshwater environments 40 Marcos Callisto and Marcelo S. Moretti, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciencias Biologicas, Departamento de Biologia Geral, Laboratorio de Ecologia de Bentos, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Introduction Water Usage Policy: From medieval civilizations to the present Water resources degradation and loss of benefits Schistosomiasis – Efforts to control this tropical disease What to do to minimize water crisis? Environmental Biomonitoring Programs Freshwater Biodiversity in Tropical Areas Watersheds as the main focus for integrated intervention acts Reference Sites for Biomonitoring Efforts in Tropical Watersheds Maintenance of riparian vegetation as an intervention action Litter Breakdown as a tool to assess Human Impacts

Effects of Pollution and Wildlife Toxicology in Tropical Ecosystems 70 Yaico Dirce Tanimoto de Albuquerque, Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Instituto de Quimica, Campus Santa Monica,, Uberlandia, MG, Brazil Flavia Nogueira de Sa and Maria Teresa Raya Rodríguez, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociencias, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9.

Introduction Soil and Biodiversity of the Terrestrial Ecosystems Tropical Forests and Ecological Services 3.1. Biodiversity and Benefits 3.2. Hydrological Cycle and Climate Control Deforestation and Climatic Changes Pollution and Living Beings Closer Look at some Atmospheric Pollutants 6.1. Natural Sources of Pollutants 6.2. Anthropogenic Sources of Pollutants 6.2.1. Primary Pollutants, Smog Photochemical and Ozone 6.2.2. Particulates Closer Look at some Soil Pollutants Effects of Pollutants on Biodiversity and Decline of Forests 8.1. Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants 8.2. Effects of Particulate Materials 8.3. Effects of Acid Deposition 8.4. Effects of Nitrogen Deposition 8.5. Effects of Heavy Metals 8.6. Effects of Pesticides Concluding Remarks

Contributions of Human Ecology to Conciliate People and Biodiversity with a Focus on Fishing Communities 128 R.A.M. Silvano, Dep. Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) and Fisheries and Food Institute (FIFO) Brazil A. Begossi, Fisheries and Food Institute (FIFO) and Fisheries Management and Training Program (CAPESCA/PREAC), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp) Brazil 1.

Introduction

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2.

3.

4. 5.

Local people and biodiversity 2.1. The Main Issue 2.2. Local People and Biological Diversity: Friends or Foes? 2.3. Contributions of Human Ecology to understand the Use of Biodiversity by Local People 2.3.1. Investigating the Use of Nature 2.3.2. Major Research Topics in Human Ecology 2.3.3. How to Do It? General Methods Adopted in Studies of Human Ecology Fishing communities and biodiversity 3.1. Why Fish? General Features of Local Fisheries 3.2. Brief Case Study: Use of Fish, Plants and Fish Diversity among Brazilian Fishing Communities 3.2.1. Overview of the Brazilian Fishing Communities 3.2.2. Objectives and Hypotheses 3.2.3. Data Gathering and Analysis 3.2.4. Patterns on Fish Use among Brazilian Fishing Communities? Co-management of natural resources Conclusions

Index

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VOLUME III Introduction to tropical agriculture and Outlook for Tropical Crops in a Globalized Economy 1 F. J. Morales, Head Virology Research Unit, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Colombia. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Introduction The Origin of Tropical Crops Dissemination of Tropical Crops outside Their Centres of Origin Tropical Agriculture in Colonial Times Independence and Tropical Agriculture Tropical Food Crops Outlook on Tropical Agriculture Tropical Food Crops in a Globalized Economy Historical Background Globalization Free Trade The Starting Point The Future of Tropical Crops Market Inequalities Crop diversification Agricultural Research and Development Free Trade and Politics

Biological Control Of Insect Pests In The Tropics 28 M. V. Sampaio, Instituto de Ciências Agrária, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil V. H. P. Bueno and L. C. P. Silveira, Departamento de Entomologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Brazil A. M. Auad, Embrapa Gado de Leite, Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Brazil 1. 2.

Introduction Natural Enemies of Insects and Mites 2.1. Entomophagous 2.1.1. Predators

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3.

4.

2.1.2. Parasitoids 2.2. Entomopathogens 2.2.1. Fungi 2.2.2. Bacteria 2.2.3. Viruses 2.2.4. Nematodes Categories of Biological Control 3.1. Natural Biological Control 3.2. Applied Biological Control 3.2.1. Classical Biological Control 3.2.2. Augmentative Biological Control 3.2.3. Conservation of Natural Enemies Conclusions

Tropical Fruit Crops and the Diseases that Affect their Production R.C. Ploetz, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Homestead, FL USA 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7.

Introduction Significance of Diseases General Categories of Plant Pathogens Tropical Fruit Pathogens and the Diseases that they Cause 4.1. Eukayota 4.1.1. Kinetoplastida 4.1.2. Chromalveolata 4.1.3. Plantae 4.1.4. Fungi 4.1.5. Metazoa (the Animal Kingdom) 4.2. Eubacteria 4.2.1. Firmicutes (bacteria with Gram positive or no cell walls) 4.2.2. Proteobacteria (Gram negative bacteria) 4.3. Nucleic Acid-Based Pathogens 4.3.1. Viruses 4.3.2. Viroids Interactions Disease Epidemiology and Management 6.1. Epidemiological Principles. 6.2. Avoidance. 6.3. Exclusion 6.4. Eradication 6.5. Protection 6.6. Resistance 6.7. Treatment of Diseased Plants Conclusions

Tropical Livestock: Production and Management G. A. Morales, National and international Veterinary Consultant, Colombia, S. A. 1. 2. 3.

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General Introduction Tropical Livestock Production and Management: Generalities Latin America Livestock Production and Management 3.1. Socioeconomic Trends 3.2. Geographical Divisions and Ecological Characteristics 3.3. Human and Livestock Population 3.4. Prevailing Farming Systems 3.4.1. Small Farm Systems, and Subsisting Holdings in the Highlands of Peru and Bolivia

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4.

5.

6.

3.4.2. Medium Size Farm Systems 3.4.3. Savanna Mixed Farming Systems 3.5. Meat and Live Animal Exports in Latin America 3.6. Concluding Remarks: African Tropical Livestock Production and Management 4.1. Historical Facts: Geographical, Social and Economic Trends 4.2. The African Continent: Major Geographic Formations 4.2.1. The Sahara; Countries, People and Domestic Animals 4.2.2. The Sahel 4.2.3. Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa 4.3. Goats and Sheep in Southern Africa and Their Importance 4.4. Chickens in Sub-Saharan Africa and Their Importance for Women Wellbeing 4.5. Wildlife in Sub-Saharan Africa 4.6. Integration of Wild Animals and Livestock 4.7. African Trypanosomiasis 4.7.1. Tsetse Flies as Guardian of Rangeland For The Wild? 4.8. Wild Animal Ranching 4.9. Concluding Remarks: Asian Tropical Livestock: Production and Management 5.1. Tropical Asia: Generalities 5.2. Phitogeography and Agriculture 5.3. Ethnicity and Religions 5.4. Livestock in Tropical Asia 5.5. Mining and Industry 5.6. The Indian Subcontinent 5.6.1. The Land Lord (Zamindar) and Transhumant Livestock Systems 5.7. Dairy Production in India 5.8. Total Livestock Number in India 5.9. Farmers Production Systems 5.9.1. Peri-urban 5.9.2. Rural and Integrated Crop Fish Livestock Farming In India 5.10. Livestock Production and Management in Other Southern Asian Tropical Countries 5.11. An Example of an Ecological Crop-Animal-Fish Interaction in Indonesia Livestock Production and Management in Northern Australia 6.1. Population and Ethnic Groups 6.2. Indigenous Human Population 6.3. Cattle Production and Management 6.4. The Australian Buffalo 6.5. The Lamb, Goat and Pork Meat Industries 6.6. Dairy Production in the Country 6.7. Cattle Commercially Important Diseases 6.8. Fisheries

The Conservation and Utilization of Crop Genetic Resources in the Tropics W. Roca, C. Ynouye, C. Espinoza, C, Zorrilla, A. Salas, R. Gómez, A. Panta and I. Manrique, International Potato Center (CIP), Lima-Peru 1. 2.

3.

142

The Origin, Diversity and Flow of Tropical Crop Genetic Resources Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources 2.1. Methods for the Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources 2.1.1. In Situ Conservation 2.1.2. On Farm Conservation 2.1.3. Ex Situ Conservation In Vitro Culture Conservation Methods of Crop Genetic Resources 3.1. Establishing Crop Biodiversity In Vitro 3.2. Plant Health in the In Vitro Genebank: Elimination of Viral Infections of Clonal Collections 3.3. Multiplication of Clonal Accessions in the In Vitro Genebank

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4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

3.4. In Vitro Maintenance of Clones 3.5. Long-Term In Vitro Storage of Clonal Germplasm under Cryopreservation 3.6. Multiplication, Storage and Distribution of Clonal Germplasm using In Vitro Microtubers In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation Relationships Global Initiatives on Ex Situ Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources 5.1. Potato Conservation Strategy 5.2. Sweetpotato Conservation Strategy Improving the Quality of Ex Situ Conservation and Utilization of Crop Genetic Resources 6.1. Assessing the Genetic Diversity of Crop Genetic Resources 6.2. Rationalization of Crop Germplasm Collections 6.2.1. Genetic Identity of Clonal Collections 6.2.2. Genetic Integrity of Collections 6.3. Monitoring Plant Health in the Genebank 6.4. Bar-Code and Mobile Solutions to Improve Genebank Management 6.5. Geographic Information Systems for Improving Germplasm Management and Utilization Adding Value to Crop Genetic Resources The Changing Scenario for Plant Genetic Resources: Challenges and Opportunities for Genebanks 8.1. Challenges and Opportunities from Global Trends 8.2. Opportunities Offered By Science and Technology 8.3. Regulatory Framework for Plant Genetic Resources 8.4. Sustainable Management of Crop Genetic Resources

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VOLUME IV Tropical Botany: A Brief Introduction 1 F.R. Scarano, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, CCS, IB, Depto. Ecologia, Brasil Instituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, Diretoria de Pesquisa Científica, Brasil U. Lüttge, Darmstadt University of Technology, Botany Institute, Darmstadt, Germany 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Choosing chapters How did tropical botany get here? Postmodern botany

Flooded Forests F.R. Scarano, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, CCS, IB, Depto. Ecologia, Brasil Instituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, Diretoria de Pesquisas, Brasil 1. 2.

3.

8

Introduction Plant Survival under Oxygen Stress 2.1. Overview 2.2. Metabolic Mechanisms 2.3. Morpho-Physiological Mechanisms 2.4. Ecological Mechanisms Tropical Flooded Forests 3.1. Amazon Flooded Forests 3.2. Swamp Forests 3.3. Cross-Comparing Amazon Flooded Forests with Tropical Swamps 3.3.1. Diversity and Biogeography 3.3.2. Flood-tolerance

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4.

5.

3.3.3. Seed and Seedling Ecology Conservation and Restoration of Tropical Flooded Forests 4.1. Conservation Status and International Initiatives 4.2. Conservation and Restoration: Tropical Case Studies Conclusion

Aquatic Macrophytes in the Tropics: Ecology of Populations and Communities, Impacts of Invasions and Use by Man 27 S. M. Thomaz, Department of Biology/Nupelia, Maringa State University, Parana, 87020-900, Brazil F. A. Esteves, Department of Ecology/Nupem, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil K. J. Murphy, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK A. M. dos Santos, State University of Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil A. Caliman, Department of Ecology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil R. D. Guariento, Department of Ecology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Introduction General Features of Macrophytes 2.1. Evolution 2.2. Main Adaptations to Life in Water Importance of Macrophytes for Ecosystem Structure and Functioning Macrophytes in Populations Macrophyte Communities 5.1. The Organization of Macrophyte Assemblages 5.2. Factors Affecting Assemblage Composition 5.3. Biodiversity and Endemism Macrophytes as Weeds Potential Use of Water Macrophytes 7.1. Cultural and Economic Use 7.2. Water Gardening 7.3. Medical Use 7.4. Source of Food 7.5. Eutrophication and Pollution Control

Inselbergs: Vegetation, Diversity And Ecology 61 Manfred Kluge, Institute of Botany, Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany Burkhard Bdel, Plant Ecology and Systematics, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

Introduction Geomorphologic Genesis and Physiognomy Inselberg Habitats 3.1. Exposed Rock Surfaces 3.2. Fissures and Cracks 3.3. Rock Depressions 3.4. Ephemeral Flush Vegetation 3.5. Vegetation Mats 3.6. Savanna and Forest Vegetation Islands Physiognomy of the Vegetation 4.1. Cryptogams 4.2. Vascular Plants Environmental Factors as Ecophysiological Stressors 5.1. The Concept of Stress Avoidance and Tolerance 5.2. Adaptation of Vascular Plants and Cryptogams to Scarcity and excess of Water 5.2.1. Extremes in Water Relations: a Challenge for Cryptogams 5.2.2. Drought and Desiccation Tolerance of Vascular Plants

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5.2.3. Desiccation Avoidance 5.2.3.1. Structural Avoidance Mechanisms: Xeromorphism 5.2.3.2. A Metabolic Avoidance Mechanism: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM). 5.3. Adaptation to High Irradiance and Temperatures 5.4. Deficiency of Mineral Nutrients: Carnivorous Plants and Biological N2-Fixation by Cyanobacteria Inselbergs and Man

Moist Tropical Forests: Structure, Function And Management U. Lttge, Institute of Botany, Department of Biology, Technical University Darmstadt, Germany

100

1. 2.

Introduction Types of Tropical Forests 2.1. The Horizontal Structure 2.2. The Vertical Structure 2.3. Gap Successions 3. The Structure of Moist Tropical Forests 3.1. The Horizontal Structure 3.2. The Vertical Structure 3.3. Gap Successions 4. Sun- and Shade-Plant Physiotypes 5. Light Stress 6. Chlorophyll Fluorescence 7. Light-Fleck Dynamics on the Forest Floor 8. Drought in Moist Tropical Forests 9. The Pressure on Tropical Forests 9.1. Current Destruction 9.2. Relinquished Values 9.3. Sustained Management 10. Conclusion and Outlook

Neotropical Mangroves 132 L.D. de Lacerda, Instituto de Ciências do Mar, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Mangroves extension and distribution in the world Mangrove flora and the origin of the Neotropical mangroves Mangrove associated fauna Ecology Mangrove products and services Environmental impacts on mangroves Conclusion

Tropical Artificial Forests 153 D.J. Capossoli, J.B.B. Sansevero, M.L. Garbin, F.R. Scarano, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, CCS, IB, Depto. Ecologia, Brasil,Instituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botnico do Rio de Janeiro, Diretoria de Pesquisa Cientfica, Brasil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Concepts, Definitions and Purposes Historical Aspects Quantitative Data Criticisms and Ways to Increase Sustainability of Planted Forests Case Studies in the Tropics 6.1. Productive Plantations 6.2. The Use of Multiple Native Tree Plantations for Restoring a Conservation Unit in Brazil

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6.3. Pure and Mixed Plantation at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica 6.4. Forest Restoration of Bauxite-Mined Sites in Central Amazon, Brazil 6.5. The Application of Different Plantation Styles to Deforested Areas in Queensland, Australia 6.6. Regeneration of Native Tree Species under Eucalyptus Plantations in Southeastern Brazil Conclusion

Sandy Coastal Vegetation D.S.D. Araujo, Department of Ecology, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, Brazil M.C.A. Pereira, Herbarium, Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden, Brazil 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

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Introduction Landforms in Coastal Areas Vegetation Types and Community Structure 3.1. Beach Communities 3.2. Open Scrub Vegetation 3.3. Coastal Plain Forests 3.4. Dune Field Vegetation Life forms Species Diversity and Geography 5.1. Species Richness 5.2. Geographic Distribution Conservation

Marine Algae and Plants 190 M. A. O. Figueiredo, Programa Zona Costeira, Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil J. C. Creed, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Macroalgae and Seagrass Diversity Species and their Environment Marine Plant Communities

Rain Forests:Floristics F. Z. Saiter, Instituto Estadual de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hídricos, Espírito Santo, Brazil T. Wendt, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil D. M. Villela, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil M. T. Nascimento, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

203

Introduction Global Distribution and Main Features of Tropical Rain Forests 2.1. The Neotropical Rain Forest 2.2. The African Rain Forest 2.3. The Indo-Malayan and Australian Rain Forest Floristic Patterns Biodiversity 4.1. Tropical Rain Forests are generally Rich in Species and Endemism 4.2. The Diversity in Local Scale 4.3. Diversity as a Result of Latitudinal Gradients 4.4. The Paradox of the Monodominant Forests Tropical Rain Forests are Dynamic Nutrient Cycling 6.1. An Overview 6.2. Environmental Conditions Which Drive Nutrient Cycling in the Rain Forests 6.3. Floristic Composition, Diversity, Nutrient Cycling and Rain Forest Management

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Conclusion and Outlook

Epiphytes 229 Fernanda Reinert, Talita Fontoura, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Departamento de Botanica Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Bahia, Brazil. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Introduction Geographic, regional, and point scales Photosynthesis Water relations Mineral nutrition Lichens Ferns Orchids Bromeliads Habitat modification: the forest loss Conclusion

Cerrado Augusto Cesar Franco, Departamento de Botânica, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil Mundayatan Haridasan, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

260

Introduction Vegetation 2.1. Vegetation Forms 2.2. Floristic Composition Climate and Soil as Determinants of Cerrado Vegetation Ecosystem Functioning Seedling Establishment, Growth and Productivity of Native Plants 5.1. Woody Plants 5.2. Grasses and Herbs Fire as A Determinant of Ecosystem Functioning Anthropogenic Impacts, Biodiversity Threats and Global Change Conclusion

Symbiotic Bacteria and Fungi 286 E.K. James and M. Fomina, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK S.M. de Faria, EMBRAPA-Agrobiologia, km 47, Seropédica, 23851-970, RJ, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Introduction Nitrogen-fixing Legumes and their Symbionts Infection of Legumes by Rhizobia Other Nitrogen-Fixing Organisms The Role of Nitrogen Fixation in the Nitrogen Cycle Mycorrhizal Fungi and the Phosphorus Cycle Use of Symbiotic Fungi and Bacteria in Bioremediation Conclusion

Index

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VOLUME V Introduction To Tropical Ecology 1 M. Quesada, Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Mxico. K. Del Claro, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil 1. 2.

Introduction Contents of Current Section on Tropical Ecology Chapters

Diversity of Prokaryotes, fungi, protozoa, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes in tropical ecosystems 13 Ana Paula Trovatti Uetanabaro Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Microbiológico de Fármacos, Departamento de Saúde, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS), Feira de Santana, BA,Brazil Aristóteles Góes-Neto, Laboratório de Pesquisa em Microbiologia (LAPEM), Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS), Feira de Santana, BA, Brazil Luiz Henrique Rosa, Laboratório de Microbiologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, ICEB, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil Alexandre Salino, Departamento de Botânica, ICB, C.P. 486, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil Alfredo H. Wieloch, Departamento de Zoologia, ICB, C.P. 486, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil Carlos A. Rosa, Departamento de Microbiologia, ICB, C.P. 486, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil 1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Introduction Microbial diversity 2.1. Methods to Study Microbial Diversity 2.2. Prokaryotic Diversity in Tropical Ecosystems 2.2.1. Prokaryotic Diversity in Plants and Soil 2.2.2. Prokaryotic Diversity in Aquatic Environments 2.3. Fungi: General Characteristics and Diversity 2.3.1. Chytridiomycota 2.3.2. Zygomycota 2.3.3. Glomeromycota 2.3.4. Ascomycota 2.3.5. Basidiomycota 2.3.6. Tropical Diversity of Lichenized Fungi Diversity of Protozoa 3.1. Taxonomic Considerations 3.2. Protozoa Diversity in Tropical Region Diversity of Bryophytes Diversity of Pteridophytes Concluding Remarks

Rainforest Structure and Dynamics 45 Leandro da Silva Duarte, Laboratorio de Ecologia Quantitativa, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brasil Gabriel Selbach Hofmann, Laboratorio de Geoprocessamento, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brasil 1.

Rainforest Structure And Dynamics 1.1. Physical Structure 1.1.1. Macroclimate 1.1.2. Microclimate

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1.1.3. Geomorphology and Pedology 1.1.4. Plant Ecological Groups and Vertical Stratification 1.1.5. Altitude 1.1.6. Primary Production and Diversity 1.1.7. Rainforest Fragmentation 1.2. Rainforest Dynamics 1.2.1. A Brief History of Community Dynamics 1.2.2. Community Dynamics in Tropical Rainforests 1.2.3. Forest Gaps 1.2.4. Edge Dynamics 1.2.5. A Role for Seed Dispersal Conclusions

Tropical Communities 72 Sandra Maria Hartz and Ronei Baldissera, Centro de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, CP 15007, CEP 90.051-970, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Introduction Tropical ecoregions 2.1. Tropical Forests 2.1.1. Tropical Rain Forest 2.1.2. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest 2.1.3. Tropical Dry Forest 2.2. Tropical Shrubland 2.3. Tropical Desert 2.4. Tropical Mountain Systems 2.5. Mangroves 2.6. Coral Reefs 2.7. Freshwater Ecoregions Main features of tropical communities 3.1. Community Richness and Evenness 3.1.1. General Trends in Tropical Diversity 3.1.2. Why is there more diversity in the tropics? 3.1.3. Scaling Diversity 3.2. Biological Interactions 3.3. Rarity and Endemism Spatial and temporal patterns 4.1. Spatial Patterns 4.2. Temporal Patterns Threats 5.1. Habitat Fragmentation 5.2. Invasive Species 5.3. Overexploitation of Fauna and Flora 5.4. Pollution 5.5. Climatic Changes Conclusions

Tropical Dry Forest Structure, Distribution and Dynamics B. Hayden, Department of Biology, Concordia University, Canada D. Greene, Department of Geography, Concordia University, Canada 1.

2.

101

Introduction 1.1. Distribution and Climate 1.2. Overview of Dry Forest Structure and Origin 1.3. Organization of this Review Phenology

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3.

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

2.1. Leaves and Stems 2.2. Roots Sexual Reproduction 3.1. Mating Systems 3.2. Flowering and Pollination 3.3. Fruits and Seeds Subsequent Life History Stages 4.1. Germination, Establishment, and Early Herbivory 4.2. Asexual Reproduction 4.3. Subsequent Growth Growth Rings Disturbance and Succession Forest Structure and Diversity Conservation

Habitat fragmentation, Edge effects and Biological Corridors in Tropical Ecosystems 122 Julieta Benitez-Malvido and Victor Arroyo-Rodriguez, Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Antigua Carretera a Patzcuaro No. 8701, Ex−Hacienda de San Jose de la Huerta, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

Introduction Habitat Fragmentation 2.1. Impact of Habitat Fragmentation on Populations 2.2. Fragmentation Effects on Communities 2.3. Fragmentation Effects on Ecosystems Edge Effects Biological Corridors 4.1. Fragment Size 4.2. Fragment Shape 4.3. Fragment Isolation 4.4. Matrix Type Conclusions

Macroecology 133 José Alexandre Felizola Diniz-Filho, Departamento de Biologia Geral, ICB, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG, Cx.P. 131, 74001-970 Goiânia, GO, Brasil Renata Alves da Mata, CNPq Pos-Doctoral Program, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Brasil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Patterns and Processes Geographical and Historical Structures Patterns in Species Richness Challenges in Tropical Macroecology Concluding remarks

Evolutionary Ecology of Pollination and Reproduction of Tropical Plants 154 M. Quesada and F. Rosas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico. Y. Herrerias-Diego, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Michoacan, Mexico. R. Aguliar, IMBIV - UNC - CONICET, C.C. 495,(5000) Cordoba, Argentina, J.A. Lobo, Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica G. Sanchez-Montoya, Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico.

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1.

2. 3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

Introduction 1.1. The Life Cycle of Angiosperms 1.2. Overview of Angiosperm Diversity Degree of Specificity of Pollination System Diversity of Pollination Systems 3.1. Beetle Pollination (Cantharophily) 3.2. Lepidoptera 3.2.1. Butterfly Pollination (Psychophily) 3.2.2. Moth Pollination (Phalaenophily) 3.3. Hymenoptera 3.3.1. Bee Pollination (Melittophily) 3.3.2. Wasps 3.4. Fly Pollination (Myophily and Sapromyophily) 3.5. Bird Pollination (Ornitophily) 3.6. Bat Pollination (Chiropterophily) 3.7. Pollination by No-Flying Mammals 3.8. Wind Pollination (Anemophily) 3.9. Water Pollination (Hydrophily) Reproductive Systems of Angiosperms 4.1. Strategies that Reduce Selfing and/or Promote Cross-Pollination. 4.2. Self Incompatibility Systems 4.2.1. Incidence of Self Incompatibility in Tropical Forest 4.3. The Evolution of Separated Sexes from Hermaphroditism 4.3.1. From Distyly to Dioecy 4.3.2. From Monoecy to Dioecy Phenological Patterns in Tropical Ecosystems Biological Conservation, Pollination and Reproduction of Tropical Trees Conclusion

Seed Dispersal and Frugivory in Tropical Ecosystems 176 K. E. Stoner and M. Henry, Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Introduction 1.1. Definition of Seed Dispersal 1.2. Organization of this Review The Seed Dispersal Cycle 2.1. Primary Dispersal 2.2. Secondary Dispersal Why Seed Dispersal Matters? 3.1. Seed Dispersal and Plant Diversity 3.2. Efficiency, Effectiveness, Quantity and Quality Fruit Syndromes and Fruit Attributes Attracting Disperses 4.1. When is Seed Dispersal a Mutualistic Interaction? 4.2. The Dodo Bird and the Tambalacoque Tree: An Example of an Obligate Mutualism? Field Methods for Studying Seed Dispersal 5.1. Who Disperses What? Removal Studies and Faecal Analyses 5.2. What is Dispersed Where? Monitoring Seed Fate 5.3. Germination Experiments Concepts and Statistical Approaches 6.1. Seed Shadow and the Janzen-Connel Hypothesis 6.2. Modeling Seed Shadows 6.3. Spatial Patterns of Seed Deposition and Seedling Establishment 6.4. Dispersal Limitation: "Winning By Forfeit" 6.5. Seed Sowing Experiments and Disperser Exclusion Experiments 6.6. Mutualistic Networks: Assessing the Stability of Seed Dispersal Systems 6.7. Genetic Techniques

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Seed Dispersal and Human Development

Importance Of Tropics To Global Carbon Cycle F. Roland, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brasil J.P.Ometto, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brasil Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José dos Campos, SP, Brasil N. Barros, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brasil F. Pacheco, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brasil R. Mendonça, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brasil A. Assireu, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José dos Campos, SP, Brasil L. Martinelli, Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura, Piracicaba, SP, 13416-000, Brasil. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

194

General Overview The Biosphere and Tropical Regions Carbon Linking Ecosystems Atmospheric Green House Effect Carbon and Ecosystems Functioning Land use Change and Tropical Deforestation Ecological Processes and Hydrological Reservoirs: Implication to Carbon Playing An Integrative View Towards Perspectives

Origins And Maintenance Of Tropical Biodiversity 214 Jean Carlos Santos and Jarcilene Almeida-Cortez, Departamento de Botâanica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

Introduction Tropics: Description, Climate and Ecosystems Earth’s Biodiversity Why are there So Many Different Kinds of Organisms in the Tropics? Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness and Their Hypotheses 5.1. History Factor 5.2. The Time and Area Hypothesis 5.3. Climate Change 5.4. Climatic Stability 5.5. Spatial Heterogeneity 5.6. Geographic Area 5.7. Intermediate Disturbance 5.8. Primary Production 5.9. Ambient Energy 5.10. Evolutionary Speed 5.11. Rapoport's Rule 5.12. Geometric Constraints 5.13. Biotic Interactions 5.14. Competition 5.15. Predation Conclusion

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VOLUME VI Introduction to Neotropical Entomology and Phytopathology A. Bonet, Department of Entomology, Instituto de Ecologa A.C., Mexico G. Carrin, Department of Biodiversity and Systematic, Instituto de Ecologa A.C., Mexico 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

1

Introduction History 2.1. Phytopathology 2.1.1. Evolution of the Parasite-Host Relationship 2.1.2. The Evolution of Phytopathogenic Fungi and Their Host Plants 2.1.3. Flors Gene-For-Gene Theory 2.1.4. Pathogenetic Mechanisms in Plant Parasitic Fungi and Hyperparasites 2.2. Entomology 2.2.1. Entomology in Asia and the Middle East 2.2.2. Entomology in Ancient Greece and Rome 2.2.3. New World Prehispanic Cultures Insect Evolution Insect Biodiversity 4.1. Biodiversity Loss and Insect Conservation Ecosystem Services and the Use of Biodiversity 5.1. Pollination in Tropical Ecosystems 5.2. Biological Control of Fungi and Insects The Future of Entomology and Phytopathology Entomology and phytopathology section’s content Conclusion

Effects of Climate change and Habitat Fragmentation on Tropic Interactions 26 M.J. Klapwijk and O.T. Lewis, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, UK 1. 2.

3.

4.

Introduction Direct effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change 2.1. Habitat Fragmentation 2.2. Climate Change Effects on trophic interactions 3.1. Trophic Interactions and Climate Change 3.1.1. Phenological Asynchrony 3.1.2. Distribution Changes 3.1.3. Adaptation to Novel Trophic Interactions 3.1.4. Effects of Climate Change on Food Webs 3.2. Trophic Interactions and Habitat Fragmentation 3.2.1. Multi Species Metapopulation Models 3.2.2. Differential Effects of Fragmentation on Different Trophic Levels 3.3. The Effect of Habitat Fragmentation on Food Webs Conclusions

Chafers,Rhinoceros and Fruit Beetles of the Canopy in Tropical Forests M. A. Moron, Departamento de Biología de Suelos, Instituto de Ecología, A.C. Xalapa, Mexico 1. 2. 3.

34

Introduction Diversity of Forms, Habits and Life Cycles Main Groups of Species Of Melolonthidae (Scarabaeidae-Pleurosticti) In The Canopy 3.1. Chafers (Melolonthinae) 3.2. Rhinoceros Beetles (Dynastinae)

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4. 5.

3.3. Shiny Chafers (Rutelinae) 3.4. Fruit Beetles (Cetoniinae) Past and Present Studies Conclusions

Tropical Plant and Soil Nematodes:Diversity and Interactions Rosa H. Manzanilla-Lopez, Nematode Interactions Unit (Plant Pathology and Microbiology Department), Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts, AL5 2JQ, UK David J. Hunt, CABI Europe-UK, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, TW20 9TY, UK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

64

Introduction What are the Characteristics of the Phylum Nematoda? Biodiversity and Nematode Diversity The Tropics and Diversity Nematode Diversity Taxonomically Based Diversity 6.1. Aphelenchida 6.2. Dorylaimida 6.3. Triplonchida 6.4. Tylenchida Ecologically Based Assessment of Diversity 7.1. The Soil Environment 7.2. Trophic Groups 7.3. Buccal Structures Nematode Interactions in Communities Plant-Parasitic Nematodes Feeding Types and Parasitic Behavior 10.1. Ectoparasites 10.2. Migratory Endoparasites 10.3. Migratory Semi-Endoparasites 10.4. Sedentary (or Sessile) Parasites Plant Nematodes and Interactions with Other Plant Parasites and Microorganisms 11.1. Nematodes as Vectors of Plant Viruses 11.2. Interactions with Fungi and Bacteria 11.3. Microbial Parasites of Nematodes 11.4. Insects 11.5. Nematode-Nematode Plant-Nematode Interaction (Above- And Below-Ground Symptoms) 12.1. Stem, Leaf and Seed Parasites 12.2. Parasites of Roots, Bulbs, Tubers or Rhizomes 12.2.1. Roots 12.2.2. Bulbs 12.2.3. Tubers Genetic Diversity Molecular Diversity Distribution of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes Soil And Plant-Parasitic Nematode Communities In The Tropics: A Diversity Dilemma Future Research

Beetles as Indicators for Forest Conservation in Central America 99 E.B. Cano and J.C. Schuster, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala 1. 2. 3.

Introduction Forest Conservation in Central America The Knowledge of Entomological Diversity in Central America

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4. 5. 6.

Insects as Bioindicators The Experiences in Central American Countries Conclusions... What Lacks To Do?

Sexual Selection in Tropical Insects 125 R. Cueva del Castillo, Lab. de Ecologia; UBIPRO; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, FES Iztacala, Mexico 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Intra and inter sexual selection Sexual selection and speciation Sensory bias and Sexual Conflict Sperm competition and Cryptic female choice Sexual selection in tropical insects

Diversity,Ecology and Systematics of Smut Fungi 141 Meike Piepenbring, Department of Mycology, Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, University of Frankfurt am Main, Germany 1.

2.

3.

4.

Introduction 1.1. What are Smut Fungi? 1.2. How can Smut Fungi be Distinguished from other Plant Parasitic Fungi with Thick-walled Spores? 1.3. How are Smut Fungi Collected and Preserved? Important genera and species of smut fungi 2.1. Important Genera and Species of Smut Fungi on Grasses (Poaceae) 2.1.1. Ustilago 2.1.2. Sporisorium 2.1.3. Tilletia 2.1.4. Erratomyces 2.1.5. Urocystis 2.2. Important Genera and Species of Smut Fungi on Sedges (Cyperaceae) 2.3. Smut Fungi on Dicotyledonous Host Families 2.3.1. Entyloma 2.3.2. Thecaphora 2.3.3. Microbotryum 2.3.4. Sphacelotheca 2.3.5. Mycosyrinx 2.3.6. Doassansia group Systematics of smut fungi and related groups 3.1. Systematics of Smut Fungi 3.2. Fungi Related to Smut Fungi 3.2.1. Malasseziales 3.2.2. Exobasidiales Conclusions

Insect Vectors of Tropical Diseases 172 Sergio Ibáñez-Bernal, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Ecología Animal, Instituto de Ecología, A. C., Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Insects as Parasites Insect Parasite Classifications Insect Taxa Parasites of Vertebrates Other Symbiotic Relationships

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Health Effects of Insects. Vector-Borne Diseases and How They Are Transmitted Parasites of Vertebrates Transmitted by Insects Principal Insect Taxa as Vectors Of Disease. Resurgent Vector-Borne Diseases.

Index

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VOLUME VII Insect Viruses: Diversity, Biology and Use as Bioinsecticides 1 Jorge E. Ibarra and M. Cristina Del Rincon-Castro, Departamento de Biotecnologia y Bioquimica, Cinvestav Campus Guanajuato, Mexico 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Introduction Entomopathogenic Viruses Taxonomic Classification 3.1. Ascovirus 3.2. Iridovirus 3.3. Polydnavirus 3.4. Baculovirus 3.5. Cypovirus 3.6. Entomopoxvirus Life Cycle 4.1. In Vitro Replication of Insect Viruses Genetics of Insect Viruses Use of Insect Viruses as Biological Control Agents 6.1. Production 6.2. Application 6.3. Examples on the use of Insect Viruses in the Field 6.4. Important Considerations When Using Viral Bioinsecticides 6.5. Advantages and Limitations 6.6. Development of Resistance to Insect Viruses 6.7. Genetic Manipulation of Baculoviruses

Phylogeny, Biology, Behavior and Management of Tephritid fruit Flies: An Overview J. Rull, Instituto de Ecologia A.C., Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. 1.

2.

3.

32

Phylogeny 1.1. Diptera 1.2. Tephritoidea 1.3. Tephritidae Biology 2.1. Life Cycle 2.2. Natural Enemies 2.2.1. Parasitoids 2.2.2. Predators Behavior 3.1. Feeding Behavior 3.2. Host Finding Behavior 3.3. Oviposition Behavior 3.4. Mating Behavior

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4.

Management 4.1. Pest Status 4.2. Monitoring 4.3. Control 4.3.1. Chemical Control 4.3.2. Biological Control 4.3.3. Sterile Insect Technique 4.3.4. Biorational Control Methods.

Insect vectors of phytoplasmas 46 R. I. Rojas-Martínez, Department of Plant Pathology, Colegio de Postgraduado- Campus Montecillo, México 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Factors Involved in the Transmission of Phytoplasmas by the Insect Vector Acquisition and Transmission of Phytoplasmas Families Reported to Contain Species That Act As Vectors of Phytoplasmas Bactericera Cockerelli

Effects of Aflatoxins Contaminating Food on Human Health 60 Magda Carvajal and Pável Castillo, Departamento de Botánica, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Ciudad Universitaria, Colonia Copilco, Delegación Coyoacán. 04510 México, D.F. 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

Aflatoxins, Production, Occurrence, Chemical Structure 1.1. Definition of Aflatoxins 1.2. Aflatoxin Producing Fungi and Production Conditions 1.2.1. Aflatoxin Producing Fungi 1.2.2. Conditions for Aflatoxin Production 1.3. Occurrence 1.4. Chemical Structure and Types 1.4.1. Physicochemical Properties of Aflatoxins 1.5. Biological Properties Biosynthetic Pathway 2.1. Biotransformation of AFB1 Analytical Methods for Aflatoxin Study Aflatoxin Metabolism Toxic Effects of Aflatoxins in Health 5.1. In Plants 5.2. In Animals 5.3. In Humans 5.3.1. Mutagenesis and Proto-Oncogene Activation 5.3.1.1. Mutagenesis 5.3.1.2. Proto-Oncogene Activation 5.3.2. AFB1 -DNA Adducts 5.3.3. Carcinogenesis Economic Losses Due To Aflatoxin Contamination Control. 7.1. Preventive Measures 7.2. Structural Degradation after Chemical Treatment 7.3. Modification of Toxicity by Dietary Chemicals 7.4. Detoxification 7.5. Chemosorbents 7.6. Radiation Legislation Conclusions

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Tropical Insect Chemical Ecology 85 Edi A. Malo, Departamento de Entomologia Tropical, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Carretera Antiguo Aeropuerto Km. 2.5, Tapachula, Chiapas, C.P. 30700. Mexico. 1. 2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

Introduction Semiochemicals 2.1. Use of Semiochemicals Pheromones 3.1. Lepidoptera Pheromones 3.2. Coleoptera Pheromones 3.3. Diptera Pheromones 3.4. Pheromones of Insects of Medical Importance Kairomones 4.1. Coleoptera Kairomones 4.2. Diptera Kairomones Synthesis Concluding Remarks

Passalidae, Insects which live in Decaying Logs 112 M. L. Castillo and P. Reyes-Castillo, Departamento de Biología de Suelos, Instituto de Ecología, A.C. Xalapa, Ver. México 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Introduction 1.1. What are Passalid Beetles? 1.2. How to Recognize Passalid Beetles? 1.3. Where do Passalid Beetles Live? Natural History 2.1. Life Cycle 2.2. Food 2.3. Relationships with Other Organisms Behavior 3.1. Galleries 3.2. Courtship and Copulation 3.2.1. Sound Communication 3.3. Subsocial Behavior 3.3.1. Oviposition and Nests for Eggs 3.3.2. Parental Care 3.3.3. Territoriality Ecology, General Features 4.1. Other Specialized Microhabitats 4.2. Percentage of Decaying Logs Housing Passalid Beetles 4.3. How Many Arboreal Species are Fed on by Passalid Beetles? 4.4. Passalidae Life Strategies in Decaying Logs 4.5. Passalidae and the Succession of Fauna in the Decomposing Trunk 4.6. Ecological Interest Conclusions

Insects as Plant Virus Vectors Daniel L. Ochoa Martínez, Department of Plant Pathology, Colegio de Postgraduados-Campus Montecillo, México 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

134

Introduction Vector Concept Plant Viruses: Transmission by Insects Aphids: Virus Vectors Leafhoppers, Planthoppers and Treehoppers: Virus Vectors

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6. 7. 8.

Whiteflies: Virus Vectors Thrips: Virus Vectors Beetles: Virus Vectors

Insect Conservation 142 Michael J. Samways, Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology and Centre for Agricultural Biodiversity, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Introduction 1.1. The Rise of Insects 1.2. Current World Species Richness 1.3. Insect Survival prior to Human Impact 1.4. Early Human Impact 1.5. Current Extinctions 1.6. Taxonomic Challenges 1.7. Perception Challenges Insects and Ecosystem Processes 2.1. Insects as Keystone Organisms 2.2. Insect Ecosystem Engineers 2.3. Insects as Food 2.4. Insect Pollinators 2.5. Insect Interactions with Plants Threats to Insects 3.1. Threats from Contaminants 3.2. Threats from Increasing Loss of Natural Habitat 3.3. Urbanization 3.4. Forest Loss 3.5. Loss of Grasslands 3.6. Loss of Special Habitats 3.7. Over-collecting Threats from Invasive Aliens 4.1. Invasive Alien Plants 4.2. Invasive Alien Vertebrates 4.3. Invasive Alien Insects Risks of Biological Control 5.1. Biological Control of Insect Pests 5.2. Biological Control of Weeds 5.3. Biocontrol Leading into Conservation 5.4. Risks of Introducing Insect Pathogens Risks of Genetic Engineering 6.1. Questions being posed 6.2. Effect of Genetically Modified Crops on Natural Enemies 6.3. Effect of Genetically Modified Crops on Pollination and Soil Organisms Response of Insects to Global Climate Change 7.1. What Evidence is There of Climate Change? 7.2. Effects of Global Climate Change on Insects 7.3. Changes in Species’ Geographical Ranges 7.4. Climate Change Interacting with Other Threats Prioritizing for Insect Conservation 8.1. Large-scale Planning 8.2. Systematic Reserve Selection 8.3. Surrogates in Conservation Planning 8.4. Does the Conservation of Plants and Other Organisms Conserve the Insects? Recording Insect Diversity 9.1. Mapping 9.2. Making Inventories 9.3. Monitoring

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9.4. Red Listing 10. Managing for Insect Diversity 10.1. Importance of Reserves 10.2. Landscape Heterogeneity 10.3. Countryside-wide Management 10.4. Corridors 11. Restoration of Insect Populations 11.1. Restoring to What? 11.2. Restoration Results 11.3. Insect Gardening 11.4. Species-recovery Plans 11.5. Captive Breeding 12. Conventions and Social Issues 12.1. International Conventions 12.2. National Issues 12.3. Increasing Public Awareness

Parasitoids Wasps, Natural Enemies Of Insects A. Bonet, Department of Entomology, Instituto de Ecologa A. C., Mexico 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

185

Introduction Parasitoidism (= parasitism), important mode of life in Hymenoptera Evolution of Hymenoptera parasitoids Parasitoid biology 4.1. Developmental Strategies of Parasitoids 4.1.1. Ectoparasitoids 4.1.2. Endoparasitoids 4.1.2.1. Evolution of parasitoid virulence genes 4.1.2.2. Nutrition and developmental strategy between parasitoid-host interactions 4.1.2.3. Wolbachia endosymbionts Parasitoid Behavioral Ecology 5.1. Foraging and Optimization Theory with Parasitoids 5.2. Parasitoid Interactions Through Infochemicals Multitrophic interactions between parasitoids and other organisms in natural and modified environments Augmentative biological control with parasitoids in the Neotropics 7.1. A Success Case Study, Biological Control of Agricultural Pests with Trichogramma in Brazil, 20 Years of Research, Maintenance and Release of Trichogramma 7.2. Search for New Parasitoids against Bruchid Pests in one of the Domestication Centers of Beans (legume pulses), a Mexican Example Digital information resources about parasitic wasps Conclusion

Index

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VOLUME VIII Introduction to Tropical Zoology R. H. Macedo, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade de Braslia, Brazil M. R. Morris, Department of Biological Sciences, Ohio University, USA 1.

1

Introduction

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2.

Contents of Current Volume

Classification and ecology of major tropical insect groups Ivone R. Diniz, Department of Zoology, University of Brasilia, Brazil Helena C. Morais, Department of Ecology, University of Brasilia, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

10

Introduction Characteristics and Success Hypotheses on the Origin of the Latitudinal Species Richness Gradient Evolution Geographic Distribution Classification

Terrestrial Vertebrate Diversity and Demography in Tropical Ecosystems 27 Marcos Robalinho Lima, Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, UK Raphael Igor Dias, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade de Brasília, BR Daniel Paz Decanini, School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, AU Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade de Brasília, BR 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Introduction General Characteristics of the Tropical Region Factors that Cause Diversity 3.1. Spatial Heterogeneity 3.2. Species Interaction 3.3. Productivity 3.4. Rapoport’s Rule 3.5. Climate 3.6. Evolutionary Time 3.7. Evolutionary Speed 3.8. Geometric Constraints 3.9. Speciation in the Tropical Rainforests 3.9.1. Paleogeography Hypothesis 3.9.2. River Hypothesis 3.9.3. Refuge Hypothesis Demography and Tropical Ecosystems Conservation of Tropical Biodiversity Conclusion

Threats to Amphibians in Tropical Regions 49 Jean-Marc Hero and Kerry Kriger, Centre for Innovative Conservation Strategies, Griffith University, PMB 50 Gold Coast Mail Centre, Queensland 9726, Australia 1.

2.

3.

Introduction 1.1. Assessing Population Decline 1.2. Which amphibians are declining? (Ecological characteristics of declining frogs) Causes of Amphibian Declines 2.1. Habitat Loss 2.2. Over-Harvesting 2.3. Introduced Species 2.4. Pollution 2.5. Global Change 2.6. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2.7. Synergistic Effects Solutions to Global Declines

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Reptile Diversity in an Amazing Tropical Environment:The West Indies L. Rodriguez Schettino, Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Systematics, Cuba To the memory of Ernest E. Williams and Austin Stanley Rand 1. 2.

3.

4.

72

Introduction Reptile Diversity 2.1. Morphology 2.2. Habitat West Indian Reptiles 3.1. Greater Antilles 3.2. Lesser Antilles 3.3. Bahamas 3.4. Cuba (as a study case) 3.4.1. The Species 3.4.2. Geographic and Ecological Distribution 3.4.3. Ecomorphology 3.4.4. Threats and Conservation Conclusions

Tropical Bird Communities 111 Rafael Maia and Eduardo S. A. Santos, Programa de Ps-Graduao em Ecologia, University of Braslia, Brazil. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction 1.1. Trends in Species Richness Factors Shaping Tropical Bird Communities Tropical Bird Communities: How are they unique? Birds of a Feather? Different Ecosystems, Different Communities Extinction and Conservation: Issues and Considerations Concluding Remarks

Ecology and Behavior of Tropical Primates 133 Juan Carlos Serio-Silva, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Ecología Animal, Instituto de Ecología AC, Xalapa, Veracruz, México Jessica Lynch Alfaro, Center for Society and Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA. Laura Teresa Hernández Salazar, Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, México. 1.

2.

Introduction 1.1. Primate Phylogenetics and Distribution in Tropical Areas 1.2. Conservation Status of Primates 1.2.1. Endangered Species and Factors with Influence in their Conservation 1.2.2. Primate Status around the Tropical World 1.2.3. Primate Conservation Strategies 1.3. Impact of Primate Biomass on Tropical Areas 1.3.1. Biomass by Trophic Niches Primate Behavioral Ecology 2.1. Foraging Ecology 2.1.1. Chemoreception Mechanisms and Primate Perception of Flavors 2.1.2. Dietary Strategies 2.2. Social Organization and Mating Systems 2.2.1. Primate Mating Systems 2.2.2. Intrasexual Competition and Female Choice 2.2.3. Primate Reproductive Strategies and Parental Investment 2.3. Primate Community Ecology

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3. 4.

Neotropical Primates: Overview of Platyrrhine Diversity Case Studies in Neotropical Primate Behavioral Ecology 4.1. Marmosets and Tamarins: Cooperative Breeding 4.2. Capuchin Monkeys: Tool Use and the Evolution of Culture 4.3. Howler Monkeys: Low Energy Strategists 4.4. Spider Monkeys: Ripe Fruit Specialists 4.5. Muriquis: Egalitarianism and Sperm Competition 4.6. Human Interactions with Primates in the Neotropics

The Foraging Strategies Of Primates P.W. Lucas, Department of Anthropology, George Washington University, USA 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

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Introduction The Senses of Primates Vision in Primates 3.1. Binocular Vision 3.2. Color Vision Smell Touch and Texture Taste Conclusion

Communication Systems in Tropical Terrestrial Vertebrates: An Overview 164 Gabriel Francescoli, Seccion Etología, Facultad de Ciencias. Universidad de la Republica. Montevideo, Uruguay 1.

2.

3.

4.

General Features about Communication Systems 1.1. Communication Systems Basic Features 1.1.1. Communication Networks 1.2. Communication Channels 1.2.1. Multimodal Communication Main Constraints to Communication in Tropical Habitats 2.1. Environmental Sources of Constraints 2.2. Biological Sources of Constraints. What Kinds of Communication Systems Can We Expect for Terrestrial Vertebrates? 3.1. Forests and Jungles 3.2. Grasslands and Savanna 3.3. Wetlands and Coastal Habitats 3.4. Arid Regions 3.5. Self-constructed Habitats Communicating in the "Real World": Some Examples of the Systems at Work 4.1. Communication Systems in Subterranean Rodents. Constraints in a Self-constructed Habitat 4.2. Visual Signals in Birds: Adaptation to Background, Light and Predator Constraints. 4.3. Sociality and Group Coordination in Neotropical Primates 4.4. Individuality in tropical birds. Communication and Conservation

Evolution of Sociality and cooperation in tropical animals 188 Regina H. Macedo Departamento de Zoologia- IB, Universidade de Brasilia, Brazil Daniel P. Decanini, School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Australia Programa de Pósgraduação em Ecologia, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil Jefferson A. Graves, Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland 1. 2.

Introduction Costs and Benefits of Sociality

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3.

4. 5. 6.

How Can Cooperation Evolve? 3.1. Kin Selected Cooperation 3.2. Reciprocity 3.3. By-product Mutualism 3.4. Group Selection Cooperation and Social Behavior of Tropical Animals Cooperative Breeding in Birds Cooperative Breeding in Mammals 6.1. Cooperative Breeding in Primates of the Callithrix Genus

Mating Strategies of Tropical Insects 205 R. Macías-Ordóñez, Departamento de Biología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., México L. Mendoza-Cuenca, Facultad de Biología, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, México 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

Introduction 1.1. Resource Distribution and Limitation Predict Mating Strategies 1.2. The Tropics The Mating System Some Mechanisms behind Mating Strategies 3.1. Sperm Competition and Cryptic Female Choice 3.2. Male Mating Effort and Parental Investment 3.3. Physiological Traits Alternative Mating Strategies Constraints on Mating Systems of Tropical Insects 5.1. Ecological Constraints 5.2. Morphological Constraints Evolution of Mating Systems of Tropical Insects 6.1. Heliconius Butterflies 6.2. Dung Beetles Health and Economic Issues of Mating Strategies in Tropical Insects 7.1. Tephritid Flies 7.2. Malaria

Mating Systems and Strategies of Tropical Fishes O. Rios-Cardenas, Instituto de Ecología A.C., Depto. de Biología Evolutiva, Mexico M. R. Morris, Department of Biological Sciences, Ohio University, USA 1.

2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

219

Introduction 1.1. Ecology and Dispersion 1.2. Parental Care 1.3. Operational Sex Ratio 1.4. Sexual Conflict Polygyny 2.1. Resource Defense Polygyny 2.2. Female Defense Polygyny 2.3. Scramble Competition Polygyny 2.4. Lek Polygyny Polyandry 3.1. Genetic Benefits 3.2. Direct Material Benefits Monogamy Promiscuity Alternative Reproductive Strategies and Tactics Sex Change Hermaphroditism Asexual Reproduction

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Breeding Strategies of Tropical Birds 241 Alexandre Ferreira de Souza Dias, Pos-graduaçao em Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasília Rafael Maia and Raphael Igor Dias, Pos-graduaçao em Ecologia, Universidade de Brasília 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

Introduction Tropical Birds: Life History and Ecology Monogamy And Extra-Pair Paternity 3.1. Socially Monogamous Bonds 3.2. Breaking the Bonds: Conflict and Extra-pair Paternity Polygamous and Promiscuous Mating Systems 4.1. Polyandry Cooperative Breeding 5.1. Home, sweet home! 5.2. To help or not to help? 5.3. Costs of Cooperative Breeding Final Considerations

Extinction of Species in the Tropics 269 Carlos Eduardo Viveiros Grelle, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Maria Alice S. Alves, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1.

2. 3. 4.

Introduction. 1.1. Concepts of Extinction and the Question of Scale: Local, Global, and Functional ExtinctionSome Examples. 1.2. Concepts of Species, and the Convenience and Usefulness of Biological Concepts. 1.3. A Concept of Tropical Region: The Zone between the Tropics (Cancer and Capricornio). Patterns of Extinction: Biological and Biogeographical Process of Extinction Consequences of Extinction: For Natural Systems and for Humanity

Index

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285

VOLUME IX Desert Ecosystems: An Introduction 1 Silvio Carlos Rodrigues, Instituto de Geografia, Universidade Federal de Uberlndia, Uberlndia, MG, Brazil 1. 2.

Introduction Section Overview

Geomorphology and Biogeography of Tropical Deserts 12 Silvio Carlos Rodrigues, Instituto de Geografia, Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Uberlandia, MG, Brazil Gelze Serrat de Souza Campos Rodrigues, Instituto de Geografia, Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Uberlandia, MG, Brazil 1. 2.

Introduction Tropical Deserts 2.1. Geographical Distribution

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3.

4.

2.2. Controlling Factors 2.3. Distinguishing Characteristics 2.3.1. Temperature 2.3.2. Precipitation Processes, Landforms and Tropical Deserts Tipology 3.1. Eolian Processes 3.2. Sandy Deserts 3.2.1. Dunes 3.2.2. Ergs 3.3. Pavement Features 3.3.1. Regs 3.3.2. Wadis and Chotts 3.3.3. Pediments, Playas and Alluvial Fans. 3.3.4. Mountains Features Biogeography of Tropical Deserts 4.1. Biological Adaptation to Aridity 4.1.1. Desert Vegetation. 4.1.2. Desert Fauna.

Desertification in the Tropics Dirce Maria Antunes Suertegaray and Roberto Verdum Geography Departament, Geosciences Institute - UFRGS, Porto Alegre – Brazil. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Desertification Process and Its Area of Occurrence The Origin (1940) and the Renewal (1970) of the Concept of Desertification 2.1. Desertification: awareness and debate Diversity in the Comprehension of the Desertification Process Policies and Experiences of Control: Practices, Success and Failure Sandization as a Process of Special Attention

Desert Ecosystems in India T.S.Chouhan, Department of Geography, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India U.K.Sharma, Ministry of Rural Development (NLM), Government of India. 1. 2.

33

51

Introduction Physiography of Indian Desert Regions 2.1. Landscape 2.1.1. Desert Peneplains 2.1.2. Sand Dunes of Marusthali 2.1.3. Sandy Plains 2.1.4. Indus Plains 2.1.5. Flood Plains 2.1.6. Marshy Land 2.1.7. Salt Playas 2.2. Geomorphic Evolution 2.2.1. Playas or Ranns 2.2.2. Genesis of Carbonate Pan 2.2.3. Origin of Sand Dunes 2.3. Soils 2.3.1. Soils of Desert Plains 2.3.2. Soils of Sandy Plains 2.3.3. Sand Dunes of Varied Categories 2.3.4. Soils of Old Flood Plains 2.3.5. Soils of Rock Lands 2.3.6. Soils of Playas 2.3.7. Soils of Rann and Coastal Plains

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3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9.

Wastelands in Desert Regions of India 3.1. Rajasthan 3.2. Gujarat 3.3. Punjab 3.4. Haryana 3.5. Andhra Pradesh 3.6. Karnataka 3.7. Jammu & Kashmir Climate Agro-ecological Zones in Desert Region Geology and hydrology of Desert Regions 6.1. Geology 6.2. Water Bearing Properties of Various Groups of Geological Successions 6.3. Hydrology of Desert Regions Land Use Pattern Ecosystem in Indian Desert 8.1. Natural Factors 8.2. Human Interface 8.2.1. Deforestation 8.2.2. Land Degradation and Desertification 8.2.3. Water Management Problems 8.2.4. Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Chemical Pesticides 8.2.5. Increasing Population Pressure on Land 8.2.6. Deterioration in Ethnic Values 8.2.7. Flora and Fauna 8.3. Ecosystem of Desert Regions Conclusions and Suggestions 9.1. Management of Land Resources 9.2. Management of Water Resources 9.3. Human Resource Management 9.4. Controlling Human Interface. 9.5. Restoration of Ecology

Desert ecosystems and global climate change Xiaoping YANG, Nina MA and Jufeng DONG Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China 1. 2.

3.

105

Introduction Living in the Desert Ecosystems 2.1. Adaptation of Plants to Aridity 2.2. Adaptations of Animals to Aridity Responses of Desert Ecosystems to Global Climate Changes

Ecology of Tropical DEserts in Special Reference to Biogeography & Evolution of Desert Animals 112 T.S.Chouhan, Department of Geography, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India U.K.Sharma, Ministry of Rural Development (NLM), Government of India. 1. 2.

3.

Introduction Animal Species 2.1. Mollusks 2.2. Arthropods 2.3. Reptiles 2.4. Birds 2.5. Mammals Co-Existence of Animals

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4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

3.1. Simile in Plants and Animals 3.1.1. Stress Evading Strategies 3.1.2. Structural and Eco-physiological Stress Controlling Strategies 3.1.3. Strategies to Prevent Death by Over-heating 3.1.4. Strategies Optimizing Water Uptake 3.1.5. Strategies to Control Reproduction in Relation to Environmental Conditions 3.2. Animal- Animal Interactions 3.3. Animal of Tropical Desert Regions 3.3.1. Animal Species of American Tropical Deserts 3.3.2. Animals of North Africa Tropical Deserts 3.3.3. Animals of South African Tropical Deserts 3.3.4. Animals of Tropical Desert Regions of Asia. Biogeography Of Tropical Desert Regions 4.1. Heat and Temperature 4.2. Wind Impact 4.3. Precipitation and Water Balance 4.4. Water Balance in Animals 4.5. Nutrition Morphological Adaptations 5.1. Arthropod Cuticle 5.2. Vertebrate Integument and Pelage 5.3. Animal Color 5.4. Water Storage 5.5. Shape and Size of Species Behavioural Adaptations 6.1. Tolerance to Dehydration 6.2. Cold Tolerance 6.3. Adaptive Heterothermy 6.4. Behavioral Thermo-regulation 6.5. Specialized Respiration and Transpiration 6.6. Imbibitions of Fog, Dew and Water Vapor Reproduction In Desert Environment 7.1. Physiological Issues 7.2. Ecological and Evolutionary Considerations 7.3. Diversity 7.4. Sustainability Human Interface 8.1. Adaptation of Man in Desert Environment 8.2. Consequences of Human Interface 8.3. Crux of Problems Conclusions 9.1. Revival of Ecosystem 9.2. Productivity of Land 9.3. Water Management 9.4. Sustenance of Surviving Animals

Archaeo-Historical Environment and Significance of Ancient Agriculture in Tropical Deserts165 Farooq Ahmad, Department of Geography, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. 1.

Introduction 1.1. African and Eurasian civilizations 1.2. Sumer 3500-2334 BC 1.3. Indus Valley and the Indian subcontinent 3200-1700 BC 1.4. Ancient Egypt 3200-343 BC 1.5. Elamite 2700-539 BC 1.6. Persia 550 BC-330 BC 1.7. China 2200 BC-present

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2. 3.

1.8. Greece 2000-1450 BC 1.9. Korea 900 BC-present 1.10. The fall of civilizations Significance of agriculture 2.1. Ways of cultivation The beginning of agriculture 3.1. Early agriculture

Ecology of Tropical Deserts With Special Reference to Arid Plant Physiology T.S.Chouhan, Department of Geography, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India U.K.Sharma, Ministry of Rural Development (NLM), Government of India. 1. 2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

184

Introduction Tropical Desert Ecosystem 2.1. Etymology 2.2. Climate 2.2.1. Wind Impact 2.2.2. Precipitation and Water Balance 2.2.3. Water Balance in Plants 2.2.4. Nutrition Physiography of Tropical Deserts 3.1. Landscapes and Landforms 3.2. Hydrological Cycle 3.3. Desert Features 3.4. Vegetation 3.5. Plant Morphology 3.6. Water Storage Physiology of Arid Plants 4.1. Germination and Seedling Behavior of Desert Plants 4.2. Water Uptake and Transpiration in Plants 4.3. Photosynthesis and Respiration of Plants 4.4. Translocation of Assimilates 4.5. Root Development Activities 4.6. Tolerance to Dehydration Problems of Tropical Desert Regions Conclusions and Suggestions 6.1. Rain Water Harvesting 6.2. Use of Surface Water 6.3. Water Use in Canal Regions 6.4. Reforestation of Degraded Regions 6.5. Conservation of Pasturelands 6.6. Treatment of Degraded and Marginal Cultivated Lands 6.7. Utilization of Waste and Barren Lands in Plantation 6.8. Disaster and Risk Management in Desert Regions 6.9. Mode of Treatment 6.9.1. Peoples’ Participation 6.9.2. Sharing of Benefits 6.9.3. Restoration of Traditional Practices of Vegetation 6.9.4. Association of Voluntary Organizations 6.9.5. Scientific and Research Application 6.9.6. Restoration of Ecosystems

Index

231

About EOLSS

235

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VOLUME X Nutritional Aspects in Trachypogon Savannas as Related to Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling 1 Danilo Lopez-Hernandez and Ismael Hernandez-Valencia, Instituto de Zoología Tropical, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Central de Venezuela 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

Introduction Soils of Trachypogon Savannas Vegetation of Trachypogon Savannas Nitrogen and Phosphorus Inputs 4.1. Atmospheric Deposition (Wet and Dry Deposition) 4.2. Nitrogen Biological Fixation 4.2.1. N-Fixation by Rhizobium-Symbiosis 4.2.2. N-Fixation by Organisms Located in the Rhizosphere, Rhizoplane and Endorhizosphere of Savanna Grasses 4.2.3. N-Fixation by Microbial Crust System Nitrogen and Phosphorus in the Plant-Soil System 5.1. Primary Productivity and N and P Uptake by Plants 5.2. N and P Released by Decomposition Processes 5.3. Soil N: NO3 and NH4 Forms- N Mineralization 5.4. Soil P: Actives and Recalcitrant Forms 5.5. N and P Microbial Forms 5.6. The Role of Mycorrhiza and Soil Fauna in N and P availability 5.6.1. Mycorrhiza 5.6.2. Soil Fauna Nitrogen and Phosphorus Outputs 6.1. Losses by Fires 6.2. Losses by Leaching 6.2.1. Nitrogen Losses by Leaching 6.2.2. Phosphorus Losses by Leaching 6.3. Nitrification, Denitrification and Emissions of NO and N2O Nitrogen and Phosphorus Budgets The Agricultural Activities and the Fate of Trachypogon Savannas Conclusions

Plant Adaptations to Rainfall Seasonality in the Savannas of Central Brazil Augusto C. Franco, Department of Botany, Universidade de Brasilia, Brazil 1. 2. 3.

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

28

Introduction Root Patterns and Hydraulic Redistribution of Soil Water Rainfall Seasonality and Tree Water Balance 3.1. Tree Water Status, Leaf Area and Stomatal Regulation of Transpiration 3.2. Osmotic Adjustments and Elastic Properties of Plant Cell Walls Water Storage, Structure and Efficiency of the Transport System 4.1. Wood Density, Water Storage and Hydraulic Architecture 4.2. Hydraulic Conductivity, Vulnerability Curves and Embolism Repair Rainfall Seasonality and Leaf Phenology Implications of Stomatal Regulation of Transpiration on Photosynthesis CO2 Assimilation, Water Use Efficiency and Leaf Phenology Conclusion

Fire in NeoTropical Savannas 44 Mario R. Farias and Juan F. Silva, Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Ecolgicas, ICAE. Universidad de Los Andes. Mrida. Venezuela. 1.

Introduction

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Fire Behavior in Neotropical Savannas The Effects of Fire on the Herbaceous Layer The Effects of Fire on the Woody Layer Fire and Savanna Physiognomy Fire and the Management of Neotropical Savannas

Reproductive Biology Of Tropical Plants 55 Claudia Ines da Silva and Helena Maura Torezan Silingardi, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil 1. 2.

Introduction 1.1. Distribution of Biomes in the Tropics Reproductive Biology of Tropical Plants 2.1. Sexual System 2.2. Reproductive system 2.3. Plant-Pollinator System 2.3.1. Plant Strategies to Assure Pollination 2.3.2. Pollination Syndromes 2.4. Plant-Disperser system 2.4.1. Adaptations of Fruits and Dispersion Syndromes of Seeds in the Tropics

Pollination Ecology of Neotropical Savannas Vegetation 82 Nelson Ramirez, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Fac. Ciencias, Instituto de Biología Experimental, Centro Botánica Tropical, Caracas, Venezuela. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Savanna types Pollinator species and pollination agent classes Pollination agent classes 4.1. Pollination classes and plant life forms 4.2. Pollination classes and habitats 4.3. Pollination classes and Vegetation structure 4.3.1. Pollination and horizontal disposition 4.3.2. Pollination and vertical disposition 5. Classification of the component of the Venezuelan Central Plain 6. Temporal variation in pollination classes 6.1. Temporal variation of the pollination agent classes number 6.2. Seasonality of pollination agent classes at the community level 7. Pollination agent classes overlap 8. Pollination system specificity 8.1. Plant life forms and Habitats 8.2. Vegetation structure and pollination specificity 8.3. Temporal variation in pollination system specificity 9. Time of pollination activity 9.1. Habitats and plant life forms 9.2. Vegetation structure and the time of pollination activity 9.3. Temporal variation in time of pollination activity 9.4. Pollination system specificity and time of pollination activity 10. Richness and diversity of pollination agent classes 10.1. Temporal variation of pollination agent classes diversity 11. Concluding Remarks Are there Germination Patterns for CerradoSpecies? M. A. Ranal, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil, D. G. Santana, Agronomy Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil, and I. Schiavini, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil

106

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1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Climatic Seasonality Determining the Rhythm of Reproduction Events Within and Between-Species Variation Seed Germination and Seedling Emergence Patterns for Cerrado Species

Birds in The Tropical Savannas 160 Alexandre Gabriel Franchin, Laboratory of Ornithology, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil Rafael de Freitas Juliano, Laboratory of Ornithology, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil Mieko Ferreira Kanegae, Bioscience Institute, General Ecology Department, Sao Paulo University, Brazil Oswaldo Marçal Junior, Laboratory of Ornithology, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

Introduction Global Ecoregions and the Savanna Biome 2.1. Flooded Grasslands and Savannas 2.2. Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands 2.3. Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands Tropical Savannas 3.1. Afrotropical 3.1.1. The Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas 3.1.2. The East African Acacia Savannas 3.1.3. The Central & Eastern Miombo Woodlands 3.1.4. The Sudanian Savannas 3.1.5. The Saharan Flooded Grasslands 3.1.6. The Zambezian Flooded Grasslands 3.2. Indo-Malayan 3.2.1. Terai-Duar 3.3. Australasia 3.3.1. Northern Australia 3.3.2. Trans-Fly 3.4. Neotropical 3.4.1. Cerrado 3.4.2. Llanos 3.4.3. Pantanal 3.4.4. Beni Savannas 3.4.5. Guyanan Savannas 3.4.6. Orinoco Wetlands Birds in the Tropical Savannas 4.1. Similarity in the Bird Composition among Tropical Savannas 4.2. Patterns of Bird Diversity and Speciation in the Tropical Savannas 4.3. Bird Conservation in the Tropical Savannas Cerrado: An Unique Tropical Savanna Hotspot

The Herpetofauna Of The Neotropical Savannas 200 Vera Lucia de Campos Brites, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil Renato Gomes Faria, Departamentof Biology, Federal University of Sergipe, Brazil Daniel Oliveira Mesquita, Departament of Engineering and Environment, Federal University of Paraíba, Brazil Guarino Rinaldi Colli, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília, Brazil 1. 2. 3.

Introduction Amphibians 2.1. Reproduction of the Amphibians Testudines

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4.

5.

Squamata 4.1. Lizards and Amphisbaenians 4.2. Snakes Crocodilians

Diptera of Tropical Savannas Julio Mendes, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Uberlandia Federal University, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

287

Introduction General Characteristics Classification. Suborder Nematocera 4.1. Psychodidae 4.2. Culicidae 4.3. Simullidae 4.4. Ceratopogonidae Suborder Brachycera 5.1. Tabanidae 5.2. Phoridae 5.3. Syrphidae 5.4. Tephritidae 5.5. Drosophilidae 5.6. Chloropidae 5.7. Muscidae 5.8. Glossinidae 5.9. Calliphoridae 5.10. Oestridae 5.11. Sarcophagidae 5.12. Tachinidae Impact of Human Activities upon Dipterans Communities in Tropical Savannas

Bees of the Brazilian Savannah 301 Isabel Alves-dos-Santos, Dept. Ecologia, IBUSP. University of São Paulo. São Paulo 05508-900 Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Diversity of the Brazilian Cerrado Bees Nest habitats of the Cerrado Bees Final Remarks

The Capybara, its Biology and Management J. Ojasti, Instituto de Zoologia Tropical, Facultad de Ciencias, UCV, Venezuela 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

323

Introduction Origin and Classification General characters Distribution Biological aspects 5.1. Semi-aquatic habits 5.2. Foraging and diet 5.3. Digestion 5.4. Reproduction 5.5. Growth and Age 5.6. Behavior Population Dynamics 6.1. Estimation of abundance

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7. 8.

6.2. Population densities 6.3. Birth, mortality and production rates Capybara in the savanna ecosystems Management for Sustainable Use 8.1. Hunting and Products 8.2. Management of the Harvest 8.3. Habitat Management 8.4. Captive Breeding

Tropical Savannas – Introduction Gerhard Gottsberger and Ilse Silberbauer-Gottsberger Botanischer Garten and Herbarium, Universität Ulm, D-89081 Ulm, Germany 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

341

Introductory Remarks Definition of Savanna Location and Extension of Tropical Savannas Cerrado and Neotropical Savannas Paleoclimate, Paleoecological Changes and Origin of Cerrado and South American Savannas Climate Soil Properties and Relationships among Soil, Vegetation and Plants Cerrado Vegetation Physiognomy The Origin of the Cerrado Flora Floristic Diversity and Community Structure Physiognomic Characters, Life Forms, Growth Forms and Underground Organs Water Balance, Nutrient Availability, and Xeromorphic and Scleromorphic Features of Cerrado Plants Fire and its Influence on Plants and Vegetation Seasonality and Rhythm of Vegetation Events and Processes Leading to Reproduction and Seed Formation Sex Expression and Breeding Systems Animals and their Role as Seed Dispersal Agents The Study of Dispersal in Cerrado Vegetation

Index

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VOLUME XI Mangroves of the Reef Domain: A Case Study in Belize 1 Ilka C. Feller, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Smithsonian Institution, 647 Contees Wharf Rd., Edgewater MD 21037, USA Klaus Ruetzler,National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, USA 1.

2.

Introduction 1.1. Mangroves: Definitions, Distribution, and Ecological and Economic Significance 1.2. Threats to Mangroves A Case Study in Belize 2.1. Oceanic Mangrove Forests in the Reef Domain 2.2. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef 2.3. Structure and Diversity of Mangrove Forests on Oceanic Islands 2.4. Mangrove Island Communities 2.4.1. Terrestrial Communities

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2.4.2. Marine Communities 2.4.3. Prop Root Communities 2.4.4. Benthic Communities 2.4.5. Seagrass Communities 2.4.6. Microbial Communities Conclusions

Tropical Insect Diversity - How to Sample it J. T. Longino, The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA, USA 1.

2. 3.

4.

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Introduction 1.1. Why Sample Insects? 1.2. ATBI versus ABTI 1.3. The Taxonomic Impediment 1.4. Favorite Taxa 1.4.1. Butterflies 1.4.2. Ants 1.4.3. Dung Beetles The Species x Sample Matrix Sampling Methods 3.1. Volumetric Methods 3.1.1. Direct Visual Inspection of Samples 3.1.2. Berlese Samples 3.1.3. Winkler Samples 3.1.4. Branch Bagging and Canopy Fogging 3.2. Individual-based Hunting and Trapping Methods 3.2.1. Aerial Netting, Sweeping, and Beating 3.2.2. Malaise Traps and Flight Intercept Traps 3.2.3. Pitfall Traps 3.2.4. Attraction to Lights 3.2.5. Baiting Measuring Diversity 4.1. Graphing Diversity 4.2. Diversity Indices 4.3. Species Area versus Local Community 4.4. Pooled-Quadrat Plots 4.5. Species Accumulation Curves 4.6. Species Density versus Species Richness 4.7. Rarefaction 4.8. Estimating Species Richness 4.8.1. Extrapolating Species Accumulation Curves 4.8.2. Fitting Parametric Models 4.8.3. Non-Parametric Methods 4.9. Hyperdiverse Tropical Insects 4.10. Recommendations

The Impact of Forest Fragmentation on Populations of New World Primates 59 Stephen F. Ferrari, Department of Biology, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, So Cristvo Sergipe, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction New World Monkeys Effects of Habitat Fragmentation A Short History of Human Impact in the Neotropics Diversity Patterns Fragmentation and Conservation The effects of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation

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Conservation strategies The Future

Life in the Treetops – A Concise Summary of Forest Canopy Ecology 83 Margaret D. Lowman, Professor of Biology and Environmental Studies, Director of Environmental Initiatives, New College of Florida, USA, Center for Canopy Ecology, Sarasota FL, USA 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

History of Canopy Biology. 1.1. Introduction. 1.2. Chronology of the Development of Canopy Access Tools. 1.3. History of the Development of Advances in Canopy Research. Canopy Access Techniques. 2.1. Introduction. 2.2. Advantages of Current Methods of Canopy Access. 2.3. Long Term, Collaborative Canopy Research. 2.4. Future Directions for Canopy Access. Case Studies of Critical Canopy Questions. 3.1. Sessile Organisms. 3.2. Mobile Organisms. 3.3. Canopy Processes and Interactions. 3.4. Canopy Education Outreach. Future Directions. Conclusions.

Natural History of Amazon Fishes 113 Lucelia Nobre Carvalho and Jansen Zuanon, Coordenacao de Pesquisas em Biologia Aquatica, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Brazil Ivan Sazima, Departamento de Zoologia and Museu de Historia Natural, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Introduction Main aquatic environments of the Amazon Fish diversity and community structure Time and space: activity periods, territoriality, and resource partitioning among fishes Reproduction: different responses to environmental factors Feeding tactics, trophic specializations, and ecological interactions Predator-prey interactions: taking the chances Defense by disguise: dealing with risks posed by visually guided predators Conclusions and perspectives

The danger of introducing bee species, A case study on Brazilian Tropical Savanna 145 Helena Maura Torezan Silingardi, InBio, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil;FFCLRP, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil. 1. 2.

3.

Introduction Material and Methods 2.1. The Field Area 2.2. The Plant Species 2.3. Floral Biology 2.4. Reproductive Biology 2.5. Floral Visitors Results 3.1. Floral Biology 3.2. Reproductive Biology 3.3. Floral Visitors

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Discussion and Conclusions

Diversity of Tropical Spiders - Ground-Dwelling Species of Brazilian Savannas Marina Farcic Mineo, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil Kleber Del Claro, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

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Introduction The Araneae order The diversity of spiders 3.1. Web-building Spiders 3.1.1. Orb-weaving Spiders 3.1.2. Tangle-web Weavers 3.1.3. Sheet-web Weavers 3.1.4. Funnel-web Weavers 3.2. Non-web-building Spiders 3.2.1. Jumping Spiders 3.2.2. Cursorial Spiders 3.2.3. Sit-and-wait Spiders 3.3. Considerations Ground-dwelling spiders of Brazilian savannas 4.1. Ground-dwelling Spiders 4.2. The Brazilian Savannas 4.3. Methods 4.4. Results and Discussion Conclusion

Natural History and Social Behavior in Neotropical Pseudoscorpions 177 Everton Tizo-Pedroso, Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Programa de Pos-graduacao em Ecologia e Conservacao de Recursos Naturais, CP 593, Cep 38400-902, Uberlandia, MG, Brasil. Kleber Del-Claro, Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Instituto de Biologia, CP 593, Cep 38400-902, Uberlandia, MG, Brasil. 1.

2.

3.

Introduction 1.1. What we know about the Order Pseudoscorpiones? 1.2. Predatory Behavior and Feeding Habits 1.3. Reproductive Behavior 1.4. Development, Life Cycle and Parental Care 1.5. Living Together The Social Pseudoscorpions 2.1. Distribution and Occurrence of the Social Pseudoscorpion Species 2.2. Colony Structure, Growth and Division 2.3. Forage and Feeding Habits of Social Pseudoscorpions 2.4. Cohesion and Cooperation 2.5. Parental Care New Directions

Natural History of Tropical Parasitoid Wasps M. O. Gonzaga, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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What is a Parasitoid? Life Histories Host Location Host Selection and Acceptance Variation in Natural History and Study Cases 5.1. Ichneumonidae and Braconidae

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5.2. Scelionidae 5.3. Mutillidae 5.4. Non-pollinating Fig Wasps 5.5. Ampulicidae Host behavior Manipulation

Index

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