Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology Volume 12 Issue 3 ... [PDF]

ISSN 2146‐7242 

Turkish Online Journal of  Educational Technology   Volume 12 Issue 3 July 2013    Prof.Dr. Aytekin İşman  Editor‐in‐Chief    Prof.Dr. Jerry WILLIS ‐ ST John Fisher University in Rochester, USA  Prof.Dr. J. Ana Donaldson ‐ AECT President  Editors    Fahme DABAJ, Ph.D. ‐ Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC  Associate Editor    Assoc.Prof.Dr. Eric Zhi ‐ Feng Liu ‐ National Central University, Taiwan  Assistant Editor         

TOJET  01.07.2013 

THE

TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY July 2013 Volume 12 - Issue 3

Prof. Dr. Aytekin İşman Editor-in-Chief Editors Prof. Dr. Jerry Willis Prof. Dr. J. Ana Donaldson Fahme Dabaj, Ph.D. Associate Editor ISSN: 2146 - 7242 Indexed by Education Resources Information Center - ERIC

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

                                                Copyright © THE TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY All rights reserved. No part of TOJET's articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrival system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published in TURKEY Contact Address: Prof. Dr. Aytekin İŞMAN TOJET, Editor in Chief Sakarya-Turkey

Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology

TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

Message from the Editor-in-Chief Dear Colleagues, There is a strong relationship between technology and culture. Culture sometimes affects technology but also technology sometimes influences culture. Technology also affects educational culture. Technikos is a mental process that is associated with real world activities involving techniques or technical methodologies. Technikos as a mental trait is an aspect of culture, and the associated techniques/technical methodologies affect people’s lives, behavior, communication style, and so on. Technologies can be embedded so deeply in culture that people have not acquired knowledge of the technikos and technological methodology that produced them. However, in with a deeply embedded technology, new technikos are created along with new human-technology interactions at a higher a simpler level. These new human-technology processes entail “ways of seeing”—whether or not the actual technology equals the metaphysical way of seeing—that comprise essential characteristics of a culture. Educators should pay attention the relationship between technology and culture. Technology can create new education culture. For example, social media such as Facebook and others can change the structure of education system. The guest editor of this issue is Prof.Dr. Dongsik Kim - Hanyang University, South Korea. We greatly appreciate the valuable contributions of the editorial board who have acted as reviewers for one or more submissions of this issue. TOJET's reviewers are drawn quite widely from all over the world with a concentration for this issue on the USA, Malaysia, Spain, Canada, Taiwan, Turkey, and others. TOJET is interested in academic articles on the issues of educational technology. The articles should talk about using educational technology in classroom, how educational technology impacts learning, and the perspectives of students, teachers, school administrators and communities on educational technology. These articles will help researchers to increase the quality of both theory and practice in the field of educational technology. TOJET will organize the 14th International Educational Technology Conference (IETC 2014) on September 0305, 2014 at American Islamic College in Chicago, USA. The web page of IETC is “www.iet-c.net”. Call for Papers TOJET invites article contributions. Submitted articles should be about all aspects of educational technology and may address assessment, attitudes, beliefs, curriculum, equity, research, translating research into practice, learning theory, alternative conceptions, socio-cultural issues, special populations, and integration of subjects. The articles should also discuss the perspectives of students, teachers, school administrators and communities. The articles should be original, unpublished, and not in consideration for publication elsewhere at the time of submission to TOJET. All authors can submit their manuscripts to [email protected] for the next issues. Call for Papers TOJET invites article contributions. Submitted articles should be about all aspects of educational technology and may address assessment, attitudes, beliefs, curriculum, equity, research, translating research into practice, learning theory, alternative conceptions, socio-cultural issues, special populations, and integration of subjects. The articles should also discuss the perspectives of students, teachers, school administrators and communities. The articles should be original, unpublished, and not in consideration for publication elsewhere at the time of submission to TOJET. All authors can submit their manuscripts to [email protected] for the next issues. July 01, 2013 Editor Prof. Dr. Aytekin İŞMAN Sakarya University - Turkey

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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

Editors Prof. Dr. Aytekin İŞMAN - Sakarya University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Jerry WILLIS - ST John Fisher University in Rochester, USA Prof. Dr. J. Ana Donaldson - AECT President Associate Editor Fahme DABAJ, Ph.D. - Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC Editorial Board Prof.Dr. Adnan BAKİ - Karadeniz Teknik University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan - Cyprus International University, TRNC Prof.Dr. Akif ERGIN - Başkent University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Ali Al Mazari - Alfaisal University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Prof.Dr. Ali Ekrem ÖZKUL - Anadolu University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Ali Paşa AYAS - Karadeniz Teknik University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Ali Rıza AKADENİZ - Karadeniz Teknik University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Antoinette J. MUNTJEWERFF - University of Amsterdam Prof.Dr. Arif ALTUN - Hacettepe University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Arvind SINGHAL - University of Texas, USA Prof.Dr. Asaf VAROL - Fırat University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Aytekin İŞMAN - Sakarya University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Brent G. WILSON - University of Colorado at Denver, USA Prof.Dr. Buket AKKOYUNLU - Hacettepe University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Chang-Shing Lee - National University of Tainan, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Charlotte N. (Lani) GUNAWARDENA - University of New Mexico, USA Prof.Dr. Chi - Jui Lien - National Taipei University of Education, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Chih - Kai Chang - National University of Taiwan, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Chin-Min Hsiung - National pingtung university, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Colin LATCHEM - Open Learning Consultant, Australia Prof.Dr. Colleen SEXTON - Governor State University, USA Prof.Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson - University of Piraeus, Greece Prof.Dr. Don M. FLOURNOY - Ohio University, USA Prof.Dr. Dongsik Kim - Hanyang University, South Korea Prof.Dr. Enver Tahir RIZA - Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Feng-chiao Chung - National pingtung university, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Ferhan ODABAŞI - Anadolu University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Finland Cheng - National pingtung university, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Fong Soon Fook - Uniiversiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Prof.Dr. Francine Shuchat SHAW - New York University, USA Prof.Dr. Gianni Viardo VERCELLI - University of Genova, Italy Prof.Dr. Gwo - Dong Chen - National Central University Chung - Li, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Hafize KESER - Ankara University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Halil İbrahim YALIN - Gazi University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Hasan AMCA - Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC Prof.Dr. Heli RUOKAMO - University of Lapland, Finland Prof.Dr. Henry H.H. Chen - National pingtung university, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Hüseyin Ekiz - Sakarya University, Turkey Prof.Dr. Ing. Giovanni ADORNI - University of Genova, Italy Prof.Dr. J. Ana Donaldson - AECT President Prof.Dr. J. Michael Spector - University of North Texas, USA Prof.Dr. Jerry WILLIS - ST John Fisher University in Rochester, USA Prof.Dr. Jie-Chi Yang - National central university, Taiwan Prof.Dr. Kinshuk - Athabasca University, Canada Prof.Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi - Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan Prof.Dr. Kumiko Aoki - The Open University of Japan, Japan

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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

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Kuo - En Chang - National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Kuo - Hung Tseng - Meiho Institute of Technology, Taiwan Kuo - Robert Lai - Yuan - Ze University, Taiwan Liu Meifeng - Beijing Normal University, China Marina Stock MCISAAC - Arizona State University, USA Mehmet Ali Dikermen - Middlesex University, UK Mehmet ÇAĞLAR - Near East University, TRNC Mehmet GÜROL - Fırat University, Turkey Mehmet KESİM - Anadolu University, Turkey Mei-Mei Chang - National pingtung university, Taiwan Melissa Huı-Mei Fan - National central university, Taiwan Min Jou - National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Ming - Puu Chen - National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Murat BARKAN - Yaşar University, Turkey Mustafa Şahin DÜNDAR - Sakarya University, Turkey Nabi Bux JUMANI - International Islamic University, Pakistan Nian - Shing Chen - National Sun Yat - Sen University, Taiwan Paul Gibbs - Middlesex University, UK Petek AŞKAR - Hacettepe University, Turkey Rauf YILDIZ - Çanakkale 19 Mart University, Turkey Roger Hartley - University of Leeds, UK Rozhan Hj. Mohammed IDRUS - Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Saedah Siraj - University of Malaya, Malaysia Salih ÇEPNİ - Karadeniz Teknik University, Turkey Servet BAYRAM - Marmara University, Turkey Shan - Ju Lin - National Taiwan University, Taiwan Sheng Quan Yu - Beijing Normal University, China Shi-Jer Lou - National pingtung university, Taiwan Shu - Sheng Liaw - China Medical University, Taiwan Shu-Hsuan Chang - National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan Stefan AUFENANGER - University of Mainz, Germany Stephen J.H. Yang - National Central University, Taiwan Sun Fuwan - China Open University, China Sunny S.J. Lin - National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan Toshio Okamoto - University of Electro - Communications, Japan Toshiyuki Yamamoto - Japan Tzu - Chien Liu - National Central University, Taiwan Uğur DEMİRAY - Anadolu University, Turkey Ülkü KÖYMEN - Lefke European University, TRNC Vaseudev D.Kulkarni - Hutatma Rajjguru College, Rajguruunagar(Pune),(M.S.) INDIA Xibin Han - Tsinghua University, China Yau Hon Keung - City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Yavuz AKPINAR - Boğaziçi University, Turkey Yen-Hsyang Chu - National central university, Taiwan Yuan - Chen Liu - National Taipei University of Education, Taiwan Yuan-Kuang Guu - National pingtung university, Taiwan Zeki KAYA - Gazi University, Turkey

Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr.

Abdullah Kuzu - Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Zeki SAKA - Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey C. Hakan AYDIN - Anadolu University, Turkey Chen - Chung Liu - National Central University, Taiwan Cheng - Huang Yen - National Open University, Taiwan

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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Kangra, India Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof Dr. Assoc.Prof Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr. Assoc.Prof.Dr.

Ching - fan Chen - Tamkang University, Taiwan Ching Hui Alice Chen - Ming Chuan University, Taiwan Chiung - sui Chang - Tamkang University, Taiwan Danguole Rutkauskiene - Kauno Technology University, Lietvenia David Tawei Ku - Tamkang University, Taiwan Dimiter G. Velev - University of National and World Economy, Bulgaria Eralp ALTUN - Ege University, Turkey Eric Meng - National pingtung university, Taiwan Eric Zhi Feng Liu - National central university, Taiwan Ezendu ARIWA - London Metropolitan University, U.K. Fahad N. AlFahad - King Saud University Fahriye ALTINAY - Near East University, TRNC Galip AKAYDIN - Hacettepe University, Turkey Gurnam Kaur SIDHU - Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia Hao - Chiang Lin - National University of Tainan, Taiwan Hsin - Chih Lin - National University of Tainan, Taiwan Huey - Ching Jih - National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan Hüseyin UZUNBOYLU - Near East University, TRNC I - Wen Huang - National University of Tainan, Taiwan I Tsun Chiang - National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan Ian Sanders - University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Jie - Chi Yang - National Central University, Taiwan John I-Tsun Chiang - National Changhua University of Education, Taiwan Ju - Ling Shih - National University of Taiwan, Taiwan Koong Lin - National University of Tainan, Taiwan Kuo - Chang Ting - Ming - HSIN University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Kuo - Liang Ou - National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan Larysa M. MYTSYK - Gogol State University, Ukraine Li - An Ho - Tamkang University, Taiwan Li Yawan - China Open University, China Manoj Kumar SAXENA - Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala, Mike Joy - University of Warwick, UK Ming-Charng Jeng - National pingtung university, Taiwan Murat ATAİZİ - Anadolu University, Turkey Nergüz Serin - Cyprus International University, TRNC Norazah Mohd Suki - Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia Oğuz Serin - Cyprus International University, TRNC Ping - Kuen Chen - National Defense University, Taiwan Popat S. TAMBADE - Prof. Ramkrishna More College, India Prakash Khanale - Dnyanopasak College, INDIA Pramela Krish - Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Selahattin GELBAL - Hacettepe University, Turkey Teressa FRANKLIN - Ohio University, USA Tzu - Hua Wang - National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan Wu - Yuin Hwang - National Central University, Taiwan Ya-Ling Wu - National pingtung university, Taiwan Yahya O Mohamed Elhadj - AL Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud University, Yavuz AKBULUT - Anadolu University Zehra ALTINAY - Near East University, TRNC Zhi - Feng Liu - National Central University, Taiwan

Assist.Prof.Dr. Aaron L. DAVENPORT - Grand View College, USA

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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

Assist.Prof.Dr. Adile Aşkım KURT - Anadolu University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Andreja Istenic Starcic - University of Primorska, Slovenija Assist.Prof.Dr. ANITA G. WELCH - North Dakota State University, USA Assist.Prof.Dr. Betül ÖZKAN - University of Arizona, USA Assist.Prof.Dr. Chiu - Pin Lin - National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Chun - Ping Wu - Tamkang University, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Chun - Yi Shen - Tamkang University, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Chung-Yuan Hsu - National pingtung university, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Dale HAVILL - Dhofar University, Sultanate of Oman Assist.Prof.Dr. Erkan TEKİNARSLAN - Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Ferman Konukman - The College of Brockport, State University of New York, USA Assist.Prof.Dr. Filiz Varol - Fırat University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Guan - Ze Liao - National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Hasan ÇALIŞKAN - Anadolu University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Hasan KARAL - Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Hsiang chin - hsiao - Shih - Chien University, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Huei - Tse Hou - National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Hüseyin ÜNLÜ - Aksaray University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Hüseyin YARATAN - Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC Assist.Prof.Dr. Işıl KABAKCI - Anadolu University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Jagannath. K DANGE - Kuvempu University, India Assist.Prof.Dr. K. B. Praveena - University of Mysore, India Assist.Prof.Dr. Kanvaria Vinod Kumar - University of Delhi, India Assist.Prof.Dr. Marko Radovan - University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Assist.Prof.Dr. Min-Hsien Lee - National central university, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Mohammad Akram Mohammad Al-Zu'bi - Jordan Al Balqa Applied University, Jordan Assist.Prof.Dr. Muhammet DEMİRBİLEK - Süleyman Demirel University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Mustafa Murat INCEOGLU - Ege University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Mübin KIYICI - Sakarya University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Ozcan Erkan AKGUN - Sakarya University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Pamela EWELL - Central College of IOWA, USA Assist.Prof.Dr. Pei-Hsuan Hsieh - National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Pey-Yan Liou - National central university, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Phaik Kin, CHEAH - Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Perak Assist.Prof.Dr. Ping - yeh Tsai - Tamkang University, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. S. Arulchelvan - Anna University, India Assist.Prof.Dr. Selma KOÇ Vonderwell - Cleveland State University, Cleveland Assist.Prof.Dr. Tsung - Yen Chuang - National University of Taiwan, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Vahid Motamedi - Tarbiat Moallem University, Iran Assist.Prof.Dr. Vincent Ru-Chu Shih - National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Yalın Kılıç TÜREL - Fırat University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Yu - Ju Lan - National Taipei University of Education, Taiwan Assist.Prof.Dr. Zerrin AYVAZ REİS - İstanbul University, Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Zülfü GENÇ - Fırat University, Turkey Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr.

Arnaud P. PREVOT - Forest Ridge School of the Sacred Heart, USA Aytaç Göğüş - Sabancı University, Turkey Balakrishnan Muniandy - Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Brendan Tangney - Trinity College, Ireland

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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr.

Chin Hai Leng - University of Malaya, Malaysia Chin - Yeh Wang - National Central University, Taiwan Chun - Hsiang Chen - National Central University, Taiwan Farrah Dina Yusop - University of Malaya, Malaysia Hj. Issham Ismail - Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Hj. Mohd Arif Hj. Ismail - National University of Malaysia, Malaysia İsmail İPEK - Bilkent University, Turkey Jarkko Suhonen - University of Eastern Finland, Finland Li Ying - China Open University, China Norlidah Alias - University of Malaya, Malaysia Rosnaini Mahmud - Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Tam Shu Sim - University of Malaya, Malaysia Tiong Goh - Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Vikrant Mishra - Shivalik College of Education, India

Chen Haishan - China Open University, China Chun Hung Lin - National central university, Taiwan I-Hen Tsai - National University of Tainan, Taiwan Sachin Sharma - Faridabad Institute of Technology, Faridabad

Table of Contents A Coordinated Decentralized Approach to Online Project Development David MYKOTA

1

Adjective Identification in Television Advertisements Normaliza ABD RAHIM

15

Applying an AR Technique to Enhance Situated Heritage Learning in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment Yi Hsing CHANG, Jen-ch'iang LIU

21

Computer Based Screening Dyscalculia: Cognitive and Neuropsychological Correlates Banu CANGÖZ, Arif ALTUN, Sinan OLKUN, Funda KAÇAR

33

Designing a Web-Based Multimedia Learning Environment with Laurillard’s Conversational Framework: An Investigation on Instructional Relationships Mai NEO, Ken Tse-Kian NEO, Sally Thian-Li LIM

39

Determination of the Computer Self-Efficacy Perception of Students and Metaphors Related to “Computer Ownership” Aynur GEÇER

51

Developing and Evaluating a Computer-Assisted Near-Synonym Learning System Using Multiple Contextual Knowledge Sources Liang-Chih YU, Kai-Hsiang HSU

72

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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2013, volume 12 Issue 3

Elementary School Teachers and Teaching with Technology Filiz VAROL

85

Improving Learning Results and Reducing Cognitive Load through 3D Courseware on Color Management and Inspection Instruction Liang-Yuan HSIUNG, Mu-Hui LAI

91

Improving Students’ Summary Writing Ability through Collaboration: A Comparison Between Online Wiki Group and Conventional Face-To-Face Group Saovapa WICHADEE

107

Integrating a Digital Concept Mapping into a PPT Slide Writing Project Ai Chun YEN, Pei Yi YANG

117

Psychological Well-Being and Internet Addiction among University Students Mehmet ÇARDAK

134

Science, Technology and Social Change Course’s Effects on Technological Literacy Levels of Social Studies Pre-Service Teachers E. Özlem YIĞIT

142

Shared Knowledge among Graphic Designers, Instructional Designers and Subject Matter Experts in Designing Multimedia-Based Instructional Media Rafiza ABDUL RAZAK

157

The Impact of Integrating Technology and Social Experience in the College Foreign Language Classroom Yulin CHEN

169

What Higher Educational Professionals Need to Know about Today’s Students: Online Social Networks Jenny WANG

180

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A COORDINATED DECENTRALIZED APPROACH TO ONLINE PROJECT DEVELOPMENT Associate Professor Dr. David Mykota Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education, College of Education, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK. S7N 0X1 [email protected] ABSTRACT With the growth rate of online learning outpacing traditional face-to-face instruction, universities are beginning to recognize the importance of strategic planning in its development. Making the case for online learning requires sound project management practices and an understanding of the business models on which it is predicated. The objective of the present case study is to provide a replicable integrated model for the development of online programs. The case study examines a coordinated decentralized model for collaborative project development and presents the lessons learned from the program’s implementation. The case provides information for reflection on how adaptations and modifications affected program development and how these short-cycle decisions present a model of effective practices for future initiatives. Key words: online learning, teacher preparation, e-learning, course development, program implementation, special education INTRODUCTION Over the past few years, a marked increase in higher education enrollment among North American students in online courses has occurred, with the growth rate of online learning outpacing traditional face-to-face instruction or other technology-enhanced modes of learning (Allen & Seaman, 2010; Bates, 2007; Russell & Koppi, 2007). In reference to higher education online learning initiatives in the United States, Allen and Sleeman (2011) report: • • • •

Over 6.1 million students were taking at least one online course during the fall 2010 term, an increase of 560,000 students over the number reported the previous year; The ten percent growth rate for online enrollments is the second lowest since 2002; The ten percent growth rate for online enrollments far exceeds the less than one percent growth of the overall higher education student population; and Thirty-one percent of all higher education students now take at least one course online. (p.4)

The increased demand for online learning has been facilitated by its ability to provide accessible and flexible learning environments (Anderson, 2008; Kanuka & Rourke, 2008; Pachler & Daly, 2011). In a recent survey of online education conducted, it was found that “Over seventy-six percent of the [academic] leaders at public institutions report that online learning is as good as or better than face-to-face instruction” (Allen & Seaman, 2010, p.11). Online learning has been applied to a variety of education fields. Recent studies examining the implementation of online learning in engineering and physics courses found that student’s skills are enhanced (Jou, Chuang, & Wu, 2010) along with increased motivation and learning when virtual (Jou & Liu, 2012) and blended environments (Jou & Wu, 2012) are incorporated. Today, many post-secondary institutions believe that their continued success to attract and graduate students will hinge on their ability to provide quality online learning environments (Bates, 2007; Allan & Seaman, 2004). Coupled with the demand for online learning, then, is the need to develop quality technology enhanced learning environments based on sound research practices. In order to accomplish this Kanuka and Rourke (2008) argue that a more balanced and principled approach to interpreting online learning research literature is warranted. Kanuka and Rourke (2008) state: It seems reasonable to conclude that competing paradigms, which suggest that technologies represent both losses and gains to higher education, can contribute to a renewed discussion of the nature, purposes, and societal effects of educational reform driven by technological innovation. Critical discourse that establishes changes resulting from the Internet-learning experience can influence the implementation of more informed elearning practices. (p.14) By understanding where both amplifications and reductions occur a more reflective approach to enhancing the

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online learning experience can be taken. In a study conducted by Owusu-Ansah, Neill, and Haralson (2011) that examined barriers and enablers to the implementation of technology based distance education they found “prohibitive factors include cost, accessibility, faculty concerns, state mandates, academic administrative actions and unit operations” (p. 1.). Suggested ways of overcoming these barriers include: moving away from a cost recovery model through higher enrollments and tuition; sharing of course materials; making use of external funding sources; ensuring faculty buy-in through involvement; providing opportunities for online teacher training; and having a university wide vision and strategy to ensure sustainability (Owusu-Anash, Neill, & Haralson, 2011). In making the case for online learning institutions need consider the type of business model on which online learning is predicated. The type of business model adopted is dependent on the institution’s vision regarding online learning, the resources, organizational structures, processes in place, and institutional funding arrangements (Christensen, Horn, Caldera, & Soares, 2011). For example, the vision or value an institution initially places on online learning will affect decisions on funding and organization (Miller & Schiffmann, 2006). Accordingly, Miller and Schiffmann (2006) assert institutions’ pursue online learning for one of two reasons “(1) to extend access to degree programs to new off-campus students or (2) to improve the quality of teaching for existing students on campus” (p.15). Further, Vignare, Gieth, and Schiffman (2006) contend that it is a common occurrence for access oriented, cost recovery business models to be characterized by distant and continuing education initiatives, much like the present case study. An extension of this argument would be that although both public and private universities might begin initially as access oriented (i.e for profit or cost recovery) they need not remain stagnant and can evolve into the quality model that is integrated into the strategic plans of the university. Previous attempts to articulate best practices for online development drew from traditional instructional design, distance education, and adult education models (Cervo & Wilson, 1994). However, these models are lacking as they neglect to incorporate the business models that affect online instructional design and project development within post secondary institutions. As the development of online programs can involve a number of interdisciplinary partnerships, a reliable repertoire of effective practices for project implementation in newly developed online courses and programs are required. The purpose of the study then is to address the need for replicable online project development practices as found within the current context. METHOD The present research utilizes a case study approach. Case studies are of particular value when their focus is on processes rather than outcomes (Merriman, 1998). Case inquiries are not characterized by confirmatory designs rather they are about understanding context and discovering process (Yin, 2009; Merriman, 1998). A case study allows for an in-depth investigation (Creswell, 2007) and incorporates multiple sources of data (Stake, 2005). By using multiple sources of data the researcher is able to clarify perceptions and enable triangulation through converging lines of inquiry (Stake, 2005; Yin 2009). Accordingly, the researcher should consider the case as a bounded system of activity patterns (Creswell, 2007; Stake 2005). Gerring (2004) further reiterates “for methodological purposes a case study is best defined as an in-depth study of a single unit (a relatively bounded phenomenon) where the scholar’s aim is to elucidate features of a larger class of similar phenomena” (p. 341). Thus in the present study, a single case design was employed that examined the bounded system of the online post degree certificate in special education and the ensuing activity patterns that comprised it’s development and implementation. To ensure triangulation, multiple sources of data collection were incorporated which included document, policy, and artifact review (i.e. online course content) along with participant-observation of key informants (i.e. project development team). A cost recovery model with preexisting continuing and distance education initiatives within a coordinated yet decentralized e-learning system contextualizes and bounds the present case. The study’s purpose is to not only examine the program’s implementation but also provide information for reflection on how adaptations and modifications have affected program development and how these short-cycle decisions provide a model of effective practices for future online learning project initiatives. PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT Program Development Management Structure All courses, within the present program being studied, were funded through the office of Technology Enhanced Learning. They were required to use a coordinated decentralized project management approach (Bates, 2000) with University of Saskatchewan representatives from the Department of Educational Psychology and Special

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Education, the Instructional Design Group of the Extension Division, the Department of Media and Technology, and Information Technology Services. A coordinated decentralized project management approach (Bates, 2000) facilitates the creation of teams on a temporary flexible basis for the purposes of project development that can then be reformulated or reconstituted to meet the various needs of organizational arrangements within the institution. By using a team approach it is argued that the quality of course design is enhanced which in some instances can be a more cost effective and sustainable approach (Kanuka & Rourke, 2008). For larger universities this type of approach is advantageous if a university-level division coordinates and supports innovation undertaken by the academic units (Softic & Bekic, 2008). According to Softic and Bekic (2008): The real challenge in this balancing process is to approach and tailor particular circumstances at a concrete university. The parameters that play important roles are the size of the university, its organization, including the level of the integration or independence of its organizational parts, pedagogical paradigms and principles, tradition and experience in common services in support. (p. 157) To more strongly place e-learning at the fore front of the University’s vision recent initiatives articulated in the integrated planning cycle and teaching and learning foundational policy documents argue for greater incorporation of e-learning using a coordinated decentralized approach so as to meet the strategic plan of the University for increased enrollment and program accessibility (Greer, 2010; University of Saskatchewan, 2008). Program Description The impetus and subsequent development of the postgraduate program in special education was based on a needs analysis conducted by the Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education (2005) that identified the ability to collaborate with peers, parents, and outside agencies as a core skill of special education teachers. More specific data to support the demand for this program stems from a departmental survey where employer perceptions regarding future needs of their organization for special education teachers were evaluated using a 7-point likert scale (Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education, 2005). Responses by employers indicated a high continuing need for special education personnel in the future (mean rating of 6.20; n = 56). In a follow-up telephone interview with 9% of the survey respondents, employers commented on the ongoing difficulty of attracting and keeping graduates in the largely rural areas of the Province. In addition, findings from the departmental survey of former graduate students showed that the vast majority were employed within a school division. A subsequent review of students exiting the postgraduate program over the past five years found a 100% employment level for former students. Thus, graduates appear to be fully employed and working directly in the field of program preparation. This data suggests a high and continuing demand for graduates meeting the special education certification scale (Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education, 2005). As a result, the Post-Degree Certificate in Special Education was developed in response to requests by the University and stakeholders that special education teacher preparation become more accessible through remote and distance offerings. Accessibility to the program has been greatly enhanced with the Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education receiving TEL funding for online development of the program using the WebCT platform. As a result, the department offers the only online Post-Degree Certificate in Special Education in the province of Saskatchewan and produces most of the professionals in special education who fulfill qualification requirements for teaching special education in the province’s schools. Further, the certificate is well situated within a national and regional context, as it is one of the few online distance education programs in special education being offered in Canada. International standards for the preparation of professional practices for special education teachers has been established by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), the largest international professional organization dedicated to improving educational outcomes for individuals with exceptionalities. The knowledge and skill standards for professional practice by the CEC was used as benchmarks for the content structure of the Certificate that has been organized around the four levels of knowledge base, application, integration, and extension. The ensuing figures presented surrounding the program’s description and content development are artifacts derived from the online courses. Figure 1 provides an outline of the approved course titles that appear in the university catalogue. The first five three-credit unit courses comprise the knowledge-base level and include content pertaining to the history and philosophy of special education and the high incidence exceptionalities relating to speech and language, learning disabilities, and behavior. The fifth course in this area pertains to collaborative interdisciplinary teamwork as a

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common feature and evolving practice in special education. The application level prescribes the designing and provision of supports to students with exceptionalities. The pairing of assessment with instruction in a full sixcredit unit course that is integrated with the practicum course comprises the application component. The first half of the assessment and instruction course enables students to learn and practice their assessment and instructional planning skills that prepare them for the practicum that they take concurrently during the second half of the academic year. This alignment of courses at the application level enables students to practice their assessment skills while designing individual student programs in a school-based guided practicum. The final course in the certificate is at the integration level and serves as an opportunity for students to synthesize content and experiences obtained in the other certificate courses. Students, with the support of the instructor, are guided in investigating topics of personal interest in the field of special education. The aim is to prepare students to conduct a review of the literature, develop a set of effective practices related to their topics, and prepare an online presentation of their topic. By doing this, a repository of effective practices for special education teachers is created that can then be accessed by special education professionals to enhance the learning outcomes of students with exceptionalities.

Figure 1. Screen Shot of Courses. Content Development Content development of the certificate followed a four-phase implementation plan. To ensure a seamless mode of delivery to professionals wishing to be trained in special education and to uphold quality standards in program development, an implementation plan was created that saw initial content development and instruction occur in a traditional face-to-face setting with the online development of the certificate facilitated by TEL development funding. Instructional Design Phase Instructional design took place at the following three levels during the development of the program: (1) university standards; (2) program instructional design; and (3) course-level instructional design. University standards. A WebCT course TEL template, print-based materials templates, and accessibility standards for students with disabilities were created for all university online courses. This standardization of key elements served as a starting point for the instructional design of the certificate. Using the TEL template ensured that all students would encounter a similar structure when using WebCT and reduced the need for students to relearn how to use material and navigation in each course. Program instructional design. Early in the development of the program, the department decided that all courses would be similar in look and feel, be highly collaborative, and provide an opportunity for the development of complex thinking skills. One of the first design decisions that needed to be made was how content would be presented within the WebCT environment. Conversations between the program director (department faculty member), project manager (instructional designer) and subject matter experts (SMEs) led to Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 4

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the decision that content would be organized into themes. The rationale behind the use of a thematic approach is found within the research in educational psychology on cognitive learning. In this respect, the desire for students undertaking the certificate to be able to integrate and apply their learning’s to authentic real world contexts was best achieved through a thematic approach (diSessa, 2000; Linn & Hsi, 2000) which employs constructivist and collaborative problem solving (Huang, 2002). Each theme would contain outcomes-based objectives, an image that represented the overall tone of the theme, and a list of learning activities and assessment tools students might use to learn about that theme. All of this information would be contained on one web page with links to readings, audiovisual resources, and URL’s that opened as pop up pages (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. A Course Theme Page Artifact All courses would, therefore, require students to collaborate in the writing of a marked assignment (see Figure 3). The nature of the assignment would vary from course to course with some courses requiring more than one collaborative assignment. Students in each course would then be assigned to private WebCT discussion groups where they could work on their individual group projects. Students were also encouraged to use the chat and discussions area to discuss generic issues relevant to the completion of the assignments, themes, and readings (see Figure 4).

Figure 3. Collaborative Assignment Objectives Artifact Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 5

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Figure 4. A Course Discussion Forum Artifact The ability to use complex thinking-defined by Jonassen (2000) as integrating creative, critical and informationbased thinking within an online environment was another skill required by special education teachers. This skill was important for the application and integration phases of certificate course content. Students needed to be able to apply these skills both collaboratively and individually in the management of complex learning environments. As noted by Huang (2002), this type of approach that is learner centered and collaborative using constructionistlearning principles (i.e. active, real life learning using prior knowledge and reasoning) as applied to adult learning has been increasingly used in online learning environments. Further, these pedagogical practices when applied to an online learning environment occur when distributed problem based scenarios are developed and worked cooperatively among students over time (Jou, Chuang & Wu, 2010; Naidu, 2003). Consequently, to facilitate the development of complex thinking skills, problem-based scenarios were included in certificate courses with the scenarios becoming increasingly difficult with each course. A school-based practicum experience as the next to last course would provide a further concrete opportunity to improve students’ skills in this area. This component of online development mirrored the application and integration phases of the certificate course content, as delineated by the department in the certificate proposal and originally implemented in the face-to-face offerings. Course-level instructional design. Eight three-credit (one semester) and one, six-credit (two semester) courses make up the certificate program. Allotted time for course development varied between three to six months, which encompassed approximately 100-150 hours of development time. The program director a member of faculty, in the role of principal content developer for the certificate, was responsible for the recruitment of SMEs. Careful consideration was given to selection of the SMEs from faculty and professional bodies in the province involved in the delivery of special education services. Subject matter experts were recruited from special education stakeholder groups including the government, the local school divisions, and the Council for Exceptional Children and faculty. All had previous experience instructing graduate face-to face courses in special education along with a professional background in the discipline coupled with extensive knowledge through field based experiences related to the provision of student support services (i.e. special education). These individuals were approached by the program director to insure quality development and enhance credibility among those involved in provision of services to students with exceptionalities. The instructional design planning document incorporated the key features of the TEL development template for online courses. The planning document included a list of team members and contact information; an outline of the course organization; resources to be used (including textbooks, multimedia, WebCT); a course assessment plan; dates for completion and delivery to students; and a budget. In addition, the planning document integrated

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course objectives and learning activities into the template items that were not part of the original TEL template. The instructional design planning document was completed within the first month of course design by the SMEs and instructional designer/project manager and forwarded to the program director for content approval. Completing this document usually required one to three face-to-face meetings; depending on how familiar the SMEs were with the design of online learning. The instructional designer was responsible for ensuring that learning activities and assessment matched both the course objectives and the learning needs of online students. The instructional design phase was revisited several times during the development of course materials to ensure a goodness of fit with online development and course objectives as articulated by the department. Course development. Upon completion of the initial instructional design, the development team (i.e. instructional designer, project manager, subject matter expert, and a representative from the division of media technology) met to discuss content development. The feasibility of timelines and budget were closely scrutinized at this stage. Course development for the certificate was divided along the following organizational structures at the university. First, SMEs wrote mini lectures and descriptions of assessments for course themes. They identified course-reading materials that would be included as either online resources or in printed readings packages. Second, the Instructional Design Group then cleared written copyright and professionally-edited content, put together the readings packages, created HTML pages and uploaded content into WebCT. Third, the Division of Media and Technology produced audiovisual resources (see Figure 5) such as audio-based web pages, interactive images (see Figure 6), video and reproduced multi-media resources such as DVDs as required by the students. Information Technology Services then created the databases used for online courses.

Figure 5. Examples of Audiovisual/Course Content

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Figure 6. Flash Interactive Image Artifact of Dyslexic Brain With the completion of the online development, a pilot online offering was provided to students. During the course pilot, the program manager, who was also the instructional designer, acted as a support person for both the instructor and the students in order to identify ongoing issues that instructors and students would have. The choice to use the program manager instead of the director for the program was based on their knowledge of the online learning platform being used and their ability to troubleshoot issues that arose around the program’s implementation with both instructors and students. Information Technology Services provided courses for the instructors on how to use WebCT course delivery tools and provided a helpdesk system for technical questions. Having technical support for both faculty and students in online learning environments is a key component of maintaining successful online courses. Owusu-Ansah et al. (2011) suggest discussing with students areas of difficulty accessing online material and how to ‘troubleshoot’ or get help from information technology support. Having support staff available and collaboration with other faculty who know more about technology needed can be very helpful in making teaching online courses less challenging (Owusu-Ansah et al., 2011). By understanding the difference between online and face-to-face learning environments, faculty members will better be able to design online courses and be able to shift from one modality to the other (Keengwe & Kidd, 2010). Online instruction shares many features with face-to-face teaching, however, its flexibility for students makes it unique. When comparing face-to-face to online learning Keengwe and Kidd (2010) explain that online learning “goes beyond planned subject learning to recognize the value of the unplanned and self directedness of the learner” (p. 534). For some faculty members, realizing that face-to-face and online environments are so different requires support programs to help them gain the skills and knowledge related to course delivery and facilitation in an online environment (Keengwe & Kidd, 2010). It is also important that supportive pre course instructional activities be provided for learners to acquaint them with the tools and their usage so they understand their role and responsibilities in online learning environments. This is necessary because “many online users apply face-to-face communication skills to an online environment” (Tu, 2002, p. 21). Moreover, these activities will promote retention of students in an online learning environment because they have learned the necessary readiness skills required for online learning (Packham, Jones, Miller, & Thomas, 2004). If online learning is an accessible and flexible learning environment and if educators desire their learners to be highly collaborative in their professional practice then it is important that learners are provided the requisite training necessary to embrace online learning. Since many students enrolled in the program came with varying computer literacy skills. A mini orientation on WebCT was created online that would show up one month before the course start date. LESSONS LEARNED To help conceptualize effective practices relevant to the development, implementation, and instructional design of a post-secondary online program, a visual model is depicted. The model is based on Greer’s (1992) project management for instructional design, but also blends structural components relating to the process of implementation for online programs. In Greer’s (1992) model there are three phases that include project Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 8

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planning, instructional development and follow-up. Project planning includes the determination of the scope of the project (i.e. materials, schedule and cost estimate) and project organization (i.e. assigning team members, start off meetings, and work schedule). The second phase of Greer’s (1992) model comprises program instructional development. This phase, according to Greer (1992) is comprised of five steps. These steps include the gathering of information needed for instructional development, the developing of a blueprint for content development and the creation and testing of draft materials which then result in the production of the final content masters. The third phase is defined as follow-up, whereby materials are reproduced and distributed. What differentiates the present model from Greer’s (1992) work are nuances specific to the implementation process of a newly-developed program that are integrated within an instructional design project development framework. As illustrated in Figure 7, the seven-phase process for program implementation includes: program implementation planning; program content development; program development management structure; program instructional design; program implementation; program revisions and maintenance; and program stabilization. Within each phase are actions for effective practices and the resulting impact of such actions on the program. From an implementation perspective, the practices articulated are based on what are deemed most important to the development of an online program.

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Phase 1 Program Implementation Planning Key Player: Program Director Needs Assessment of Stakeholders and Establishment of Advisory Committee

Phase 2 Program Content Development Key Players: Program Manager, Program Director, and SMEs Develop Preliminary Content

Phase 3 Program Development Management Structure Key Players: Program Director, & Manager Establish Development Team (i.e. SMEs, Information Technology Specialists, Media and Technology Specialists) Create Scope, Sequence, and Time Lines for Program Development

Phase 4 Program Instructional Design Key Players: Program Director & Manager Team Meetings with Development Team Create Format for Online Development and Online Course Content

Phase 5 Program Implementation Key Players: Program Director and Manger, SMEs Online and/or Face-to-Face Training for SMEs and Students SMEs Pilot Course Content

Phase 6 Revisions and Maintenance Key Players: Program Director and Manger, SMEs Revise Program Content as Necessary

Phase 7 Program Stabilization Key Players: Program Director and Manger

Figure 7. An Instructional Design Model for Program Implementation Development The first phase of the model pertains to program implementation planning. Salient features of this phase relate to the undertaking of a needs assessment and the formal involvement of stakeholders in the implementation planning process. The purpose behind a needs assessment is to identify stakeholder requirements and how those needs can be met. Stakeholders in this instance refer to those professionals or organizations from which community-based support is derived and input requested surrounding the content and purpose of a specific program. As the first phase of online program implementation, the identification of stakeholders and their formal involvement in the governance structure of a newly planned program through an advisory committee is viewed as essential if partnerships are to be established. From a program management perspective, this is important because it begins to formalize some of the existing informal linkages that might have already developed to

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accommodate service delivery. This phase is characterized by public relations initiatives conducted by program directors to inform community members and professionals alike regarding the efficacy of a particular program. Program directors promoting online learning need to have highly developed communication skills as public education seminars and cultivation of stakeholder allies who would advocate for the program’s implementation are viewed as essential and necessary to creating community readiness for a newly developed online program. Shea-Schultz and Fogarty (2002) argue that stakeholder involvement is of paramount importance to achieving buy-in for newly developed online learning initiatives. Making the business case for online learning requires outlining the benefits to key stakeholders that includes the need, cost effectiveness, accessibility, and flexibility of online learning environments. Moreover, by actively involving stakeholders in the governance structure through an advisory committee ensures that they will have a voice in the creation of a newly developed online learning environment and be supportive of its implementation. The second phase of the model relates to program content development. In this phase the initial content model is developed. Program content development is derived from input provided by the needs assessment and stakeholders. In turn, as content is developed, feedback to stakeholders can be provided ensuring their involvement in the process. Our experiences led us to believe that content first delivered in a face-to-face format is more easily developed for online learning because the SMEs recruited to develop the online content have the opportunity to develop and experiment with the content in a more traditional manner of delivery that they were comfortable with. As a result, some of the issues pertaining to the structure and flow of content delivery are addressed and revisions to the original content model are more easily facilitated by the SMEs, who now have experience in its delivery. The program content development phase should see the initial formation of the content development team that includes all SMEs involved in content development, the program director, and project manager. Team meetings facilitated by the program director and project manager are held whereby a timeline for face-to-face delivery and online development are presented. Collaborative consultation should characterize the team meetings with topical discussion surrounding the sequencing of deliverables, thereby ensuring a more even and informed approach surrounding content development of the program. The third phase of the model involves the establishment of the program development management structure. In this phase, the real job of the project manager begins. A project management team is established based on required resources for the program in question. In this case, the project management team included representatives from the Instructional Design Group, Information Technology Services, and the Division of Media and Technology. The project manager and program director outline the scope, sequence, roles, responsibilities, and budget allocations for the project management team. A timeline for development is discussed, as are the means to enhance both vertical and horizontal communication through regular meetings of the project management team. At these meetings status reports pertaining to program development are presented. Phase four of the model is concerned with program instructional design. Team meetings characterize this phase of the model with the SMEs. If SMEs have had the opportunity to deliver the program to be developed for online learning in a face-to-face format then the transition to online content development is easily facilitated. During this phase, a format for online content development is established. This provides a consistent look and feel for the online platform being used across courses in the program. Critical to this phase is the need for training of the SMEs in online content development. It is advisable that in large post-secondary learning organizations that an accessible training session on the use of tools and instructional methods common to the online platform be provided. The SMEs then meet on an individual basis with the program director and project manager to draft a contract and establish milestones for the deliverables of all content. The SMEs are responsible for the development of content themes, in consultation with the program director. Contracting the SMEs, and establishing milestones for deliverables tied into a schedule ensure the timely delivery of thematic content. The project manager then drafts the instructional design document that outlines specifics relating to course description, pre and corequisites, credit hours, student assessment, project team members, learning resources, and themes working individually with the SMEs towards the online development of the themes for a specific course. Depending on the resources required to develop the course, the project manager/instructional designer will consult with other members of the project management team for purposes of integrating audio, visual, or print resources. Program implementation characterizes the fifth phase of the model and involves the piloting of a particular course or program. At the implementation phase, all SMEs who have delivered the course face-to-face and have developed online content now have the opportunity to pilot the online version. Having received training in the

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use of the online platform, the SMEs now have the opportunity to work through the implementation of the course, which is crucial for the revisions and maintenance phase, as the knowledge and experiences garnered will aid in further development of the course or program. For students enrolled in online courses, opportunities are made available for either face-to-face or online training in the use of the online learning platform. Students should also have requisite knowledge of relevant computer technologies. The ability to use the Internet, navigate web pages, send email with attachments, and understand the rudiments of word processing programs is essential if the individual is to succeed in online learning. It was found that those enrolling in the certificate came to the program with a wide variety of competence in the use of computer technologies. Research surrounding web-based instruction has demonstrated those students who lacked confidence in their internet skills, and who did not have the proper tools or access to the appropriate computer technologies, tended to dislike online learning (Thompson & Lynch, 2003). The establishment of feedback linkages to the funding agency and other stakeholders also characterizes the program implementation phase. Every effort is made to monitor program implementation, so that challenges to the process of implementation are addressed. Optimally, revision and maintenance of course content would lead to short cycle decisions that would better inform program implementation and lead to program stabilization, phase seven. Given the model presented, a feedback loop between phase six, revisions and maintenance, and phase seven, program stabilization, is depicted indicative of the necessity for the revising and maintaining of online program content that ultimately leads to program stabilization. LIMITATIONS The study is limited in that it is a single case study design based on a coordinated decentralized cost-recovery business model in which distant or continuing education initiatives were pre-existing within the institution. The interpretation and generalization of this study needs to be understood within these limitations. CONCLUSION The collaborative design and implementation of online courses is a multifaceted process when a whole program is to be launched, as opposed to an individual course. The model presented for replicable online learning practices is based on experiences in developing the Post-Degree Certificate in Special Education as illustrated in the case study. Within this context, the model developed represents best practices for a coordinated decentralized team approach to online development in newly developed online learning programs that are funded at the post-secondary level. Although research pertaining to effective practices for program management for online courses has been published (i.e. Greer, 1992; Caplan & Graham, 2008; Naidu, 2003), the present model is unique because it captures nuances specific to the implementation process. In conclusion, from a project development perspective collaborative consultation and the establishment of interdisciplinary partnerships require a clear delineation of the scope and sequence of a project and the ensuing roles and responsibilities formulated for the project design team to ensure that a quality product is delivered on budget and on time. REFERENCES Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2004). Entering the mainstream: The quality and extent of online education in the United States, 2003 and 2004. Needham, MA. Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2010). Class differences: Online education in the United States, 2010. Needham, MA.: The Sloan Consortium. Allen, E. & Seaman, J. (2011). Going the distance: Online education in the Unites States. Babson Survey Research Group. Retrieved from http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/going_distance_2011 Anderson, T. (2008). Towards a theory of online learning. In T. Anderson, (Editor), Theory and practice of online learning, (2nd ed.), (pp. 45-74). Edmonton, AB.: Au Press. Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change: Strategies for colleges and university leaders. San Francisco, CA.: Jossey Bass. Bates, A. W. (2007). Strategic planning for e-learning in a polytechnic. In M. Bullen & D. Janes (Eds.), Making the transition to e-learning: Strategies and issues (p.47-65). Hershey, PA.: Idea Group Caplan, D., & Graham, R, (2008). The Development of Online Courses. In T. Anderson, (Editor), Theory and practice of online learning, (2nd ed.), (pp. 245-263). Edmonton, AB.: Au Press. Cervo, R., & Wilson, A. (1994). A theory of program planning for adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 45, 249-268. Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., Caldera, L., & Soares, L. (2011). Disrupting college. Center for American Progress, Innosight Institute. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/02/disrupting_college.html

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Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education. (2005). Proposal for post- degree certificate in education: Special education. Saskatoon, SK.: University of Saskatchewan. diSessa, A. A. (2000). Changing minds: Computers, learning, and literacy. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Gerring, J. (2004). What is a case study and what is it good for? American Political Science Review, 98(2), 341354. Greer, J. (2010). E-learning task force report. University of Saskatchewan, SK.: Gwenna Moss Centre for Teaching Effectiveness. Greer, M. (1992). ID project management: Tools and techniques for instructional designers and developers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Educational Technology Publications. Huang, H. M. (2002). Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1), 27-37. Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers as mind tools for schools: Engaging critical thinking. (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Jou, M., Chuang, C-P., & Wu, Y-S. (2010). Creating interactive web-based environments to scaffold creative reasoning and meaningful learning: From physics to products. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(4), 49-57. Jou, M. & Liu, C-C. (2012). Application of semantic approaches and interactive virtual technology to improve teaching effectiveness. Interactive Learning Environments, 20(5), 441–449 Jou, M., Wu, Y-S. (2012). Development of a Web-based System to Support Self-Directed Learning of Microfabrication Technologies. Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 205–213. Kanuka, H., & Rourke, L. (2008). Exploring amplifications and reductions associated with e-learning: conversations with leaders of e-learning programs. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 17(1), 5-15. Keengwe, J., & Kidd, T.T. (2010). Towards best practice in online learning and teaching in higher education. Merlot Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 533- 541. Linn, M. C., & Hsi, S. (2000). Computers, teachers, peers: Science learning partners. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Miller, G. E. & Schiffman, S. (2006). ALN business models and the transformation of higher education. (2006). Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. 10(2), 15. Retrieved from http://www.duc.auburn.edu/outreach/dl/pdfs/ALN_Business_Models_and_the_Transformation_of_Hig her_Ed.pdf Naidu, S. (2003). Designing instruction for e-learning environments. In M. G. Moore & W. G. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of distance education, (pp. 349-365). Mahwaw, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Owusu-Ansah, A., Neill, P., & Haralson, M.K. (2011). Distance education technology: Higher education barriers during the first decade of the twenty-first century. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration. 14(2), 1-9. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer142/ansah_142.html Packham, G., Jones, P., Miller, C., & Thomas, B. (2004). E‐learning and retention: Key factors influencing student withdrawal. Education and Training, 46, 335‐342. Pachler, N., & Daly, C. (2011). Key issues in e-learning: research and practice. New York, NY: Continuum Books. Russell, C. & Koppi, T. (2007). Organizing e-learning in a campus-based university: Communities, cultures and complementarities. Educause Australia 2007, 1-14. Retrieved from http://www.caudit.edu.au/educauseaustralasia07/authors_papers Shea-Schultz, H. & Fogarty, J. (2002). Online learning today: Strategies that work. San Francisco, CA.: BerrettKoehler. Softic, S., & Bekic, Z. (2008, June). Organizational aspects of supporting e-learning at university level. In Information Technology Interfaces, 2008. ITI 2008. 30th International Conference on (pp. 153-158). Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Thompson, L., & Lynch, B. (2003). Web-based instruction: Who is inclined to resist it and why? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 29, 375-385. Tu, C. H. (2002). The measurement of social presence in an online learning environment. International Journal on E-Learning, 1(2), 34-45. University of Saskatchewan (2008). University of Saskatchewan Teaching and Learning Foundational Document. University of Saskatchewan, SK.: University of Saskatchewan.

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Vignare, K., Geith C., & Schiffman, S. (2006) Business models for online learning: An exploratory survey. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 10(2), 53-67. Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods, (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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ADJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION IN TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS Normaliza ABD RAHIM Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia [email protected] ABSTRACT Learning the Malay language has been a challenging task for foreign language learners. Learners have to learn Malay grammar structure rules in order to write simple sentences. The word choice is important in constructing a sentence. Therefore, the study focuses on the use of adjectives in television advertisements among Korean learners at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea. The objectives of the study were to identify and discuss adjectives incorporated into the advertisements. The students involved in the study were ten male and female subjects from a Malay language class. The subjects had to choose one television advertisement and view it several times. They were given three weeks to identify and discuss the adjectives in the advertisements. The subjects were interviewed on their views about the adjectives in the advertisements. The interviews were video recorded and analyzed for the purpose of the study. The results of the study revealed that each subject managed to identify five adjectives per advertisement. They also managed to offer their views on the adjectives, which were not directly uttered by the models in the advertisements. It is hoped that a future study will focus on the use of adjectives via other means of media technology. INTRODUCTION Learning a foreign language is a challenging task for learners. Besides having to learn the language, they have to make sure that the foreign language that they learn is not influenced by their own language. Malay language is one of the many languages in the world and it has been introduced and taught at many universities around the world. Malay was taught to students willing to take the languages seriously, where the students will have to use the language in the working environment. Therefore, the choice of choosing Malay as a major or a minor at universities will prove that the students are willing to work in the Malay world either as an interpreter or translator. In addition, students could also work in countries, such as Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia. The Malay language is similar to other languages where it consists of linguistics features. The language is a study in terms of not only proficiency skills but also for sociolinguistic, pragmatics, semantics, psycholinguistics, linguistics and other skills. Therefore, the first major step for a student to learn Malay will be learning the basic knowledge of Malay language proficiency including listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as focusing on the grammatical rules of the Malay language. Moreover, learning Malay or any other languages will be interesting with the help of materials and task designs, which will arouse student interest in learning the language. Subsequently, with the boom of technology, educators will never fail to include the use of technology within the teaching and learning environments. Therefore, this study will focus on the use of technology as in television advertisements in identifying and discussing the adjectives identified. LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY Learning the Malay language will also concentrate on the correct use of verbs, adjectives, determiners, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and others. With the knowledge of these words, a student will be able to understand the meaning of each sentence constructed (Nik Safiah Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa & Abdul Hamid Mahmood, 2008). According to Normaliza Abd Rahim (2012b), a sentence structure focuses on the basic knowledge of a simple sentence in the Malay language, such asNoun (N) + Verb (V);i.e., Saya makan (I eat). Sincethe translation from Malay to English seemed to show that it will not make a good and simple English sentence, the students therefore were advised not to think in other languagesbutin the Malay language. Hence, a simple sentence in Malay will show the understanding of the sentence by the students. For instance, Dia lari laju (He runs fast)means that the person is running fast and the word laju (fast) means that the person is lari (running) really fast. On the other hand, Malay compared to English consists of the same expression of adjectives. Therefore, students were often seen trying to translate the word into English in orderto find the true definition. Jennifer Yamin-Ali (2011) postulates that the influence of other languages learnt besides the mother tongue language will have a big impact toward the automatic translation in the brain. Therefore, while learning a specific language, a person should not think in other languages for the sake of avoiding confusion in the word choice of a sentence structure (Ellis, 1997:95). As for the Malay language, a simple sentence to describe a Malay adjective can be instantly described by students. The sentence follows the rule of a simple sentence as in Noun (N) + Adjective (Adj). For instance, Perempuan itu cantik (The woman is beautiful) implies that the specific woman shown to the person is beautiful. Therefore, the correct use of the adjectives will also be stated in the sentence. Zaharani Ahmad & Nor Hashimah Jalalludin (2012) described the use of correct Malay grammatical rules. The study has given impact toward educators and students learning the Malay language. 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  study also disclosed evidences of Malay grammar structure rules, including the use of determiners, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. The structure rules were discussed and proven to ensure that there would be no mistakes from future learners. The studies (Zaharani Ahmad & Nor Hashimah Jalalludin, 2012; Jennifer Yamin-Ali, 2011; Nik Safiah Karim et al, 2008) above showed that the use of simple sentence and Malay grammatical rules and the influence of other languages would give great impact towards learning a language. This study has taken into consideration on the perspective of learning a language using the correct use of words for Malay language learning among Korean learners. Here, it can be seen that this study concentrates on the word choice that involved adjectives using the technology in learning the Malay language. Studies on the use of verbs, adjectives, adverbs, determiners, conjunctions and others were widely researched by Malaysian researchers. The researches were focused not only onnative Malay speakers but also on other races in Malaysia as well as on foreign students. Brown (2000:35) postulates the principles of language learning and teaching that should be followed by both teachers and learners. The principles show the effectiveness ofteaching any language and to make sure that the learning process is a success; students will be able to communicate in the target language and therefore understand the context. Yong Chyn Chye & Vijayaletchumy’s (2012) research on foreign students studying the Malay language revealed that foreign students had made several lexical errors in the aspect of phonology. The research focused on the writing process for eight weeks and discovered that there were 182 spelling mistakes; in terms of phonology, the errors were found in terms of changing the different alphabets. This study revealed that foreign learners have difficulty in understanding the concept of a simple sentence in the Malay language. Malay grammar rules were not understood and therefore, errors (Corder, 1974:97) were made due to the influence of other languages. Goh Sang Seong (2011) has researched on the translation of Chinese and Malay languages. The study involved six translators in translating a Malay anthology,Cerpen Pilihan Sastera Mahua III:Dalam Hujan Renyai. The results of the study revealed that 10 Chinese verbs had 126 different meanings in the Malay language. The study concluded that the use of verbs in the Malay language has helped to identify meanings in the Chinese language. The studies on the use of foreign languages (Yong Chyn Chy & Vijayaletchumy, 2012; Goh Sang Seong, 2011) in language learning have showed that the involvement of foreign students and foreign language in learning the Malay language have given great impact towards foreign learners. The learners involved found that the errors can be overcome by learning the basic Malay sentence structure. This study has taken into consideration the involvement of the foreign students in learning the Malay language and also, considered the errors involved when dealing with the language barriers from their native language i.e Korean language. Auzar (2012) stated that the use of technology has helped learners with their reading. The software that was created consisted of design, content and technical assistance to be used for the reading process.The subjects involved in the study consisted of 86 students from a school in Pekanbaru, Indonesia. The results revealed that the computer has helped in the process of reading and showed a significant difference compared to the conventional way of teaching. Jhy Wee Sew (2012) agreed with Auzar (2012) and stated that the use of technology allows the lesson to be more interesting. Jhy Wee Sew (2012) has researched the learning of Malay by utilizing the weblog, which has proven that learners were able to write in the Malay language. The use of simple Malay sentences was occasionally found. This way, the subjects were able to avoid making mistakes while writing in the Malay language. Other researchers also have concentrated on the use of technology in learning (Normaliza Abd Rahim, Arbaie Sujud, Nik Rafidah Nik Affendi & Siti Nur Aliaa Roslan, 2012;Normaliza Abd Rahim,Kamaruzaman Jusoff & Siti Nur Aliaa Roslan, 2011; Normaliza Abd Rahim & Nik Ismail Harun, 2011) in order to ensure that learning will arise the interest of students in their learning. The studies that involved the use of technology (Auzar, 2012; Jhy Wee Sew, 2012; Normaliza Abd Rahim et al, 2012; Normaliza Abd Rahim et al, 2011; Normaliza Abd Rahim & Nik Ismail Harun, 2011) above has given great impact toward this study that involved the use of technology in learning the Malay language. The Korean learners involved in this study will be able to use the technology to learn the new language. Therefore, the studies as stated above have helped in the process of choosing the appropriate materials in learning. A number of studies conducted among Korean learners learning the Malay language were carried out by Normaliza Abd Rahim (2012a; 2012b; 2012c). The studies were carried out at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea. The samples involved male and female subjects from a few Malay language classes. Different types of materials and task design were used to ensure that learning the Malay language was effective. The materials were involved with the technology as well as the conventional way of teaching. The study on using simple sentences with verbs and adjectives were found in the study, which incorporated watching a Malay cartoon, Upin and Ipin (Normaliza Abd Rahim, 2012a). The study focused on identifying verbs and adjectives in the cartoon; the subjects were then involved in a discussionabout the characters and storylines of the cartoon. Another study involved the use of antonyms in Malay sentences (Normaliza Abd Rahim, 2012b), which revealed that subjects used adjectives in the sentences. Although the subjects focused on the use of antonyms,

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  they also used adjectives in their description (for example, tall: short),which proved that the subjects were able to identify not only the antonyms but also the use of correct adjectives. Moreover, another study on blog writing among Korean learners learning Malay (Normaliza Abd Rahim, 2012c) had showed that writings of subjects in the blog consisted of adjectives words. The words such as ‘happy’, ‘beautiful’, ‘smooth’, ‘sad’, ‘fat’, ‘thin’, ‘tall’, ‘short’ and others were evidence from the blogs. This result revealed that the subjects understood the use of adjectives in the blog in order to describe and express things around them. The studies involved Korean learners learning the Malay language by using technology (Normaliza Abd Rahim, 2012a; 2012b; 2012c) as stated above showed that Korean learners were motivated in learning the language. The technology involved in the learning process has given the subjects the chance in understanding and enjoy learning the Malay language. Therefore, this study has taken into consideration the results of the studies (Normaliza Abd Rahim, 2012a; 2012b; 2012c) and used the other means of technology via television advertisements to learn the Malay language. Although the studies based on learning the Malay language had proven that they were steps to be taken in order to ensure the learning of the target language, it seemed that foreign learners tend to become confused in using the words in sentences. Here, the questions of the study were listed, ‘What are adjectives related to the advertisements suggested by the subjects? What are the subjects’ views on the adjectives related to the advertisements? Therefore, the objectives of this study were to identify and discuss the adjectives in advertisements. METHODOLOGY This study focuses on the use of television advertisement in identifying the Malay adjectives. This study also discusses the subjects’ views and opinions about the adjectives stated. The study involved 10 subjects from a Malay language class at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea. The subjects were exposed with the Malay language course from the previous semester. The subjects were given a task to view one television advertisement for three weeks. They have to select and identify the appropriate advertisement for the purpose of the study. The subjects’ were to identify and discuss the adjectives within these advertisements. They also had to discuss and give their views on the adjectives thatwere not directly stated in the advertisements. The subjects were interviewed and their views and discussion were video recorded. The views and discussion were analyzed for the purpose of the study. The discussion was analyzed by using the discourse analysis method (Brown & Yule, 1983). Brown & Yule (1983) have five features of discourse analysis. The features of discourse analyses that were related to this study were the method of language usage among the community, the understanding of the language in written or spoken, the understanding of speech, the understanding of functional language and lastly the understanding of the intentional written or spoken language. Therefore, this study will analyze the results by using all the features suggested by Brown & Yule (1983). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Subject S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9

Table 1: Choice of adjectives in advertisements. Types of Adjective 1 Adjective 2 Adjective 3 Adjective 4 Advertisement Cosmetics Smooth Fragrance Soft Fair -Missha (licin) (wangi) (lembut) (cerah) Drinks Sweet Delicious Active Happy -Coca cola (manis) (sedap) (aktif) (gembira) Drinks Sweet Delicious Bitter Happy -Kanu coffee (manis) (sedap) (kelat) (gembira) Cosmetics Smooth Fragrance Soft Fair -Faceshop (licin) (wangi) (lembut) (cerah) Fridge Beautiful Big Cute Cold -Samsung (cantik) (besar) (comel) (sejuk) Mobile phone Thin Light Beautiful Easy -Samsung (nipis) (ringan) (cantik) (mudah) Laptop Thin Light Beautiful Big -Samsung (nipis) (ringan) (cantik) (besar) Fragrance Fragrance Soft Clean Small –Glade (wangi) (lembut) (bersih) (kecil) Cosmetics Smooth Fragrance Soft Beautiful -SKII (licin) (wangi) (lembut) (cantik)

Adjective 5 Confident (yakin) Gas (gas) Relax (tenang) Shiny (kilat) Fresh (segar) Savings (jimat) Confident (yakin) Cheap (murah) Fair (cerah)

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  S10

Detergent -Downy

Soft (lembut)

Fragrance (wangi)

Easy (mudah)

Liquid (cecair)

Clean (bersih)

Table 1 above showed the choice of adjectives in advertisement for each subject. Three female subjects (S1, S4 and S9) chose cosmetics advertisement from Missha, Faceshop and SKII. It seemed that all of the three subjects were wearing make-up to class and they admitted that they used the products every day. S1, S4 and S9 had the same adjectives pertaining to the products. They stated that the advertisement showed the adjectives ‘smooth’, ‘fragrance’, ‘soft’ and ‘fair’. They added that the adjectives were clearly shown in the advertisement. All of the three subjects mentioned that the adjectives ‘smooth’ and ‘fragrance’ were explicitly shown bythe model in the advertisement. The model had smooth facial skin with the index finger sliding down the cheek; the model also made it clear she had smooth face. The subjects also stated that the adjective ‘fragrance’ was clearly stated when there were another male model who had his eyes closed but opened them when he smelled the perfume around him. This showed that the subjects understood the meaning of the adjective ‘fragrance’ from the advertisement. Hence, all subjects stated the adjectives ‘soft’ and ‘fair’ were mentioned in the advertisement. The subjects uttered that the two words were mentioned by the model in the advertisement. S1 stated that the advertisement portrayed the adjective ‘soft’ by having the model touch her cheek as well as with a piece of silk flying on her face, implying the softness. S4 stated that the advertisement showed the face of the model before and after applying the cosmetic, illustrating the softness after applying the cosmetic. The model also mentioned the word ‘soft’ in the advertisement.S9 uttered that the word ‘soft’ was mentioned by the model in the advertisement twice while touching both her cheeks. This was clearly understood as model’s attempt to show the ‘softness’ of her skin. On the other hand, all three subjects stated that the cosmetic advertisements had implications of the following adjectives: ‘confident’ (S1), ‘shiny’ (S4) and ‘beautiful’ (S9). S1 stated that the model in the cosmetic advertisement showed confidence fter applying the product. The model was also seen smiling and walking confidently with her beautiful face. Hence, S4 stated the face of the model in the advertisement had clearly shown than it was ‘shiny’. The ‘shiny’ face was clearly shown on the cheeks when the model was moving from side to side as well as when she smiled. In addition, subject 9 stated that the adjective ‘beautiful’ was dedicated to the beautiful model in the advertisement. The subjects mentioned that the model was really beautiful after using the product and the dress that she wore had made it clear that she was really beautiful. On the other hand, two subjects (S2 and S3) selected an advertisement based on drinks. S2 chose a soft drink ‘Coca cola’ while S3 chose a coffee brand ‘Kanu’ as the advertisement. According to the adjectives from S2 and S3, both subjects stated the same adjectives ‘sweet’, ‘delicious’ and ‘happy’. S2 stated that the adjectives ‘sweet’ and ‘delicious’ were clearly shown in the advertisement; further, it was obvious that the ‘Coca cola’ drink is sweet. Hence, the subjects also mentioned that the model had acted as if the drink was delicious when he was smiling happily after drinking from the bottle. S2 also mentioned that the advertisement gave her feelings of being ‘happy’. This might be due to the fact that the model for the advertisement was from her favorite boy band and every time she viewed the advertisement, she would fell ‘happy’. S3, who is a big fan of coffee, stated that the adjectives ‘sweet’ and ‘delicious’ were in the advertisement. He stated that the model in the advertisement had shown the ‘sweet’ and ‘delicious’ tastes of the coffee. He admitted that he tasted the coffee before and the adjectives were right. On the other hand, S3 also stated that the adjective ‘happy’ was clearly shown by the model in the advertisement. The model was seen smiling happily after every sip from the cup. S2 uttered that the advertisement consisted of the adjectives ‘active’ and ‘gas’. The subjects stated that the models in the advertisement showed a group of males who were dancing and moving actively after drinking the product. The subject also stated that the adjective ‘gas’ was clearly showed when bubbles formed after the drink was poured into a glass. Therefore, it was understood by the subjects. On the other hand, S3 said that the adjectives ‘bitter’ and ‘relax’ were in the advertisement as well. The subject admitted that he had tasted the drink and found it to be abit ‘bitter’. Since he liked it and with his knowledge of the drink, he stated that the adjective ‘bitter’ was suitable. S3 also stated that the adjective ‘relax’ was shown in the advertisement when the model was sitting on achair while sipping the coffee. The model was seen as ‘relaxing’ and enjoying his moment with the drink. Three subjects (S5, S6 and S7) selected an advertisement based on electrical products. S5 chose are frigerator from Samsung, S6 a mobile phone from Samsung and S7 a laptop from Samsung. All three subjects chose Samsung products since Samsung produces a majority of electrical products and are also famous all over the world. S5, S6 and S7 stated that the advertisement sportrayed the adjective ‘beautiful’. They stated that the Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 18

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  fridge, mobile phone and laptop were beautiful in the advertisements. They agreed that each of the products had its own beauty; the fridge was beautiful among other fridges, the mobile phone was beautiful among other mobile phones and the laptop was beautiful among other laptops. They mentioned that they had viewed similar products from different companies; however, they preferred the ones that they had chosen. This showed that the adjective ‘beautiful’ was reflected in the products. On the other hand, S5 also stated that the fridge from Samsung had adjectives such as ‘big’, ‘cute’, ‘cold’ and ‘fresh’. He said that the adjectives were his perception when viewing the advertisement for several times. He mentioned that the adjectives were uttered by the model advertising the product. S5 also commented that the fridge was ‘beautiful’ and ‘cute’ as an interior object. He also said that when the model opened the fridge door, he could feel the ‘cold’ and ‘freshness’, particularly when the compartments were opened to show the ‘fresh’ vegetables. S6 gave his views on the mobile phone from Samsung. He stated that the adjectives from the advertisement displayed the following words: ‘thin’, ‘light’, ‘easy’ and ‘savings’. The advertisement presented graphics of different colors of mobile phones; the ‘thinness’ and ‘lightness’ of the phones were clearly shown. The side elevation in the mobile phones was seen in the advertisement, revealing the ‘thinness’ of the mobile phones. The subject also mentioned that he observed the adjective ‘easy’ when viewing the mobile phone advertisement. The applications of the mobile phone were portrayed as ‘easy’ to use and user friendly. S6 also stated that the use of the mobile phone proved ‘savings’ in terms of money where due to cheap calling costs. This provided implications that the mobile phone was affordable among university students. Furthermore, S7 stated that the adjectives in the laptop advertisement were ‘thin’, ‘light’, ‘big’ and ‘confident’. She stated that the advertisement had made her want to buy the product. The advertisement clearly showed the ‘thinness’ and ‘lightness’ of the laptop. The side view of the laptop had given her the assumption that the laptop was really ‘thin’. When the model holding the laptop with one hand was shown in the advertisement, it directly showed that the laptop was ‘light’. Moreover, the advertisement also portrayed the size of the laptop, which was big enough and suitable for people of all ages. Thus, the look on the model’s face when using the laptop showed that he was confident with using the laptop. Also, the applications in the laptop had also made the subject feel confident. S8 and S10 selected an advertisement related to a domestic product, such as a fragrance for the toilet and detergent for clothes. Both subjects stated that the products had the same adjective ‘fragrance’. Both products consisted of a nice scent. The advertisements for both showed that there were flowers coming out from the products and these flowers represented the nice scent of flowers. Furthermore, the subjects uttered that the models in the advertisements mentioned the word ‘fragrance’. Both subjects also stated that the products resemble ‘cleanliness’. S8 stated that the adjective ‘clean’ implies that if the smell isnice, the room would look ‘clean’ too. Hence, S10 uttered that the when the detergent was used on clothes, the clothes would also feel ‘clean’. On the other hand, S8 stated that the adjectives in the fragrance advertisement were ‘soft’, ‘small’ and ‘cheap’. She uttered that Glade fragrances consist of a ‘soft’ scent. She gave an example of a lemon scent, which was considered as being ‘soft’. Moreover, she added that the fragrance was ‘small’ and can be placed anywhere in the bathroom. According to the subject, the fragrance was put on as helf near the sink in the advertisement. Since the fragrance was ‘small’, the subject stated that the product would be ‘cheap’ and affordable for everyone. The subject was making a true assumption due to the evidence from the advertisement stating that the money paid for the fragrance is worth it. As for S10, the other adjectives stated in the advertisement were ‘soft’, ‘easy’ and ‘liquid’. The subject stated that the adjective ‘soft’ was shown in the advertisement when the model hugged the other model and felt the ‘softness’ of the clothes that used the detergent while closing his eyes. This showed the ‘softness’ of clothes after using the detergent. Furthermore, S10 uttered that the adjective ‘easy’ was in the advertisement. The subject stated that the feeling of ‘easiness’ was felt when the two models hugged each other. Also, the use of the detergent was seen as ‘easy’ to use when the model used only one cup of detergent for one load of washing. The subject stated that the combination of the detergent and softener had made the process of washing easier. S10 also mentioned that the product in the advertisement was in the form of ‘liquid’. The subject stated that the advertisement clearly showed the detergent was poured out from the bottle in the form of ‘liquid’ and this had made the subject clearly identify the adjective. Moreover, the subject stated that the adjective ‘liquid’ had made viewers compare the product with other powder detergents. To sum up, the study revealed that the subjects were able to identify several adjectives in the advertisements chosen. The study also revealed that the subjects managed to discuss the adjectives in the advertisement and offertheir comments toward the related adjectives. The subjects seemed to be able to identify the adjectives that were not explicitly stated in the advertisements; however, they managed to give their assumptions based on their

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  multiple viewings. It can be seen that the adjectives given by the subjects were suitable and relevant to the advertisement. It was clearly seen that the subjects understood the use of adjectives in advertisement; the success of an advertisement is based on the right perception of the viewers. The process of learning Malay adjectives was successful when the subjects managed to identify and discuss the adjectives in the advertisements. Therefore, learning processes with viable activities must be fully considered in order to have a successful lesson. The involvement of students with the help of technology will therefore create an active environment where the subjects are able to provide their views and opinions toward the task given to them. CONCLUSION The study implicates educators in considering television advertisements when teaching Malay adjectives. Educators will be able to provide other forms of advertisements in order to make the lesson more interesting and learner autonomy. Moreover, the study also implicates foreign students in learning the Malay language. Students might find it difficult to understand the language and with the task given to them in identifying the adjectives, the difficulty would be increased. Therefore, learning Malay adjectives would be more interesting when students aregiven the opportunity to identify the adjectives on their own. With this, students will better understand Malay adjectives. It is hoped that a future study will focus on the study on Malay adjectives with the use of other means of media and technology. REFERENCES Auzar (2012).Keberkesanan Penggunaan Perisian Asas Membaca. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 12(2),May 2012, 629-644 Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Longman. Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Corder, S. P. (1974). The significance of learners’ errors. In. J. C Richards(pnyt.), Error analysis: Perspectives on second language acquisition. London:Longman. Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goh Sang Seong (2011).Penterjemahan Kata Kerja Bahasa Cina-Bahasa Melayu:Satu Analisis Ketepatan Makna Padanan. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies,11(1), 35- 56 Jyh Wee Sew(2012).Learning Malay Online At Tertiary Level. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 12(1),January, 147-162 Jennifer Yamin-Ali (2011).Translating Concerns Into Action In The Foreign Language Classroom. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies,11(2), May, 21-38 Nik Safiah Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa & Abdul Hamid Mahmood (pnyt).(2008). Tatabahasa Dewan. Edisi Ketiga. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa danPustaka. Normaliza Abd Rahim,Kamaruzaman Jusoff & Siti Nur Aliaa Roslan (2011) Sustaining Communication in Collaborative Learning Environment. Journal of Public Administration and Social Policy Review. 3, 2(7) December, 51-58 Normaliza Abd Rahim, Arbaie Sujud, Nik Rafidah Nik Affendi &Siti Nur Aliaa Roslan (2012). A Perspective of Malay Quatrain in Media Technology. Journal of Public Administration and Social Policy Review. IV Year, 1(8) / June, 40-49. Normaliza Abd Rahim (2012a). The Use of Cartoons to Enhance Learning in the MalayLanguage Classroom. Wulfenia Journal, 19 (10), Oct 2012, 125-137 Normaliza Abd Rahim & Nik Ismail Harun (2011). Emotions among the Primary School Students: A Malay Drama Program (Software). UPENA Johor. 10.185-198 Normaliza Abd Rahim (2012b). Antonim Bahasa Melayu Pelajar Korea dalam Zaharani Ahmad, Chun TaiHyun & Kim Jang-Gyem, Pengantarabangsaan Bahasa Melayu di Korea: Isu, Cabaran dan Cadangan. 197-214. Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Press: Seoul Korea. Normaliza Abd Rahim (2012c).Korean Students’ Perspective towards Blog Learning. Wulfenia Journal, 20 (10), October, 125-137 Yong Chyn Chye & Vijayaletchumy a/p Subramaniam(2012). Analisis Kesilapan Dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu Oleh Pelajar Asing GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 12(2), May, 667-692 Zaharani Ahmad & Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin (2012).Incorporating Structural Diversity in The Malay Grammar. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 12(1), Special Section, January, 17-34

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APPLYING AN AR TECHNIQUE TO ENHANCE SITUATED HERITAGE LEARNING IN A UBIQUITOUS LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Yi Hsing Chang Department of Information Management Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology [email protected] Jen-ch'iang Liu Department of Information Management Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology [email protected] ABSTRACT Since AR can display 3D materials and learner motivation is enhanced in a situated learning environment, this study explores the learning effectiveness of learners when combining AR technology and the situation learning theory. Based on the concept of embedding the characteristics of augmented reality and situated learning into a real situation to enhance learning interest and effectiveness, a ubiquitous learning system is therefore proposed. The features of the system include: the learning activities and contents are planned and designed using the key factors of situated learning; combining virtual objects with a real environment using the techniques of augmented reality to provide a story-based learning situation for learners. To assess the acceptance of the proposed system, we first conducted a questionnaire analysis based on the technology acceptance model. An independent samples t-test was then applied to evaluate the learning achievement of learners. The results show that the research scale is highly reliable and that all assumptions made are valid. In addition, participants were attracted to and willing to use the system, which directly enhances their incentive to actively learn and promotes learning achievement. Keywords: Augmented reality, Ubiquitous learning, Situated learning, Technology acceptance model INTRODUCTION Ubiquitous learning has been developed in recent years, owing to the rapid development of Internet communication technology. With the development of mobile computing and wireless networks, students can learn outdoors and interact with the learning environment (Hwang, Tsai, & Yang, 2008). Hwang et al. (2010) pointed out that when facing a class with a large number of students, the teacher cannot give every student the right guidance. Shih, Chuang & Hwang (2010) also pointed that instructors need to carefully arrange the learning environment and design an interactive learning model, along with meaningful learning content provided in time to prevent the students from aimlessly wandering around. In Taiwan, leisure and tourism has become a popular field of employment, because of the two days off per week policy. Heritage tourism also offers intellectual depth. However, when visiting monuments general visitors often just consider the appearances of monuments, rather than really understanding their rich histories. In many cases, guides are hired to lead groups and to explain the history of monuments. However, due to the noise associated with a large number of tourists, tourists are easily distracted and the guide is slowed. Thus, most tourists cannot really understand the history and value of monuments. Monuments are merely considered to be old buildings with a pleasing appearance. Therefore, increasing tourists’ interests in monuments, enhancing the desire of understand the history of monuments, avoiding situations where tourists aimlessly wandering around, decreasing the learning pressure and acquiring knowledge of history of monuments are the research objectives of the study. The Technology Accept Model (TAM) introduced by Davis (1986) continues to be one of the most influential research models in studies of the determinants of information systems/information technology (IS/IT) acceptance. In TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are hypothesized and empirically supported as fundamental determinants of user acceptance of a given IS/IT. In addition, a revised TAM was also proposed by researchers according to different research topics. Therefore, to achieve the research objectives, this study aims to apply an AR technique to enhance situated heritage learning in a ubiquitous learning environment. The tourists are situated in a learning scenario with AR technology to extend their learning interest. A situated learning based approach is proposed for developing the mobile learning system to facilitate and guide the learning of tourists. That is, by integrating information technology and wireless communications services, RFID tags and AR identification marks can be placed on learning objects and learning resources can be connected through links to the tags. As long as tourists have Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 21

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mobile devices equipped with an RFID reader, guided learning can be digitized. Tourists engage in a story scene and can find meaning and answers through AR and situation learning, thereby enhancing learning motivation and interest in the content. Furthermore, a TAM and t-test are used to evaluate the acceptance of the learning method and the learning performance of the tourists. LITERATURE REVIEW AR in E-Learning In recent years, AR has been applied in various fields, such as E-learning, monument tour guides, and so on. Billinghurst et al. (2001) first used augmented reality technology to establish 3D books, allowing readers to see the figures and animation in books through a hand held AR display (HHD). Miyashita et al. (2008) used AR in museum tours, where the tourists were guided through their visit by animated floating balloons. When the tourists reached the target objects, the exhibition objects’ glass displayed the functions of AR. Lee et al. (2009) directly identified images for teaching materials and then displayed the corresponding 3D materials using AR technologies. Learners could then use their fingers to interact with these 3D objects, for interactive learning. Kim et al. (2009) proposed an augmented reality system for an immersive experience for tourists at a cultural heritage site. With images captured by a lens, the four corners of the scenes were detected to allow the tracking and recognition of pictures. When the historical figures from the scene appeared in the screen, 3D virtual objects were rendered on the image of the target scene in real time, depending on the position of the camera. Correa et al. (2007) presented an augmented reality musical game to help people with learning disabilities develop the following skills: creativity, attention, memory, planning, concentration, ready-response, hearing and visual perception and motor coordination. The experimental result showed that the system had the potential to improve the lives of people with special needs. Kirer et al. (2006) introduced augmented reality and investigated ARToolKit software, pointing out its interactive processes. The use of augmented reality in the development of games was illustrated by five case studies of games. The results showed that augmented reality contributes in a significant way to games, providing the user with attractive visualization and natural interaction. El Sayed et al. (2011) presented the Augmented Reality Student Card (ARSC) as an application of AR in the field of education. ARSC can represent any lesson in a 3D format, helping students to visualize different learning objects, interact with theories and deal with information. AR-based digital artwork which presents interactive poems was designed and evaluated by Lin et al. (2012). This artwork was created following a rigorous design flow, including a visual poem generator and an AR system. Chen (2012) developed a 3D virtual reality course suitable for helping high school students to develop basic technological implementation techniques. In addition, quasi-experimental design was used to rule out pre-test effects and examine the influence of the course on the various constructs. Haydar et al. (2011) pointed that virtual reality (VR) technology can provide us with the possibility of immersion within multimodal interactions to enhance user presence in digitalized culture. The research results from the above studies show that learning motivation and enthusiasm in learners can be engendered by the integration of augmented reality technology into learning. AR technology enhances learning effectiveness. Situated learning Situated learning was first proposed by Dewey (1938). Instead of just referring to the object itself, Dewey proposed that knowledge is related to social situations and that people must continuously interact with situations to gradually obtain useful knowledge. Situated learning has been gradually incorporated into mainstream teaching, with a variety of scientific field theories and research results. Situated learning is used in many fields such as language learning (Yang, 2011; Wu, et al., 2010; Piirainen-Marsh & Tainio, 2009; Shih & Yang, 2008), science education (Sadler, 2009), etc. For example, to engage college students who are learning English as a foreign language in the context of a big class, Yang (2011) developed a system, which was an online situated language learning environment, to support the students, the teachers, and the teaching assistants to communicate synchronously and asynchronously in and after class. The experimental results showed students' language learning progress was also revealed through a questionnaire and the pre- and post-tests. Huang et al. (2012) also pointed out that the students in situated learning environment demonstrated sophisticated problem-solving skills, exhibited metacognitive awareness, produced coherent artifacts, and showed high levels of motivation. Real-life situations are an important factor in the teaching field. Learners are placed in an environment, which is important to motivation and interest. An effective situated learning environment uses appropriate teaching content, methods, sequences and real situations. Many scholars have proposed various definitions of the necessary conditions for situated learning. McLellan (1996) proposed that situated learning should contain the following eight types of key compositional factors: stories, reflection, cognitive apprenticeship, collaboration, coaching, multiple practices, articulation of learning skills and technology. This study will use these eight key learning factors for its situated learning design.

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Mobile learning and ubiquitous learning Owing to the progress of wireless communication and sensor technologies, research issues have progressed from web-based learning to mobile learning (Chen, Chang, & Wang, 2008), and from mobile learning to context-aware ubiquitous learning. In the field of ubiquitous learning, many researchers have begun to design context-aware ubiquitous learning environments by combining context awareness. Huang et al. (2012) developed a ubiquitous English vocabulary learning system to assist students in experiencing a systematic vocabulary learning process in which ubiquitous technology is used to develop the system. One of the results showed that the system characteristics positively and significantly influence the perspectives of all students using the system. Hwang (2009) presented context-aware ubiquitous learning as an innovative way of learning, combined with sensor networks, mobile devices and context-aware devices, which allow learners to interact with the real environment. Ogata (2008) also proposed context-aware language learning support systems for learning vocabularies, mimicry and onomatopoeia, polite expressions and conversational expressions. He mentioned that contextual awareness helps students interact with the real world anytime and anywhere and that this technology can integrate the learning environment into daily life. This study establishes a ubiquitous learning system using AR technology to enhance active and effective learning. The Developed AR Ubiquitous Learning System The architecture of the ubiquitous learning system proposed in the study is illustrated in Figure 1. It consists of the following three parts: front-end, back-end and database.

Figure 1: System framework Front-end The core functions of the system are contained in the front-end. Learners carry out learning activities in the wireless network space using smart phones equipped with a camera and a Bluetooth RFID Reader. The front end comprises the following four modules: 1. RFID Module: The module receives and analyzes the information in the tag read from the front-end device. It then communicates with the monument learning materials module to transfer relevant learning content to the learners. 2. Monument Learning Materials Module: This module provides the relevant learning materials when it receives a request from a RFID module. It first provides the corresponding leading story, comprising texts and the AR animation from the augmented reality module, to lead the learners into the learning situation. The corresponding learning materials are then displayed to the learners for further learning. 3. Augmented Reality Module: When the learners use the AR function to learn, they aim the lens at the AR MARK. The module compares the identified pictures with the learners' courses. After that, the 3D animation of the figures or objects in the story described in the course is combined with the real environment and displayed on the screen of the smart phone. 4. Situated Learning Module: This module was designed according to the situated learning elements proposed by McLellan. The module provides the related learning situation to learners during the learning process. Back-end The following three modules are contained in the back-end to assist the learners: 1. Instant Communication Module: The instant communication module provides instant messaging to on-site learners for help and chat. In addition, the other users can also use the instant messaging via the Internet to discuss and chat with other on-site learners. 2. Experience Message Module: After a learner completes the learning phase, they provide related experience messages using this module. These experience messages can be watched and shared by other learners. 3. Portfolio Module: Information relevant to the learner’s learning process is recorded by this module, including the date of use of ubiquitous learning, scores, progress and learning reflections. These records are

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directly uploaded to the learning process profile webpage so that learners can directly connect to the web to observe their own process. Databases 1. Member Database: The information for the learner, such as accounts and passwords, are stored here. 2. Experience Message Database: The related experience messages of learners are stored in this database. 3. Portfolio Database: This stores the date of learning, scores, learning progress and reflections during learning. Design of Situated Learning and Learning Materials Design of situated learning The design of situated learning is based on situated learning elements proposed by McLellan, including stories, reflection, cognitive apprenticeship, collaboration, coaching, multiple practices, articulation of learning skills and technology, as shown in Table 1.

Key elements Story Reflection Cognitive apprenticeship Collaboration

Coaching

Multiple practice Articulation of learning skills Technology

Table 1: The design of the situated learning Functions Providing the leading story situations relevant to the learning objectives selected by the learners and allowing learners to become more easily embedded in the environment. After a learner completes the learning part of a course, the module reminds the learner to write down the learning experience, providing the learners with space for reflection at this time. Before a learner begins to learn, the module reminds the learner to follow the directions in completing a course. After that, the learner can use the system independently. The modules are equipped with an instant messaging function. If the leading story is given for a period of time and the learners do not discover learning objectives, they are reminded to enter the interactive area and to interact with other learners to ask for advice. The learning sequence of the courses depends on the learners. The static 3D maps supported by the system provide the location cues for learning objects and the researchers assist the learners if necessary. After a learner completes a course, the module provides a relevant test so that the learner can understand the result of their learning. After scoring, the learner can rapidly return to the questions and take the test again. The 3D animation, images, audio, stories, tests and other content are provided successively for the learners. Therefore, the learners know in what ways they have obtained knowledge and all the functions presented to the users at one time. The learning tools for the augmented reality are provided to enhance the learners’ telepresence.

Design of learning materials Taking Tainan City Government Department of Culture and Tourism (2011) and Tainan cultural tourism (2011) as references, four learning units, including the Horse Statue with Broken Legs, the Weight Training Stone, the Zheng Chenggong Story and the Architecture, containing 12 learning objectives, were selected as the teaching materials, as shown in Figure 2. Each teaching material contains leading stories and the learning content. The following illustrates the related leading stories and learning content of the two teaching materials.

Figure 2: Teaching materials framework 1.

Horse Statue with Broken Legs: (1) Leading story: According to the villagers around Chihkan Tower, a horse often appeared and reared

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in Chihkan Tower at midnight. The reason why the horse reared must be discovered. The learning content: z Originally, the stone horse acted as the grave keeper of General Zheng Qiren. At the time, the local farmers often saw the ghost of a white horse damaging and trampling grain in the fields at night. The farmers guessed that it was because this stone horse did not want to be the grave keeper. The stone horse’s legs were broken by the farmers and the ghost has not since appeared. z The length and width of the monument "Mrs. Huang Granted in Longevity Field" are approximately one meter and twenty centimeters, respectively. Mrs. Huang was the concubine of Zheng Qiren and was buried here after she died. z In 1977, Mr. Wan-Shou Shi and Mr. Tai-Hong Zhou worked together to explore the layers of the white horse grave, using the four-pole approach of Wenner. They excavated at the right side of the door at No. 10, Lane 41, Chau Mei Street, Yan Village, Yongkang City and at Zheng Qiren’s tomb another stone horse and Cheng’s Longevity Field and pencil were excavated. Tortoise Statue: (1) The leading story: It is said that there were ten stone tortoises in the Great South Gate City. One windy and rainy night, one of these stone tortoises crashed against the city wall and escaped into the sea. Ask the other tortoises if such a thing really happened. (2) The learning content: Tainan has ten tortoise statues that were donated by Emperor Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty in praise of the suppression of Shuang-Wen Lin by Kang-An Fu. When they were shipped to Tainan, one of them fell into the sea. One hundred years ago, it was found and enshrined in Bao-An Temple. The remaining nine statues are now stored in Chihkan Tower. (2)

2.

Design of the leading story The flow of leading story design contains the following four parts, as shown in Figure 3: 1. Leading story: The leading story is designed according to the contents of reference books. 2. Situation elements: The keywords such as persons, things, objects and verbs are retrieved from the leading story. 3. Teaching material design: To display animation of the learning materials, related AR images are designed according to the situation elements. 4. Animation establishment: The animation is established by AR technology.

Figure 3: The Flow of leading story design Taking Redhair Well as an example: 1. Leading story: According to the contents of the book, “Tainan History Walking”, Redhair Well was dug by the Dutch for the purpose of drinking water. Provintia and Zeelandia were separated by the Taijiang Bay and they were visible to each other from afar. To enable communication between these two cities, a secret passage was dug by the Dutch. The Dutch ran away through the secret passage when Provintia was besieged by Zheng Chenggong. 2. Situation elements: Redhair Well, explore the secret passage, run away 3. Teaching material design: Design a situation where the residents run away to Redhair Well, and are ready to enter the secret passage using VR technology. 4. Animation establishment: After the animation is constructed, it will be displayed to learners and let the learners to explore whether or not the Redhair Well exists.

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Snapshot of the ubiquitous learning system As shown in the learning screen in Figure 4, after a learner enters a course, the system first provides the leading story and images to describe the story in the course. In addition, corresponding audio is provided. When the learner begins the augmented reality learning, the corresponding 3D animation of the figures or objects in the story described in the course are then displayed, as shown in the AR screen in Figure 4. Once the entire story is understood, the learner starts to search for the learning objectives to obtain complete knowledge of the history. When the learning objectives are not discovered by the learner, the map guide can be opened and a 3D map is provided to the learner, as shown in the 3D map screen in Figure 4. The message board screen in Figure 4 shows the experience messages written on the doodle wall in the interactive area.

Figure 4: Snapshot of the ubiquitous learning system Experiment Design Learning environment Chihkan Tower, a first-class protected historical site in Tainan City, Taiwan, served as the research environment for this study. Twelve learning objectives acted as the subject matter for learners, as shown in Figure 5. The RFID tags were placed on these learning objectives, in order to preserve the monument. In addition, researchers guarded the RFID tags.

Figure 5: Research environment: Chihkan Tower Experimental procedure This research was designed as shown in Figure 6. 60 visitors participated in this study. The 60 visitors were randomly divided into an experimental group and a control group. The 30 visitors in the experimental group learned through the ubiquitous system by smart phone and the other 30 visitors learned by way of traditional guided learning. The main purpose was to investigate the performance of the proposed system and the differences of learning achievement between the two groups. For the expert interview, a Mr. Chen, the CEO of an action learning technology company in Tainan was invited to provide recommendations and advice for the ubiquitous system.

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Figure 6: Research process The research process comprised the following six phases. Phase 1: The motivation and purpose of this study was explained to each group. This phase took 10 minutes for each group. Phase 2: Each group completed the pre-test. This phase took 15 minutes for each group. Phase 3: For the experimental group: the learners were taught how to use the ubiquitous system, which took approximately 10 minutes. For the control group: the basic information for the guided tour was explained to the learners, which took approximately 10 minutes. Phase 4: For the experimental group: the learners learned using the ubiquitous system, which took approximately 60 minutes. For the control group: the learners learned in the traditional manner, which took approximately 60 minutes. Phase 5: Each group completed the post-test, which took approximately 15 minutes for each group. Phase 6: For the experimental group: The learners completed the questionnaire, which took approximately 10 minutes. For the control group: The learners shared their learning experiences, which took approximately 10 minutes. Learning tools The following is a list of the hardware and software used in the development of the system: 1. Hardware: Smart phones with camera functions that can be used as ubiquitous learning tools, with a Bluetooth RFID Reader to read the RFID Tag. z HTC Touch Diamond smart phone z A Bluetooth handheld RFID reader with the pattern: SYRDBT-M1 z AR identification mark z RFID Tag, Mifare card with 13.56MHz 2. Software: z Development Application: Visual Studio 2008 VB mobile, ASP.NET. z Database: SQL Server. z The augmented reality software: NyARToolkit. z The operating system for the mobile device: Microsoft Mobile 6.5. z Statistical software: SPSS 12.0 - Chinese version. Acceptance Evaluation An evaluation model based on TAM is used to estimate the acceptance of the proposed system. For external variables, this study uses the following three dimensions: augmented reality, content quality and environmental interaction. The research hypothesis consists of 9 assumptions, numbered H1 to H9, as shown in Table 2. The basic infrastructure takes the question items of the TAM as a reference and modifies the questionnaire of Liu (2007) to produce the questionnaires for this study. There are a total of 25 question items in the questionnaire. The agreement level for each dimension is based on the five-point Likert scale: strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree and strongly disagree, with corresponding scores from 5 points to 1 point.

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No. H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9

Table 2: The research hypotheses Hypotheses There is a positive correlation between augmented reality and perceived usefulness. There is a positive correlation between augmented reality and perceived ease of use. There is a positive correlation between content quality and perceived usefulness. There is a positive correlation between content quality and perceived ease of use. There is a positive correlation between environmental interaction and perceived usefulness. There is a positive correlation between environmental interaction and perceived ease of use. There is a positive correlation between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. There is a positive correlation between perceived usefulness and user intention to use. There is a positive correlation between perceived ease of use and user intention to use.

Learning Achievement An independent samples t-test was used to assess the learning achievement of learners. RESULTS Sample Data Analysis The basic data of the 60 visitors were first analyzed. The visitors were made up of graduate students and master students, and their ages were between 18 and 26. Therefore, they had the basic ability to use mobile equipment. Acceptance Evaluation for the Proposed System Validity of the questionnaire The study distributed 30 questionnaires to the learners in the experimental group and these questionnaires were all returned. The validity of the questionnaire is based on expert validity and the findings of relevant studies. In other words, experts were asked to offer suggestions and advice about the content of the scale and the removal of unnecessary words. Finally, 6 dimensions, including augmented reality functions, content quality, environment interaction, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and user’s intention to learn were examined. The agreement level for each dimension used the five-point Likert scale: strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree and strongly disagree, with corresponding scores from 5 points to 1 point. The reliability of the questionnaire was tested. Cronbach's α coefficient was used to test the scale's internal consistency. If the α coefficient is above 0.7, a high confidence is assumed (Wagner, 2010). The reliability analysis for the dimensions in Table 3 shows that α coefficients are all larger than 0.7. In addition, the scale’s α coefficient is 0.960. Therefore, the scale is highly reliable. Table 3: Reliability coefficients statistic Variable Number of item alpha(α) AR function 5 .936 Content quality 6 .873 Environment interaction 3 .751 Perceived usefulness 3 .768 Perceived ease of use 5 .889 User intention to use 3 .781 Path analysis Path Analysis was the statistical technique used to analyze the relationship between variables during modeling. Then, through a series of regression analysis and hypothetical structures, permutation and combination formulas were used to form a structured model and continuous regression analysis was performed by statistical software to complete the calculation of model parameters. This was a return-oriented path analysis. In addition to the aforementioned path analysis, path analysis of the structural equation modeling orientation was performed. However, as suggested by Hoelter (1983), the threshold sample number for structural equation modeling orientation must be greater than 200. As a result, due to the low sample number, we could not use this analysis. In this study, recursive-orientation was used for path analysis. The one-way arrows show the causal relationship: the variable at the beginning of an arrow is the cause and the variable at the end of an arrow is the effect. In path analysis, the variance that is explained by the independent variable’s effect on the dependent variable is called the coefficient of determination (R2).

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From the analysis results shown in Figure 7, H1 ~ H9 all show significant results. That is, these hypotheses are all valid. In the path of user’s intention to learn, all of the path coefficients attained a significant effect, as evidenced by the values for the path analysis coefficient. The augmented reality functions, content quality and environmental interaction have some influence on the learners, increasing perceived ease of use, improving perceived usefulness, directly increasing learners’ intentions to learn, and encouraging active learning. Besides, consider the following four paths, where path coefficient reaches 0.6 or more, and R2 is higher than 50%. Path 1: AR function→ Perceived usefulness → User intention to use Path 2: AR function → Perceived ease of use → User intention to use Path 3: Content quality → Perceived usefulness → User intention to use Path 4: Perceived ease of use →Perceived usefulness → User intention to use The results show that the learners in experimental group very approve the AR function and content quality of the proposed system. That is, improving the planning of AR function and providing good content quality will enhance the perceived ease of use and promote the user intention to use for the learners.

Figure 7: The results of hypothesized path analysis Learning Achievement As follows, an independent samples t-test is used to assess the learning achievement of the experimental group and control group, respectively. Table 4: Independent samples t-test results of pre-test for the visitors in the experimental group and the control group. Group n Mean SD t Experiment group 30 36.26 6.469 -0.719 Control group 30 37.60 7.832 Table 4 shows the t-test results of the pre-test scores for the experimental group and the control group, from which it can be seen that there was no significant difference between the scores of the students in the two groups (t = -0.719, p = 0.475 > 0.05). Table 5 presents the t-test results of the post-test, showing that the students in the experimental group had significantly better achievement than those in the control group (t = .5.037, p = 0.000 < 0.05). This shows that the difference of scores between these two groups is quite obvious. That is, the performance of learners in the experimental group is better than that of learners in the control group. Table 5: Independent samples t-test results of post-test for the visitors in the experimental group and the control group. Group n Mean SD T-value Experiment group 30 79.06 12.635 5.037 Control group 30 63.06 11.962 *p < 0.05.

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Expert interview Mr. Chen, the CEO of an action learning technology company in Tainan was invited for an interview, on May 31, 2011. The interview firstly involved a demonstration of the system. Mr. Chen then tried out the system. The relevant parts of the ensuing interview were recorded. The interview revealed the following two results: 1. From the aspect of the teacher: z It is difficult for teachers to obtain 3D modules, because the establishment of 3D modules is not the professional domain of general teachers. z The augmented reality functions are less suitable for exam-oriented courses. They are more suitable for courses with higher interaction with an outdoor environment. 2. From the aspect of the learner: z The augmented reality functions of the system are interesting and augmented reality is a new technology for the general public. z It was emphasized that the operation should not be too complicated in use, or the characteristics of augmented reality will be lost. In addition, the key aspects that make learners use this system should be improved. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS In this study, we search the learning effectiveness of learners by combining AR technology and situation learning theory. Since a story is one of the situated learning elements proposed by Mclellan, the AR technology was then applied to design animation related to a story. From the analysis results of TAM, our hypotheses are all valid. In the path of user’s intention to learn, all of the path coefficients attained a significant effect, as evidenced by the values for the path analysis coefficient. From the statistical analysis of each dimension, the three items with the highest average scores of the overall question items are “The animation of learning material content is very interesting.”, “It is very interesting to see the combination of virtual and real environments in the smart phone and this makes me want to use the system.”, and “Using the ubiquitous learning system of Augmented Reality and Situated Learning improves my learning efficiency. “ and their corresponding scores are 4.27, 4.23, and 4.17. That is, the learners agree that using the AR functions combining virtualization with reality to learn is novel and interesting. In addition, learning efficiency is improved by ubiquitous and situated learning. Therefore, the results show that learners appreciated the overall quality of the content provided by this system and gave a good evaluation of this learning approach. The learners also agreed that combining AR with situated learning made learning interesting. In addition, the results of the analysis of the independent samples t-test for the pre-test and the post-test scores of the experimental group and the control group show that the learning achievement of the experimental group was significantly greater than that of the control group. Furthermore, the questionnaire survey also demonstrates that the learners in the experimental group had a positive opinion of each dimension of this system. This study shows that this is because the learners felt that the system was novel and they had a high degree of certainty after using it. Since the users liked this method of learning, it indirectly increases the difference in learning effectiveness between the experimental group and the control group. Nevertheless, the overall average for the system’s ease of use is 3.887, this was the lowest satisfaction level of all 6 dimensions, where the average is 3.70 for item “Using the system makes it easy for me to learn.” and is the lowest of all question items. Through experimental observation, it is speculated that since the learners had to hold the smart phone, the stylus, the RFID reader, and the identification patterns for AR when they were learning, they may have felt burdened. Therefore, the term for system ease of use requires improvement and strengthening. In addition, based on interviews with experts and the results of the questionnaire, there are several areas in which there is room for improvement in the use of augmented reality for learning in the future. The main suggestions for improvements are as follows: The 3D animation must be more complete. It is necessary to improve the convenience of the acquisition of 3D objects. However, it is difficult for general teachers to produce 3D animation by themselves in the preparation of teaching materials and thus a more convenient way to produce 3D objects is needed.

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Courses with relatively no pressure are more suitable for such a system. Such learning systems may be unsuitable for higher learning objectives in schools. The motion tools that are popular nowadays can be used. The users could understand the operation of this system more quickly and the degree of acceptance would be higher. In order not to confuse users, the number of overall learning tools should be restricted. It is suggested that the system should be easy for users to operate with both hands, or even with one hand. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study is supported in part by the National Science Council of Republic of China under the contract number NSC101-2511-S-218-008-. REFERENCES Billinghurst, M., Kato, H. & Poupyrev, I. (2001). The MagicBook: a transitional AR interface, Computers & Graphics, 25, 745-753. Chen, G. D., Chang, C. K., & Wang, C. Y. (2008). Ubiquitous learning website: Scaffold learners by mobile devices with information-aware techniques. Computers and Education, 50, 77–79. Correa, A. G. D., de Assis, G. A., Nascimento, M. d., Ficheman, I. & Lopes, R. d. D. (2007). GenVirtual: An augmented reality musical game for cognitive and motor rehabilitation, Virtual Rehabilitation, 1-6. Davis, F.D. (1986). Technology Acceptance Model for Empirically Testing New End-user Information Systems Theory and Results, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, MIT. Dewey, J. (1938). Logic: The theory of inquiry, New York:Holt and Company, pp. 104-105. El Sayed, N. A. M., Zayed, H. H., Sharawy, M. I. (2011). ARSC: Augmented reality student card An augmented reality solution for the education field, Computers & Education, 56(4), 1045-1061. Haydar, M., Roussel, D., Maidi, M., Otmane, S. & Mallem, M. (2011). Virtual and augmented reality for cultural computing and heritage: a case study of virtual exploration of underwater archaeological sites, VIRTUAL REALITY, 15(4), 311-327. Hoelter, J.W. (1983). The analysis of covariance structures goodness-of-fit indices, Sociological Methods Research, 11(3), 325-344. Huang, K., Lubin, I. A. & Ge, X. (2012). Situated learning in an educational technology course for pre-service teachers, TEACHING AND TEACHER EDUCATION, 27(8), 1200-1212. Huang, Y. M.,Huang, Y. M., Huang, S. H., & Lin, Y. T. (2012). A ubiquitous English vocabulary learning system: Evidence of active/passive attitudes vs. usefulness/ease-of-use, COMPUTERS & EDUCATION, 58(1), 273-282. Hwang, G. J. (2009). A context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for conducting complex science experiments, Computers & Education, 53(2), 402-413. Hwang, G. J., Kuo, F.R., Yin, P.Y., & Chuang, K. H. (2010). A heuristic algorithm for planning personalized learning paths for context-aware ubiquitous learning, Computers & Education, 54(2), 404-415 Hwang, G. J., Tsai, C. C., & Yang, S. J. H. (2008). Criteria, strategies and research issues of context-aware ubiquitous learning. Educational Technology and Society, 11(1), 81–91. Kim, K., Seo, B. K., Han, J. H. & Park, J. I. (2009). Augmented reality tour system for immersive experience of cultural heritage, VRCAI '09 Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Virtual Reality Continuum and its Applications in Industry, 323-324. Lin, H. C. K., Hsieh, M. C., & Chuang, T. Y. (2012). Interacting with visual poems through ar-based digital artwork, TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, 11(1), 123,137. Lee, S. H., Choi, J. & Park, J. I. (2009). Interactive e-learning system using pattern recognition and augmented reality, IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 883-890. McLellan, H. (1996). Evaluation in a situated learning environment, situated Learning perspectives, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Ogata, H. (2008). Computer supported ubiquitous learning: augmenting learning experiences in the real world, Fifth IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technology in Education, 3-10. Piirainen-Marsh, A. & Tainio, L. (2009). Collaborative Game-play as a Site for Participation and Situated Learning of a Second Language, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 53(2), 167-183. Sadler, T. D. (2009). Situated learning in science education: socio-scientific issues as contexts for practice, Studies In Science Education, 45(1), 1-42. Shih, J.-L., Chuang, C.-W., & Hwang, G.-J. (2010). An Inquiry-based Mobile Learning Approach to Enhancing Social Science Learning Effectiveness. Educational Technology & Society, 13 (4), 50–62.

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Shih, Y. C. & Yang, M. T. (2008). A collaborative virtual environment for situated language learning using VEC3D, Educational Technology & Society, 11(1), 56-68. Tainan City Government Department of Culture and Tourism (2010), Retrieved September 10, 2010, from http://newculture.tncg.gov.tw/home.php Tainan cultural tourism (2010), Retrieved September 10, 2010, from http://map.tncg.gov.tw/Default.aspx Wagner, W. E. (2010). Using SPSS for social statistics and research methods, 2nd Ed., Los Angeles: Pine Forge Press. Wu, T. T., Sung, T. W., Huang, Y. M. & Yang, C. S. (2010), Location Awareness Mobile Situated English Reading Learning System, Journal Of Internet Technology, 11(7), 923-933. Yang, Y. F. (2011). Engaging students in an online situated language learning environment, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(2), 181-198. Zorzal, E. R. & Kirner, C. (2005). Educational games in augmented reality environments, Proceedings of II Workshop on Augmented Reality, 52-55.

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COMPUTER BASED SCREENING DYSCALCULIA: COGNITIVE AND NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES¹ Banu CANGÖZ Department of Psychology, Hacettepe University, Turkey [email protected] Arif ALTUN Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologiesç Hacettepe University, Turkey [email protected] Sinan OLKUN Department of Primary Education, Ankara University, Turkey [email protected] Funda KAÇAR Department of Psychology, Hacettepe University, Turkey [email protected] ABSTRACT Mathematical skills are becoming increasingly critical for achieving academic and professional success. Developmental dyscalculia (DD) is a childhood-onset disorder characterized by the presence of abnormalities in the acquisition of arithmetic skills affecting approximately 5% of school age children. Diagnosing students with possible dyscalculia tendencies and giving them relevant extra learning opportunities based on their specific difficulties are critically important for them to go with their peers. One of the human cognition dimensions is number. Two distinct systems of basic numerical capacities have been described: Approximate and exact number systems. Additionally, current brain imaging studies have associated this disease to structural and functional alterations corresponding to parietal and prefrontal cortices. In order to screen dyscalculia tendencies related to these two systems, we have developed five different cognitive tasks. The aim of this paper is twofold. First, a brief description of the software and the cognitive tasks will be presented. Second, a review of the findings about neural correlates of computer based cognitive tasks used for screening of dyscalculia as well as the neuro-structural and neurofunctional imaging findings in DD will be synthesized. Keywords: Core systems of number, Dyscalculia, Cognitive processes, Neuropsychology, Neural correlates of dyscalculia, ANS, ENS ¹This paper was produced from a project (Project Number:TUBITAK-SOBAG 111K545) supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) INTRODUCTION Developmental Dyscalculia (DD) is a specific mathematics learning disability affecting 3 to 6% of school age population in different countries (Mussolin et al., 2010). DD is conceived as a brain-based disorder of probable genetic origin, possibly inherited from one’s parents (Butterworth, 2005). Students with DD have considerable difficulties in learning numbers and calculations. In terms of mathematical achievement they lag at least 2 years behind their peers. In order for those students to continue their education with their peers in regular classrooms they should have additional education relevant to their individual needs. However, they should be diagnosed first for their mathematical learning difficulties. DEVELOPMENTAL DYSCALCULIA: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF APPLICATIONS Diagnosing students with possible dyscalculia tendencies and giving them relevant extra learning opportunities based on their specific difficulties are important for them to attend their regular classrooms with their peers. This diagnosis should be done as early as possible because the brain plasticity is very high in early ages (Zamarian, Ischebeck, & Delazer, 2009). Therefore, the earlier we diagnose dyscalculia the more we have the chance to remediate it. Additionally, if early indicators for mathematics learning difficulties can be translated into key components of remediation programs, it may prevent children from failures (Desoete, Ceulemans, Roeyers, & Huylebroeck, 2009). Diagnosing DD has been a measurement problem for researchers. There are different approaches to the problem. The variability of these approaches and the tools used to assess dyscalculia make it difficult to establish a common assessment framework. One approach to the resolution of the problem is to assess basic capacities of human cognition. Shalev and Von Aster (2008) proposed that testing of DD should tap several dimensions of human numerical cognition and it is considered to be relevant to the number processing and calculations. Therefore, this study attempts to approach the issue from the perspective of basic human cognition systems, in other words from the basic capacities of human brain. Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 33

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  According to Wilson et al. (2006), DD is caused by a "core deficit" in number sense or in the link between number sense and symbolic number representations (Wilson et al., 2006). A better understanding of the foundational competencies that subserve the acquisition of mathematical skills will help design better mathematics education programs for young children as well as intervention programs that are based on scientific results (Ansari, Price, & Holloway, 2010). COMPUTER BASED SCREENING TASKS FOR DEVELOPMENTAL DYSCALCULIA Using computerized versions of neuropsychological tests is becoming popular especially in clinical and educational settings for screening and diagnostic purposes. Within this context, a computerized version of DD screening tool was developed within a research project funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK: SOBAG 111K545). In order to mobilize the tool and making it feasible for data collection, it was decided to develop the software for tablets. Using computers for this purpose is thought to provide flexibility and mobility in reaching students at their convenient times. CORE KNOWLEDGE DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN COGNITION Spelke and Kinzler (2007) proposed that humans are born with several numbers of separable systems of core knowledge. According to them, these systems serve to represent inanimate objects and their mechanical interactions, agents and goal directed actions, sets and their numerical relationships of ordering, addition and subtraction, and places in the spatial layout and their geometric relationships. In sum, the proposed five systems of core knowledge are objects, actions, social partners, number, and space. New, flexible skills and belief systems are thought to be built on these core foundations (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007). The proposed core knowledge system dimensions are summarized in Figure 1.

objects

actions 

number

Core  knowledge

social  partners space 

Figure 1: Core knowledge dimensions of human cognition (This figure was generated by the authors of this paper using the information from Spelke & Kinzler, 2007). Although each system has its signature limits to underlie human reasoning about the world (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007), the five systems are possibly interacting with one another in representing and acting on different types of knowledge. For example, actions might have numerical attributes as well as spatial ones such as traces. Similarly, objects may have both spatial and numerical qualities. Human beings are usually able to attend to three or four separately moving objects, for example, when the objects’ boundaries and motions accord with the cohesion and continuity constraints (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007). Similarly a normal human and several other creatures’ brain can quickly detect the exact number of dots between 1 and 4 at a glance and determines the number of objects approximately larger than four. Beyond any doubt, neuropsychological correlates of DD are very important domain for educational applications and for neuroscientists. NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF DEVELOPMENTAL DYSCALCULIA Early Studies: Although poor teaching, environmental deprivation, and low intelligence have been implicated in the etiology of developmental dyscalculia, data indicated that this learning disability is a brain-based disorder with a familialgenetic predisposition, particularly within the left parietotemporal cortex (Shalev & Gross-Tsur, 2001). The neuroanatomic basis of arithmetic has yet to be unrevealed, although application of electrophysiology and brain imaging techniques are yielding encouraging information. Kiefer and Dehaene (1997) used event-related potentials (ERP’s) and found that simple multiplication is processed by the left parietal cortex, whereas complex

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  exercises are executed within both centroparietal areas, albeit slightly greater on the left. Neuroimaging studies support these electrophysiologic findings. In normal individuals engaged in arithmetic, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reveals bilateral activation of prefrontal and inferior parietal cortices (Rueckert et al., 1996). When the arithmetic task is an exact, language-dependent calculation (e.g., “six times four is … ”), a large area in the left inferior frontal lobe is activated. On the other hand, tasks of number approximation (e.g., “Which is larger, four or nine?”) activate both parietal lobes (Spelke, Pinel, Stanescu, & Tsivkin, 1999). The “triple-code model” proposed by Dehaene and Cohen (1995) is both neuropsychologically and anatomically based model. These three elements are verbal, visual, and magnitude representation. This model suggests that relatively simple arithmetic operations are processed by the verbal system within the left hemisphere, whereas more complex arithmetic procedures (which require magnitude estimation and visual representations) are bilaterally localized. This model is supported by experimental data from normal individuals performing arithmetic, as well as from case reports of patients with focal brain lesions. Recent Studies: According to recent brain studies, the posterior parietal cortex is a region specifically involved with the representation and manipulation of numerical quantity. A left angular gyrus area supports the manipulation of numbers in verbal form. A bilateral superior parietal system supports attentional orientation on the mental number line, just like on any other spatial dimension (Dehaene et al., 2003). Language-independent semantic representation of numerical quantity is related to intra-parietal sulcus (Ansari, 2008; Rosenberg-Lee, Lovett, & Anderson, 2009). Superior parietal lobe, intraparietal sulcus, fusiform gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus and right anterior temporal cortex are releated to DD. The parietal lobe and more specifically the intraparietal sulcus, has become specialized in the internal representation of quantities, the abstract processing of magnitudes and the relations between them. On the other hand, the angular gyrus takes part in the verbal processing of certain tasks called arithmetical facts (for instance, multiplication tables and additions of small quantities). Prefrontal cortex, posterior part of temporal lobe, cingulate cortex and several subcortical regions are also involved in number processing. Empirical data have provided theoretical and anatomical models for number processing and calculations of which the “Triple Code Model” is currently the most accepted one (Serra-Grabulosa, Adan, Pérez-Pàmies, Lachica, & Membrives, 2010). In one study, it was shown that white matter volume in right temporoparietal cortex is reduced and there are significant micro-structural impairments in DD. Inferior fronto-occipital areas as key pathways are impaired in DD. Right temporal-parietal white matter is a specific source of vulnerability in DD. White matter differences were primarily localized to the hippocampal region and this region is related to long term potentiation and/or consolidation of knowledge in long-term memory. Recent brain imaging studies suggest that DD in children may be characterized by multiple dysfunctional circuits arising from a core WM deficit. Some researchers also pointed at the structural abnormalities in right hemisphere temporal-parietal white matter and pathways associated with it as key neuroanatomical correlates of DD (Rykhlevskaia, Uddin, Kondos, & Menon, 2009). OUTCOME AND DISCUSSION DD screening batteries that could be used in assessing basic numerical capacities should address both approximate and exact number systems. Considering the difficulties children with DD have in mathematics, Shalev and Von Aster (2008) suggested that besides the tasks to measure the knowledge of arithmetical facts and procedures, basic number processing skills such as subitizing (ability to accurately assess size at a glance) a small number of objects and estimating large number of objects, comparing number magnitudes, counting, and the ability to use different notational formats (seven or 7) and spatially representing numbers on a mental number line will be included in order to assess DD throughly. Mathematical skills are becoming increasingly critical for achieving academic and professional success; but, in Turkey, there is not any standardized dyscalculia screening test. Because of this purpose, attempts to develop a computer based screening DD test for 6-9 years old school age children have been initiated with an interdisciplinary team and approach. Having reviewed the current literature, we developed five different cognitive tasks in order to assess and/or screen the dyscalculia tendencies by utilizing tablets. These tasks are: Dot counting (Subitizing), Number Comparison (Numerical Stroop), Perceptual Quantity Estimation, Number Line Estimation, and Simple Arithmetic tasks. Sample task items are shown in Figure 2. These tasks are sensitive to different cognitive functions and brain structures and/or networks related to numerical capacity.

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  In order to deliver the tasks, android tablets were chosen for two purposes. First, these tools are flexible and mobile so that they could easily be carried to schools. Secondly, tablet use is gaining popularity among schoolage children. Moreover, once the tool is proven to be reliable, more improvement applications could easily be developed and distributed through Android market. The platform included two sections: task trial and task screening. In task trials, participants are given examples of how interaction with the tasks are designed and let them practice before the real tasks. Participants’ correct and wrong responses were observed but not recorded in this section. In the screening task, participants’ are requested to complete the whole tasks at two sessions, each half an hour duration. Each interaction was transformed into numbers. These data were kept in the tablets and backed up each day regularly. Finally, brain imaging studies show us, DD included multiple dysfunctional circuits arising from a core white matter deficit, and secondarily a disconnection syndrome. Age, IQ, reading ability, and working memory capacity play important roles in DD. In Table 1 DD screening tasks and cognitive and neuropsychological correlates were summarized. Table 1: Computer Based Developmental Dyscalculia Screening Tasks and Cognitive and Neuropsychological Correlates. Task Name Task Description Cognitive Function Related Brain Structure/Area DOT COUNTING

(For example see the item in Figure 2)

In this task, dots will be arranged randomly and/or canonically to reveal the differences in children’s enumerating speed in this format.

Knowledge of Number

Posterior parietal cortex

Attention

Prefrontal cortex

Categorization (for only canonic items)

Cingulate cortex

Visual Memory NUMBER COMPARISON

(For example item see Figure 2)

PERCEPTUAL QUANTITY ESTIMATION (For example, item see Figure 2)

NUMBER LINE ESTIMATION (For example item see Figure 2)

Prefrontal cortex (bilaterally)

In this task, subjects were asked to choose either the numerically or the physically larger of the two numbers. Subjects’ decisions are interfered with the use of physically incongruent numerals.

Working Memory

In this task, numerical context influences their choice of children’s representations. Some pictures (different numbers) are shown for 3000 milliseconds then disappear. Students are asked to write their estimates on numerator appeared on the screen.

Working Memory

In this task, children are asked to indicate the position of numbers represented in Arabic numerals on number lines that are empty except for the number 0

Working Memory

Prefrontal cortex

Executive Functions (Abstraction, Planning)

Superior parietal cortex (bilaterally)

Executive Functions (Set Shifting, Resistence of Interference Effect)

Right temporoparietal cortex

Attention

Executive Functions (Abstraction, Planning)

Prefrontal cortex (bilaterally)

Intraparietal sulcus

Attention

Attention

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  at the left end and a larger number (usually, 10, 20, 100 or 1000) at the right end. SIMPLE ARITHMETIC (For example, item see Figure 2)

In this task, children do basic calculations (addition, multiplication and subtraction operations). Children are asked if the result is correct or not.

Visuo-Spatial Functions

Knowledge of Number

Left parietal cortex

Working Memory

Inferior parietal cortex (bilaterally) Left inferior frontal lobe Left angular gyrus

In Figure 2, sample items developed for computer based developmental dyscalculia screening tasks are presented.

Figure 2: Sample items for computer based developmental dyscalculia screening tasks.

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  REFERENCES Ansari, D., Price, G., & Holloway, I. (Eds.). (2010). Typical and Atypical Development of Basic Numerical Magnitude Representations: A Review of Behavioral and Neuroimaging Studies: Springer. Ansari, D. (2008) Effects of development and enculturation on number representation in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 278-91. Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. [Review]. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 3-18. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00374.x Dehaene,D., & Cohen, L. (1995). Towards an anatomical and functional model of number processing. Mathematical Cognition, 1 , 83–120. Dehaene,S., Spelke,E., Pinel,P., Stanescu, R., & Tsivkin, S. (1999). Sources of mathematical thinkingBehavioral and brain-imaging evidence. Science, 284 , 970–974. Dehaene,S., Piazza, M., Pinel, P. & Cohen, L. (2003). Three parietal circuits for number processing. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20 (3/4/5/6), 487-506. Desoete, A., Ceulemans, A., Roeyers, H., & Huylebroeck, A. (2009). Subitizing or counting as possible screening variables for learning disabilities in mathematics education or learning? Educational Research Review, 4(1), 55-66. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2008.11.003 Kiefer, M, & Dehaene,S. (1997). The time course of parietal activation in single-digit multiplication: Evidence from event-related potentials. Mathematical Cognition, 3, 11–30. Mussolin, C., De Volder, A., Grandin, C., Schlogel, X., Nassogne, M. C., & Noel, M. P. (2010). Neural correlates of symbolic number comparison in developmental dyscalculia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(5), 860-874. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21237 Rosenberg-Lee, M., Lovett, M., Anderson, J.R. (2009). Neural correlates of arithmetic calculation strategies. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 270-285. Rueckert, L., Lange, N., Partiot A., Apollonio, I., Litvan, I., LeBihan, D., & Grafman, J., (1996).Visualizing cortical activation during mental calculation with function MRI. Neuroimage, 3, 97–103. Rykhlevskaia, E., Uddin, L.Q., Kondos, L., & Menon, V. (2009). Neuroanatomical correlates of developmental dyscalculia: Combined evidence from morphometry and tractography. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 1-13. Shalev,R.S. & Gross-Tsur, V. (2001). Developmental dyscalculia. Pediatric Neurology, 24(5), 337-342. Shalev, R. S., & Von Aster, M. (2008). Identification, classification, and prevalence of developmental dyscalculia Encyclopedia of Language and Literacy Development (pp. 1-9). London, ON: Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network. Serra-Grabulosa, J.M., Adan, A., Pérez-Pàmies, M., Lachica, J., & Membrives, S. (2010). Neural bases of numerical processing. Review of Neurology, 50(1), 39-46. Spelke, E. S., & Kinzler, K. D. (2007). Core knowledge. Developmental Science, 10(1), 89-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00569.x Wilson, A. J., Dehaene, S., Pinel, P., Revkin, S. K., Cohen, L., & Cohen, D. (2006). Principles underlying the design of "The Number Race", an adaptive computer game for remediation of dyscalculia. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2, 19. doi: 10.1186/1744-9081-2-19. Zamarian, L., Ischebeck, A., & Delazer, M. (2009). Neuroscience of learning arithmetic--evidence from brain imaging studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 33(6), 909-925. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.03.005

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DESIGNING A WEB-BASED MULTIMEDIA LEARNING ENVIRONMENT WITH LAURILLARD’S CONVERSATIONAL FRAMEWORK: AN INVESTIGATION ON INSTRUCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mai Neo Faculty of Creative Multimedia Multimedia University, Cyberjaya Selangor, Malaysia [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ken Tse-Kian Neo Faculty of Creative Multimedia Multimedia University, Cyberjaya Selangor, Malaysia [email protected] Sally Thian-Li Lim Faculty of Creative Multimedia Multimedia University, Cyberjaya Selangor, Malaysia [email protected] ABSTRACT Classrooms today have received a significant overhaul with the inclusion of ICT and new learning pedagogies. Advancements in computing and multimedia technologies in education have resulted in an emerging breed of technologically proficient learners. Today’s students are “digital natives’ and very influenced by current digital environments for information acquisition, communication and interaction. Currently, many Malaysian classrooms still practice conventional teaching methods which pose many limitations to the student’s learning process as interactions and communication processes are lacking. Therefore, there is a need for educators to adjust their teaching in order to suit the new generation of students and create learning environments that stimulate discourse, dialogue and engagement. In this study, Laurillard's Conversational Framework was adapted to investigate the interaction and communication processes between the students and teacher, mediated by multimedia and web 2.0. Results yielded several instructional relationships that showed that students experienced deep and meaningful learning when communicating and collaborating with each other, and that the teacher still played a central role in the learning process. The results provide encouraging support for incorporating dialogue and conversations in technology-backed learning environments. INTRODUCTION: Changing dynamics of today’s classrooms The development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has given a tremendous boost in supporting new modes of delivery in training, teaching and learning within the last thirty years (Samuel & Zaitun, 2005). The inclusion of multimedia technologies into the classroom has changed the educational landscape and introduced important changes in the educational system and impact the way learners communicate information with each other (Muller, Lee & Sharma, 2008). In Malaysia, the Malaysian Government is taking several initiatives to progress accordingly with the initiative to increase the role of science and technology education to achieve a develop country status by the year 2020. In addition, there is a strong push by the Malaysian Government to develop creativity, communications skills, analytical and critical thinking, and problem-solving skills — skills that are significantly lacking in current graduates (Tan, 2000; Tan, Teo & Chye, 2009). This mismatch has prompted Malaysian educators to seek new ways to develop these appropriate skills and knowledge in students in order to meet the rising expectations of the knowledge society. Institutions of higher learning here in Malaysia have started meeting those challenges by integrating multimedia into various teaching and learning environments such as storytelling (Norhayati & Siew, 2004, Neo, Neo & Tai, 2007), problem-based learning (Hong, Lai & Holton, 2003), and web-based courses (Neo, 2005). However, the issue that still surround Malaysian education today is the need to adjust the way teachers deliver content and materials being presented in classroom, as many Malaysian classrooms are still very much curriculumbased and teachers practice conventional teaching methods. This creates instructional relationships and learning processes that lack o f interaction and feedback between teacher and students, and o f communication a n d c o l l a b o r a t i o n (Philip & Luca, 2000; J u s o h & J u s o h , 2 0 0 9 ; McLoughlin & Lee, 2010). Learners still play a passive role in their learning by being inactive in their learning processes. Therefore, educators in Malaysia are challenged to design a learning environment and curriculum that can encourage interaction, communication and collaboration among students and teachers, and increase their Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 39

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motivation to learn and be independent in their learning process (Laurillard, 2008;, McLoughlin & Lee, 2010; Bower, Kennedy, Dalgarno, & Lee, 2011). Even more challenging is the emergence of a new breed of technologically proficient learners, known as “digital natives”. These students are very much influenced by these digital environments (Prensky, 2001) and depend heavily on technologies to gain information and carry out interactions with others (Oblinger, 2003) and thus have high expectations of the learning methods delivered and presented. Teachers are thus challenged to find innovative approaches to engage students in their classrooms and keep them involved in the learning materials, and make rational changes in t h e i r educational p r a c t i c e s (Ditcher, 2001, Oblinger, 2003, Debressa, 2006). Laurillard (1993) posited that universities should rethink their educational strategies and teaching practices, in the face of these emerging technologies, in order to take advantage of the changing classroom dynamics. As such, challenges facing education now include creating new ways of using new technologies in teaching and learning that would satisfy and complement the new requirements for students (Damodharan and Rengarajan, 2007, Laurillard, 2008, Kimber & Wyatt-Smith, 2010). New paradigms for teaching and learning are being introduced to address such issues. Research finding in recent years, stated the importance of encouraging student to control the learning process as a whole (McLoughlin & Lee, 2010). One model that has been developed to address this was the Conversational Framework by Laurillard (1993). The Conversational Framework consisted of a balance set of learning experiences to students, and an emphasis on having dialogue in the student learning process. In other words, the learning process must consist of a combination of discursive, adaptive, interactive and reflective activities (Laurillard, 1993) to effectively engage students in deep meaningful learning. With the introduction of multimedia and web 2.0 technologies into the curriculum, these relationships become even more complex, sophisticated and deeper. Such inclusion of multimedia technologies into the classroom can change the educational landscape and impact the way learners communicate information with each other (Muller, Lee & Sharma, 2008). With multimedia, the marriage of content and technology not only provides the teacher with a more effective way to transfer knowledge and information to students, but also enables them to have more flexibility and scope in communicating instructional materials effectively to the learners, and for students to learn in more productive ways (Hillis, 2008; Kim & Gilman, 2008). It can also foster collaborative efforts, created scaffolds, allowed reflection, allowed students to focus on the depth of the situation rather than the breadth of it, and enable them to become more responsible for their learning via its asynchronous mode of access and delivery (Keengwe, Onchwari, & Wachira, 2008). Laurillard (1993) states that, "as an information and retrieval system, it [the Web] is a very well-designed medium” and can be used in addition to classroom teaching. In order to strengthen the face-to-face engagements between students and peers, stronger links between the activities in the classrooms and in the virtual environments need to be generated. Web 2.0, which includes social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter and blogs, have been shown to engage students and improve their communication skills with other students, and increase their interactions and peer support during the learning process (Hear, 2006; Barnes & Tynan, 2007). They also allow students to become “selectors, creators and collaborators while teachers have adopted the role of content shepherd, environment provider and facilitator”, and enable them to interact and shift from passive learners to active and creative participators in multimedia content (Talandis, 2008). With collaborative tools like Facebook, students develop relationships over the discussions from formal critiques and informal social interactions (McCarthy, 2010; McLoughlin & Lee, 2010) As such, further understanding o f how technological tools can support student learning appropriately for a networked society ( Laurillard, 2002; Oblinger, 2003; Prensky, 2007; Jones & Cross, 2009; McLoughlin & Lee, 2010; Price & Kirkwood; 2010) would provide a deeper awareness of the complexities in managing a dynamic learning environment. In addition, the combination of technology and a learning framework that emphasizes active participation through conversations and experiential learning would produce several instructional relationships that would thus provide a stronger insight into developing more dynamic and engaging learning environments and create a community of learners mediated by multimedia and web 2.0 technologies. Therefore in this research study, Laurillard’s Conversational Framework (1993) was adapted to a multimedia and web-based learning environment to investigate the communication and collaboration processes between the teacher, student and technology. The learning was designed around a multimedia and web-based \project which served to provide students with a platform to collaborate, communication and cooperate with members of their team, of other teams and with the teacher, to form a communicative community of learners.

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Laurillard’s Conversational Framework The learning environment was designed based on Laurillard's (1993) conversational framework. Here, students combined learning face-to-face in the class with learning using technology. Laurillard's conversational framework was developed to guide and provide what learners needed and to explore how best to support their learning (Laurillard, 2008). Laurillard's Conversational Framework was a way of “capturing the iterative, communicative, adaptive, reflective and goal-oriented actions with feedback that were necessary to support the complete learning process” (Laurillard, 2008), as shown in Figure 1. The framework aimed to emphasis the learning process by highlighting the student’s process of understanding learning content through their reflection and adjustment of information with respect to their tasks, as well as with feedback from the teacher. There are two levels on which this process occurs: A discursive level and an experiential level. On the discursive level, which constituted the upper part of the framework (theory, ideas, concepts, and principles), discussion, conception, negotiation between teacher and students occur, and the learning process constituted a dialogue between teacher and student. At the experiential level, which constituted the lower part of the framework (practice, action, application), the process of adaptation and reflection of the discursive level occur. (a) Discursive level In the discursive level, teachers express the ideas and concept of the tasks at hand. The students then have the chance to question and express their own ideas. The process then continues with students and teacher engaging in an iterative process of challenging each other’s views until students reach a final understanding of the concepts. (Laurillard, 1993). (b) Experiential level In the experiential level, students transform their conceptual understanding into a practical adaptation of what was discussed and reflected. For the teacher, this level represents modifications and adjustments of the learning environment based on the discussions with students earlier. The teacher then modifies and suitably adapts the learning environment to the student’s needs culled at the discursive level so as to support them at the experiential level (Laurillard, 2002). In other words, in order to support the complete learning process, the learning environment would have to offer the following: (1) a working environment (2) a task goal (3) learner actions (4) meaningful feedback (5) learner revisions (6) the chance to adapt and reflect in the light of experience (Laurillard, 2008), blending both theory and practice. Laurillard's Conversational Framework included four important components (1) Teacher's concept, (2) Teacher's constructed learning environment, (3) Student's concept, and (4) Student's action. With the interaction and feedback gained from teacher, students would better understand the concept and objectives of the project and proceed on experiential level, where students would then work on their assignment. It is at this level that students would involve themselves, and acquire experience in critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills and communication skills. The framework requires them to iterate through a cycle of attending, questioning, practising, adapting their actions, using feedback, reflecting, and articulating their ideas (Laurillard, 2002). Figure 1 shows the Conversational Framework design which was adapted to this study.

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Figure 1: Laurillard's Conversational Framework ( Source: Quinn & Reid, 2003) DESIGNING THE CONVERSATIONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT In adapting this framework, subjects from Multimedia University (MMU) taking an “Interactive Multimedia” course were used in this study. The participants were undergraduate students in the second year of their degree course from the Faculty of Management, Faculty of Information Technology and Faculty of Engineering. These were students with little or no background in design foundation. There were 42 students (N=42), which consisted of local and foreign males and females. The course design required students to create an interactive website (an online magazine) using multimedia elements such as Adobe Flash, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator and Dreamweaver and they were given 14 weeks to complete the assignment. The course combined face-to-face lectures with interactive modules to allow students to learn asynchronously online, a multimediaand web-based project to enable students to develop with multimedia and web tools, and collaborative activities through social networking and web-blogging to enable students to communicate and collaborate online on their project. This course project was group-base and required students to also develop the interactive multimedia project using multimedia and web 2.0 tools. There were 9 groups with 4-6 members and 9 group leaders were appointed for each of these groups. As part of their collaboration, students were required to choose their own leader and the theme/title of their magazine. Each of the group was required to design one section of the magazine. At the end of the project all the sections will be combined and linked to a main page. In addition to that, students were also required to create a Facebook page for the magazine to comments, news, pictures, and updates of their project. This was to give the magazine an online presence in a popular social media website, and allow for more comments to be given outside of the classroom environment. In order to document their development progress, each group was required to create a blog for their work using a Web 2.0 blog application and manage their project’s discussions there, as well as posting their development of the assignment. The blog had to be updated constantly by each of the group members as part of their weekly progress, monitored by the Group Leader. The blog could be viewed by all the students to make comments on. In this learning environment, the face-to-face classroom teaching approach was expanded to also include online learning, web-blogging, social networking, and collaborative activities. Furthermore, the 12 areas of focus of Laurillard’s Conversational Framework in Figure 1, which constituted the areas of conversation and discussion among students, and the areas of adaptation and reflection of what was discussed, were mapped to the development of their project. Figure 2 shows the mapping of Laurillard’s Conversation Framework to the class design.

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Figure 2: Mapping Laurillard's conversational framework into class design At the end of the project duration, students completed and submitted their multimedia and web project. Figure 3 shows an example of on student group’s application of a travel magazine website, Figure 4, the blog that they created for the project, and Figure 5 shows the Facebook page used for communication.

Figure 3: Student final work – A travel website

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Figure 4: One student group’s blog

Figure 5: Students’ Facebook page

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Students were given a survey questionnaire, which was adapted from McCarthy (2010) to gauge their perceptions about the learning environment. The questionnaires were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree and 5 = Strongly Agree. Their comments were also solicited in order to obtain deeper feedback on their perceptions, as well as to examine their relationships with the teacher, other students and with the technology. The results would provide insight to the interrelationships between teacher and students, when mediated by multimedia and web 2.0 technologies. Table 1: Means of survey items on motivation Item in the survey Multimedia helped me to understand topics better

(M) 4.38

(SD) 0.62

(%) 92.2

I enjoyed learning with multimedia I liked to contribute ideas in my group The multimedia project is challenging but motivating I was able to motivate myself to complete my work Interactions with online multimedia modules motivated me to learn the content

4.36 4.29 4.26 4.17 4.14

0.69 0.64 0.63 0.7 0.75

88.1 90.5 90.5 83.3 88.1

I was able to actively participated in class activities

3.88

0.8

76.2

Cronbach Alpha = 0.766

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Student comments “Make me more motivated to learn.” “Challenging but motivating. I had fun and great experiences.” “I feel motivate in myself and it is very interesting.” “Every team members are highly motivated. We had fun working together and the leader was able to divide the task properly.” “It is interesting and fun. I am motivated to learn with this learning environment.” “I felt interesting and not bored. It makes me want to learn more.” “Stressful yet interesting and motivating.” “I felt happy and motivated.” Table 1 presents students have high motivation to learn in multimedia-mediated learning environment. Students think that multimedia helps them to understand the topic better (Item 1, M=4.38, SD=0.62) and they enjoy learning with multimedia (Item 2, M=4.36, SD=0.69). Students reported that they think that the multimedia project is challenging but motivate them to learn (Item 4, M=4.26, SD=0.63) and to complete their work (Item 5, M=4.17, SD=0.7). Students also reported that they like to contribute ideas in the group (Item 4, M=4.29, SD=0.64) and they are able to actively participated in class activities (Item 7, M=3.88, SD=0.8). Students think that interactions in the online modules motivated them to learn the content (Item 6, M=4.14, SD=0.75). Student comments also supported these findings. From their comments, students learned to be more independent in their learning process when exposed to a more authentic and relevant learning environment such as this. Most of the students were experiencing doing a multimedia project for the first time and found the project to be fun and interesting while at the same time being challenging. In doing so, they became more engaged and involved. Table 2: Means of survey items on teamwork & collaboration Item in the survey (N=42) Class discussions generated close relationships between the students, teachers and students vice versa I was able to cooperate with team members I was not afraid to speak out my opinions in my group I learnt something from peer's feedback I was able to cooperate with my leader

(M) 4.24

(SD) 0.63

(%) 90.5

4.24 4.22 4.19 4.19

0.76 0.91 0.59 0.89

85.7 80.5 90.5 81

I enjoyed group discussion with my peers Class discussions helped me to understand the topic better

4.07 4.05

0.75 0.8

85.7 76.2

Cronbach Alpha =0.861 Student comments “I liked to work as a team.” “I felt its help me in my learning and I enjoyed working in a team.” “Team communication is very important.” “Good. Can learn something new and strengthen our friendship.” “I can share my opinions.” “I don’t really enjoy it as I am not a social person. But in this group was very different, I really enjoyed it.” “I feel great! We faced problems and solved it together although feeling very tired.” “Team work is very important.” In this teamwork & collaboration construct in Table 2, students were measured on their teamwork spirit in completing their project and willingness to collaborate with one another. Students reported that class discussions generated close relationships between teacher and among students (Item 1, M=4.24, SD=0.63). They were not afraid to speak out their opinions in the group (Item 3, M=4.22, SD=0.91) and they learned from peer's feedback (Item 4, M=4.19, SD=0.59). Results also showed that they are able to cooperate with leader, team members ((Item 5, M=4.19, SD=0.89, Item 10, M=2, SD=0.76). Students reported that they enjoyed class discussions with peers (Item 6, M=4.07, SD=0.75), which helped them understand the topics better (Item 6, M=4.05, SD=0.8). Results from the survey showed that students were able to achieve their learning goals through team and collaboration with teacher and peers. Students reported that communication between one another plays an important role in order to complete their tasks and to avoid any misunderstanding in order for them to learn the contents. These were also supported in their comments. In their feedback, students commented that they learned to work in a group with other team members, learned about group responsibilities to commit and finish up their

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work. It also showed that students enjoyed working in a group, with a majority of them commenting that they communicated well. Their relationships between one another were important factors in their project development process and they were willing to help each other. They felt less pressure by working in group, as team members were able to share ideas which, in turn, led them to feel more motivated to move on. Table 3: Means of survey items on web-mediated learning Item in the survey (N=42) (M)

(SD)

(%)

I enjoyed learning in a multimedia mediated learning environment

4.33

0.65

95.3

The multimedia assignments enhanced my learning process

4.19

0.55

92.9

I understood the topic better after using the multimedia modules

4.19

0.74

85.7

I understand the subject matter better after the multimedia project development

4.19

0.7

83.3

I like to learn with online multimedia modules

4.17

0.79

85.7

I was able to understand teacher's lecture

4.02

0.69

83.3

I used instant messaging to communicate with others

4.02

0.78

81

Blogging allowed me to voice my opinions

3.79

0.81

71.4

Blogs assisted my creative thinking skills when doing my project

3.74

0.89

71.4

Comments on my blog entries were helpful

3.67

0.93

66.7

I found blogs were user friendly and easy to use

3.66

0.88

65.9

I liked to share my knowledge with others using blogs

3.64

0.85

61.9

Blogging helped in my learning

3.48

0.99

52.4

Blogs generated close relationships between the teacher and students vice versa

3.45

0.99

47.6

Cronbach Alpha = 0.824 Student comments “Easy for my understanding because I am a slow learner.” “It helped me to understand the topics better.” “I learned to find certain information by myself without any helps from others.” “Very helpful because information is at your fingertips.” “I can learn anytime, anywhere with internet connection and with a personal computer. “It’s better than learning using a book.” “Gain more knowledge and easy access to information.” “Help in researching information during the learning process.” Table 3 shows results that students have positive attitudes towards learning in web-mediated learning environment. Results showed that students enjoy learning in multimedia mediated learning environment (Item 1, M=4.33, SD=0.65). Students think that by doing the multimedia assignments it would enhances their learning process (Item 2, M=4.19, SD=0.55) and they find that they understand the subject matter better after the multimedia project development (Item 4, M=4.19, SD=0.7). Students reported that they like to learn with online modules (Item 5, M=4.17, SD=0.79) and understood the topic better after using the online modules (Item 3, M=4.19, SD=0.74). Students reported that they are able to understand teacher's lecturer in multimedia-mediated learning environment (Item 6, M=4.02, SD=0.69). They like to use instant messaging to communicate with others (Item 7, M=4.02, SD=0.78). Students also reported that by using blog in their learning, it allowed them to voice out their opinions (Item 8, M=3.79, SD=0.81). In addition, blog has assisted students creative thinking skills when doing their project (Item 9, M=3.74, SD=0.89). It allowed them to share knowledge with others (Item 12, M=3.64, SD=0.85) and able to generate close relationships between teacher and students (Item 14, M=3.45, SD=0.99). Students think that blog were user friendly and easy to use (Item 11, M=3.66, SD=0.88) and the comments on the blog entries were helpful to them (Item 10, M=3.67, SD=0.93). Students find that using blog helped in their learning process (Item 13, M=3.48, SD=0.99).

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Analysis of student feedback showed that multimedia allowed them to learn at their oen pace and improved their understanding. By being able to access the web, Facebook, blogs and online modules, student commented being able to asynchronously learn, and not be pressured to learn the course content within the physical local of the classroom. Students also liked sharing their knowledge using blogs and commented that the blogs helped them in their learning; that by using blogs to document their progress and communicate, they were more comfortable to voice out their opinions and ideas. It also enabled them to keep in touch with friends anytime and anywhere, and allowed those peers to comment on their work, even if they weren’t part of their class. Students commented that they liked the flexibility to be able to stay connected anywhere and anytime and have unlimited access to internet to reflect on their work at any time, and to receive from and comment on any of their friends’ work as well. Table 4: Means of survey items on the teacher’s role Item in the survey (M) (SD) (%) The teacher played an important role in this class I learnt best when I interacted with teacher and peers Conversations between teacher and peers were important to me Communications between the teacher and students were important to me I learnt something from teacher's feedback

4.52 4.21 4.19 4.17 4.17

0.59 0.72 0.89 0.66 0.7

95.2 88.1 85.7 85.7 83.3

I enjoyed class discussions with the teacher I enjoyed gave responses when the teacher asked questions Online multimedia modules cannot replace teacher in classrooms

4.14 3.76 4.14

0.78 0.79 0.84

85.7 64.3 88.1

Cronbach Alpha = 0.785 Student comments “Act as a guide for us if we don’t understand. We can ask the teacher we don’t understand and she will give us feedback.” “Teacher is able to give instruction and feedback to us.” “To motivate and guide students learning in multimedia environment.” “Give us useful information and help us to understand better what we suppose to do.” “The teacher was there to guide us and help us.” “Guide us face to face.” “The teacher is an expert.” “Teacher playing an important role. She is the one who motivate us to learn more about multimedia.” “Teacher assists us learning in multimedia learning environment.” “The teacher’s role is to guide and make us understand more about the content.” “Teacher’s role is to give more explanations about the content and help in learning process.” Results in Table 4 showed that teachers played in important role in the students’ learning process (Item 1, M=4.52, SD=0.59, Item 7, M=4.14, SD=0.84), regardless of the technologies used, and that conversations/communication between teacher and students were important to them (Item 3, M=4.19, SD=0.89, Item 4, M=4.17, SD=0.66). This finding is consistent with Laurillard’s (2002) suggestion that in order for students to learn the learning content, communications between teacher and peers should play an important in part of their learning process. Students also reported that they learned from teacher's feedback (Item 5, M=4.17, SD=0.7) and that they learned best when interacted with teacher and peers (Item 2, M=4.21, SD=0.72). Students reported that they enjoyed class discussions with teacher (Item 6, M=4.14, SD=0.78). Students comment that they saw their teacher’s role positively as a guide and a facilitator, and a key component in keeping them motivated and engaged. In their comments, students looked to the teacher as a motivator, facilitator, resource guide, and an important to the effectively learning environment. DISCUSSION Results from the study showed that overall there were very positive attitudes and perceptions of the learning environment and in the project development process. Clearly students enjoyed learning with multimedia and web technologies, but they preferred having the presence of the teacher in the class as they need feedback and guidance from them. Technology became an enabler for them to create, communicate and develop applications as well as relationships with their peers and the teacher. By creating a learning environment that emphasized conversations and dialogues between students and teacher, mediated by multimedia and web technologies, the Laurillard Conversational Framework yielded several interrelationships between the teacher, students and technology. Figure 6 illustrates the resulting relationships.

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Figure 6: The instructional relationships in the learning environment 1. Between students and teacher Results showed that the teacher played an important role in the learning environment. This relationship was characterized by knowledge transfer and knowledge creation. The learning process between the teacher and students involved the teacher playing an important role in their learning process as a guide, facilitator, coach, consultant and helper to students at the beginning of the project. As indicated in the framework, teachers were responsible for giving clear instructions to students, and involved in facilitating collaborations between students and their peers. They also encouraged students by providing support and feedback in class and online interaction, monitored student’s learning process using Facebook and blog, and provide formative assessments and evaluate student’s progress during the project development. As commented by students, the teacher acted as a resource, guide, consultant and facilitator, much of which took place through emails, blog and Facebook. On the part of the student, by understanding the concepts afforded by the teacher, they were able to create and develop ideas from their feedback, and progress further in their project development. This promoted active learning, engagement and two-way communication between the teacher and student, enhancing the previously traditional teaching method. 2. Between students and students The relationships among students were characterized by collaboration and communication. Students constructed ideas and concept together, and members made an effort to assist each other. Group members were able to harness their creativity and positively contribute ideas to the project’s concept through the collaborative processes incorporated in the class and asynchronously through emails, Facebook, blogs and online chats. Students engaged in negotiations and arguments during the decision-making process, communicated with peers through Facebook, blogs and online chats, and engaged in reflective dialogues. Thus, students cultivated collaborative experiences with other students, fostering teamwork and problem-solving skills, strengthening their relationships with their peers and groupmates. Students became motivated to learn on their own and became active participants in their learning process, as evidenced by their completed projects. Students were able to practice their problem solving skills, be independent and enhance communication skills by doing online discussion, getting feedback from online. In other words, their role changed and they active learners, creative thinkers, decision makers, problem solvers and collaborator. 3. Between teacher and technology Technology then became a platform for the teacher to adopt and encourage students to construct their own knowledge. With multimedia and web 2.0 tools available, teachers were able to design the learning environment and provide real life experiences to students through the use of Youtube, forums and online videos and external websites. This allowed students to see the authenticity of their work and relate it to their knowledge construction. Assessments and progress monitoring also became effective as teachers were able to monitor student’s progress using blogs, make project and class announcements using Facebook, communicate and give feedback to students using blogs and Facebook. 4. Between student and technology In this relationship, technology became a tool that enabled students to connect their topics to other relevant materials using online discussions in their blogs, thus improving their knowledge construction process and creating deep learning. Technology also allowed them to create a collaborative learning community among themselves and with the teacher. It provided a shared conversational learning space not only for individual but learning groups and allow them to access to information anytime and anywhere, which they then used to find solutions and answers. Multimedia technology allowed them to transfer their innovative and creative concepts from paper to digital applications, and provided them the motivation to present their information in a dynamic and visually appealing way. In addition, Web tools became a way for them to communicate, exchange and develop ideas. Facebook and blogs became the platform for students in this study to keep a record of their learning process and activities, participate in debate, discussions and negations with other students, Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 48

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communicate with the teacher to ask questions, and to solve problems they otherwise could not solve when in class. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this study has shown that Laurillard’s (1993) Conversational Framework was an effective framework to design a learning environment that would encourage improved student participation and engagement, and was able to yield several important interrelationships between the teacher, students, and technology. The incorporation of multimedia and web 2.0 technologies in the classroom were motivating for students to collaborate and communicate with each other, and enabled the teacher to make the learning process fun for students and also enables them to enjoy the learning process, consistent with research by Damodharan and Rengarajan (2007). These results show encouraging support for educators who are seeking to improve student engagement in technology-backed classroom. REFERENCES Barnes, C. & Tynan, B. (2007). The adventures of Miranda in the brave new world: Learning in a Web 2.0 millennium. ALT-Journal, 15(3), 189-200. [verified 21 Feb 2010] http://repository.alt.ac.uk/724/ Bower, M., Kennedy, G.E., Dalgarno, B. & Lee, M.J.W (2011). Uniting on-campus and distributed learners through media-rich synchronous tools: A national project. In G. Williams, N. Brown, M. Pittard, & B. Cleland (Eds), Changing demands, changing directions. Proceedings of the 28th ASCILITE Conference. Hobart, December 4–7. Damodharan VS, Rengarajan V (2007). Innovative methods of teaching. Paper presented at Learning Technologies and Mathematics Middle East Conference, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Available online at http://math.arizona.edu/~atpmena/conference/roceedings/Damodharan_Innovative_Methods.pdf Daniel L. (2009) The Role of ICT in Enhancing Education in Developing Countries Journal of Education for International Development Derebssa D. S. (2006) Tension between Traditional and Modern Teaching-Learning Approaches in Ethiopian Primary Schools Journal of International Cooperation in Education, Vol.9, No.1, (2006) pp.123 ～ 140 CICE Hiroshima University Ditcher A. K. (2001) effective teaching and learning in higher education, particular reference to the undergraduate education of professional engineers. International Journal of Engineering Education. Vol. 17 No.1, pp. 24-29, 2001 Hear, S. (2006). “Web's second phase puts users in control, The guardian, 22 June. 2006. Jones, C., & Cross, S. (2009). Is there a net generation coming to university? In In Dreams Begins Responsibility: Choice, Evidence and Change. Presented at the ALT-C, Manchester, UK. Jusoh W.N.H.W., Jusoff K. (2009) Using multimedia in teaching Islamic studies Journal Media and Communication Studies Vol. 1(5) pp. 086-094, November, 2009 Available online. http://www.academicjournals.org/jmcs Hillis, P. (2008). Authentic learning and multimedia in history education. Learning, Media and Technology, Volume 33, Issue 2, pages 87 – 99 Hong, K. S., Lai, K. W. & Holton, D. (2003). Students’ Satisfaction and Perceived Learning with a Web-based Course. Educational Technology & Society, Vol 6 (1), pp. 116-124. Keengwe, J., Onchwari, G., & Wachira, P. (2008). The use of computer tools to support meaningful learning. AACE Journal, 16(1), 77-92. Kim, D., & Gilman, D. A. (2008). Effects of Text, Audio, and Graphic Aids in Multimedia Instruction for Vocabulary Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 11 (3), 114-126. Kimber, K. & Wyatt-Smith, C. (2010). Secondary students' online use and creation of knowledge: Refocusing priorities for quality assessment and learning. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(5), 607-625. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ ajet26/kimber.html Laurillard, D., (1993) Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the effective use of educational technology. Routledge/Falmer: London. Laurillard, D., (2002) Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the effective use of educational technology. Routledge/Falmer: London. Laurillard, D.M. (2008). The teacher as action researcher: Using technology to capture pedagogic form. Studies in Higher Education, 33(2), 139-154. McCarthy, J. (2010). Blended learning environments: Using social networking sites to enhance the first year experience. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(6), 729-740. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/mccarthy.html

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McLoughlin, C. & Lee, M. J. W. (2010). Personalised and self-regulated learning in the Web 2.0 era: International exemplars of innovative pedagogy using social software. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(1), 28-43. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/mcloughlin.html Muller, D.A., Lee, K. and Sharma, M.D. (2008). Coherence or interest: Which is most important in online multimedia learning?. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (AJET), 24(2), 211-221. Neo, M. (2005a). Web-enhanced learning: Engaging students in constructivist learning. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 22(1),pp. 4-14. Neo, M., Neo, T.K. & Tai, X.L. (2007).Constructivist approaches to learning using interactive multimedia: Malaysian students' perspective. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (AJET), Volume 23(4), pg. 470-489. Norhayati, A. M., & Siew, P. H., (2004). Malaysian Perspective: Designing Interactive Multimedia Learning Environment for Moral Values Education. Educational Technology & Society, Vol 7(4), pp. 143-152. Oblinger, D. (2003). Boomers, Gen-Xers & Millennials. Understanding the new students. EDUCAUSE Review, 38(4), 37. http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/ pdf/ERM0342.pdf Phillips, R. and Luca, J. (2000). Issues involved in developing a project based online unit which enhances teamwork and collaboration. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(2), 147-160. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet16/phillips.html Prensky, M. 2001a. Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon 9 (5): 1-6. http://www.scribd.com/ doc/9799/Prensky-Digital-Natives-Digital-Immigrants-Part1 Prensky, M. (2007). Listen to the natives. Educational Leadership, 63(4), 8–13. Price, L. & Kirkwood, A. (2010). Technology enhanced learning – where’s the evidence? In C.H. Steel, M.J. Keppell, P. Gerbic & S. Housego (Eds.), Curriculum, technology & transformation for an unknown future. Proceedings ascilite Sydney 2010 (pp.772-782). http://ascilite.org.au/conferences/sydney10/procs/Price-concise.pdf Quinn, D. & Reid, I. (2003). Using innovative online quizzes to assist learning. Proceedings of AusWeb03 Conference, Sanctuary Cove. http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw03/papers/quinn Samuel R. J., Zaitun A. Bakar (2007) Do teachers have adequate ICT resources and the right ICT skills in integrating ICT tools in the teaching and learning of English language in Malaysian schools? The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, Vol 29. Tan, O. S. (2000). Thinking Skills, Creativity and Problem-Based Learning. Paper presented at the 2nd Asia Pacific Conference on Problem – Based Learning: Education Across Disciplines, December 4-7, 2000, Singapore. Tan. O. S., Teo, C. T., Chye, S. (2009). Problem-Based Learning And Creativity. Oon-Seng Tan (Ed.) Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore, pp.1-14. Talandis Jr., J. (2008). Web 2.0 in the ELT classroom: An Introduction.In K. Bradford Watts, T. Muller, & M. Swanson (Eds.), JALT2007 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.

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DETERMINATION OF THE COMPUTER SELF-EFFICACY PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS AND METAPHORS RELATED TO “COMPUTER OWNERSHIP” Aynur Geçer Kocaeli University, Faculty of Education [email protected] ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to determine the computer self-efficacy perception of second grade primary school students and their opinions regarding computer ownership through metaphors. The research applied the scanning model and was conducted during the 2011-2012 academic year among seven primary schools of the Ministry of National Education in the central district of Kocaeli City. Research data were collected using a survey study aimed at determining the self-efficacy perception of second grade primary school students (n=513); a metaphor method was used, through which they reflected upon their attitudes and opinions regarding computer ownership. In the metaphor, each student was asked to complete the statement, “owning a computer of my own is like..., because...”. For the data analysis, the depictive analysis method was used, and the data obtained was presented in digitized form. The results showed that the self-efficacy perception of the second grade primary school students was quite strong and that the computer self-efficacy perception of the male students was higher than that of the female students. When the metaphors developed by the students were examined, it was observed that metaphors such as “owning a computer is like owning a car”, “owning a computer is like owning a friend” and “owning a computer is like flying like a bird” were stated more often than other metaphors. Keywords: primary school secondary level students, computer self-efficacy perception, computer ownership 1. INTRODUCTION Although modern information technologies enable the rapid growth of information, they have also changed the means of achieving it. Information that was obtained from educational environments or libraries in the past can today reach individuals in any environment and at any time in a very rapid and up-to-date manner. Today, information tags the societies as a priceless treasure. Because information technologies are expanding rapidly and effecting social life, education systems need to produce individuals who are able to adapt themselves to the information era. As the result of these developments, societies’ expectations of education systems have also changed. To meet these expectations, many educational systems have adopted approaches that provide students with the skills necessary to obtain information, rather than simply transferring current information to them. As stated by Glasser (1993), the individual of the 21st century must have an information productive nature, rather than simply storing the information. For individuals to adapt themselves to the aforementioned developments, it is essential for them to closely monitor current information and technologies, and effectively use them in their lives. Computers, which play a vital role in the widespread development of information technologies, contribute through many technological evolutions. For example, given the widespread use of computers in all fields, anything that comes to mind can be transmitted to an electronic environment. Given the extension of the ecitizen concept to concepts such as e-trade, e-business and e-education, citizens are inevitably required to become computer and Internet literate at a basic level. For the students to be able to use computers effectively in their lives, they should be offered relevant opportunities at an early age. Cakmak (2001) emphasizes the convenience of providing computer education in the first grade of primary school. Combining the use of computer technologies in educational environments and the provision of the educational content with traditional education in an electronic environment using multiple learning materials can increase the number of applications that activate the students, thereby facilitating the achievement of information and promoting efficiency and productivity in education. The importance of computers in social life is undeniable; students that are knowledgeable about computers will use them efficiently in their daily lives and future business lives, thereby facilitating their adaptation to modern life. For students to gain knowledge, skills and attitude regarding computer technologies, they must be able to achieve within these environments as well as believe in their capabilities. Belief and trust in one’s capacity to do something is termed self-efficacy. The concept of selfefficacy has been used primarily by Bandura (1997). Bandura (1997) stated that self-efficacy has three main dimensions: behavioral, environmental and individual. Because self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s belief in their capacity to fulfill a task, computer self-efficacy may be defined as “an individual’s belief in his/her capacity toward using a computer” (Koseoglu et al., 2007). In studies, it was observed that trust regarding computer self-efficacy was a significant variable regarding computer use (Askar and Umay 2001; Işiksal and Askar 2003). It was observed that individuals with high self-efficacy were more eager to engage in computerrelated activities and had higher expectations regarding the results of these activities (Koseoglu et al., 2007). As mentioned previously, acquiring basic computer skills at an early age is a necessity today. Attending computer classes provided to primary-level students is the main factor effecting students’ computer self-efficacy. Evaluation of students’ self-efficacy perception levels before and after taking computer classes in primary Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 51

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school and analyzing the factors that affect these levels is very important to understanding the steps that need to be taken regarding the subject. In addition, determination of primary school students’ computer self-efficacy perceptions is also important in terms of determining the efficiency of the computer classes provided in schools. When the results of the study regarding computer self-efficacy perception were analyzed, it was observed that most of these studies focused on the prospective teachers (Akkoyunlu and Kurbanoglu, 2003; Akkoyunlu and Orhan, 2003; Askar and Umay, 2001; Baki et al., 2008; Gurcan, 2005; Kellenberger, 1996; Ozden et al., 2007). However, few studies focused on secondary class students (Ekici and Uzun, 2008; Işiksal and Askar, 2003). Determination of the computer self-efficacy perceptions of second grade primary school students may contribute to their self-adaptation, particularly given the current environment in technology-intensive societies, thereby leading these students to develop positive attitudes and take the measures that are necessary to achieve selfconfidence. Applications that facilitate the use of computer technologies, such as the use of interactive boards and tablet PCs (the FATİH project) have been initiated for use in primary and secondary grade classes. Studies conducted in this field may aid in determining the computer self-efficacy perceptions of second grade primary school students and the organization of computer classes and computer-supported classes within second grade primary school programs and in higher educational institutions. Among such studies, Işiksal and Askar’s (2003) paper entitled “Mathematics and Computer Self-Efficacy Measures for the Primary School Students” aimed to develop self-efficacy perception measures in mathematics and computer use for use in measuring the mathematics and computer self-efficacy perceptions of 7th and 8th grade students in primary school. In their study, Işiksal and Askar observed that the male students had a significant average, whereas female students had a higher average in terms of computer self-efficacy. Uzun et al. (2010) attempted to evaluate second grade primary school students’ computer self-efficacy perceptions by measuring their computer utilization frequencies. The results showed that the self-efficacy perception scores of 6th and 7th grade students increased significantly with frequency of computer use. However, the students’ pretest and post-test results did not significantly differ in terms of gender, age or income levels. It was observed that students who received computer classes beginning in primary school and continuing through high school and university developed computer self-efficacy perceptions in a positive manner (Askar and Umay, 2001). Based on this viewpoint, recognition of students’ computer self-efficacy levels both at home and in educational environments would contribute toward taking more concrete steps that enabling these students to adapt to such environments and gain the necessary knowledge, skills and self-confidence to achieve success. Having considered the significance of this subject, the Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality has initiated a project that aims to endow students with high computer literacy in the future. This project is detailed below. Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality’s “A Computer for Each Student” Project In Turkey, the number of primary school students per computer is 30.9% (DPT, 2011). The corresponding figure for 2010 in Kocaeli is 33.9% (Information Society Statistics, 2011). In 2009, with the aim of educating individuals with high computer literacy levels, Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality initiated a campaign to distribute mini-laptops (notebook computers) free of charge to second grade students attending official primary schools in the city of Kocaeli. This program provided students with computers, which are critical tools that enable them to adapt to modern times, discover their talents, develop their creativity and undertake research. The project aims to distribute 130.000 laptops in 5 years and is in its 3rd year (the 2011-2012 academic year). By the 3rd year of this project (the 2011-2012 academic year) and with the motto “The aim is to render each student literate”, 80.828 computers were distributed to second grade primary school students. Today, computers are among the most widely used electronic devices after the television. Many children are born in houses where computers and other electronic devices already exist. Undoubtedly, computers existed in many houses prior to the Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality project, and many primary school students had already encountered computers in their homes and schools or in Internet cafes. However, because of this project, children from medium and low socioeconomic -level families also own computers. In other words, computers existed previously in the houses of high and medium socioeconomical -level families, and these computers were used communally or individually. These computers are located either in the children’s room or in other parts of the house. However, within the scope of the Kocaeli Municipality project, each student was given a computer of his/her own. According to studies, computer ownership has a positive effect on the self-efficacy levels of individuals (Karsten and Roth, 1998, Hakverdi et al., 2007; Torkzadeh and Koufterous, 1994, Houle, 1996). Determination of the computer self-efficacy perceptions of primary school students is considered beneficial toward identifying students with low perception levels and reinforcing their perceptions regarding the subject. Important questions include, “what are the computer self-efficacy levels of students who already own a computer”? and “What do students who have a computer think about “computer ownership”? These types of questions needed to be asked

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to persuade students to present their feelings and opinions regarding computer ownership and examine their selfefficacy levels. In this study, students’ opinions regarding “computer ownership” were revealed through metaphors. A metaphor (mental image, figurative expression) is defined as “a statement used in a sense other than its original meaning as a result of a particular relation or simile” by the Turkish Language Agency (TLA, 2011). In education, metaphors can be used to visualize abstract concepts and describe them in a more concrete manner (Singh, 2010). In education, metaphors have been used for professional thinking, professional identity development and as pedagogical tools and tools for reflection, evaluation and research; metaphors have also been used as program theories, mental models, discovery models and as tools for changes in education (Saban, 2006). Metaphors are strong modeling and mental mapping mechanisms that can aid individuals in understanding and constructing their own worlds (Tatar and Murat, 2011). Strenski (1989) states that the metaphors are effective in reflecting and shaping our opinions and hence, determining our behaviors (Arslan and Bayrakci, 2006). Individuals develop attitudes within the framework of the perceptions they form and make choices through their behaviors in this direction. Therefore, the determination of perceptions is of great significance (Coklar et al., 2010). Different data collection methods can be used in determining, revealing and interpreting perceptions. One of the methods used is collecting data using metaphors. From this viewpoint, it is important to determine the perceptions of students toward “computer ownership”. The relationship between the current insights of students and their attitudes toward computers may be examined. In this study, metaphor was used as a research tool. The students were asked to state their opinions regarding computer ownership in a figurative way. 1.1. Aim of the Research The aim of this research is to determine the computer self-efficacy levels of second grade primary school students and the metaphors developed by them toward “computer ownership” and to evaluate them in terms of certain variables (gender, education level, years of computer and Internet utilization, choice of future profession, etc.). For these reasons, the following questions were asked: 1. What are the computer self-efficacy perception levels of second grade primary school students? 2. Do computer self-efficacy perception levels depend on gender, class level, the social-economical conditions of the environment in which the school is located, whether the students will choose a computer-related profession in the future, the frequency of mini-computers use at home, the number of computers available and the person using the mini-computer? 3. What are the metaphors used by students regarding “computer ownership”? 4.Under which conceptual categories can the metaphors obtained be classified? 2.METHOD 2.1. Research Model To determine the computer self-efficacy perceptions of second grade primary school students, the scanning model was adopted. In this research, the mixed method was used, within the scope of which qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analyzed together. The mixed method examines a specific phenomenon by rendering the qualitative and quantitative data to be used collectively (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009). For this purpose, both the computer self-efficacy perceptions of the students and their opinions regarding computer ownership were determined. 2.2. Universe and Sampling The universe of the research conducted within the scope of the scanning model comprised second grade primary school students in 6 th, 7 th and 8th class in 61 schools within the central district of Kocaeli. The sample comprised central district students who were selected using “proportional cluster sampling”. In the proportional cluster sampling process, the universe is primarily categorized into subuniverses sharing similar features. The chance for each subuniverse to be included within the sample is equal to its proportion within the whole. A proportional cluster sampling established in this way is considered to form a more representative sample (Karasar, 2007). Based on the proportional cluster sampling data obtained from the İzmit Directorate of National Education, the aforementioned universe is divided into three subuniverses depending on the “social-economical level” variable as “high (9 primary schools)”, “medium (26 primary schools)” and “low (26 primary schools)”. Then, seven primary schools that reflected the percentage of the related subuniverse (10%) within the whole were selected from each universe. Thus, 3 schools were included from the low socioeconomic level, 3 from the medium socioeconomic level and 3 from the high socioeconomic level within the scope of the research. A total of 524 students were included in the research. However, some students had not included their demographic information in the survey, and therefore, only 513 students were evaluated.

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2.3. Data Collection Tool Research data were collected using the “Computer Self-Efficacy Perception Scale” and the metaphors formed regarding computer ownership. The first part of the data collection tool comprised questions regarding gender, class level, socioeconomic level, whether the students will choose a computer-related profession in the future, the duration of computer use, the frequency of mini-computer use, the number of computers at home and by whom the mini-computers are being used. In the second part, to determine the students’ computer self-efficacy perceptions, the “Computer Self Efficacy Perception Scale” developed by Işıksal and Askar (2003) with regard to second grade primary school students was used, with the permission of the authors. Items composing the scale were combined into two factors relating to general information regarding computers and specialized computer skills. The computer self-efficacy perception scale comprises 10 items. The scale was prepared as a 5item Likert type. The items were graded from “I totally agree-5” to “I totally disagree-1”. Accordingly, the minimum and maximum total grades are 10 and 50, respectively. The reliability of the scale was calculated as α =.86. The students’ opinions regarding “computer ownership” were obtained through metaphors. The students were asked to complete the statement, “having a computer of my own is like..., because...”. After the application of the computer self-efficacy perception survey, the students were given sheets of paper on which the statement “having a computer of my own is like..., because...” was written. Then, the metaphor was explained to the students. The students were asked several times to compare “computer ownership” to something else that they possess and to state the reasons for their choice. The students were given approximately 20 minutes to form the metaphors. As the first metaphor that came to the students’ minds was sought, the aforementioned time interval was deemed sufficient. The relationship between the subject and the source of the metaphor was determined by the phrase “is like”, and the students were asked to complete the sentence with the word “because”. The conjunction “because” was used to bring forth the meaning attributed to the metaphor and the reason behind its having been chosen. 2.4. Data Analysis Data collected using the computer self-efficacy perception scale was analyzed using the 15.0 program in a computer environment. The data were analyzed using averaging, standard deviations, the independence t-test, one-way analysis of variance and LSD tests. The significance level was chosen as 0.05. To determine the intervals of the arithmetic overalls, 5-column, 4-interval logic was used. This interval value is 4/5=0.8. Accordingly, the values were interpreted as 11.00-1.79: never / 1.80-2.59: occasionally / 2.60-3.39: sometimes / 3.40-4.19: mostly and 4.220-5.00: always. The students were asked to write down a metaphor indicating their feelings toward owning a computer. However, 13 of the students did not state any metaphors regarding computer ownership. The analysis and interpretation of the metaphors stated by the remaining 500 students were realized within the framework of the following stages: (1) Denotation, (2) Sorting (elimination and refinement), (3) re-organization and composition, (4) category development and (5) transferring the data to a computer for quantitative data analysis (Saban et al., 2005:541). 1. Denotation: Metaphors produced by the students were identified as concepts (e.g., ambulance, encyclopedia, automobile, friend, hose, etc.). The sentences containing metaphors written by the students were entered into the Excel program together with the user information. Then, the metaphors were listed in a separate column and arranged alphabetically. 2. Sorting (elimination and refinement): At this stage, using the “metaphor analysis” (Moser, 2000) and “content analysis” (Yıldırım and Simsek, 1999) techniques, each metaphor was divided into parts and analyzed in terms of their similarities and differences to other metaphors. Hence, the metaphors produced by the students were examined and refined based on the following four criteria: (a) papers with only explanations and no metaphors, (b) papers including certain metaphors but without an explanation of motive (logical explanation), (c) metaphors comprising features related to more than one category and (d) “illogical” metaphors or metaphors that did not contribute toward an improved understanding of the concept of “computer ownership” (Saban et al., 2005:541). Based on these criteria, 34 out of 500 forms were eliminated because the metaphors used did not contribute to a better understanding of the computer ownership concept. Twenty-four forms were also eliminated because no explanation was provided. For these reasons, 47 forms were excluded from the research. As a result, 442 forms were evaluated and used in the interpretation. After these procedures, the metaphors were relisted alphabetically and reviewed. Personal information about the person who produced each metaphor was coded in parentheses immediately following each metaphor. The meanings of these codes are as follows: (1) “L” refers to schools located in neighborhoods with low socioeconomic levels, “M” refers to schools located in neighborhoods with socioeconomic medium levels and “H” refers to schools located in neighborhoods with high socioeconomic levels. (2) The numbers 6, 7 and 8 in parentheses represent the student class grades (6=sixth grade, 7=seventh

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grade and 8=eighth grade). (3) The letters “B” and “G” in parentheses represent the gender of the students (B=boy student, G=girl student). Finally, to distinguish between participants having the same socioeconomic levels, class levels and genders, a number was written immediately following the letter identifying the gender, for certain metaphors. 3. Re-organization and Composition: After invalid metaphors were eliminated, 112 metaphors were obtained. A list comprising valid metaphors was then formed. 4. Category Development: At this stage, metaphors produced by the students were examined in terms of the features they shared with computer ownership. A sample metaphor statement was selected from each student expression to represent each metaphor category. Hence, from 112 metaphors, a “sample metaphor list” was formed prepared by compiling the images that were considered to ideally represent each metaphor ideally. During this procedure, on the basis of the “sample metaphor list” formed from 112 metaphors, we examined how each metaphor image conceptualized the computer ownership phenomenon. To achieve this aim, each metaphor produced by the students was analyzed in terms of (1) the subject of the metaphor, (2) source of the metaphor and (3) the relationship between the subject and the source of the metaphor. Then, each metaphor image was associated with a specific theme in terms of its perspective regarding computer ownership, and 11 separate conceptual categories were formed. To ensure reliability within the research and verify whether the metaphor images categorized under 11 conceptual headings achieved represented the aforementioned conceptual categories, we referred to an expert for their opinion. To this end, two lists prepared by the researchers were submitted to an academician: (a) a list comprising 112 sample metaphors arranged alphabetically and (b) a list comprising the names and features of 11 conceptual categories. The academician was asked to match the sample metaphor images in the first list to the conceptual categories in the second list (without excluding any metaphor image). Then, the correspondence decided by the academician was compared to the correspondence decided by the researcher. The number of agreed and disagreed points was determined, and the reliability of the results was calculated using the Miles and Huberman formula (Reliability = Agreement / [Agreement+Disagreement]*100). When the reliability is greater than 0.70, the result is considered reliable (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The compatibility between the evaluations of the academician and the researcher was α =0.93, thus indicating that the desired reliability was obtained. The academician assigned six metaphors (having a boss, saying “everything belongs to me”, a world of my own, having a baby, having a water resource, owning a jewelry store) as belonging to different categories than those assigned by the researcher. At this point, the reliability was calculated as 112 / 106 + 6 = 0.94. 5. Transferring the Data to the SPSS Program Package for Quantitative Data Analysis: After the determination of a total of 11 metaphors and the development of the dominant group composed of these metaphors, all of the data were transferred to the SPSS statistics program. Following this procedure, the number of students (f) representing each metaphor and category, and their percentages (%) were calculated on the basis of class levels. 4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION In this chapter, the data are analyzed and interpreted regarding the objective and subobjectives of the research and supported with the relevant research results. The Demographic Features of the Studied Students The demographic features of the students who participated in the research are presented in Table 1. Table 1: The demographic features of the students who participated in the research. Demographic Features Gender Number Girl 281 Boy 232 Class Number 6 195 7 181 8 137 Socioeconomic levels of the environments where the schools are located Number Low 238 Medium 194 High 81 Whether the student preferred a computer-related profession in the future Number Yes I would 187 No I would not 326 General use of the mini-computers Number

% 54.8 45.2 % 38.0 35.3 26.7 % 46.4 37.8 15.8 % 36.5 63.5 %

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Drawing Writing Playing games Using course CDs Playing games on the Internet Researching on the Internet Facebook Listening to music How long the students have been using computers Less than 1 year 1-2 years 3-4 years 5 years or more Frequency of computer usage Everyday 3-4 times a week Once a week Several times a month Number of computers at home 1 2-3 4 or more Lessons for which the mini-computer is used Science Mathematics English Social Sciences

61 170 266 209 191 352 330 266 Number 71 84 132 226 Number 178 186 120 29 Number 134 314 65 Number 12 27 393 81

11.9 33.1 48.1 40.7 37.2 68.6 64.3 51.9 % 13.8 16.4 25.7 44.1 % 34.7 36.3 23.4 5.7 % 26.1 61.2 12.7 % 2.3 5.3 76.6 15.8

It is observed that more than half of the students participating in the research are female (54.8, Table 1). In terms of class levels, 38.0% of the students are in the sixth grade, 35.3% are in the seventh grade and 26.7% are in the eighth grade. Regarding the schools, 46.4% are located in areas with a low socioeconomic level, 37.8% are located in areas with a medium socioeconomic level and 15.8% are located in areas with a high socioeconomic level. The students were asked whether they would prefer a computer-related profession in the future. Although 36.5% of the students stated that they would choose such a profession, 63.5% stated that they would rather choose a profession that is not related to computers. When the students were asked for which purposes they used the mini-computers, 68.6% stated that they used them for research on the Internet, 64.3% used them for Facebook applications, 51.9% used them to listen to music, 48.1% used them to play games and 40.7% used them with course CDs. More than half of the students used computers for research on the Internet and Facebook applications. Whereas approximately half (44.1%) of the students had been using computers for five years or more, 13.8% had been using computers for less than a year. The percentage of students using the computers every day was 34.7%. The percentage of students using the computers several times a month is 5.7%, and 61.2% of the students had 2-3 computers in their homes. The percentage of students with 4 or more computers in their homes was 12.7%. When the students were asked which of their school lessons they used computers for, most replied that they used their computers for English lessons (76.6%) and that they logged in the Ministry of National Education program “Dyned” on the Internet with their teachers. This is a foreign language program comprising a computer-based education process. The students stated that they used the mini-computers for only science, mathematics and social sciences and that they mostly surfed the net with their teachers during class. 1. What are the computer self-efficacy perception levels of the second grade primary school students? To determine the computer self-efficacy levels of the students, explanatory statistics regarding the items on the self-efficacy scale were calculated, and the findings obtained are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Explanatory statistics regarding the items on the computer self-efficacy scale. Items x 1. I can surf along the computer programs and discover new things 4.03 2. I can reach the information I need by using the computer. 4.56 3. I can save the information to the right place in the computer. 4.70 4. I can enter data by using computer programs (Word, Excel, PowerPoint etc.) 4.49 5. I can write any script I want by using computer programs (Word, Excel, PowerPoint 4.67

Ss 1.05 0.76 0.65 0.97 0.77

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etc.) 6. I can sort data by using computer programs (Word, Excel, Powerpoint etc.) 7. I can make arithmetical operations by using computer programs (Word, Excel, Powerpoint etc.) 8. I can draw graphics by using computer programs (Word, Excel, Powerpoint etc.) 9. In case I encounter a problem related to the computer, I can solve it. 10. I can easily learn a new computer program. Total

4.40 4.25

0.96 1.09

4.30 3.96 4.33 43.73

1.09 1.07 0.94 6.06

Based on Table 1, the students display computer self-efficacy “most of the time” or “all the time”. The students are able to do eight of ten items at all times [“I can save the information to the right place in the computer” ( x =4.70), “I can write any script I want by using computer programs (Word, Excel, Powerpoint etc.)” ( x =4.67), “I can reach the information I need by using computer programs” ( x =4.56), “I can enter data by using computer programs (Word, Excel, Powerpoint etc.)” ( x =4.49), “I can sort data by using computer programs (Word, Excel, Powerpoint etc.) ( x =4.40), “I can easily learn a new computer program”( x = 4.33), “I can draw graphics by using computer programs (Word, Excel, PowerPoint etc.)” ( x =4.30), I can make arithmetical operations by using computer programs (Word, Excel, PowerPoint etc.)” ( x =4.25)]. When the items are considered as a whole, an average score of x = 43.73 out of 50 shows that the computer self-efficacy levels of the second grade primary school students are quite high. 2. Do the computer self-efficacy perceptions of second grade primary school students show a significance difference according to gender, class level, the socioeconomic level of the environment where the school is located, whether they would prefer to choose a computer-related profession in the future, the length of time that they have been using computers, the frequency of their mini-computer use or the number of computers at home? Findings related to the computer self-efficacy perceptions of the second grade primary school students according to gender, class level, the socioeconomic level of the environment where the school is located, whether they would prefer to choose a computer-related profession in the future, the length of time that they have been using computers, the frequency of their mini-computer use or the number of computers at home, and by whom the computers are being used are mentioned below. Table 3: The computer self-efficacy perceptions of students according to various variables. Computer self-efficacy perceptions N ss t p x Girl 281 43.23 6.46 Gender 2.076 .038 44.34 5.50 Boy 232 Computer self-efficacy perceptions N ss F p x 43.46 6.12 6 195 44.17 5.23 Class levels 7 181 0.748 .474 43.54 6.94 8 137 Computer self-efficacy perceptions The socioeconomic level of the Low environment in which the Medium schools are located High Computer self-efficacy perceptions Whether they would choose a Yes, I would computer-related profession in No, I would not the future Computer self-efficacy perceptions For how long they have been Less than 1 using computers year 1-2 years 3-4 years 5 years or longer Computer self-efficacy perceptions Frequency of using the mini Every day

N 238 194 81 N 187 326 N 71 84 132 226 N 178

x 42.88 43.86 45.93

x 44.39 43.35

x 41.59 41.85 43.47 45.25

x 44.73

ss 6.73 5.52 4.47 ss 6.06 6.04 ss 6.73 7.05 6.01 5.00 ss 5.28

F

p

7.947

.000

t

p

1.87

.062

F

p

11.07 8

.000

F

p

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computers

3-4 times a week Once a week A couple of times a month Computer self-efficacy perceptions Number of computers at home 1 2-3 4 or more

186 120 29 N 134 314 65

43.48

5.72

43.27 41.10

6.55 9.06

x

ss 6.69 5.79 5.29

42.08 44.14 45.13

3.811

.010

F

p

7.584

.001

To determine whether the students’ computer self-efficacy perceptions differed according to gender, a t-test was conducted, and a significant difference between the male and female students’ statistical computer self-efficacy perception grades was found [t(513)=2.076; p.05]. This finding shows that the computer self-efficacy perceptions of the students do not depend on their class level. As the result of the analysis conducted to determine whether the computer self-efficacy perceptions of the students differ with regards to the socioeconomic levels of the environments where the schools are located, a significant difference was observed between the socioeconomic levels and computer self-efficacy perception grade averages [F(513)=7.947; p.05]. To determine whether the computer selfefficacy perceptions of the students depended on how long they had been using computers, one-way variance analysis and LSD tests were conducted. A significant difference was observed between the computer selfefficacy perception grade averages of the students that depended on how long they had been using computers [F(513)=11.078; p