Idea Transcript
UNIT 3 SOCIETY AND POLITY : JAPAN Structure Objectives Introduction Background to the Establishment of Tokugawa Supremacy The Tokugawa State 3.3.1 Mechanism of Political Control 3.3.2 Daimyo 3.3.3 Nature of the Tokugawa State
Tokugawa Social Structure 3.4.1 Emperor and Aristocracy 3.4.2 Samurai 3.4.3 Peasants, Artisans and Merchants
The Tokugawa Period : An Evaluation Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
~ f t e reading r this Unit you will be able to: know &out the basic structure of pre-modem Japan and its main d a l divisions, understand the nature of political authority and the political institutions through which it was exercised, know about the forces working for stability and change in this society, and appreciate its strength and weakness at the time when Western powers came to this region.
3.1 INTRODUCTION The pre-modern period of Japanese history, during which the Tokugapa.family exercisd power from 1603-1868, was marked by a long period of political stability. It was during this period, when Japan had very limited contact with outsiders, that a transformation and growth of'a money economy sustained changes in social relations and contributed to new th'inking which questioned established truths and accepted norms. The 'great peace' of the Tokugawas witnessed the creation of modem Japanese culture and it was on this basis that modern Japan was able to industrialize and develop with great rapidity. During this period there were also tensions and conflicts in the form of peasant rebellions and 1ater.urban riots. These also reflect the manner in which society, far from being stagnant and unchanging, was being transformed. It is necessary to understand both the limitations as well as the dynamism of Tokugawa society to appreciate the creation and development of modern' Japan. This Unit will consider the process by which the Tokugawa political structure was-created and its society formed.
3.2 BACKGROUND TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TOKUGAWA SUPREMACY Japan has often been called an imitative civilization but this is a superficial view which overlooks and underestimates the strength of the culture developed iu Japan. Living under the cultural influence of China, Japan was however, physically cut off. The sea
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separating the islands of Japan from the continent was difficult to cross. ' meant that contact was limited and sporadic. Thus for Japan, China was an ideal a x could accept and incorporate what it received without thought to actual Chinese practices. This ability to open oneself to new thinking placed the Japanese in an advantageous poition in later years when they encountered the modem European powers. dhinese influence brought i; not only Buddhism but also a writing system and the political and administrative structure of a unified state. Japanese society which was evolving from patriarchal units and developing a monarchical state avidly sought to use these institutions to support and define the new powers of the monarchy. A legal code, called the Tahina code, completed in 701 AD laid down a set of penal as well as administrative laws to govern the country. The country was divided into provinces, each to be ruled by a governor. However unlike in China, a council of religious practices was placed above all other offices. Perhaps the most significant development during the era of 'great change' ( T a b as it is known in Japanese) was the abolition of private title to land. These reforms inspired by the Chinese but modified to suit Japanese conditions were to some extent cosmetic and the real powers of state formation was longer and contested. The epitome of classical Japan was reached during the Heian (peace and tranquillity) period when the capital was established in modem day Kyoto. Heian Kyo, as it was then called was laid out along the lines of the Chinese Tang dynasty capital of Ch'ang-an. This period marks the ascendancy of the Fujiwara family to power. Tbe striking and recurrent feature of Japanese history is the divorce between legitimacy and power. The Emperor continued to remain the legitimate ruler but actual power was exercised by the Fujiwara family, the most powerful of whom was Fujiwara-no-Michinaga (966-1028 AD).
Heian civilization was an aristocratic culture which was created and camed on by a, few thousand courtiers. During the tenth and eleventh centuries this culture produced a highly sophisticated and refined aesthetic philosophy. Material life was however, extremely simple and austere. Their food was rice, sea-weed, radishes, fruit and nuts. A few vegetables and very little meat or fish was eaten:Tea was introduced from China only in the ninth century but was used only as a medicine. Their major form of transport was the ox-cart. The aristocratic class gradually lost poweri and revenue to the emerging class of military rulers. The military landowning class consolidated its privileges and rights over both civil and military functions leaving the imperial court with only the title to power. By 1190 real power had shifted from the Imperial Capital Kyoto to Kamakura. The KPmakura bakufh (the w o d literally means "tent government". It originally referred to the headquarters of the army in the field) inaugurated a period of feudal rule and brought to fore the samurai or warrior class. The Kamakura bakufh controlled its temtories through vassals and appointed shogun or governors to administer the provinces. The samurai or warrior culture b e g h to develop during this period. The word samurai means to serve, and indicates that as a wamor he is to serve his lord. a followed by the Ashikaga (1333-1573) during which feudal The ~ k a k u r was institutions developed. The court &fused of the military was confined to powerlessr obscurity. Many Emperors were even too poor to be buried properly or be able to perform proper accession ceremonies. From the end of the fifteenth century war became a constant feature and in these unsettled times of a country at war (sengoku) many farmers formed bands of ikki to protect themselves. These groups indulged in extortion and at times.othersattacked money-lenders. They were part of the social transformation which was taking place. Religious sects, like the Ikko sect of Amida Buddhism also established their authority in Echizen and Kaga (modem Fukai and Ishikawa). The warlords or dajmyo attempted to strengthen their political and mnomic pow%. Despite wars the econorny grew and institutions developed a degree of sophistication. In the political anarchy which prevailed up to the middle of the sixteenth century the feudal lords devotcd much of their attention to consolidating their holdings and
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preventing antagonistic alliances. In this disorderly situation a creation of conflicting groups -there emerged three figures who brought about the unification of Japan : Oda Nobunaga (1543-82), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537-98) and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616). These three men of widely differing character followed each other and brought about not only the political unification of Japan but also economic and social consolidation. The unification these three carried out represented the success of the feudal fief as the basic political unit. In this process the other groupings, like the above mentioned ikki or the Buddhist monasteries were unable to sustain and institutionalize their political power. Oda Nobunaga came from a minor feudal family in Owari in central Japan. Through astute alliances and successful battles he strengthened his position and expanded his power. In October, 1571 Nobunaga destroyed the Buddhist monastery of Hiezen. This monastery was a vast complex with large estates and its own warriors. Its destruction and the massacre of over three thousand monks effectively put an end to their bid for political authority. In a similar manner Nobunaga fought the armed leagues of the Jodo Shenshu sect of Buddhism. These Ikko Ikki, as they were called, centred around the temple of Ishiyama Honganji in Osaka. The acme of his power was symbolized in the construction of the magnificent castle of Azuchi. Enemies remained, however, and he was assassinated by Akechi Mistsnhide, one of his own generals. Nobunaga at the time of his death controlled over one-third of Japan and laid the basis for the emerging political structure. In 1571 he started a new system of land tax assessment and in 1576 he began to disarm the peasantry. Long years of continuous warfare had led to the emergence of an armed population. Nobunaga, to ensure peace, not only disarmed the peasantry so that they could return to their primary occupation of working on the land but also brought the warriors or samurai to the castle towns, which were to form the nucleus of the emerging cities. This step helped to reduce the independent power of the military landed aristocracy. Nobunaga also attempted to dtroduce uniformity in weights and measures. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a successful general of Nobunaga, managed to defeat other contenders such as Shibata Katsuie and in 1585 had himself appointed Kampaku (regent) by the Emperor. For the n'ext few years he dealt with other rivals and by 1590 had defeated his major opponents. Hideyoshi rose from humble origins to become the highest political authority in the land. His policies developed the trend set by Nobunaga. In 1588 he began a ruthless sword hunt, the aim of which was to clearly demarcate the farmer from the soldier. In 1590 a land survey recorded fields in the name of the free cultivator. Assessment of taxes was to be based on productivity but was levied on the village as a unit. All proprietary rights in land were with the daimyos or feudal lords. Hideyoshi attempted an abortive inva~ionof Korea in 1592. This failed because of the opposition by Korean guerrillas as well as the Chinese. Part of the failure was also due to his inability to recognize the importance of naval power.' However, for Japan an important benefit was the arrival of many Korean artisans, particularly potters who settled in areas of Kyushu. Hideyoshi was a powerful figure and excelled in the pursuit and exercise of power. However, he was ostentatious and vulgar and towards the end of his life mentally unstable. When Hideyoshi died Tokugawa Ieyasa was the strongest daimyo with holdings twice as large as any other daimyo (2.3 million Koku). Tokugawa Ieyasa had been powerful in eastern Japan since the time of Nobunaga and his relations while Hideyoshi had see-sawed but both realized that confrontation was not advisable. With the help of other daimyo he established his supremacy on 20th October 1600 on the field of Sekigahara by defeating his opponents. In 1603 Tokugawa Ieyasa was appointed Shogun and his authority was confirmed. Ieyasa was a shrewd and capable ruler and he carefully built the vast edifice of the Tokugawa Shogunate on the basis laid down by his predecessors. His political skill and acumen in creating a complete system which ensured that no rival power could threaten the supremacy of the Tcrkugawa house contributed to the amazing longevity of the Shogunate.
Society a n d Pdity : china
Map of Old Provinces TRADITIONAL JAPAN
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JAPAN - Modern Prefectures 1. Hokkaido 2. Tohoku 3. Kanto 4. Hokuriku 5. Tosan 6. Tokai 7. K ~ n k l 8. Chugoku 9. Shikoku 10. Kyushu I I . Okinawa
HOKKAIDO
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Map 3
OKlhAWA 8 1 1
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3.3 THE TOKUGAWA STATE In this section the mechanism of political control will be studied. The institution and functioning of Daimyo as a method of political control will also be examined.'
3.3.1 Mechanism of Political Control The system instituted by Tokugawa Ieyasu is called the bakd-ban system. This refers to the Bakufu or central government and han or feudal fief. The political structure established a system dependent on a balance between the central Tokugawa house government and the semi-autonomous feudal fiefs (han). In theory, Tokugawa Ieyasu was given the title of seie-tai shogun (barbarian subdueing general). This was a military title which traced its origin to the Kamakura Shogunate. In fact the Emperor living in Kyoto was totally devoid of power and authority. The rulers' titles by themselves carried no authority but maintained the symbolic authority of the Emperor. The title was passed down to successive Tokugawa rulers and brought with it the obligation to pacify Japan. This pacification in the widest sense came to involve restriction of contact with foreigners. It also underlay the social.system which theoretically restricted social mobility and froze social relations in the well-known shl-no-ko-sho system (samurai, farmers, artisans and merchants). The main principles of the Tokugawa system were enunciated in 1615 in two sets of instructions : i) The first, a set of 17 articles clearly stated that the Emperor and his court should confine themselves to academic and cultural affairs. The shogun confirmed his . right to appoint s e m court officials. ii) The second set of 13 articles laid down a set of restrictions on the powers of the feudal lords. They could not build or repair fortifications or contract marriages without the shogun's approval. They were forbidden to harbour fugitives from other fiefs. These instructions clearly show that the Tokugawa shogunate was creating a unified system of control.
3.3.2 Daimyo The Daimyo or feudal lords have been classified by J.W. Hall as early modern "i'daimyo" as these feudal lords had elaborate government structures which were ideologically justified by Confucian principles and sustained by the Bakufu's guarantee of peace and stability. The most important method of political control was to divide the daimyo into two major categories: One, the fudai -those who were either related or had been considerably loyal to the Tokugawa, and two, the tozama or "outer" daimyo - those who had been defeated in war. The fudai daimyo were given strategically important lands and these landholdings together with those of the Tokugawa house exceeded that of the tozama daimyo. The tozama, on the other hand were ordered to change provinces, many of their fiefs were confiscated and above all they were excluded from holding office within the Tokugawa government. The daimyo swore loyalty to the Tokugawa house but in the initial years between 1600-1650 many domains changed hands and the point was emphasized that these lands were held at the pleasure of the Shogun. Thus as a reward for services 172 new daimyos were created and on 281 occasions daimyog were transferred. This transfer policy helped to weaken the links between the daimyo and the people of the province._ During the 17th century over two hundred daimyo lost a part or all their territory for offences. At the core of Tokugawa strength was the armed might of some 60,000 armed vassals. These bannermen and housemen, as they were classified, were direct retainers and were liable to military service. However, their power need not be exaggerated for there were more than a total of 200,000 samurai employed by all the othei daimyo.
Society and Polity : Japan
Soektr,Economy snd Polity
Therefore, the Tokugawa system depended for its effectiveness an ensuring that, no large opposition block could form against its rule. This system of checks and balances'involved an administrative machinery which excluded those who had power and legitimacy. It also involved a system of hostages known as alternative attendance or sankin kotai. The administrative machinery evolved over the period. In the first fifty years the Shoguns themselves exercised power but gradually from 1666 effective power passed to administrative heads - Grand Chamberlain and subsequently the chief Councillors. These officials were from the ranks of medium and minor vassals while the great vassals were excluded from office. Those houses which cduld provide heirs to the Tokugawa house were also excluded from holdidg office. Officials held concurrent appointments and were also rotated. All policy matters were dealt with in consultation and required joint approval. The Tokugawa house exercised direct power over its own territories which were over 4 million koku and controlled the major cities like Osaka, Nagasaki as well as the copper and silver mines directly. It employed censors (metsuke) who secretly kept a watch on daimyo and reported on their activities. The alternative attendance system formalized in 1635 by Iemistu, the third shogun, required the daimyo to reside in the capital Edo (present day Tokyo) for certain periods. During the time when he was away from the capital the daimyo had to leave his family as hostage to ensure his loyalty to the Shogun. The daimyo, when they travelled to Edo had to have a large retinue between 150-300 members and were requirsd to follow designated routes. These journeys as well as the cost of mainitaining establishments in Edo served as a drain on their wealth and acted as a constraint on their power. The Tokugawa system of administration was at one level a national government and at another a large daimyo government. The Shogun at the top over-saw both functions. While on paper the system appears straight in practice it was far frorh coherent. At times the theoretical checks, like job rotation, were flouted and individuals like Tamuna Okitsvgu (1719-88) or Matsndaira Sadanoba (1758-1829) successfully exercised great power and influence.
3.3.3 Nature of the Tokugawa State The political structure was a centralized state with overriding powers with the Tokugawa over the daimyo. While the daimyo controlled administrative functions within their domains they were ultimately answerable to the Shogun and held their. office at his discretion. This political unification under the Tokugawa authority, however, had its limitations in practice. The Shogun never exercised his power to confiscate or re-allocate ban in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century and on occasions when attempts were made they were resisted. Yet, the administrative structure of the Tokugawa controlled crucial areas of foreign relations, coastal defence and key urban centres as well as the sources of gold and silver. This system brought about two and a half centuries of peace and stability. Check Your Progress 1 1) Mark which of the following statements are right ( d ) or wrong (x). i) The pre-modern period of Japanese history during which the Tokugawa family was in power, was a period of political stability. ii) Japan was under the cultural influence of China. iii) The Kamakura house was followed by the Fujiwara family. iv) he administrative structure of the Tokugawa controlled crucial areas of foreign relations, coastal defencre etc. 2) Explain in about 10.lines the concept and functions of Daimyo.
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Outline in about five lines the nature of the Tokugawa state.
Map 4 :Daimyo D o d n s
3.4 TOKUGAWA SOCIAL STRUCTURE Tokugawa soaety was divided into status groups and movement within these groups was theoretically impossible. Yet, in practice, because of economic development, people changed their social status.
3.4.1 Emperor and Aristocracy The powerless Emperor at Kyoto was the centre of a small and isolated court culture which made up in elaborate lineages what it lacked in real power. There were 137 aristocratic families with most of them claiming descent from five medieval lineages.
A majority of them claimed descent from the Fujiwara family which had been powerful in classical Japan.
These aristocrats had incomes comparable to the minor vassals of the Tokugawa and were often forced to supplement these meagre incomes by teaching. They were often skilled in the arts. Many aristocrats became Buddhist priests and played a crucial role in the Buddhist order. The Tokugawa house stayed clear of the Emperor and the Court though Ieyosa had married his daughter to the then Emperor Go-Mizunoo.
3.4.2 Samurai At the top of the social heirarchy was the warrior class and during this period it numbered about 2 million in a total population of around 25 million. This was a rather large number for a ruling class. Their duties were to serve their lords and loyalty was emphasized as the paramount virtue. The samurai were internally divided into two basic groups - shi and sotsu. The shi or upper samurai were h i g h d i n g officials and the real aristocracy while the sotou or rural vassals served in lower positions. Marriage between the two for instance, was very difficult. The income of samwai varied from 200 koku to 10,000 koku and because of the financial problems during this period their real incomes were declining and some married into merchant families to improve their financial position. During this period of peace and stability the samurai code of conduct, known as bashido (i.e. the way of the warrior) was developed. The crux of the philosophy was that a samurai should at all times be ready to offer his life for his lord. Till 1663 many samurai would commit suicide (junshi) when their lords died. This practice was later forbidden. They also had the right to kill those of the lower classes if they were offended. Many suffering from lack of money and work often took tovendettas which became the subject of popular drama. Those samurai who had no master were known as ronin (masterless samurai). These unemployed men posed a social problem and in 1651 some of them even led an uprising. The samurai derived their income from land but had no control over the land. In effect they received a stipend from the daimyo or shogun and if they held office then a stipend attached to that office as well. They were in return required to maintain a retinue depending on their status. With high degree of literacy,. as the cultivation of both material as well as literary arts was encouraged, they became government officials.
3.4.3 Peasants, Artisans and Merchants An overwhelming section of the population was engaged in agriculture and the revenues from this sustained the Tokugawa bakufu. The villages exercised a certain degree of self government which strengthened cooperative functions amongst them. Their life was hard however and they subsisted on a diet of millet and buckwheat with vegetables and miso (a mixture made from soya-bean). Natural disasters and famines took their toll of human life. Peace and stability increased the conimercialization of the economy and improved the lot of some sections of peasants. Many took to producing for the market and as taxes remained constant they could channel their gains into making sake (a rice wine) soya sauce, or producing silk. Some also emerged as money-lenders. Though land could not be sold, tenancy increased as did movement to urban areas. The growth of urban centres indicates the dynamism d the Tokugawa economy. By the end of the 18th century the capital Edo had a population of nearly a million people. To meet their needs craftsmen and shopkeepers congregated here as in other cities, such as, OsaQ, Kyoto, and castle towns like Kanazawa, Sendai, Kagoshino , which had populatiMof over 50,000. The development of roads, like the Tokaids (eastern sea road) Nakasendo (middle of the mountain road) Sanyodo (road on the ' sunny side of the mountains) and Sanindo (road on the shadow side ofthe mountain) improved commerce. The town culture which developed bas essentially a merchant led movement. The merchants (Chonin) though socially looked down upon as parasites were the early entrepreneurs of Japan. They worked hard add co~tributedto the development of a
vibrant social system. In 1627, for instance, Mitsui Toshitsuga opened a small drapers shop in Edo called Echigaya which developed into today's Mitsukashi owned by the Mitsui Company. The Tokugawa house patronized certain merchants who were given a monopoly over the purchase and sale of rice, conversion of money and other allied activities. Osaka was the centre of commercial activity and these merchants built great houses and accumulated wealth. Gradually the real dynamism moved to smaller towns and later villages which did not have monopoly privileges. The Tokugawa philosophy based on the idea that wealth was generated through, agriculture did not effectively tap this new source of wealth. Rather on occasions it would issue edicts to restrict the display of wealth by the merchants or take forced loans 9 o m them. The merchant class was not an undifferentiated group but itself divided. by th'e privileges it enjoyed under the Bokufh. They were responsible for building up the institutions and acquiring the skills which made it possible for Japan to successfully transform itself into a modem nation.
3.5 THE TOKUGAWA PERIOD : AN EVALUATION For two and a half centuries Japan under the Tokukawas thrived and developed with little foreign contact. The Western powers were excluded with only the Dutch allowed limited access. Diplomatic relations were maintained with Korea and China and a limited trade continued with these countries as well. Internally, Jspan was divided into 244 hm or fiefs with a certain degree of autonomy. There was a bewildering number of currencies and even the dialects spoken differed greatly. The social classes were fixed and free movCment restricted. It was in many ways a world within walls. These restrictions were in part responsible for the remarkable long duration of Tokugawa rule. However, it would be wrong to merely see the continuities and ignore the signs of change and development. Peace allowed trade and commerce to flourish within Japan and this helped to bring about a national market which increased linkages between the han. In practice movement between han seems to have been frequent and both ideas and people crossed han boundaries. These very changes in society and the inability of the political structure to creatively respond to the new situations generated ideas and philosophies which laid the basis for undermining the hegemony of the Tokugawa house. It is difficult to have an overall assessment of the period. However, we must consider the question that whether the system lasted because of close supervision and heavy repression or because of the lack of government interference. For instance, seclusion .worked not because the world was also indifferent towards Japan. Similarly the towns and villages regulated themselves without much interference from the Bakufu. Yet, the period laid the basis for the development of modem Japan in that the skills and institutions developed the ability of the people to accept new ideas and grasp the opportunities presented to them.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Answer in about 10 lines the role and position of the samurai in Japanese history.
2) What were the primary occupations during the Tokugawa period? Answer in about 10 lines.
3) Explain the role of the merchants with reference to commercial activities. Answer in 5 lines.
3.6 LET US SUM UP This Unit has familiarised you with the events that led to the establishment of Tokugawa supremacy in Japan. Tokugawa Hideyoshi and Ieyasu played a significqnt role in this. The Tokugawa state established a mechanism of political control that was based on the Baku-hansystem. An efficient system was evolved to control the powers of feudal lords through various sets of instructions. The social structure under the Tokugawa consisted of aristocracy, samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants. There was tremendous growth in trade and urbanization. But there was little foreign contact. However, this period did lay the foundation for the future development of Japan.
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Check Your Promess 1 1 i) V ) iii) x
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iv) V 2) Base your answer on Sub-sec. 3.3.2. 3) Read Sub-sec. 3.3.3 for your answer. Check Your Progress 2
1) Read Sub-sec. 3.4.2 for your answer.
2) Compare your answer with the contents in Sec. 3.4. 3) See Sub-sec. 3.4.3.
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