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American Jewish Archives Devoted to the preservation and study of American Jewish historical records Director: JACOB RADER MARCUS, Ph.D. Milton and Hattie Kutz Distinguished Service Professor o f American Jewish History Associate Director: STANLEY F . CHYET, Ph.D. F'rofessor o f American Jewish History

Published by THE AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, CINCINNATI. OHIO 45220 on the Cincinnati campus o f the HEBREW UNION COLLEGE - JEWISH INSTITUTE O F RELIGION

VOL. XXVIII

NOVEMBER, 1976

N0.2

In This Issue The Birth of the Jewish Lobby A Reminiscence

107

The Founding of Baltimore's First Jewish Congregation: Fact vs. Fiction

119

Adventures in America and the Holy Land

126

LEON I. FEUER Rabbi Feuer "was in at the beginning of [the] so-called Jewish Lobby" in Washington, D. C., "and in fact was the first lobbyist." His efforts o n behalf of Zionism during the early 1940's contributed toward "building a substantial base o f support for Israel in American public opinion."

IRA ROSENSWAIKE Mr. Rosenswaike disputes the claim that Isaac Leeser's uncle Zalma Rehine was afounder of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation. Writers of local history, he urges, "would d o well not to rely on some of the hearsay evidence of their predecessors, who often lacked scholarly training." JULIUS C. KERMAN "In my forty-three years in the rabbinate I served several communities, enjoying everywhere happy relationships with young and old. The thought that I have influenced some persons to think and live more Jewishly makes me happy." Byelorussian-born Rabbi Kerman also saw service in t h e Jewish Legion during World War I.

Asser Levy

MALCOLM H. STERN

142

The Jewish Settlement on St. Paul's Lower West Side

LORRAINE E. PIERCE Much of what is known about life o n the Lower West Side of St. Paul, Minn., between the late 1800's and 1920-when the neighborhood was, for the most part, peopled b y Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe-"suggest[s] parallels with New York's Lower East Side."

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The Founder of Christianity

162

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A Postscript

FELIX ADLER The founder of the Ethical Culture Society believed that "the true secret of [Jesus of Nazareth's] power [was] his sympathy with the neglected classes of society;. . . His gospel was preeminently the gospel for the poor . .

."

Herman Melville, The Jew and Judaism

LOUISE ABBIE MAY0 "Melville is the only major American writer in the nineteenth century to include a serious consideration of Jews and Judaism in one of his worksClarel."

Brief Notices Index to Volume XXVIII Illustrations Lloyd Street Synagogue, facing page 119; Rabbi Julius Kerman, facing page 126; New York in the days o f Asser Levy, facing page 142; Agudas Achim Synagogue in St. Paul, facing page 145; Felix Adler, facing page 162; Herman Melville, facing page 172.

The American Jewish Archives is indexed in Index to Jewish Periodicals, The Journal o f American History, and The American Historical Review. Patron for 1976 THE NEUMANN MEMORIAL PUBLICATION FUND Published by THE AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES o n the Cincinnati campus of the HEBREW UNION COLLEGE - JEWISH INSTITUTE O F RELIGION ALFRED GOTTSCHALK, President @ I976 by the American Jewish Archives

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The Birth of the Jewish Lobby A Reminiscence LEON I. FEUER

Recently there has been considerable comment in the media, some of it critical in tone, about the Jewish Lobby in Washington and the political clout that it wields on behalf of Israel, especially in congressional quarters. The media have become fond of the term. It was the favorite whipping boy of the ex-senator from Arkansas, J. William Fulbright. Recently the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General George Brown, permitted himself an astonishingly choleric outburst (for which he was ever so gently chided by President Gerald R. Ford), in which he gave expression to the usual stereotypical remarks about the Jewish-controlled press and banks (sic), which, according to his version, are constantly exerting pressure upon government officials on behalf of Israel. It happens that I was in at the beginning of this so-called Jewish Lobby, and in fact was the first lobbyist. So it occurred to me that a few recollections of my experience might be of some historic interest. Of course, groups of all sizes, descriptions, and resources engaged in special pleading have long been a part of the Washington scene. They range from powerful business, labor, medical, and similar organizations to representatives of almost every religious denomination, including ethnic and minority lobbies who support or oppose legislation and policies which they deem t o be favorable 107 Dr. Feuer is Rabbi Emeritus of Shomer Emunim Congregation, Sylvania, Ohio. The author is indebted to the Silver Archives of The Temple, Cleveland, Ohio, and to its very helpful librarian, Miss Miriam Leikind, particularly for excerpts from the 1943-44 minutes of the Emergency Committee of the American Zionist Emergency Council.

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or otherwise, either t o their domestic interests or t o the concerns of the countries of their national origin. We have just had an illustration of such activity during the Cyprus conflict on the part of Americans of Greek and Turkish origin. Virtually all foreign governments, in addition t o their embassies, employ paid, registered lobbyists. While occasionally subject to abuse and perhaps even to corruption, this is a built-in feature of American democracy, a system of pressures and counterpressures which plays a significant role in shaping both domestic and foreign policy. It is a system of checks and balances which has been generally effective, and which we might say has become indispensable t o the proper functioning of the American system of government. Few thinking Americans would quarrel with it as long as it does not militate against our own national interest and security. That a Jewish Lobby should have developed in the nation's capital and attempt t o achieve policies and aid programs favorable t o Israel's survival and development is not at all surprising. That it is as all-powerful as its critics have charged is seriously open t o question. If it did not have the support of a large, even a majority segment of American public opinion, whatever influence it might command would quickly vanish. That it possesses inexhaustible financial resources, as these same critics have implied, is easily refuted by the miniscule size of its staff and by the constant appeals addressed t o American Jews for money with which to support the operation. But back t o my personal account, which begins in the early 40's in the midst of the Second World War. On May 17, 1939, the British Government issued the MacDonald White Paper, which had the effect of virtually excluding Jewish immigration from Palestine. This was in direct violation of its own commitments in the Balfour Declaration of 1917, and of the terms of the League of Nations Mandate which designated Britain as the Mandatory power, which were designed t o create a Jewish national home in Palestine. Meanwhile, the Holocaust was taking an increasing toll of Jewish victims, and there was virtually nowhere else than Palestine for the prospective condemned t o go. An Emergency Committee for Zionist Affairs had been formed in the United States as an umbrella organization for all Zionist groups, to try to take at least some measures t o meet the crisis. Lacking strong leadership, however, its efforts were disorganized and ineffectual.

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Unsung Heroes of the Struggle

Meanwhile, the Biltmore Zionist program of 1942 had been adopted, calling for the establishment after the war of a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine. That aim then was endorsed almost unanimously in 1943 by the American Jewish Conference, an assembly of representatives of Jewish communities and organizations, after a heated debate and an impassioned address by Dr. Abba Hillel Silver, of Cleveland, then rapidly emerging as the popular leader of American Zionism. Abstaining from support were only the delegates of the American Jewish Committee and the Jewish Labor Committee. They did so on the basis of their previous non-Zionist posture. These groups have since changed their position, and have since made valuable contributions t o the cause of Israel. In the meantime, Dr. Chaim Weizmann, president of the World Zionist Organization, and his advisers had decided that political activity and public education had t o be strengthened in the United States, convinced as they had now become that the United States was destined t o play a decisive role in the post-war settlements. They were also aware of the fact that during the war Zionist activity could be more freely and effectively carried on in this country than elsewhere. So the Emergency Committee for Zionist Affairs was reorganized and renamed the American Zionist Emergency Council. Dr. Silver was called to its co-chairmanship along with Dr. Stephen S. Wise, as well as to the chairmanship of its all-important, policy-making executive committee. Henry Montor, later head of the United Jewish Appeal, was made executive director. Because of disagreements on policy with Dr. Silver, his tenure was to be short-lived. Arthur Lourie, later Israel's ambassador t o Great Britain, was appointed political secretary. The staff was augmented by the addition of Harry Shapiro, of the United Palestine Appeal, who ultimately succeeded Montor, and by Isaiah L. Kenen and Harold Manson, who were put in charge of the public relations department. Dr. Benjamin Akzin was appointed research expert. Abe Tuvim (father of the late actress Judy Holliday) was named liaison representative to Labor and Christian church groups, and the wellknown writer Marvin Lowenthal was asked t o serve as a kind of literary editor and contact man with American intellectuals and academics. At this juncture I came into the picture. Dr. Silver asked me

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(drafted me would be more accurate) to take a year's leave of absence from my Toledo congregation, which generously consented, to take charge of the office of the Emergency Council which was to be opened in Washington and which would have to become the focus of our activities. Immediately after the Holy Days of 1943, my family remaining behind, I left for New York, where I spent some weeks familiarizing myself with the projected plans and procedures of the Council. I was also to undertake a project which would prove to be indispensable to the effective functioning of our work. This was the organization of local Emergency Committees, which under our direction would carry on various local activities, such as contacts with the press and other media as well as with civic clubs and churches. They were also authorized to coordinate the public relations activities of the various Zionist districts and of the local branches of other Zionist groups such as the Poale Zion, Hadassah, and Mizrachi. Most important, it was impressed upon them that they must keep in constant contact with their representatives and senators. They were advised to meet with them frequently on their home grounds where they are particularly sensitive to public opinion, and to keep them constantly informed of Zionist views and aims. The leadership and personnel of these committees were selected, as far as possible, not only because they were themselves active and informed Zionists, but also because they were men and women of recognized status in their several locales. I spent some six or seven weeks in IVew York, making contact by phone and mail with prominent Zionists throughout the country. As a result we were able to organize some one hundred and fifty active and enthusiastic local committees, whose task it was to mobilize Jewish opinion and action in their communities, to meet regularly with their congressmen and with influential non-Jews in civic and religious circles, and to see to it, as far as possible, that reports and editorials in the local news media were favorable to Zionist objectives. During the year of my tenure we convened two conferences, one in Cleveland and the other in Washington, for the purpose of briefing delegates of these local committees. One cannot praise too highly the eagerness and readiness with which Jews responded to our calls for action and the truly amazing results which they achieved in winning support for the cause. They are among the unsung heroes of the struggle for the founding of Israel.

THE BIRTH O F THE JEWISH LOBBY

Leo Was a Fast Learner

The tragic news of the Holocaust as well as the indignation aroused by the British White Paper of 1939 and the sense of betrayal which it engendered found American Jews only too eager t o do anything they could to assist their fellow Jews. They proved on the whole to be utterly loyal t o that historic tradition of Jewish interdependence, which has, of course, been one of the basic reasons for our survival as a people. At a moment's notice and at their own expense they would send delegations to Washington to confer with their representatives and senators. They organized telegram and mail campaigns among both Jews and non-Jews. If we wanted t o make a point with a certain congressman, a call from me to our committee in his home district would produce, within a few days, hundreds and sometimes thousands of communications from his constituents. Knowing something of the effectiveness of our work, a public relations man in Washington once asked me about the size of our staff. He was incredulous when I told him how small it was. One must also acknowledge with gratitude the large measure of sympathy and support we were able t o muster among a substantially large segment of American non-Jews. Early in November, 1943, I went t o Washington t o establish the office there. It being wartime, space was virtually unattainable, but I finally arranged t o house myself and my staff at the national headquarters of the Zionist Organization of America. Office help was scarce and had to be imported at considerable expense from New York, some even from my own congregation in Toledo. In order to provide entree for me to members of Congress and other government quarters where I expected to d o business, we engaged the services of the late Leo Sack, a retired Scripps-Howard Washington correspondent, who had also served through appointment by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as United States ambassador t o Costa Rica. Leo knew and had access to virtually everybody of importance in Washington. Many congressmen were beholden to him for past favors, and he had numerous personal friends among them. He was thus able, with little or no difficulty, to make appointments for me and usually accompanied me on my daily rounds on Capitol Hill. Leo was a real "character." Born in Tupelo, Mississippi-the home of the notoriously anti-Jewish Congressman John E. Rankin with whom he was nevertheless on the best of

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terms-he spoke with a thick Southern brogue which obviously was no disadvantage. Rabbi Silver nicknamed him the "Goy from Tupelo." He had received no Jewish education, did not understand a word of Hebrew or Yiddish, and certainly knew nothing about Zionism until he came to work for us. We had t o educate him as we went along, but he was a fast learner. I have never known a more patriotic or zealous Jew. He certainly deserves this tribute, which I am fairly certain will not be paid him elsewhere. One scene remains unforgettably etched in my memory. Silver, Sack, and I were in the office of Congressman Sol Bloom of New York, chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee. We badly needed his support for a resolution which had been introduced in both Houses and to which I shall refer in greater detail later. Bloom was excessively pleased with himself for having, as a Jew, attained the eminence of the Foreign Affairs Committee chairmanship. He was therefore notoriously obsequious t o the bidding of the State Department, whose Near Eastern policy at the time was greatly influenced by the views of the British Colonial Office and by Loy Henderson and the other Arabists in the department. Bloom had obviously been reached. He remained deaf to all of our arguments, even expressing skepticism about the extent of the Holocaust, and was therefore oblivious to the opportunity of saving thousands of Jewish lives by keeping open the doors of immigration to Palestine. His information, which had been officially provided and which he did not question, did not jibe with our gloomy prognosis of the number of Jews already dead or on their way t o the gas chambers. Suddenly, t o the astonishment of Silver and myself, Leo threw himself on his knees and begged Bloom for even a small token, some indication that there was a pittance of Jewish feeling in a remote corner of his heart. Real tears were streaming from the eyes of this supposedly tough and often profane newspaperman. But they had no perceptible effect on Bloom. I must not overlook the voluntary and valuable service of the other member of my lobbying staff, a veteran Zionist from Boston, the lawyer Elihu Stone, who spent parts of a number of weeks with me in Washington giving me the benefit of his political knowledge and shrewdness and his close friendship with Congressman John W. McCormack of Massachusetts, who in later years would become Speaker of the House.

T H E BIRTH OF THE JEWISH LOBBY

Our Ace in the Hole

My staff and I conceived our assignment, under the general guidance of the policies which would be agreed upon by the Executive Committee of the American Zionist Emergency Council and under the leadership of Dr. Silver, to be the following: a) to inform and educate congressmen and other government officials and such other persons outside of government-reporters, editors, former government officials-who might be able to exert some influence on American policy, about the urgency of the Jewish situation in Europe as well as about the justice and legality of the Zionist cause; b) to develop as much opposition as we could in the same quarters to the British White Paper; c) and finally t o focus our efforts either on the introduction and passage through Congress of a resolution expressing opposition to the British White Paper, or to go the whole way and try to put the Congress o n record as favoring the establishment of a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine after the war. Such a resolution would, of course, not be binding o n the Executive Department, but it would be a tremendous propaganda victory for our cause. The decision as to which course t o follow would have t o be taken by the Emergency Council. Incidentally, I commuted each week between Washington and New York to attend and t o report t o meetings of the executive on the results of my interviews, and t o provide its members with my appraisal of the Washington climate, favorable or otherwise. In January, 1944, after my colleagues and I had taken numerous soundings which seemed propitious, the executive committee directed me to take the latter, the riskier, but if we succeeded the far more advantageous course of attempting t o secure passage of the commonwealth resolution. We knew that this was the objective which the majority of American Zionists-perhaps of American Jews generally, and certainly of our local committees-wanted us to pursue. They were both shocked and saddened by the catastrophe in Europe and were certainly fired to a high pitch of enthusiasm by the prospect of finally achieving the millennia1 Jewish hope of national redemption. It seemed now or never. Before proceeding with the account of the fate of the commonwealth resolution, which is in effect the story of my year in Washington and of the birth of the Jewish Lobby, a word may be in

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order about the daily procedural routine which I followed. I would spend every morning on Capitol Hill with Leo Sack, who had previously made the appointments, meeting with senators and representatives. Elihu Stone would accompany us on visits to New England congressmen, many of whom he knew personally. We concentrated on the leadership of the two Houses and on congressmen whom we knew to be influential or key personalities by virtue of their seniority, committee chairmanships, or the weight they were known t o carry with the Administration. One such was the late President Harry S. Truman, then senator from Missouri and chairman of a special committee investigating war contracts. Mr. Truman received us cordially, but noncommittally, informing us that he would not support the proposed resolution before consulting with the chief of staff, General George Marshall. Had we recognized it, as perhaps we should have, this was a clear signal of the danger which lay ahead, that the resolution might be tabled o r perhaps even defeated. Lyndon B. Johnson, then a fledgling congressman from Texas, also made it clear that although he was personally favorably inclined, he would take his orders from President Roosevelt, who throughout the course of these events proved an elusive friend and, as we now know, not very faithful to his publicly expressed Zionist sympathies. However, we found most of those we interviewed quite supportive, particularly when it was pointed out t o them-and many were uninformed on this point-that Britain had pledged herself in the Balfour Declaration to the establishment of a Jewish homeland and had, at least partly on the basis of that promise, received the League of Nations Mandate for Palestine. This was our ace in the hole and our most promising vote getter and it was also the basis of what proved t o be our ill-founded optimism. I sensed some sardonically amusing subsurface reactions on the part of one or two congressmen whom I prefer to leave nameless and who gave me the distinct impression that they would not be unfavorably disposed to the idea of having all Jews settle in Palestine. Blackshirts and Boots

I regret t o report, in passing, that one of my most troublesome problems was posed by a group of Jews, who ironically enough

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were working for the same objective as I was. Circulating around the halls of Congress and other official quarters was a personable young man with the nom de guerre of Peter Bergson, who, with a group of his colleagues, represented the military arm of the Revisionist Zionist movement, the Irgun Z'vai Leumi. Bergson was related to the saintly and scholarly chief rabbi of Palestine, Rabbi Abraham I. Kook. I learned that, having overstayed his visitor's visa, he was in the country illegally. Some discreet inquiries suggested that he was being sheltered from deportation by a highly placed personage, there being good reason t o believe that this was Eleanor Roosevelt. I could have solved my problem by reporting him t o the Immigration Service, but this I would not do to a fellow Jew whether I agreed with his politics or not. I must say that Peter and his cohorts proved to be pesky nuisances, even more so than the anti-Zionist American Council for Judaism whose chief representatives, Elmer Berger and Lessing J. Rosenwald, were frequently to be seen in Washington in congressional offices and other government quarters. I observed them on at least one occasion and much to my disgust conferring with Arab representatives. Back to Bergson! He and his friends would tell congressmen and others not to pay any attention to the Zionists who did not really represent the Jews of Palestine. They, the Irgunists, claimed to be the real spokesmen for the Jewish independence movement in Palestine. They were the genuine freedom fighters. They operated in this country through a number of front organizations, such as the Hebrew Committee for National Liberation and the Committee for a Jewish Army. They had enlisted in the leadership of these organizations some prominent congressmen, notably Senator Guy Mark Gillette of Iowa, as well as a number of writers like Ben Hecht, who hitherto had been notably absent from public Jewish activity. The Bergson boys finally overshot their mark by staging, in the spring of 1944, a cheaply melodramatic "happening," the opening of a "Hebrew embassy." To mark the event, they called a press conference, covered for me by our young and brilliant public relations director, Harold Manson. The report he brought me that afternoon would have been almost unbelievably funny, had it not been so tragically absurd. After a round of refreshments for the reporters, there was a flourish of trumpets, doors were thrown open, Bergson and his companions marched to the platform in

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the center of the room dressed-believe it or not-in blackshirts and boots and proceeded to proclaim the Hebrew State. That was virtually the last we heard of the Hebrew Liberation Movement. T o resume the account. As previously indicated, I reported to the Emergency Executive my highly favorable reception by the overwhelming majority of congressmen, who seemed completely sympathetic t o the plight of European Jewry, as well as to the hope of establishing a Jewish national entity in Palestine after the war. They seemed to be indignant with our British allies for issuing the White Paper and thus in effect breaking their own promise in the Balfour Declaration and abusing the trust vested in them by the mandate. I was therefore quite certain that the time was ripe for introducing a bipartisan resolution putting Congress on record as favoring the establishment of a Jewish commonwealth. The executive directed me t o proceed t o lay the groundwork for such a resolution. In the House I obtained the co-sponsorship of Representatives James A. Wright of Pennsylvania and Ranulf Compton of Connecticut. In the Senate, it was the Taft-Wagner Resolution. Robert F. Wagner of New York, whose son was later to become mayor of that city and whose large Jewish constituency made it natural for him to be favorably disposed t o the Zionist cause, was only too happy to append his name t o the resolution. Robert A. Taft, our home senator from Ohio, whom Rabbi Silver was anxious to enlist as the Republican sponsor, required much more persuasion. When I first interviewed Mr. Republican, as he was known, he confessed his total ignorance of the problem. As an outstanding lawyer, he was particularly interested in the legality of the Jewish claim to a homeland in Palestine. He wanted t o be satisfied on this phase of the problem and requested me t o provide him with the appropriate documents. After studying them for some days, he gave his consent and thereafter became a valuable and knowledgeable supporter of Zionism. In the light of Taft's standing as a Republican leader and his general reputation in Congress, I was confident that half the battle had then been won. (Parenthetically, I was of some assistance t o him, when he made his later run for reelection to the Senate, by helping t o refute a canard spread by his political enemies that he personally entertained some anti-Semitic sentiments.) The resolutions were introduced into both Houses of Congress at the end of January, 1944. I

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had been overly optimistic about the chances of their passage at that particular session of Congress. Military Expertise

I t seems that the executive branch of the government, acting upon the advice of the military, was strongly opposed. What I did not know was that the military planners were considering, as one of their options, a thrust into Festung Europa through the Balkans. They feared that if Congress were t o go on record for a Jewish Palestine, it would provoke an Arab uprising in their rear. So General George C. Marshall, the chief of staff, came to the Hill and urgently requested a tabling or postponement of the resolution for security reasons. I t was reported that he bolstered his opposition with a humanitarian argument, predicting that if there were a largescale Arab uprising, the inevitable result would be a wholesale slaughter of the Jewish population. S o much for military expertise! President Roosevelt also adopted a kind of canny technique, of which we now know he was such a master. Not wishing to antagonize Jewish voters o r t o appear faithless to his various Zionist commitments, he persuaded his good friend Stephen S. Wise and other Democratic faithfuls to appear before the Senate committee and ask for a withdrawal of the commonwealth resolution on patriotic grounds, assuring them that after an Allied victory he would support their cause. That is not how King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia understood it when the two later met. I shall never forget that day. Rabbi Silver and I paced the hall outside the committee chamber where the meeting was taking place. I had never seen him so pale o r so furiously agitated. He could not believe that Jewish and especially Zionist leaders would engage in what to him was an act of betrayal. Of course, the committee had no choice but t o accede to the wishes of the executive, especially since they were bolstered by prominent Zionist spokesmen. We were determined, however, that the struggle would go on. We laid the groundwork for later congressional action by obtaining statements endorsing the commonwealth program in the platforms of the nominating conventions of the Republican and Democratic parties which were t o meet later that summer. We also held a very

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well-attended national gathering in Washington of Christian supporters of the Zionist cause under the auspices of the American Christian Palestine Committee. The Wagner-Taft and WrightCompton Resolutions, temporarily tabled, did finally pass the Senate on December 17, 1945, and the House o n December 19, 1945, by voice vote. In June, 1944, I had completed my tour of duty and returned to my congregation, very happy, although the year had been a rich, enlightening and exciting experience for me, to resume my status as an amateur Zionist worker. I was succeeded as head of the Washington office by Benjamin Akzin and he in turn by Kenen, who until his recent retirement has done an extremely effective job. After the establishment of Israel, it was no longer possible for us to function as a tax-deductible organization, and the setup was ultimately reorganized as the American Emergency Committee for Israel Affairs. Kenen was by law required to register as a paid lobbyist for a foreign government. That, sketchily, is the story of the birth of the Jewish Lobby. The Jewish Lobby-if that is the proper name for it-is far from being as powerful as the Arabs and some American critics would like to portray it, certainly not in comparison with the Oil Lobby. But it has succeeded in building a substantial base of support for Israel in American public opinion.

LOAN EXHIBITS

Over sixty exhibit items dealing, for the most part, with the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The American Jewish Archives will be pleased to make these exhibit items available on loan, free of charge, for a two week period, to any institution in North America. A selection of twenty to twenty-five items makes an adequate exhibit. The only expenses involved are the shipping costs. Inquiries should be addressed to the Director of the American Jewish Archives, Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45220.

The Founding of Baltimore's First Jewish Congregation: Fact vs. Fiction IRA ROSENSWAIKE

According t o the various accounts of the early history of Baltimore Jewry, Zalma RehinC (1 757-1 843), moving t o Baltimore from Richmond, Virginia, became the nucleus around which the first Jewish congregation in the state was formed. Local writers have displayed little hesitation in accepting as fact that a newcomer in his seventies, for four decades a member of Richmond's Sephardic Beth Shalome, once settled in his new home, became not only a congregation-builder but the leader of an Ashkenazic organization.' In view of this rather unusual circumstance, it seems somewhat remarkable that not one writer has expressed any doubts about its authenticity. How has such total acceptance among Jewish historians come about, and does any possibility exist at this late date, in the absence of the earliest congregational records, of discovering whether the story is fact or fiction? An article on Baltimore Jewry which the accomplished scholar and Zionist leader Henrietta Szold published at the beginning of this century appears t o have been the first t o relate the story: Almost coincidently with the removal of civil disabilities occurs the first of a series of regular meetings for religious services, whose continuity has been See Henrietta Szold, "Baltimore," in Jewish Encyclopedia, I1 (1902), 479; Adolf Guttmacher, A History of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, 1830.1 905 (Baltimore, 1905), pp. 19-20; Isidor Blum, The Jews ofBaltimore (Baltimore, 1910), p. 7; Abraham I. Shinedling, "Baltimore," in Unil)ersalJewish Encyclopedia, I1 (1940), 5 3-58; Isaac M. Fein, The Making o f an American Jewish Community: the History o f Baltimore Jewry from I773 to 1920 (Philadelphia, 1971), pp. 42-43.

Mr. Rosenswaike's article o n Levy L. Laurens appeared in the April, 1975, issue of American Jewish Archives.

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uninterrupted. According to the recollections of one participant still living, this meeting took place in Holliday street, near Pleasant street, at the house of Zalma Rehind, a former resident of Richmond, Va., and an uncle of Isaac Leeser.2

Aware of the risks of drawing conclusions without adequate documentation, Miss Szold went on then to state cautiously: "This may possibly have been the beginning of the congregation Nidche Israel, now known as the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation . . . . The date of the congregation charter is January 29, 1830 . . . ."3 Adolf Guttmacher, on the other hand, in his error-laden history of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation published a few years later, was quite definite: . . . in 1826 . . . the first regular Minyan was established. . . . The Minyan met in the home of Zalma RehinC on Holliday near Pleasant street. Rehink was of French descent. He came t o Baltimore from Richmond in 18 12 . . . . The Minyan that met in the home of Rehind led to the organization of the Congregation, for the men who composed the Minyan were among the first members of the Congregation . . . .4

Guttmacher had no evidence, only his imaginative reconstruction of Miss Szold's sketch, that a minyan met in Rehink's home in 1826. He was mistaken in stating the Rehink had come t o Baltimore in 1812, or that he was of French descent. Rehink was a native of Germany; he had been born in the duchy of Westphalia.' Isidor Blum, in a work published in 1910, "corrected" the date but not the location of the first meeting: The first regular meeting for divine worship of which we have certain knowledge was held in the autumn of 1829, in the home of Zalma Rehind, on Halliday Street, near Pleasant. . . . This minyan must have been the nucleus of the Congregation Nidche Israel, better known as the Baltimore Hebrew C ~ n ~ r e ~ a t i o n . ~

Illustrious Family Connections

More recent writers-Abraham I. Shinedling and Isaac M. FeinSzold, p. 479.

Ibid. Guttmacher, pp. 19-20. Herbert T. Ezekiel and Gaston Lichtenstein, The History of the JewsofRichmond from 1769 to 191 7 (Richmond, 1917), p. 37. Blum, p. 7.

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agree that the original meeting for public worship was held at Rehind's home, but, like the earlier scholars, differ in their degree of certainty as to whether this service actually marked the birth of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation. According to Fein, "In 1829 Rhine (sic) came back to the city where he first landed" from Westphalia, "and it was in his home, o n Holiday (sic/ and Pleasant Streets, that a historic minyan was held. It was this service that led t o the formation of the first synagogue in the city . . . ."7 Shinedling's version reads as follows: The first meeting for public worship, with ten men present, was held in 1829, in the house of Zalman (sic/ RehinC, an uncle of Isaac Leeser, in Holliday street, near Pleasant street. Little is known of this group, since no records of their proceedings have survived. It is probable, however, that they were the same men who formed the Nidche Israel Congregation . . .

Thus, after the first appearance in print of the story of Rehind's role in Baltimore Jewish history, n o subsequent writer seems t o have had any misgivings regarding its veracity. Nevertheless, it seems pertinent to mention a number of unexplained inconsistencies. First, it appears relevant t o note that Rehind and his wife are buried in the Etting family cemetery in Baltimore, not in the cemetery of the Baltimore Hebrew C ~ n g r e g a t i o n .If~ Rehind was indeed the "founding father" he is reported to have been, why was his final resting place elsewhere in the city than the congregational burial ground? Second, Rehind's name is missing from the earliest existing public documents relating t o the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation-the list of five men who during the session commencing in December, 1829, petitioned the state legislature for its incorporation and the list of fifteen electors who in November, 1831, agreed t o the purchase of the burial ground.'' Why the absence of Fein, pp. 4 2 4 3 . Shinedling, p. 53. Guttmacher, p. 19. ' O For the five charter members see infra, p. 125. The names of "the Electors of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation" who o n October 18, 1831, agreed to "hold the lot of ground" acquired from David Stewart and Thomas Parkin Scott for a burial ground were: John M. Dyer, Leon Dyer, Lewis Silver, Levi Benjamin, Joseph Osterman, Solomon Hunt, S. A. Waterman, Leonard Levy, Levy Collmus, M. A. Cohen, Jacob Aaron, Samuel Benjamin, Semon Moses, Jacob Abrahams, Joseph Dyer. Baltimore Land Records, WG 2 16, folio 507, Feb. 13,1832 (Maryland Hall of Records).

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his name in such documents? Here are background facts that cannot help but raise questions, despite their circumstantial nature. Last of all exists the puzzle of motivation. Would a long-time member of a Sephardic congregation have wished t o help his fellow worshippers-mostly relatively new immigrants from Western or Central Europe- organize a congregation of Ashkenazic tendency? Would he not have felt greater affinity in religious sentiment and ritual t o such established Baltimore residents as the Ettings-who had worshipped in Philadelphia's Sephardic Mikveh Israel Congregation-or the equally Sephardi-oriented Cohens, formerly of Richmond?" Not only was Rehin6 the uncle of Isaac Leeser, the spiritual leader of Mikveh Israel; he was also the husband of a member of the Judah family-a lady who could claim "Rabbi" Gershom Mendes Seixas of New York's Sephardic Shearith Israel as her uncle.12 On the other hand, it may have been precisely these illustrious family connections that made the RehinC story so attractive to local writers, A man linked to both the leading American Jewish religious leader of the first half of the nineteenth century and a notable patriot of the Revolutionary War era was an appealing choice as designate to the title of founding father of Baltimore's oldest congregation. A Household In Richmond

In the absence of the early records of the Baltimore congregation it seems mandatory to trace clearly the details concerning Zalma Rehind's date of arrival and early residence in the city, in the hope that some clues t o his association with the congregation's origins may come to light. Herbert T. Ezekiel and Gaston Lichtenstein, historians of Richmond Jewry, have presented the most detailed chronology of RehinC's life. Their material for his years in Richmond comes from such original documents as court records, deeds, and contemporary correspondence. For RehinC's experience in Baltimore, however, they rely solely on the previously published " Maxwell Whiteman, "Isaac Leeser and the Jews of Philadelphia," in Publications o f the American Jewish Historical Society, XLVllI (1959), 210; Ezekiel and Lichtenstein, pp. 30-31. Malcolm H. Stern, Americans o f Jewish Descent (Cincinnati, 1960), pp. 102, 109, 189.

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works and conclude that "Rehine, when seventy-two years of age, removed to Baltimore. Soon after his arrival in the Maryland metropolis, the Israelites of that city held in his home their first regular meeting for divine worship. Thus did his advent mark an epoch in the religious life of the c o m m ~ n i t y . " ' ~ Can contemporary material tell us more? Two likely sources are available: the city directory-which provides street addresses-was appearing in Baltimore at this time about every two years14 ; and the Federal census, which gives a once in a decade picture of residence by ward, was taken in 1830. Rehink's name does not appear in the Baltimore directory for 1829. This is not particularly surprising since the more reliable published statements indicate that he arrived in Baltimore in 1829, while the directory, published in June, would list only persons resident in the city in the first part of the year. He does appear in the next directory, published in 183 1, as resident at 1 5 Courtland, and again in the 1833 directory, where his address is given as "Holliday N. of Lucas's brewery." In 1835, the address is more formally given as "Holliday st. near Pleasant."' As these consecutive city directories testify, it is most improbable that a service was held at Rehink's home on Holliday Street in 1829 since his first known residence in Baltimore was on Courtland Street and-barring error in the directory-it was not until sometime between the appearance of the 183 1 and 1833 city directories that he moved to the Holliday Street location. Evidently one must conclude that the aged raconteur who, according to Miss Szold, remembered the occasion many decades later, erred in at least one respect. Very likely he was recalling a service at Rehink's Holliday Street home held in 1831 or later rather than before the chartering of the first congregation. Nevertheless, the remote possibility that he attended an earlier service but confused the address with that of RehinC's later residence must be explored. The identity of Miss Szold's witness now assumes especial importance since both her account and that of all Ezekiel and Lichtenstein, p. 39. Richmond city directories were nonexistent during this period. l 5 Matchett's Baltimore Directories, Corrected up t o June 1829 (Baltimore, 1829); Corrected up t o June 1831 (Baltimore, 1831); Corrected up to May 1833 (Baltimore, 1833); Corrected up t o September 1835 (Baltimore, 1835). l4

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subsequent writers hinges on his testimony. Miss Szold's statement that the service was attended by a "participant still living" furnishes a valuable clue t o his identity. Almost certainly her source was Jacob Ezekiel (1 81 2-1899), t o this writer's knowledge the only member of the early community still alive within a half-decade of her article's date of publication.' In his memoir, Ezekiel wrote a rather detailed account of his residence in Baltimore, which happened t o be from "the latter part of 1833" t o "the month of April, 1834."17 By a not so strange coincidence this is precisely the time when RehinC lived on Holliday Street. We now turn to the last available source of clarification of this issue: the 1830 census. The manuscript returns for the city of Baltimore fail t o reveal the presence of Zalma RehinC. Since only household heads were listed by name this is not conclusive proof that he had not yet arrived in the Monumental City; he and his wife may have been boarding with another family. On the other hand, this leaves open the distinct possibility that he may still have been residing in Richmond. A check of the 1830 returns for the Virginia capital shows that this supposition was indeed the case. Zalma RehinC's household is to be found in Richmond's Monroe ward; it was comprised of one white male aged 70-79 years (Zalma), one white female aged 60-69 years ( h s wife Rachel), one white female aged 20-29 years and one white female aged 10-19 years.' The census enumeration commenced in June, 1830, while a charter was granted t o the first Jewish congregation in Baltimore in February, 1830.19 Thus we have conclusive evidence that at a time when Baltimore's initial congregation was already functioning Rehint2 had not yet departed Richmond for the city whose historians later acclaimed him as founder of that pioneer body. l 6 At least one extant letter is evidence of communication between Henrietta SzoId and Jacob Ezekiel: See American Jewish Archives, XXVI (1974), 91. l 7 Joseph L. Blau and Salo W. Baron, The Jews of the United States, 1790-1840; A Documentary History (Philadelphia, 1963), 111, 873-74. l 8 There were also two slaves present. Manuscript 1830 census returns for Richmond, Va. (National Archives). The ~ e h i n ;s were childless. The two young women who boarded in their home were nieces, daughters of Rachel ~ e h i n 2 brothers, s Manuel and Moses. Manuel Judah, Will, Baltimore County Register of Wills, Liber 15, p. 156 (Maryland Hall of Records). l 9 Carroll D. Wright and William C. Hunt, The History and Growth o f the United States Census (Washington, 1900). p. 28; Laws Made and Passed by the General Assembly o f the State o f Maryland (Annapolis, 1830), chap. 140.

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Priest of the Jews

What were the actual circumstances of the first congregation's organization? Since history has left no accurate record, we must assume as probable an arduous struggle waged over months or even years by a group of immigrants attempting t o assemble for formal worship and finally meeting with success. The applicants to the legislature who requested incorporation were Levi Benjamin, Joseph Osterman, Moses Millem, Lewis Silver, and John M. Dyer.2o With the exception of the German-born Dyer, all were natives of the nether land^.^ We have no published information giving the name of the man who served as religious leader of this newly chartered group, but he is likely t o have been one Joseph Jacobs, who performed the marriage of Wilhelm Marshutz to Henrietta Behrens on July 1, 1830, a few months after the congregation was chartered. His leadership is attested t o in the 1831 city directory by his listing as "priest of the Jews"; it is also stated that he "manufactures chemical c o l o ~ r s . " ~ There is a lesson to be learned from this foray into Baltimore Jewish history, a lesson that may well apply elsewhere. Surely this Baltimore example is not unique in American Jewish historiography. Late twentieth-century writers would do well not to rely on some of the hearsay evidence of their predecessors, who often lacked scholarly training. Errors have all t o frequently been perpetuated from book to book. Verification by means of tedious search through all existing records is essential if fact is to bq reported, not fiction repeated.

Ibid. Blum, p. 9; Stern, p. 4; Baltimore American, October 8 , 1830; Baltimore Sun, September 6,1860; Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, X , 203. '' Baltimore Marriage Licenses, card file, Maryland Hall of Records; Matchett's Baltimore Directory (1 8 3 1). 20

Adventures in America and the Holy Land JULIUS C. KERMAN

The Reform rabbinate has never been uniform in its view of Jewish life, its attitude to Zionism, its sense o f Jewish communalism, or anything else! Rabbi Kerman, the author o f this memoir, is testimony to Reform rabbinical diversity. A native of Pinsk, Byelorussia, Kerman was eighteen when he immigrated to the United States in 1913. Ordained a rabbi at the Hebrew Union College in 1928, he went o n to serve congregations in the East, the Midwest, the Southwest, and the South. The following pages offer excerpts from Rabbi Kerman's autobiography "The Story of My Life," a manuscript deposited with the American Jewish Archives. I landed in New York City on September 13, 19 13, after a pleasant sea voyage which lasted two weeks. For several months I roomed with my friend Philip [Feldman, with whom I had begun first grade at "Dronzik's School'' in Pinsk]. My first two jobs did not even pay for my food and I was expected to work seven days a week. I dropped them both. But I was intoxicated with America and its freedom. On my way to and from work I passed several policemen who paid not the slightest attention to me. They did not care who I was and where 1 lived, what I did and where I went. I definitely liked them. I had no passport and didn't need any. Frequently I wanted to cry out, "Hurrah, I am a free man!" My third job was a definite improvement on the first two which had been in dark, dusty basements. This one was in a shirt factory. I folded shirts in a spacious loft with many windows; it was a bright and sunny place. My pay was $5 a week which was more than I had received before. Most of the workers were young women, German Catholics, as I learned later. There were a few Jewish boys also. It was an English-speaking shop, which I particularly liked. In the first two shops Yiddish was spoken, and I was anxious to learn English.

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At my table three girls were working. They were all older than me. They spoke to me, and I replied as best I could. Sometimes they used slang and laughed; I tried hard t o conceal my embarrassment and was too bashful t o ask the meaning of the words. My vis-a-vis neighbor had very attractive features and never used any make-up. Older than me, she had graduated from a parochial school. Once she asked me, "Julius, will you let me lie under your apple tree?" I answered quite simply: "I live in a rented room and don't have an apple tree." The girls around the table laughed uproariously. I must have looked very sheepish. Another girl from the other end of the loft said to me, "Julius, take me out some evening." "I have no money for that," I told her. "I'll pay all the expenses," she said. "I can't agree to that," was my firm reply. I devoted all my free time to the study of English. Several evenings a week I went to night school, which I found very helpful. I was promoted to the shipping department and given a raise. I was happy and planned to save a little money for a suit and shoes which I needed badly. But, after a couple of months, I had to go to Mount Sinai Hospital for a hernia operation. Since I was not yet of age, 1 needed my father's or a guardian's signature. I said that I had no relatives in America. My own signature was accepted. When I was discharged, two weeks after the operation, I was asked, "Where are you going for recuperation?" "To the people with whom I room." "Are they related to you?" "No." "How would you like to spend two weeks in the country?" "Oh, I have no money for that." I was assured that I did not need to worry about that. Since then I have always thought with gratitude about Mount Sinai Hospital and of the resort where I spent two very happy weeks and regained my strength. When I returned t o my room, I learned that my landlady had worried about me and that many other people on the block had shared her concern. A friend said to me, "You have no business working in a factory and dragging heavy cases. With your knowledge of Hebrew you can teach Hebrew here as you did at home." The first Hebrew school principal-a well-know'n educator-whom I went to see hired me after a short interview about my previous experience. "But you look so young," he remarked. "This is a girls' school. You'll have some pupils near your age and as big as you are." He advised me to raise a mustache, which I did for a few weeks.

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At that time I knew nothing about educational psychology. I had not even heard of the subject. I had had no course in class management. The university was still a distant dream to me, tucked away in the back of my mind. But I loved Hebrew and imparted that love to some of my pupils. The school had eight o r nine teachers. Every Friday afternoon we had teachers' meetings. I could tell that the principal, Mr. [Kalman?] Whiteman, was pleased with my work. Once I was absent from a meeting. A couple of days later I met one of the teachers. "You should be sorry you were not at the last meeting," he told me. "Mr. Whiteman told us, 'I wish all of you knew as much Hebrew as Kerman does.' " "On the contrary, I am glad," I answered. "If I had been there, he would not have said it." In the summer of 1916 all Hebrew schools closed because of an epidemic. I left for St. Louis, where I had an uncle whose favorite nephew 1 was. I worked in his grocery store and saved my money. The following year, in 1917, I enrolled at the University of Missouri in the School of Agriculture. My plan was to settle in Palestine after graduation. Into The Mississippi?

The first Saturday night I was taken by my roommate, an ardent Zionist like myself, to the meeting of the Menorah Society. The speaker was Professor Charles Elwood, a noted psychologist and head of the department of psychology. The substance of his talk was that, if the Jewish people were a nation of prophets, they would justify their separate existence, but, as merchants they did not do so. The students were impressed and awed. They began asking questions: "Professor, what shall we do?" "How shall we live?" I got up and said, "No person and no ethnic group has t o apologize for living. They have a right t o live because they were born. The ancient Hebrews were not a nation of prophets. The prophets were a small group of inspired individuals. Since we are not prophets, does the speaker expect us to jump into the Mississippi?" I read consternation on many faces. When we walked out of the building, two students confronted me and asked me angrily, "Do you realize whom you were contradicting?" My roommate defended me: "Kerman has a right to state his opinion." "Of course," one of them conceded, "but as a freshman who has been here only one week, he should be seen and not heard."

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I organized the student Poalei Zion Society. It became quite a popular and active group. Several townspeople who had been Poalei Zionists in the past joined and offered us their homes for meetings. They always served refreshments afterwards, which added t o the popularity of the group. But the posters o n the campus, which announced our meetings, were regularly torn down. I suspected my two chastisers. They were Isidor Lubin, a graduate student in economics, who years later became a consultant of the Jewish Agency, and Nathan Glaser, a senior in sociology, who became a professor of sociology and whose pro-Zionist articles I later read occasionally. Professor Jesse E. Wrench, head of the history department, was an odd but popular person o n the campus. Because of his initials, I used t o refer t o him as "Jew" Wrench. He visited the barber only rarely. He was past middle age, married, and the father of a cute little girl of eight o r nine. He loved the company of students and treated them as equals. He rented out a couple of rooms to students. In my time these lodgers were Jews and friends of my roommate. I frequently accompanied him when he went t o visit them. That is how I became closely acquainted with Professor Wrench. He always tried t o convince me that Zionism was an illusion. "History," he would argue, "is against the Zionist ideal." I countered with, "That depends on how one interprets history." Privately he said t o me, "When you have no speaker, invite me. I won't speak against Zionism. Personally I am not against the Zionist ideal." I don't remember whether I ever invited him t o our Zionist meetings or not. A t the beginning of the second semester he posted on the bulletin board a list of topics for semester papers. When he met me in the hall, he told me: "Add two o r three Jewish topics to my list." I felt flattered and did so. One topic, I remember, was something like this: "Palestine's Suitability for a Modern Jewish Homeland." One Jewish student picked this topic, and Professor Wrench sent him t o me for material-"This is Kerman's topic." It was the night of November 3, 1917. It was very cold and heavy snow lay on the ground. Persistent knocking on the door awakened me from a deep sleep. I switched o n the light. It was three o'clock. "Who could this be?" I mumbled t o my roommate, who was now also awake. I opened the door. Framed in the doorway stood Professor Wrench. His feet were stuck into deep boots, and over his pajamas he had on an overcoat. "Boys," he said, as soon as he had

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sat down, "I have wonderful news for you. I just read in the Kansas City Star that Great Britain has issued a statement today promising to facilitate the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine." "Is that the complete statement?" I asked. "No, he replied, "but that is the gist of it." "I would like to read the entire statement," I said. My roommate and I dressed quickly and all three of us walked over t o the Missouri Union, turned o n all the lights, spread out the Kansas City papers, and with the professor's aid easily found the item, dated November 2; it became known as the Balfour Declaration. The electrifying news, the cold air, made us wide awake. We returned t o our room and talked excitedly for a couple of hours. This I remember vividly: the professor asked me, "Julius, what are you going t o do now?" Unhesitatingly I answered, "If a Jewish military unit to fight in Palestine were organized now, I would enlist at once." When I enrolled in the university, I had $300 that I had saved up. T o stretch my savings, I delivered the university paper, The Missourian; this yielded me about $3 a week. Occasionally I would do some odd job. One day Dr. Granville D. Edwards, the dean of the Bible College [later renamed the Missouri School of Religion], who was in charge of the dormitory in which I roomed, came in t o examine the door lock, about which I had complained. A Hebrew magazine on my desk caught his attention; he opened it. "Can you read this?" he asked. When I answered in the affirmative, he asked me to read a few lines, which I did. "I can't read that well," he admitted. "Do you know Hebrew?" I asked. "I have a Ph.D. in Hebrew from Harvard," he answered. With some pride he recited [the opening words of Genesis] : 'B'reishith barah Elohim et hashomayim v'et ha-aretz." He continued, "We'll be able t o use you in our Bible College. In a couple of weeks Dr. [Alva] Taylor, our professor of Hebrew, will leave us. You can have his chair." I was elated: I wouldn't have to peddle papers any more. A couple of weeks later I stopped in his office and said, "Dean Edwards, I want to remind you of our conversation in my room two weeks ago." "You can occupy Dr. Taylor's chair tomorrow. But we have a by-law in our constitution that any one, employed by us, must be a member of our church." "What exactly does that mean?" "It does not mean conversion or baptism. You only have to enroll

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as a member; just sign your name." "No, thank YOU,"I replied, "I'll continue peddling papers." One morning, near the end of the year, as I was walking to the main building to take a final exam in English, I passed a newsstand. All the papers had big headlines: "Germans Occupy Pinsk." What about my parents and my three brothers? The question stuck in my mind and would not leave me. I took my seat and read over the examination questions on the board without comprehending them. I wrote my name on the paper and not another word. The question about my parents and my brothers kept gnawing at my mind. I had not heard from them for a couple of years. Because of the war, most of my letters t o them had been returned to me. I handed in a blank paper. A couple of days later I was called t o the professor's office. "What happened t o you? You didn't even try t o answer a single question." I explained. She looked very sympathetically at me. I was not worried. My scholastic standing, especially in English, was good. I'd worry about grades when I returned from the war alive. When I received my grades, I had Bplus in English. I joined the Jewish Legion of the British army. Jerusalem Out Of Bounds

The Jewish Legion's first camp was in Nova Scotia, Canada. Most of the volunteers came from the United States, and quite a few were Canadians. From there we were moved t o England. Our next stop was Tel-el-Kebir, Egypt, between Cairo and Alexandria. Here we were given a name: 40th at tali on, Royal Fusiliers. The only Jewish insignia we wore was a blue magen david on our sleeves. Most of the military training was done here. It seemed we were being prepared for combat. One evening a visiting general addressed us: "Shortly you will join the 38th and 39th Jewish Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers who are bravely fighting the Turks." Time passed and nothing happened. The boys were saying: "The politicians in London changed their minds about us. We have become a political football." David Ben Gurion and Itzhak Ben Zvi, who later became prime minister and president of Israel, respectively, joined us here. If they knew more than we did, they were not communicative. Finally we were moved t o Sarafand, Palestine [west of Lydda] .

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Several Zionist colonies and the city of Tel Aviv, a little town then, were within walking distance. Here our battalion was split in two. One half was attached to the 38th Battalion which had been brought back from the Jordan Valley where it had been entrenched opposite the Turks and had been depleted by malaria and war casualties. Among those that joined the 38th Battalion was my good friend from St. Louis, Nehemiah Rabin, who, after demobilization, remained in Palestine and married there. His son, Yitzhak, was the architect and hero of the Six-Day War, subsequently Israel's ambassador to the United States, and then prime minister. The rest of us became the 39th Battalion. We received a batch of new volunteers from the United States, but that was already after the armistice of November, 1918. These late arrivals were nicknamed the Tomashefskys, because the well-known actor and theatre owner Boris Tomashefsky, of New York, had treated them to a free show before their departure. The 40th Battalion was filled with all Palestinian volunteers, some of whom, like Moshe Shertok-Sharett, Levi Shkolnik-Eshkol, and others were later among the founders and leaders of the State of Israel. We were like a peace-time army, doing some military exercises and guard duty. In our free time we visited the nearby colonies and Tel Aviv, which we particularly enjoyed. Major Hopkins appointed me instructor of Hebrew. The major, a non-Jew, advised me: "Don't use the old-fashioned method of translation." Raising the book he had in his hand, he said, "Zeh sefer." He gave me the book and added, "This is the first book in our Battalion Library, and I appoint you librarian. We'll get some money for books from the Jewish Welfare Board of America." That same afternoon many soldiers registered for the study of Hebrew, among them a couple of fanatical Yiddishists. I also taught Hebrew privately to two officers who offered to pay me, which I refused, saying that the time I gave them belonged t o King George. The library grew. Wherever I went, I asked for books. I visited all writers; they proved very generous. When I was mustered out, the library had 3,000 volumes in Hebrew, English, and Yiddish, and a few in Russian. The library offered me much pleasure. Some readers of Hebrew came back for explanation of words which they could not understand. Because I was the librarian, I was offered promotion to sergeant, which I refused, saying that I wanted to remain everybody's equal.

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I received a letter from Berl Katzenelson, the editor of the Kuntres, the forerunner of the daily Davar, asking me t o describe life in the battalion. A few days later Katzenelson called on me in person and said, "I sent requests t o every battalion, and I liked your answer best: it was brief, and gave a clear picture of life in the battalion. How would you llke t o join our staff as foreign editor: t o read and write u p foreign news for the Kuntres?" I told him that I could not accept his flattering invitation, because I planned to return t o the United States t o finish my studies. The outstanding officers were Lieutenant Vladimir Jabotinsky and Colonel John Henry Patterson. Jabotinsky, the father of the Jewish Legion, was a man with many gifts. He was attached t o the 38th Battalion. Colonel Patterson, commander of the 38th Battalion, was an admirer of Jabotinsky and helped him organize the Legion in London. He came to see me to inquire whether I could sell in our library some of the books about the Legion he had written. Casually he asked, "Will you remain in Palestine?" I told him, "I have t o return t o the States to finish my studies." He turned his back o n me and walked away. "I don't want to talk t o you," he threw over his shoulder. Patterson was an interesting person. In the evening of the seventh day of Passover, when the 38th Battalion gathered for the evening meal, Patterson stood u p and delivered the following little talk: "Boys, you may think that, because I am a goy, I don't know the law. I do know the law. Our camp is outside the traditional boundaries of Eretz Israel [the Holy Land] and, according to tradition, eight days of Passover are celebrated here. In Sarafand, where the 37th Battalion is encamped tonight, it is already after Passover, and they are served leavened bread. We'll get leavened bread tomorrow." Before Passover, orders came from GHQ that Jerusalem was out of bounds t o Jewish troops. I was incensed, but kept my resentment t o myself. My St. Louis friend, Nehemiah Rabin, of the 38th Battalion, came t o visit me. I told him, "I am planning t o visit Jerusalem during Passover in spite of the prohibition." "But what about a pass?" I showed him my book of signed passes. "This is a reward for my knowledge of Hebrew," I told him. "1'11 go with YOU,"he said. When we got off the train at the Jerusalem station, two M. P.'s stopped us. "Jerusalem is out of bounds to you chaps." We showed them our passes. "These passes are 0. K., but we have orders which we must carry out," they said firmly. I said, "Listen, buddies, all

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our lives we have been dreaming about the Holy City and the Western Wall, and now that we are here, should we be denied the privilege? What would you d o if you were in our place?" They were silent a while, exchanged glances, and the N. C. 0 . said, "Go ahead, but keep out of our way." Daniel Still Spoke Hebrew

In October, 1919, I was mustered out of the army. I obtained a job teaching Hebrew in a town not far from St. Louis. About two years later I married Ethel Vogel, of St. Louis (who now, in 1974, has been my wife for more than fifty years). We settled in Kansas City, Mo., where I had been offered a more remunerative job. After receiving my college degree, I wrote t o the Hebrew Union College, applying for admission t o the rabbinical school. In my letter I mentioned that I would have t o work in order t o earn a living. A prompt and terse reply arrived: "Poor students are not encouraged to come." I was angry: Did they accept only sons of millionaires? I had worked my way through the academic college; why couldn't I do so while attending the rabbinical school? I tore up the letter and threw it away. I tried t o put the rabbinate out of my mind, but it lingered in the back of my head. I was offered the principalship of a large Hebrew school in St. Louis and cheerfully accepted. I loved my wife, her family, the city she came from, where I had spent several pleasant years and had many friends. I became acquainted with Dr. Samuel Sale, rabbi emeritus of Temple Shaare Emeth, the oldest Reform congregation in St. Louis. He asked me to read modern Hebrew with him, particularly Ahad Haam and Bialik. We met twice a week. After every session he would say to me, "You don't have to be a Hebrew teacher; you should be a rabbi." I told him of my experience with the Hebrew Union College. "Don't let that discourage you; try again. Don't write, go down and talk t o Dr. Morgenstern. You'll find that he remembers YOU." He persuaded me. One Saturday evening in the fall of 1925 I took the train for Cincinnati and arrived there the following morning. Our son, Daniel, was seven months old, and he babbled a few Hebrew words. Hebrew was his first language. Remembering my unfortunate try of four years earlier, I entered Dr. Morgenstern's office, introduced myself, and mentioned that Dr. Sale had presented me to him when the rab-

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binical conference was held in St. Louis. "I have a bachelor's degree," I told him. "Here is my diploma. I would like to enroll as a student of the college" "We want students like you," he replied graciously. I asked for advanced standing. "See the various professors, and whatever credit they give you, is yours." I met Dr. Abraham Z. Idelsohn in the hall. I recognized him because I had seen his picture. I knew that he had been a teacher of music in Jerusalem. I addressed him in Hebrew, which pleased him. After a short conversation, he said to me, "I give you credit for all my courses." Dr. Jacob Z. Lauterbach, professor of Talmud, asked me to read and explain a page of the Mishnah. I was granted credit for that. Professor Henry Englander asked me to read the biblical commentaries of Rashi, Ibn Ezra, and Radak. He was satisfied. Be began quizzing me on Hebrew grammar. I answered all his questions satisfactorily. After my next answer, he exclaimed boyishly: "I knew I would catch you! You are wrong this time." He stated his opinion. I was neither frightened nor confused. Quoting a verse from Job, I explained that this verb had two roots, which made both of us right. He thought a while and said, "I accept your opinion. Why didn't you come here last year?" he asked. "What would have happened?" "I was sick a long time and you could have taught my classes." I thanked him for the compliment; I wanted to cry out, "You kept me out of here!" But he looked so gentle and honest that it was hard to believe that he had been the author of that bureaucratic letter I had received four years earlier. We often walked home together, and I found him to be a gentle and lovable person. After two hours I reported to President Morgenstern. "I have to receive the official reports from the professors, but you may assume that you are already a student of the Hebrew Union College." Since the college had no accommodations for students with families, we found a small apartment not far from the school and adjusted ourselves quickly to the life of a student. I soon started earning some money, almost enough to cover our living expenses. I tutored two fellow students who had difficulty with Hebrew. I read the Hebrew text for an elderly rabbi who was working on his D.D. I taught several children of a very wealthy family who paid very well. (This was on President Morgenstern's recommendation.) Every Sunday I taught Jewish history to an adult group at the

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Bureau of Jewish Education. (This, too, paid very well.) My wife and I did translation work for the B'nai B'rith, which then had its main office in Cincinnati. We translated letters, pamphlets, and magazine articles from French, German, Hebrew, and Yiddish. Even Russian material came occasionally. We did all these translations at home and then returned them t o the B'nai B'rith office. During two summer vacations that we spent in Cincinnati, I worked a t the B'nai B'rith office full time. Adding up the annual scholarships that I received and the bi-weekly position that I had in Hamilton, Ohio, during my senior year, we knew n o want. My wife was more helpful than a part-time bread winner. Endowed with a keen sense of the English language, she made valuable linguistic suggestions in my written work. She had read German and French classics in the original. We also read Hebrew together, both the Bible and secular literature. Thus she developed a working Hebrew vocabulary. When Daniel was three months old, I suggested that we raise him on the Hebrew language. Doubtfully she said, "How can I teach him Hebrew if I don't know it myself?" "You know enough t o make a start. In the evening I'll give you the names of a few objects in this room, which you'll teach him during the day. We'll regard this as an experiment." Danny was a good sleeper. Put t o bed a t 6 P. M., he would sleep till 6 in the morning. He did not wake u p crying, but instead would repeat t o himself the Hebrew words he had heard during the previous day. "He is doing his home work now,'' I joked. We enjoyed it. When he had learned a couple of verbs, we heard him use verbal forms which he had not been taught. "The language is growing within him naturally," I said. "I think our experiment is succeeding." While teaching him, my wife learned t o speak Hebrew. During my second year, I used t o carry him every Saturday morning t o the college chapel for religious services. Seeing so many students milling around, he exclaimed, "Zoi, zoi, kamah anashim!" [What a lot of people!] T h e students looked at him with amazement. Prof. Samuel Cohon, a fine Hebraist, warned me, "Julius, you are making a mistake teaching your child Hebrew. He will never know English well." President Morgenstern said, "When the boy graduates high school, I want him here." I replied, "It will be u p t o him." Several years later, when I was already a functioning rabbi, Prof. Cohon surprised us with a visit. He dropped by the

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house to inquire whether "Daniel still spoke Hebrew." I told him, "Even his little brother, David, speaks Hebrew now." Danny was about five years old when he learned to read Hebrew. He would sit on my lap, and I would teach him the Bible. No translation was used, because he already spoke Hebrew fluently. He also read children's Hebrew books. He grew up bilingually and graduated high school with honors at the age of sixteen. His younger brother, David, also had a good command of Hebrew and English. My three years at the Hebrew Union College passed pleasantly. As the third and last year was drawing to an end, I began wondering what kind of community might be allotted to me. Prof. Lauterbach, who was friendly, recommended me t o two congregations in the South. The reply was, "Under no circumstances would we consider a candidate who was born in Eastern Europe." Having been fortified by reading Sholem Aleichem about the attitude of German Jews toward the Ostjuden, I did not even react. Stay Home And Hear The Rabbi

In my forty-three years in the rabbinate I served several communities, enjoying everywhere happy relationships with young and old. The thought that I have influenced some persons t o think and live more Jewishly makes me happy. Some became close and devoted friends from whom we hear often, either by mail or by telephone. As a civilian chaplain I regularly visited five air bases in Texas and New Mexico. Utilizing these visits, I organized five Jewish communities which I served regularly. I was nicknamed the "Bishop of the South Plains." In Lubbock, Texas, I taught Hebrew t o a small group of Christians-four Methodists and one Presbyterian, the latter a professor of biology at Texas Technological College. A Christian lady, a Methodist, had initiated the project. She had started coming regularly to Sabbath eve services. She acquired a Union Prayer Book, learned many of its prayers by heart, and used them in devotionals at the ladies' meetings of her church. Once she said to me, "Now that I know your English prayers, which are beautiful, I'd like t o learn them in Hebrew." I told her, "I won't give you private lessons, but if you organize a little group, 1'11 be glad to teach them." They came to our house every Saturday afternoon

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and in three months they learned to read Hebrew and had already begun to read the Hebrew Bible. They were in the holiday mood and said, "The Bible in Hebrew tastes altogether different!" This continued as long as we were in Lubbock. When it became known that I had accepted a new post, the leader of the group said to me, "I want to be the last one t o speak with you when you leave." I objected, "You'll have t o get up too early; we plan t o leave at 5 A. M." At 5 o'clock in the morning our telephone rang; after wishing us good luck in our new post, she added: "You ministers are terrible: You come to a town, make friends, and suddenly you leave, and you don't care how many hearts you break." In Lubbock, I started t o speak on the radio and continued t o broadcast regularly wherever I served until I retired from the rabbinate. I received "fan mail" from various communities in Texas and New Mexico. When I preached on the Twenty-third Psalm, I received sixteen requests for copies from a Presbyterian church. A very prominent Episcopal woman in Lubbock was asked why she had been absent from church a number of times. She answered, "Why should I go to church to listen t o our preacher? I can stay home and hear the rabbi." My last post was Jamestown, N. Y., seventy miles from Buffalo, where our son Daniel is rabbi of Temple Beth Am. In Jamestown, instead of taking it easy, as I had hoped to do, I was busier than ever before. Unable to say no, I spoke in nearly every church in town, in some more than once, and in several out-of-town churches. Public school and church school teachers, including those of Catholic schools, brought their pupils t o see the temple and t o listen to explanations of Judaism. As a result I received many requests for copies of my radio talks. One evening in July, 1959, the chaperone of the Chautauqua Junior Orchestra called up to ask "whether two Jewish young ladies-members of the Junior Orchestra, Barbara Wolfson of Temple Beth Zion, and Betty Shine of Temple Beth Am of Buffalo, may attend your Sabbath eve services." "Of course, they may, but it is only a brief service, lasting only fifteen minutes; it is conducted by a layman and there is no sermon. It is hardly worthwhile traveling fifteen miles each way." "Well, then," she asked, "would you come to Chautauqua Saturday morning?" "Since I don't have services in Jamestown on Saturday morning, I'll be glad t o come t o Chautauqua at 10 o'clock." The lady was pleased. It was a

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lovely July morning. Taking twelve copies of the Union Prayer Book with us, my wife and I drove into Chautauqua Institution and reported as directed to the Hall of Missions. About thirtyfive young people waited for us. Among them was a fine young cantor and his wife, an excellent choir director. The place looked inviting. There were lovely flowers on the pulpit, provided by the mission ladies in charge of the hall. We felt at home, and the services were well received. Services followed on subsequent Saturday mornings; the number of worshipers increased from week to week, until we were cramped for space. I looked for a larger place but found none. One Saturday morning we were told that Judge W. Walter Braham, the president of Chautauqua Institution, did not approve of our services and that the Hall of Missions was no longer available to us. I promptly called on the president. He told me, "This is a Christian institution and it isn't right that Jews should hold services here." Through the window of the president's office my whole congregation-a goodly number-could be seen awaiting the outcome of my negotiations. Wishing to avoid a religious disputation, I said, "I would hate to go back to Jamestown and report that I was not allowed t o hold services in Chautauqua." For a moment Judge Braham was lost in thought. He knew that the president of my congregation in Jamestown was chairman of the Chautauqua fund raising committee. He picked up the telephone and called the Hall of Missions: "Let the rabbi conduct services until he makes other arrangements." We returned to the Hall of Missions. I called on the Episcopal bishop, William Crittenden, who was a member of the board of Chautauqua Institution. I found him to be a kindly person with a sense of humor. He said to me, "I'm glad you are in trouble; this way I got t o meet you." He was very encouraging: "I am 100 percent for you to hold services on the grounds. The majority of the board is for it, too. The judge will quit in a couple of weeks; his time is up. Hurlbut Memorial Church is the only church on the grounds that does not belong to the Institution. 1'11 speak to Rev. Aldrich." I knew the Rev. Aldrich, and his church knew me, as I had spoken there twice. Besides, my Sunday morning radio programs were popular in the area, and I received many requests for copies of my talks. I also received encouragement from Dr. Randall, a retired Congregationalist minister. He visited me in my study to assure me that I had the good will of the

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board of trustees of the Hurlbut Memorial Church. Shortly after that I received a short note from him: "I am bedridden. I listen regularly to your Sunday morning radio talks. God bless you for your contribution to the religious life of the community." A couple of weeks later Rev. Aldrich telephoned me: "Last night my Board of Trustees voted unanimously to let you hold services in our church." He was very happy and so was I. I conducted services there for twelve years. During that time three different ministers served the church; they were all equally kind, helpful, and considerate. At first we used a large hall, the church's social hall. Then one minister said to me, "I see no reason why you can't hold services in our sanctuary." There was a portable cross on the table, but we never saw it on Saturday morning: the minister always removed it and put it out of sight. The church even stored our property from Saturday to Saturday, and at the end of the season: our prayer books, Hebrew Bibles, yarmelkes (skull caps), and taleisim (prayer shawls); all these were safely stored until the following year. The church always received an annual gift from the Chautauqua Hebrew Congregation; it was always voluntary. Our services lasted exactly one hour: from 10 A. M. to 11 A. M. My sermons usually lasted no more than 10 minutes, based either on the scriptural [pentateuchal] portion of the week or on its Haftarah [prophetic portion] ; occasionally on an important Jewish event or personality. We adopted the Union Prayer Book, not for ritual reasons, but for convenience. I read as much Hebrew as time permitted. Yarmelkes and taleisim were optional. The number and character of worshipers were most interesting. They came from all religious backgrounds: from extreme Orthodoxy to radical Reform, and from different homes and various states and Canada. Some Christians also attended our services. One Christian professor of Bible from an Ohio college never missed a service. He told me once, "I always learn something here and then I pass it on t o my students." The attendance was small at the beginning of the season, but it grew from week t o week until it exceeded 200, all vacationists. They represented all segments of the Jewish population in North America. The relationships were ideal. They all appreciated the opportunity to worship. Their participation was inspiring. Quite a few knew and chanted the Haftarah [weekly

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prophetic portion] in the best traditional manner. On leaving, some engaged me in a Hebrew conversation which I enjoyed very much. One of them was a professor at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, Israel. ARCHIVES PUBLICATIONS

The Jew and the American Revolution by Jacob R. Marcus The Jew and the American Bicentennial by Jacob R. Marcus Rabbi Carigal Preaches in Newport Edited by Stanley F. Chyet The Event is With the Lord Edited by Stanley F. Chyet The Jews o f Coro, Venezuela by Isaac S. Emmanuel Historical Essay on the Colony of Surinam-1 788 Translated by Simon Cohen Dr. Marcus examines the experience of North American Jewry during the period of the American Revolution. (Brochure-individual copy free on request) Dr. Marcus surveys the significance of the Bicentennial for American Jewry. (Brochure-Individual copy free o n request) Dr. Chyet wrote the foreword t o , and annotated, the first Jewish sermon preached and published in North America. (Pamphlet-individual copy free o n request) Dr. Chyet edited and wrote the introduction to a letter from Ezra Stiles t o Haim Isaac Carigal describing the battle of Bunker Hill. (Pamphlet-individual copy free o n request) Dr. Emmanuel's work, his last research and posthumously published, recalls the history of a distinguished Latin-American Jewish community from its eighteenth-century beginnings. (pamphlet) Dr. Cohen translated from its original French an important apologetic work reflecting the Jewish experience in Dutch Guiana. (hard-cover) Address inquiries t o the Director of the American Jewish Archives, Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45220.

Asser Levy-A Postscript T o the Editors American Jewish Archives Dear Sirs: Your readers may be interested in the following items evoked by my article "Asser Levy-A New Look at Our Jewish Founding Father" (AJA, vol. XXVI, No. 1, April 1974, pp. 66-77): Rabbi Dr. Bernhard Brilling, German historian, has informed me that Valentine van der Wilden and his son Simon Valentine van der Wilden came from Vilna, Lithuania, a community referred t o in seventeenth-century Dutch records as "der Wilden." Thus there were Litvaks in America in 1680. Asser Levy's death date in the administration of his affairs is recorded as February 1, 168112. (The dual dating refers t o January and February of the following year.) In 168112-i.e., within a month of Asser Levy's death-Joseph Bueno de Mesquita purchased a plot of ground "for a Jew Burying Place," which became the present Chatham Square Cemetery. (See David de Sola Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone [N.Y., 19521, pp. 1 0 f.) Since Stuyvesant had granted "a little hook of land" t o the Jews as a burying place in February, 1656 (ibid., p. 8), and since, as our article and other sources indicate, there were few Jews in New York-indeed, Levy may have been the only one between 1660 and 1680-why the need for a new cemetery? I believe that the answer is t o be found in the fact that Levy had attracted a growing group of his Ashkenazic relatives. As is well known from other colonial sources, the Ashkenazim and Sephardim were ritually far apart. It is our belief that Joseph Bueno, a Sephardi, purchased his plot in order t o be separated from Asser Levy and his kin. Respectfully submitted, Malcolm H. Stern

The Jewish Settlement on St. Paul's Lower West Side LORRAINE E. PIERCE

St. Paul's Lower West Side was home to several ethnic groups before East European Jews began settling there in the 1880's. The neighborhood was located on a bend of the Mississippi River across from the main business district of the city, and because it was subject t o periodic flooding it was always an area of low rentals attractive t o new immigrants. The East European Jews who came to St. Paul in the 1880's were not the first Jews t o settle in the city, but they were the first to settle on the Lower West Side. The Jews who had emigrated to St. Paul in the 18507s, 1860's, and 1870's were largely from Germany and Austria. They were a part of the general Central European emigration of those decades, and they settled in other parts of St. Paul. The Jews who began to arrive on the Lower West Side from Russia, Lithuania, Poland (these latter two part of the Russian Empire at that time), and Roumania were fleeing from persecutions and pogroms in their homelands and usually arrived with little more than the clothes on their backs. Anti-Semitism had always been present in Russia and Eastern Europe, but the Jews living in the Russian empire had been comparatively better off during the reign of Czar Alexander I1 (1855188 1). Then with the reign of Czar Alexander 111 (1881-1894), the situation deteriorated for the Jews and pogroms and massacres of Jews were often deliberately incited by the government. The infamous May Laws of 1882 crippled Jewish economic activity, prohibited the free movement of Jews to and from the "Pale" (the area where Jews had been allowed t o settle), and often expelled Jews from areas where they had previously been allowed t o live. Thus, the Jews were in a desperate situation. After each

The author is a Ph.D. candidate in American social and ethnic history at Michigan State University.

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successive wave of terror, Jews left Russia (and other East European countries where the situation was just as oppressive) in ever-increasing numbers; the number of emigrants varied with the extent of that year's pogroms. Friction Between Old And New

The first of these Russian Jews to come t o St. Paul arrived early in 1882, and, as Rabbi W. Gunther Plaut states: "Suddenly, without much planning, thousands of families fled in fright and found their way t o London and New York. Without provisions or funds they had been sent westward; and without previous warning 200 refugees came to St. Paul in early 1882.'" In July, 1882, 235 more Jews arrived, also in desperate straits. They were without food, and many wore nothing but rags. The Jewish community in St. Paul did what they could for these new arrivals, but were unable all by themselves to cope with the situation, The members of Mount Zion Temple-German and Austrian Jews-went to the mayor and the'city of St. Paul for help, and as a newspaper report put it: "This is the first time that the Hebrew people in the cause of charity have been compelled t o issue a call for assistance. Let it be nobly responded to, and with the least delay p ~ s s i b l e . " ~ The refugees were first housed in the Railroad Immigrant House in the city, and after a few days were moved t o a school. The city contributed $500 in addition to the use of the school, the Mayor's Emergency Fund gave $100, and the Chamber of Commerce gave $500. While housed in the school, the refugees were given food, clothing, and medical care if necessary; even a barber was brought in "to cut the children's hair, much to the dismay of many parents whose religious scruples were offended by the p r ~ c e d u r e . " It ~ was not long before the immigrants were able t o find work in St. Paul's expanding labor market, either as skilled or unskilled workers, and t o move into their own living quarters. Jewish refugees continued t o arrive in St. Paul in large numbers throughout the 1880's, and most of them settled in the Lower West Side. Some of the Jews moving into the still quite sparsely

' W. Gunther Plaut, Mount Zion 1856-1956(St. Paul,

1956), p. 55.

Zbid.,p. 56. Plaut, The Jews in Minnesota (New York, 1959), p. 94.

Agudas Achim Synagogue in St. Paul, Erected in 1909

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settled area built their own small houses as soon as possible, while others moved into homes vacated by Germans leaving the quarter. On the whole, however, there was no mass movement out of the Lower West Side by the French, Irish, and Germans already there when the Jewish immigrants started moving in. According to Rabbi W. Gunther Plaut, the historian of the Minnesota Jewish community: "The slow, steady growth of the Jewish community burst into uncontrollable expansion. The older immigrants and their American-born children suddenly found themselves in the minority. Now, as never before, there were desperate, widespread poverty and urgent want."4 While the older Jewish settlers did what they could t o help the refugees, there was some friction between the two groups. "As in every large-scale immigration," writes Plaut, "the newcomers represented a psychological threat t o the established order. They could not fail t o influence the older Jewish settlers' sense of security. Consequently, the lines of 'German' and 'Russian-Polish' were drawn ever more sharply."' Moreover, Mount Zion's members were Reform Jews and were taken aback by the customs and practices of the Orthodox refugees. On the other hand, these Deutsche Yehudim no doubt seemed equally strange to the Orthodox residents of the Lower West Side. There were cultural and social differences as well, and, as Plaut says, "the cultural, social and religious interests of the two groups were or appeared to be in~ompatible."~ Most of the new arrivals o n the Lower West Side-single men or families-immediately began saving their money to bring over the relatives and friends who still remained in the Old Country. This was no easy task, since the immigrants had to work hard just for the bare necessities of life for themselves. It was not an easy life, but a lighter side can be found, as William Hoffman relates in his reminiscences: Wives and families were brought over from the old country with $300 loans for steamship tickets, sometimes payable in five years by weekly payments at an interest rate of six percent. Once having brought a family over, more loans were made t o bring over immediate relatives, who, as the old familiar complaint went, never appreciated it anyway. And just as soon as Plaut,IlIount Zion, p. 56. Ibid., p . 58. Plaut, Minnesota, p. 110.

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these relations who "didn't appreciate it" had a roof over their heads and a thin and precarious livelihood in sight, they in turn sent for other relatives who, of course, also "didn't appreciate." So, in time, the West Side was populated with nothing but "didn't appreciators."7

In a more serious vein, it should be noted that as an example of how these people saved to bring relatives over to join them, William Hoffman's own father survived literally on peanuts for months in order to save the money to bring his family to St. P a ~ l . ~ With Jewish immigrants continuing to flock to the Lower West Side throughout the 1880's and 189OYs,it is no surprise that the area was predominantly Jewish by the mid-1890's. Many of the Jews earned their livelihood as workers in the garment and needlework industries in downtown St. Paul, and there were also quite a few peddlers, junk dealers, and small neighborhood store owners. III starting any little businesses of their own, the would-be peddler, junk dealer, store owner, or what-have-you usually found it necessary to borrow money from a loan association. Most of these loan associations were not out to make what they could off their clients, but were often, according t o Hoffman, "the real heroes of many little Jewish communities struggling to maintain a precarious foothold."9 Hoffman describes the usual loan process involved, in this case to open a little store, as follows: T o open a little store, the husband would take out a maximum loan of $300, and his wife would make another loan for the same amount. With this $600 in cash, it was a relatively simple matter to secure an additional $600 in credit. With $1 200, you could really open up a well-stocked store without fearing a run on case goods. After all, nobody bought more than a dollar's worth on any trip and since it would take 1200 customers at that rate to empty the shelves, and since at one time it seemed as though there were 1200 little grocery stores, there was little danger of selling out to the bare walls. The prevailing merchandising philosophy, of course, was, "So if we don't sell it, the family will eat it," and many did.10

In spite of the fact that the great majority of immigrants were working hard t o get a start, criticism of them "was often harsh and praise frequently condescending." Plaut states that one Jewish William Hoffman, Tales o f Hoffman (Minneapolis, 1961), p. 63.

' Oliver Towne, column in the St. Paul Dispatch, Dec. 5 , 1957. Hoffman, Tales. p. 65. Ibid., pp. 64-65.

lo

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writer called the immigrants "pretty unmanageable, especially when advised t o begin working and getting their $10.00 a week, which is an easy thing in this growing city." This was, again in Plaut's words, a "gratuitous and especially misplaced barb-for if the immigrant knew one thing, it was hard, back-breaking work."' ' A Spokesman For The West Side

The residents of the Lower West Side were, of course, interested in more than employment, although that was necessarily of prime importance. Their Orthodox Jewish faith was of the utmost importance t o them, and they wasted no time before organizing congregations. The different nationality groups formed separate congregations, and the two largest were Russian congregations. One of the Russian groups held its first services in Rutchik's Hay and Feed Store prior t o their building a synagogue, B'nai Zion, for $20,000 in 190 1. The cornerstone was laid in July, 1902, and at the dedication o n September 14, 1902, the steps broke under the large assembly.12 By 1907 they had 1,350 members in 175 families (indicating that the average family size was between seven and eight). They operated two Hebrew schools with 175 pupils, teaching customs and ceremonies, the Talmud, and Hebrew sight-reading and translation. Their auxiliaries were the Daughters of Zion, the Hachnosis Orchirn [sheltering home], the Young Men's Aid Society, and the Ladies' Aid Society.' The other Russian group, the Russian Brotherhood, met in a building on Kentucky Street for several years, with daily servicesand several auxiliary societies.' In 1909 they built a new synagogue, Agudas Achim. There was also the Texas Street shul-the original building was built in 1889, and when it was damaged by fire a new structure was built in 1923. This was the smallest synagogue in the area. Other congregations, which either leased quarters or built synagogues o n the Lower West Side, were Congregation Beth Hamedrash Hagodol, Congre-

'

Plaut, Minnesota, p. 111. Ibid., p. 1 1 6 . l 3 "History of the Jews of Minneapolis and St. Paul," in Reform Advocate (Chicago, 19071, p. 4 5 . l 4 Ibid. l2

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gation Sharey Hesed Woemet, and Congregation B'nai Israel. The above description of the different congregations has some gaps in it, and one of the reasons for this is described by Hoffman: "Each of the schuls has a colorful history, but . . . for the most part their records have disappeared and at least in several instances it is common knowledge that a defeated secretary was unhappy with his newly-elected successor and threw his books away either out of spite or because he joined another congregation."' Most of these congregations joined in forming an Orthodox congregational union and engaged a chief rabbi. The first chief rabbi was Abraham E. Alperstein, who served for only a short time. Rabbi Herman Simon became rabbi of the West Side Congregations in 1888, and "in the years following established himself firmly as the spokesman for the West Side."l His most significant contribution to the Jewish community was his leadership in the drive for a Hebrew Institute on the West Side. The St. Paul Hebrew Institute and Sheltering Home became a reality in 19 1 1-the cornerstone .was laid in May, 191 1, and the building was formally dedicated on November 6, 191 1, with Rabbi Isaac L. Rypins of Mount Zion Temple as the major speaker. The new edifice was, as Plaut states, "what could then be rightly considered a splendid building."' The Institute was the Lower West Side's Talmud Torah, and its major function was the education of children, which up t o this time had been offered in Mr. Bromberg's Cheddar.18 The Institute also became the social center of Jewish community life-prior t o this, weddings and other celebrations had been held in the Royal Arcaneum Hall in downtown St. Paul.19 The Sheltering Home housed and fed many of the new immigrants when they first arrived on the Lower West Side and served in this way until the flow of Jewish immigrants stopped in the 1920's. Perhaps the single most important institution in the life of the Lower West Side was Neighborhood House. Neighborhood House had its beginnings in 1893, when the Mount Zion Temple Ladies I s Hoffman, "A Proud Era Is Gone," in the American Jewish World, September 28, 1962, p. 16. ' PIaut, Minnesota, p. 203. l 7 Ibid., p.226. l 8 Hoffman, Those Were the Days (MinneapoIis, 1957), pp. 22-23. ' Ibid.

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Hebrew Benevolent Society's Jewish Relief Society, led by Mrs. Sophie Wirth, started sewing classes for the children of the new Jewish immigrants on the Lower West Side. Two years later they had expanded the program, and Mrs. Wirth had requested and gotten the use of Mount Zion's vestry rooms for the classes. In 1897 they rented rooms on the Lower West Side, and at this time there were seventy-three girls enrolled.20 Rabbi Emanuel Hess and later Rabbi Rypins (who came to Mount Zion in 1899) as well as members of Mount Zion also helped with the classes-Rabbi Rypins taught English in the evening school-but the guiding force was Sophie Wirth. Mrs. Wirth, who had been born in Germany and had come to the United States at an early age, was, according to Rabbi Plaut, "St. Paul's outstanding symbol of the Jewish volunteer social worker" and served as vice-president of the National Conference of Jewish C h a r i t i e ~ .Mrs. ~ ~ Wirth also helped found a Jewish Day Nursery on the Lower West Side, but since "it was found that Jewish mothers would not readily consent to leave their children in someone else's care," the nursery was later taken over by Neighborhood House on a nonsectarian basis.22 On July 5, 1900, efforts toward special quarters on the Lower West Side were rewarded when Neighborhood House opened its doors at 153 Robertson Street in a rented building. In its first few years of operation, Neighborhood House's program focused on the teaching of the English language, "explaining the customs and ideals of their adopted country t o children and adults, and teaching sewing to the young girls of the c o m r n ~ n i t y . " ~It~soon became obvious, however, that the needs of the community required a broader program. There were fears and frictions among the different ethnic groups residing in the area-the Jews had little in common with the older immigrant groups, and often even with fellow Jews who had come from different parts of Eastern Europe. Thus, in 1903, Neighborhood House was reorganized on a nonsectarian basis. Catholics, Protestants, and others joined the Jews of Mount Zion in the effort t o improve the common lot of, and to "Americanize," the residents of the Lower West Side. However, Plaut, Minnesota, p. 153. Ibid. 2 2 Ibid., p. 225. '' NeighborhoodHouse 1897-1947 ( S t . Paul, 1947), p. 4, 20

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Mount Zion's rabbis always served on Neighborhood House's Board, emphasizing the Temple's original relationship to the institution. The first regular staff members of Neighborhood House were hired in 1903 and consisted of two full-time paid workers and seven volunteers; they operated Neighborhood House that first year on a budget of $959.89.24 Only One Telephone

The English classes slowly but surely began to overcome the language barriers which separated neighbors from one another, and the classes in "Americanization" and citizenship especially helped the most recent immigrants to learn the customs, practises, and traditions of their new homeland, a way of life perplexingly different from the one they had left behind. The values of the different cultural contributions of each ethnic group to American life were emphasized, and there were aIso recreational programs for the children. Neighborhood House expanded rapidly in its first decade and soon became an integral and vital part of life on the Lower West Side. In 1905 the first night school was opened with students from MacAlester College serving as volunteer teachers, and in 1907 a paid teacher from the St. Paul Institute of Letters and Science opened additional classes in English and citizenship. Also around this time a branch of the St. Paul Public Library was established in Neighborhood House, making reading material available in both English and foreign languages. In 1908, a visit by Jane Addams of Chicago's Hull House was quite an occasion for the staff and members of Neighborhood House. With rapid expansion it became necessary to find new and larger quarters, and in 19 10 Neighborhood House rented and occupied the building at 1.57 Robertson Street where it was to stay for many years. By 19 10 there were industrial arts classes for boys as well as sewing classes for girls, and many clubs with both educational and social purposes were organized for women, boys, and girls. The Katherine Pitts' Mother's Club, for Jewish mothers, was concerned with the mother's "duty toward her child," as well as with the more practical aspects of child-raisingaZ5This club was l4 25

Ibid. Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 1909-191 0 , p. 6 .

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also much concerned with the problems of law enforcement and their effect on youth in the Lower West Side. For boys there were many social and educational clubs. The Young Boys Aurora Club, whose standard of conduct forbade "gambling, smoking, and entering saloons," held an annual show in 1 9 10 and took in $29.45 for their efforts.26 There were other clubs as well, such as the Herzl Club, which was interested in Zionism, and several gymnastic groups. Girls participated in the Thimble Bee Club (a sewing group), the Girls' Glee Club, dancing classes, and sewing classes. In 1913 a kindergarten was opened by Neighborhood House, which continued t o expand in other areas as well. The annual report for the period September, 1914, to September, 19 15, shows many varied activities-night classes in English instruction with forty-five pupils, a class for twelve-to-fourteen-year-old girls who were taught t o care for their little brothers and sisters, and in most clubs a concern for other people and for improving their neighborhood. The report states that "much money has also been sent by these loyal boys and girls t o their suffering countrymen in Europe" in that first year of World War I.2 In 1915 Neighborhood House undertook a survey or census of the population of the Lower West Side. The total population of the Lower West Side at that time was found to be 3,763 in 644 families-an average of almost six to a family. Ninety percent, or 582, of the families had foreign-born parents, with only 10 percent, or sixty-two families, having native-born parents.28 Commenting on the census the next year, the annual report said that only thirty families could "in any sense call themselves American," and continued: "surely here we have an example of what Israel Zangwill calls the 'great melting pot of America.' " 2 9 The census showed the following breakdown in ethnic groups (Neighborhood House referred to "nationality" groups) by families: From this census it can be concluded that the Lower West Side was overcrowded, especially in view of the fact that most of the houses there were not particularly large and spacious-most of them, indeed, were small frame dwellings. Also, many of the houses Ibid., p . 7 . Z7 Ibid., p . 9 . Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 1914-1915, p . 15. 2 9 Neighborhood House, A n n u l Report for 1915-1 91 6, p . 6 . 26

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TABLE 1 POPULATION O F THE LOWER WEST SIDE BY NATIONALITY GROUPS IN 1915 Nationality Group

# o f Families

Jewish Syrian Irish French Eleven Others

46 3 34 32 31 84

% o f Total 71.9 5.3 5.0 4.8 13.0~'

were below river level and over a period of years the streets and land around the houses filled in with sand from the river so that the streets rose gradually above the houses. This necessitated the building of steps from the streets down t o the front doors of the houses, sometimes fifteen feet o r more.31 In addition t o overcrowding there were other conditions which caused concern to Lower West Side residents. The St. Paul city dump was located in the area and contributed t o unsanitary conditions; there was only one paved street in the area, which meant that most of the streets were virtually impassable whenever it rained; there was only one street having sewers and running water; and there was only one telephone which served the entire area and ~~ was no playground was used only in dire e m e r g e n ~ i e s .There area for the many children, and the only public school in the area, Lafayette, was not adequate for the needs of the community. As Hoffman describes it: "From the outside it presented a formidable appearance; grim and determined, like a fastness and fortress designed and built by craftsmen to withstand the onslaughts of time and weather and the daily never-ending siege of incorrigible stud e n t ~ . " In ~ ~ addition to the physical condition of Lafayette, there was also severe overcrowding. In 19 17, 667 pupils attended the twelve-room school-an average of between fifty-five and fiftysix pupils in each room.34 In spite of this severe overcrowding, Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 1914-1915, p. 15. Hoffman, Those Were the Days, p. 20. 3 2 Ibid. 3 3 Ibid., p. 90. 34 Report t o t h e Commissioner of Education by the Superintendent of Schools, St. Paul Public Schools, Survey and Building Conditions and Requirements (1922). 30

31

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Lafayette continued to be used until a new building was finally erected in 1923. In response t o the many needs of the neighborhood, a civic league was formed under Neighborhood House auspices. The league's two major concerns were the lack of a public playground and the need for a new Lafayette School. The league also studied the problems of juvenile delinquency and of the transient laborers who were beginning t o enter the area. My Father The Rag-Picker

Immigrants (still primarily Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe) had continued t o pour into the Lower West Side in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Some of the Jewish residents, primarily those who had been among the first t o settle on the Lower West Side in the 1880's and 1890's, were beginning t o move t o other parts of the West Side, so the majority of Lower West Side residents continued t o be the most recently arrived immigrants. Many Neighborhood House activities continued t o be centered around helping the new arrivals adjust t o their new environment and working to improve that environment. According to the 1917-1 918 Neighborhood House annual report, one of the Jewish girls' clubs produced a play which "depicted in a touching manner the problems of readjustment which come t o the Jewish immigrant as he faces life in this country."35 A very graphic illustration of these problems of adjustment and assimilation is described as follows in the report of 19 18-1 9 19: We were trying t o emphasize the duties of good Americans on a tiny boy of four, but he indignantly denied any such obligation, saying "My father is not an American, he is a rag-picker. I am going to be a rag-picker too." We felt that the subject of Americanization had to be dealt with more fully before our little friend understood that a man could be both a rag-picker and a good A m e r i ~ a n . ~ ~

Some of the other activities at Neighborhood House in 19 18-19 19 were "parent parties" at which the children themselves baked the 35

36

Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 191 7-1918, p. 8 . Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 1918-1919, p. 7 .

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cakes, insisting that strictly kosher methods and materials be used; the music program with sixteen piano and six violin pupils; and preparations that summer for a pageant called "America in the Making." In June, 1919, the Minnetonka Playground was opened on the Lower West Side, and the Lake Rest Vacation Home Camp at White Bear Lake was established "for the benefit of overtired mothers and their children." The camp was established by Mount Zion's Jewish Relief Society despite opposition by some members who felt that "providing such vacations was far exceeding the boundaries of traditional 'relief.' "j7 The camp was later taken over by Neighborhood House and renamed Sophie Wirth Camp. In reading about the various clubs at Neighborhood House, it is readily apparent that, with few exceptions, there were no mixed nationality memberships. For example, in 19 18-19 19 the Gentile Girls Club had twenty-three members, and the Golden Red Club had twenty-five Jewish girls as members. Such ethnic or nationality divisions would indicate that the "melting pot" was not melting away some of the barriers dividing groups from one another; perhaps the term "melting pot" was not applicable to what was happening in the Lower West Side and in other immigrant neighborhoods at that time. Neighborhood House's aim to make good American citizens who respected their own and other people's traditions at the same time was perhaps a more realistic way t o view "Americanization," and Neighborhood House's English language and citizenship classes, overflowing into the Lafayette School, were most important in this effort. In view of the fact that there was no gymnasium or other place for young people to gather and that the local or downtown pool halls and taverns provided the only nightly entertainment offered, it was certainly not surprising that some measure of juvenile delinquency was present on the Lower West Side. What is surprising is that there was not much more of it. When one speculates on the reasons for the relative absence of delinquency, it immediately comes t o mind that the traditionally strong family structure and emphasis on education in Jewish culture were probably important factors. Also, even though the physical environment (overcrowding, poor housing, etc.) usually associated with high delinquency "

PIaut, Minnesota,p. 220.

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was very much in evidence, it appears that most of the area's residents at this time felt that their residence on theLower West Side was not a permanent condition. That is, they were convinced that hard work, saving their money, and educating their children would get them out of the Lower West Side, and they transmitted this philosophy to their children. As Hoffman puts it:

. . . the West Side and all the other places like it were really stopping places [and] the old neighborhoods of immigrants here and all over-first and second generations-never constituted, either spiritually or culturally, a slum. They were often physically and materially poor but always rich in a wonderful culture and fine ethical values.38

Despite the many very real accomplishments of the Lower West Side's Jewish residents, evidence of anti-semitism was perceptible in the larger community. For instance, the report of an investigator sent t o the West Side by the Association of Commerce said: "Many of the Jews who live here are junk dealers. This aggravates an apparent national tendency to have their ground covered with dirt, rubbish, and other unsightly thing^."^ Many of the descriptions of life o n the Lower West Side during this era suggest parallels with New York's Lower East Side. The two neighborhoods were quite similar, as Samuel Popper points out in his introduction t o Hoffman's memoir: Some readers may be surprised to discover the similarity of Jewish immigrant life in the Upper Mid-West with that of New York's East Side. They needn't be. The Jewish immigrant stock at the turn of the century. .. stemmed from the same general East European sources. Whether they settled in New York City or the city of St. Paul, their world view was much the same. They drew spiritual and moral values from a common fountainhead. Even their historical and sociological experiences were more alike than not. It mattered little whether the shipping tag on their cultural baggage read New York City or St. Paul; its contents reacted much the same once exposed to the environment of the New World. The Jewish immigrants who settled in St. Paul apparently fashioned cultural patterns very similar to those of the Jewish immigrants who settled in New York City. The first generation Americans which they sired were accordingly influenced, I suspect, by a social and cultural climate which prevailed in any American

39

Hoffman, Tales, Introduction. ~laut,@hesota, p. 269.

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community where large numbers of these Jewish immigrants settled early in the twentieth century.40

The Lower West Side was, then, primarily a Jewish neighborhood from the latter part of the nineteenth century into the first two decades of the twentieth century. The language most likely to be heard was Yiddish, and the newspapers read on the Lower West Side were Der Forvitz, Der Tog and Der Morgen Zhournal, all of them New York papers published in Yiddish. The major holidays observed in the area were Passover, Rosh Hashanah (New Year), Yom Kippur (Atonement Day)-not Christmas, Good Friday and Easter. As Plaut says: "St. Paul's West Side was the hub of traditional life. Here lived the first generation of immigrant settlers and those of their children who had not yet started to move away in appreciable number^."^ And it was, Hoffman remembers, "a great era-a happy one-a melancholy one-a rich one and a poor one."4 New People Need It More

By the 1920's relatively few Jewish immigrants were settling on the Lower West Side, while increasing numbers of those who had settled there previously were moving t o other neighborhoods. The major reason for the lack of new immigrants was the passage of restrictive Federal immigration laws. The "quota" laws of 192 1 and 1924 greatly limited emigration from Eastern and Southern Europe, and thus the flow of East European Jews t o the Lower West Side was reduced t o a trickle. That decade of the 1920's also witnessed the first great exodus of Jews from the Lower West Side, primarily t o other parts of the West Side. Some, however, were able t o move to St. Paul's Highland Park area where they could build their own homes instead of moving into an older neighborhood. It took years of saving to be able t o afford t o build a home in Highland Park, but many succeeded. As Oliver Towne says, these people "skimped and slaved and pushed through the invisible barrier on Robert Street and have gone across the river t o the end of the rainbow, whose symbol is Highland Park."43 And the move 40 41

42 43

Hoffman, Those Were the Days, p. 1 1 . Plaut, Minnesota, p. 291. Hoffman, "A Proud Era," p. 27. Towne, column in theSt. PaulDispatch, May 29, 1956.

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from the Lower West Side flats t o Highland Park with its hills and room for expansion was perhaps, as Hoffman says, "a denial in an unconscious way of a painful past."44 A t any rate, by the 1920's the Jews were moving away from the Lower West Side, and this trend would continue for the next several decades. Relocation to other parts of the West Side and finally to Highland Park was not the only or the most important evidence of the accomplishments of Lower West Side Jewish residents. There was more than one case of "a peddler's son becoming a physician [or] a junkman's boy scaling heights as a lawyer."45 As Towne expressed it: I wonder if there ever was a neighborhood like the West Side for Horatio Alger stories . . . - a census of the houses along those blocks 25, 30, 40 years ago would read of families and names which are emblazoned by success stories now. They settled the Flats because it was all that was left for them. Who cared if the city by its very geography seemed to look down on them? They married and turned their nothings into somethings for their children. Junk peddlers and rag pickers, house to house vegetable salesmen. Salvagers of barrels and scrap . . . so the junk peddlers became proprietors of salvage firms, the vegetable salesmen became operators of big shiny grocery stores, supermarket chains. And their children benefited from the obsessions of their elders about the value of an education. And hard work. It may seem odd, but naturally every West Side Flats boy cut his teeth selling newspapers on the street corners . . . Mothers scrubbed floors, took in washing so their boys could go to college. And off the Flats came an evolution that produced doctors and lawyers, business exe~utives.4~

Mexican-Americans had begun t o move into the Lower West Side after World War I, and thus the ethnic makeup of the neighborhood gradually began changing. Neighborhood House, of course, continued to serve Lower West Siders whatever their race, creed, or color. The House moved into a large new building in 1923, opened a dental clinic for children in 1927, and provided a gymnasium in 1928. The change in the population served by Neighborhood House can be seen in a survey taken by the settlement house in 1930; the survey indicated that only 36.6 percent 44 45

46

Hoffman, Those Were the Days, p. 5 7. Towne, column in the St. Paul Dispatch, December 5 , 1957. Ibid., May 1 5 , 1 9 5 7 .

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of the population was Jewish.47 The exodus of Jews from the area was slowed down in the 1930's, however, by the effects of the Great Depression. It was in the 1930's more a matter of struggling to "stay even" than to "get ahead," and staying even was more often than not a losing battle. As Hoffman puts it: 'These were the proud and stubborn people of the West Side who labored valiantly to hide their despair and fear of unemployment from their neighbors and from their children. Real money was scarce, but when had there been plenty?"48 Neighborhood House did what it could to counteract the effects of the Depression on the Lower West Side. The House continued holding classes in Americanization and citizenship education, cooking and sewing, health education, and recreation; it also opened two new day camps, Camp Owendigo at Carver's Lake in 1935, and St. John's Landing Camp in 1938. In 1937 the site next t o the main building was purchased for a nursery school. A hot lunch program was operated and the gymnasium stayed open sixteen hours a day for the unemployed-all this in addition to the House's effort t o offer employment counselling and to cooperate with industry in finding jobs for area residents. As might have been expected, some friction developed between old and new residents of the Lower West Side during this time of transition and economic difficulty. The Mexican-Americans who had been moving into the neighborhood since World War I had, by the 193OYs,increased their numbers significantly. They were the only easily recognizable and distinct ethnic group t o move into the Lower West Side during those years and were often resented by the older and better established ethnic groups of the community. As the 1938 Neighborhood House annual report stated: "Their customs, their manner of living, and their outlook on life has stood out in direct contrast to the established customs and traditions of the area, and they have been a misunderstood people."49 It was very difficult for both the Mexican-Americans and the older nationality groups in the neighborhood even t o attempt to understand one another, and at times it was most discouraging to those working for harmony in the area. Tolerance for one another's 47 48

49

Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 1931. Hoffman, Tales, p. 46. Neighborhood House, Annual Report for 1938, p. 16.

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customs and traditions was the first necessity, with understanding and appreciation perhaps coming later. Many of the Jewish residents of the Lower West Side in particular could be expected to view the Mexican-American influx into the neighborhood with apprehension, if not hostility, both because the two groups differed so in background and culture and because the Mexican-Americans seemed to threaten the already waning Jewish predominance in many areas of neighborhood life. That some progress toward understanding was being made, however, is attested t o by these words of an elderly Jewish scrap iron dealer who had raised his family on the Lower West Side and still lived there: "New people come to neighborhood. Seems sometimes as though there are not so many things for our people. Maybe new people need it more."50 Windows Facing The West Side

Jewish families continued to leave the Lower West Side in the 1940's, primarily for Highland Park. Only 12 percent of St. Paul's Jewish population lived on the entire West Side of the city in 1947, whereas it had been three times that twenty years earlier.51 With the economic recovery of the World War I1 and post-war years, many more Jewish families found it possible to move directly from the Lower West Side t o Highland Park, and those who had moved to other parts of the West Side in the 1920's and 1930's were also leaving for Highland Park in the 1940's. The early 1950's saw most of the remaining Jewish families leave the Lower West Side. The number of Jewish students in schools on the West Side had been reduced t o a handful by this time, indicating that most of the Jews with school-age children had moved. Those who remained on the Lower West Side were, for the most part, elderly people who wanted t o live out their days in familiar surroundings. This was often a sore point between the generations-the children who had moved t o nice homes in Highland Park were at a loss t o understand why their parents would choose t o stay in little old houses in a neighborhood that seemed Ibid., p. 8 . Jack B. Mackay, "Fifty Years o f St. Paul Jewry," in the American Jewish World, September 28,1962, p. 13. 50

5 1

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to be falling apart before their very eyes. Why would they resist moving in with or being near their children in Highland Park, which by this time was much more of a Jewish neighborhood than the Lower West Side? Even those who had been persuaded to move to Highland Park o r elsewhere, however, seemed t o be irresistibly drawn back t o the Lower West Side. As Towne put it:

. . . . Because in their common bond of trying to scale the wall, the atmosphere seeps into the blood and there's a lonesomeness for the "good old days" that few other neighborhoods knew-a camaraderie born of suffering.s2 The West Side is a place which rouses feelings of nostalgia in the breasts of hundreds who used t o live there, were born and reared on the flats . . . . You haven't caught the feeling a man can have about his old neighborhood until you meet a businessman who has an office high in the First National Bank, windows facing the West Side, by request. "I was born over there," he says, pointing with pride and wistfulness to the site. And like the Mohammedans who face Mecca, he presses his nose against the window at least once a day to see the homeland.s3 There were still some Jewish businesses on the Lower West Side in the 1950's, stores like Kessel's Bakery and Goldberg's Butcher Shop, and "on Sundays in the Jewish area there is a busy hubbub in the shops where old friends who have moved away come back t o talk and Throughout the 1950's (until 196 1) the synagogues or shuls were kept open for the High Holidays, "drawing upon the children and grandchildren of the original members, who came down t o worship from all parts of the city-drawn by tradition and because a 'zadah' [grandfather] or 'bawbeh' [grandmother] still lived in the n e i g h b o r h o ~ d . " ~The ~ last services in Agudas Achim were held in October, 1962, and attended by those few Jewish families still on the Lower West Side as well as many who had left years before. Thus an era ended. Driving through the Industrial Park built on the site of the Lower West Side in the late 196OYs,one finds it hard to believe that the neighborhood ever really existed-now the Towne, coIumn, in the St. Paul Dispatch, May 29, 1956. Ibid., May 15,1957. 5 4 Ibid. 55Hoffman, "A Proud Era Is Gone," American Jewish World, September 28, 1962, p. 26. 52

53

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streets are obliterated; the houses, synagogues, stores, and the Neighborhood House-even the trees-are demolished; the people who called the old Lower West Side home are long gone and settled elsewhere. In fact, there is nothing to remind one of what had once flourished there, no one will remember from personal experience that once there was indeed a Jewish neighborhood on St. Paul's Lower West Side.

ARCHIVES POSTERS The American Jewish Archives has issued a number of multi-colored posters dealing with the American Jewish experience: Jewish participation in the Civil War ( 6 ) Immigrants from Eastern Europe (3) Episodes in eighteenth-century American Jewish Life (3) Abba Hillel Silver at the United Nations (1) Jews and the American Revolution ( 6 ) Distinguished American Jewish women (8) These posters are available without charge for display by all schools, libaries, congregations, and organizations interested in American Jewish history. When properly matted and mounted on heavy cardboard, these posters make an attractive exhibit. Inquiries should be addressed t o the Director of the American Jewish Archives, Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45220.

The Founder of Christianity FELIX ADLER

Felix Adler, Ph.D. (1851-1933), could have laid claim to one of the most illustrious rabbinic pedigrees to be found in America. His father, Samuel Adler (1809-1891), left Germany in 1857 to become rabbi o f Temple Emanu-El in New York City and a leading figure in Reform Judaism both in Germany and in the United States. Felix AdlerS grandfather, Isak Adler, had held a rabbinical post at Worms in the Rhineland; another relative, Nathan Adler ( 1 741-1800), had been a celebrated rosh yeshivah (seminary president) in Frankfurtam-Main; and still another, Nathan Marcus Adler (1803-1890), was chief rabbi o f the British empire. Felix himself; however, found the rabbinate too confining, and in 1876 left the rabbinate to found the Ethical Culture movement and to become, in that capacity, an outstanding A merican religious and educational leader. In 1877, the newly established Ethical Culture Society published Dr. Adler's Creed and Deed: A Series of Discourses. Discourse IX, which is reprinted below, anticipates in a number o f respects the Social Gospel tendencies soon to exercise considerable influence on Protesta~tism.It was delivered b y Dr. Adler on December 31, 18 76. " I am not come t o destroy, but t o fulfil, for verily I say unto you till heaven and earth pass away one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law till all be fulfilled." "Resist not evil,. . . bless them that curse you, do good t o them that hate you." In these sayings of Jesus the keynote of early Christianity is struck. It was not a revolt against Judaism; it was but a reiterated assertion of what other and older Prophets of the Hebrews had so often and so fervently preached. The law was t o remain intact, but the spiritual law was meant, the deeper law of conscience that

Courtesy, H a r r y Simoniroff

Felix Adler Founder of the Ethical Culture Society

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underlies the forms of legislation and the symbols of external worship. There is a rare and gracious quality in the personality of Jesus as described in the Gospels, which has exercised its charm upon the most heterogeneous nations and periods of history wide apart in the order of time and of culture. To grasp the subtle essence of that charm, and thereby to understand what it was that has given Christianity so powerful a hold upon the affections of mankind, were a task well worthy the attention of thoughtful minds. We desire t o approach our subject in the spirit of reverence that befits a theme with which the tenderest fibres of faith are so intimately interwoven; at the same time we shall pay no regard to the dogmatic character with which his later followers have invested Jesus, for we behold his true grandeur in the pure and noble humanity which he illustrated in his life and teachings. The New Testament presents but scant material for the biography of Jesus, and the authenticity, even of the little that remains to us, has been rendered extremely uncertain by the labors of modern critics. A few leading narratives, however, are doubtless trustworthy, and these will suffice for our purpose. A brief introduction on the character of the people among whom the new prophet arose, the characteristics of the age in which he lived, and the beliefs that obtained in his immediate surroundings will assist us in our task. The expectation of the Messiah had long been rife among the Jews. Holding themselves to be the elect people of God, they believed the triumph of monotheism to be dependent upon themselves. The prophets of Jehovah had repeatedly assured them that their supremacy would finally be acknowledged. Events, however, had turned out differently. Instead of success they met with constant defeat and disaster; Persia, Egypt, Syria had successively held their land in subjection; the very existence of their religion was threatened, and the heathen world, far from showing signs of approaching conversion, insisted upon its errors with increased obstinacy and assurance. And yet Jehovah had distinctly promised that he would raise up, in his own good time, a new ruler from the ancient line of Israel's kings, a son of David, who should lead the people t o victory. To his sceptre all the nations would bow, and in his reign the faith of the Hebrews would be acknowledged as the

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universal religion. Every natural means for the fulfilment of these predictions seemed now cut off; nothing remained but t o take refuge in the supernatural; it was said that the old order of things must entirely pass away; a new heaven and a new earth be created and what was called the Kingdom of Heaven might then be expected. The "Kingdom of Heaven," a phrase that frequently recurs in the literature of the Jews, is used, not t o describe a locality, but t o denote a state of affairs o n earth, in which the will of heaven would be generally obeyed without the further intervention of human laws and government. The agency of the Messiah was looked to, for the consummation of these happy hopes. T o reward those who had perished before his coming, many moreover of those that slept in the dust would awaken, and the general resurrection of the dead would signalize the approach of the millennium. At the end of the first century B. C. these expectations had created a wild ferment among the population of Palestine. Now if ever, it was fondly urged, they must be fulfilled. The need was at its highest, help then must be nighest. For matters had indeed grown from bad t o worse; the political situation was intolerable; after the brief spell of independence in the days of the Maccabees, the Roman yoke had been fastened upon the necks of the people, and the weight of oppression became tenfold more difficult t o support from the sweet taste of liberty that had preceded it. The rapacity of the Roman governors knew no bounds. A land impoverished by incessant wars and the frequent failure of the crops was drained of its last resources t o satisfy the enormous exactions of a foreign despot, while t o all this was added the humiliating consciousness that it was a nation of idolators which was thus permitted t o grind the chosen people. Nor was the condition of religion at all more satisfactory. It is true the splendid rites of the public worship were still maintained at the Temple, and Herod was even then rebuilding the Sanctuary o n a scale of unparalleled magnificence. Bright was the sheen and glitter of gold upon its portals, solemn the ceremonies enacted in its halls, and grand and impressive the voices of the Levitic choirs as they sang t o the tuneful melody of cymbals and of harps. But the lessons of history teach us that the times in which lavish sums are expended o n externals are not usually those in which religion posesses true vitality and power and depth. Here was a brand flick-

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ering near extinction; here was a builder who built for destruction; the Temple had ceased to satisfy the needs of the people. In the cities an attempt t o supply the deficiency was made by the party of the Pharisees. They sought to broaden and to spiritualize the meaning of scripture-they laid down new forms of religious observance by means of which every educated man became, so to speak, his own priest. The religion of the Pharisees, however, assumed a not inconsiderable degree of intellectual-ability on the part of its followers. So far as it went, it answered very well for the intelligent middle classes. But out in the country districts it did not answer at all; not for the herdsmen, not for the poor peasants, not for those who had not even the rudiments of learning and who could do nothing with a learned religion. And yet these very men before all others needed something t o support them, something t o cling to, even because they were so miserably poor and illiterate. They did not get what they wanted-they felt very strongly that the burdens upon them were exceedingly grievous; that while they suffered and starved, religion dwelt in palaces, and had no heart for their misfortunes. They felt that something was wrong and rotten in the then state of affairs, and that a new state must come, and a heaven-sent king, who would lend a voice t o their needs, and lift them with strong arms from out their despair and degradation. Nowhere was this feeling more marked than in the district of Galilee. A beautiful land with green, grassy valleys, groves of sycamores, broad blue lakes, and villages nestling picturesquely on the mountain slopes, it nourished an ardent and impulsive population. Their impatience with the existing order of things had already found vent in furious revolt. Judah, their famous leader, had perished; his two sons, James and Simon, had been nailed to the cross; the Messiah was daily and hourly expected; various impostors successively arose and quickly disappeared. When would the hour of deliverance come? When would the true Messiah appear at last? It was at such a time, and among such a people, that there arose Jesus of Nazarethin Galilee. What was the startling truth he taught? What was the new revelation he preached to the sons of men? An old truth, and an old sermon-righteousness; no more, meaning nothing at all, a mere trite commonplace, on the lips of the timeserver and the plausible vendor of moral phrases. Meaning mighty

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changes for the better, when invoked with a profounder sense of its sanctity, and a new sacredness in life, and larger impulses for ever and for ever. Righteousness he taught, and the change that was to come by righteousness. Yes, so deep was his conviction, so profoundly had the current conceptions of the day affected him, that he believed the change to be near at hand, that he himself might be its author, himself Messiah. The novelty of Jesus' work has been sought in various directions. It has been said, for instance, t o consist in the overthrow of Phariseeism; and it is true that he rebukes the Pharisees in the most severe terms; these reproaches, however, were not directed against the party as a whole, but only against its more extravagant and unworthy members. The Pharisees were certainly not a "race of hypocrites, and a generation of vipers." Let us remember that Jesus himself, in the main, adhered to their principles; that his words often tally strictly with theirs; that even the golden sayings which are collected in the Sermon on the Mount may be found in the contemporaneous Hebrew writings, whose authors were Pharisees. Thirty years before his time, Hillel arose among the Pharisees, renowned for his marvellous erudition, beloved and revered because of the gentleness and kindliness of his bearing, the meekness with which he endured persecution, the loving patience with which he overcame malice and hate. When asked to express in brief terms the essence of the law, he to the Pharisee replied, "Do not unto others what thou wouldst not that others do unto thee; this is the essence, all the rest is commentary-go and learn." Jesus fully admits the authority of the Pharisees. "The Pharisees," he says,. "sit in Moses' seat; all therefore whatsoever they bid you observe, that observe and do." If we read the gospel of Matthew, we find that he does not attempt to abrogate the Pharisaic commandments, but only insists upon the greater importance of the commandments of the heart. "Woe," he cries, "for ye pay tithe of mint, of anise and cumin, but ye have omitted the weightier matters of the law, judgment, mercy and faith, these ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undoneu-and again, "If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee, leave there thy gift before the altar and go thy way; first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and offer thy gift." The leper also whom he cured of his

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disease, he advises t o bring the gift prescribed by the Jewish ritual. We cannot fully understand the conduct of Jesus in this respect, unless we bear in mind that he believed the millenial time t o be near at hand. At that time it was supposed the ancient ceremonial of Judaism would come t o an end by its own limitation; until that time arrived, it should be respected. He does not wage war against the religious tenets and practices of his age; only when they interfere with the superior claims of moral rectitude does he bitterly denounce them, and ever insists that righteousness be recognized as the one thing above all others needful. Nor is the novelty of Jesus' work t o be found in the extension of the gospel t o the heathen world. It seems, on the contrary, highly probable that he conceived his mission to lie within the sphere of his own people, and devoted his chief care and solicitude t o their welfare. "I am not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel," he says; and thus he charges his apostles, "Go ye not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the Samaritans enter ye not. Go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel, and as ye go, preach, saying the kingdom of heaven is at hand." And yet his exclusive devotion to the interest of the Jews is not at variance with the world-embracing influence attributed t o the Messianic character. In common with all his people, he believed that upon the approach of the millennium, the nations of the earth would come, of their own accord, to the holy mount of Israel, accept Israel's religion, and thenceforth live obedient t o the Messianic King. The millennium was now believed t o be actually in sight. "Verily I say unto you there be some standing here who shall not taste of death until they see the Son of man coming in his Kingdom." From the Jewish standpoint, therefore, which was the one taken by Jesus and the earliest Christians, the mission t o the heathen was unnecessary. And again it has been said that the evangel of Jesus was new, in that it substituted for the stern law of retribution the methods of charity and the law of love; that while the elder prophets had taught the people to consider themselves servants of a taskmaster, he taught them freedom and brotherhood. But is this true? Will any one who has read the Hebrew Prophets with attention venture to assert that they instil a slavish fear into the hearts of men; they whose every line speaks aspiration, whose every word breathes

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liberty? It is true their language is often stern when they dwell on duty. And it is right that it should be so, for so also is duty stern and in matters of conscience sentimentalism is out of place, harmful. Simple obedience t o the dictates of the moral law is required, imperatively, unconditionally, not for pity's sake, nor for love's sake, but for the right's sake, simply and solely because it is right. But the emotions that are never the sufficient sanctions of conduct may ennoble and glorify right conduct. And how tenderly do the ancient prophets also attune their monitions t o the promptings of the richest and purest of human sympathies. "Thy neighbor thou shalt love as thyself," was written by them, and "Have we not all one Father, has not one God created us all?" Thy poor brother too is thy brother, and in secret shalt thou give charity. In the dusk of the evening the poor are t o come into the cornfields and gather there, and no man shall know who has given and who has received. The ancient prophets were idealists, preachers of the Spirit as opposed t o the form that cramps and belittles. In Jesus we behold a renewal of their order, a living protest against the formalism that had in the interval become encrusted about their teachings, only differing from his predecessors in this, that the hopes which they held out for a distant future seemed t o him nigh their fulfilment, and that he believed himself destined to fulfil them. If we can discover nothing that had not been previously stated in the substance of Jesus' teachings, there is that in the method he pursued which calls for genuine admiration and reverence, the method of rousing against the offender the better nature in himself; of seeming yielding to offence based on an implicit trust in the resilient energy of the good; of conquering others, by the strength of meekness and the might of love. Hillel too was endowed with this strength of meekness, and Buddha had said, long before the days of Jesus: "Hatred is not conquered by hatred at any time, hatred is conquered by love; this is an old rule." But in the story of no other life has this method been applied with such singular sweetness, with such consistent harmony from the beginning t o the end. Whether we find him in the intimate circle of his disciples, whether he is instructing the multitude along the sunny shores of Lake Gennesareth, whether h e stands before the tribunal of his judges, or in the last dire agonies of death-he is ever the

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patient man, the loving teacher, the man of sorrows, who looks beyond men and their crimes to an ideal humanity, and confides in that; who gives largely, and forgives even because he gives so much. But we shall not touch the true secret of his power until we recall his sympathy with the neglected classes of society; that quality of his nature which caused the poor of Galilee t o hail him as their deliverer, which produced so lasting an impression upon his contemporaries, and made the development of his doctrines into a great religion possible. His gospel was preeminently the gospel for the poor; he sat down with despised publicans, he did not shun the contamination of lepers, nay nor of the moral leprosy of sin-he visited the hovels of paupers and taught his disciples t o prefer them t o the mansions of the fortunate; he applied himself with peculiar fervor to those dumb, illiterate masses of Galilee, who knew not whither they might turn, t o what they might cling. He gave them hope, he brought them help. And so it came about that in the early Christian communities which were still fresh from the presence of the master, the appeal to conscience he had made so powerfully resulted in solid helpfulness; so it came about that in those pristine days, the Church was a real instrument of practical good, with few forms, and little parade, but with love feasts and the communion table spread with repasts for the needy. "Come unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you and learn of me, . . . for my yoke is easy and my burden is light." It is from such particulars that there was drawn that fascinating image which has captivated the fancy and attracted the worship of mankind. The image of the pale man with the deep, earnest eyes, who roused men t o new exertions for the good, who lifted up the downtrodden, who loved little children and taught the older children in riddles and parables that they might understand, and the brief career of whose life was hallowed all the more in memory, because of the mournful tragedy in which it closed. All the noblest qualities of humanity were put into this picture and made it lovely. It was the humanity, not the dogma of Jesus, by which Christianity triumphed. Like a refreshing shower in the perfumed spring, his glad tidings of a new enthusiasm for the good came upon the arid Roman world, sickening with the dry rot of self-indulgence, and thirsting for some principle to give a purpose to the empty

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weariness of existence. Like a message from a sphere of light it spread to the Germanic tribes, tempered the harshness of their manners, taught them a higher law than that of force, and conquered their grim strength with the mild pleadings of the master of meekness in far-off Galilee. It is the moral element contained in it that alone gives value and dignity to any religion, and only then when its teachings serve t o stimulate and purify our aspirations toward the good does it deserve to retain its ascendancy over mankind. Claiming to be of celestial origin, the religions have drawn their secret spell from the human heart itself. There is a principle of reverence inborn in every child of man-this he would utter. He sees the firmament above him, with its untold hosts; he stands in the midst of mighty workings, he is filled with awe; he stretches forth his arms to grasp the Infinite which his soul seeketh, he makes unto himself signs and symbols, saying, let these be tokens of what no words can convey. But a little time elapses, and these symbols themselves seem more than human, they point no more beyond themselves, and man becomes an idolator, not of stone and wood merely. Then it is needful that he remember the divine power with which his soul has been clothed from the beginning, that by the force of some moral impulse he may break through the fetters of the creeds, and cast aside the weight of doctrines that express his best ideals n o more. And so we find in history that every great religious reformation has been indebted for its triumphs, not to the doctrines that swam upon the surface, but to the swelling currents of moral energy that stirred it from below; not t o the doctrine of the Logos in Jesus' day, but to the tidings of release which he brought to the oppressed; not to "justification by faith," in Luther's time, but to the mighty reaction t o which his thunderous protest lent a voice, against the lewdness and the license of a corrupt and cankerous priesthood. The appeal to conscience has ever been the lever that raised mankind to a higher plane of religion. Conscience, righteousness, what is there new in these-their maxims are as old as the hills? Truly, and as barren often as the rocks. The novelty of righteousness is not in itself, but in its novel application to the particular unrighteousness of a particular age. It was thus that Jesus applied, to the sins and mock sanctities of his day, the ancient truths known to the prophets and to others long before him. It is thus that every new reformer will seek to bring

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home to the men of his generation what it is that the ancient standard of right and justice now requires at their hands. That all men are brothers-who did not concede it? But that the enslaved man too is our brother, what a convulsion did that not cause, what vast expenditure of blood and treasure until that was made plain! That we should relieve the necessities of the poor-who will deny it? But that a social system which year by year witnesses the increase of the pauper class, and the increase of their miseries, stands condemned before the tribunal of religion, of justice, how long will it take before that is understood and taken t o heart? The facts of righteousness are few and simple, but to apply them, how mighty, how difficult a task! The time is approaching when this stupendous work must be attempted anew, and we, a small phalanx in the army of progress, would aid, with what power in us resides. Let this inspire us that we have the loftiest cause of the age for our own, that we are helping to pave the way for a stronger and freer and happier race. For by so laboring, alone can we feel that our life has a meaning under the sky and the sacred stars. The year in which we have entered upon our journey is passing away. Tonight when the midnight bells send forth their clamorous voices, we shall greet the new year, and the work it brings. No peaceful task dare we expect, but something of good accomplished may it see. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky, The flying cloud, the frosty light, The year is dying in the night, Ring out, wild bells, and let him die, Ring out the old, ring in the new, Ring, happy bells, across the snow, The year is going, let him go, Ring out the false, ring in the true.

Herman Melville, the Jew and Judaism LOUISE ABBIE MAY0

Nineteenth-century American literature, derivative from British conventions t o a great extent, tended t o present Jewish characters in the molds of accepted stereotypes. The Jew was Shylock, the usurious old villain; Rebecca, the beautiful Jewess; o r Sheva, the benevolent Jew and institutionalized countermyth to Shylock. Herman Melville is the only major American writer in the nineteenth century t o include a serious consideration of Jews and Judaism in one of his works-Clarel. F o r the most part, Melville's descriptions and discussions are singularly unprejudiced and unstereotyped, although it cannot be said that they reflect any real interest in contemporary Jewish life in America. Melville had a great deal o f knowledge about the Old Testament, much of which may have come from the Calvinist orthodoxy of his mother (as his lack of prejudice may have stemmed from his father's Unitarianism). One analyst of his works comments, however, that Melville read a great deal more than the Bible in his study of the Jewish religion.' Lewis Mumford stresses, "In the period of his own discomposure, the black aphorisms of Solomon, Koheleth [Ecclesiastes] and Jesus Ben-Sirach [Ecclesiasticus] , and the bitter plaints of Job, were closer to him than anything else in literature . . . he had stood o n the brink of madness: looking in the Bible for comfort, Melville had found in the greatest Jewish writers only a confirmation of his own fears and exasperations. . . . Such sayings deepened his sympathy with Jewish culture, and in the sense that they carried the same burden as his own, they lessened his load."' 'William Braswell, Melville's Religious Thought (Durham, 1943), p. 18. Lewis Mumford, Herman Melville (New York, 1929), p. 320.

Mrs. Mayo is a Ph.D. candidate at City University in American history, specializing in American Jewish history.

C o u r t e s y , Library of Corlgress

Herman Melville ( 1 8 19-1 891) Distinguished American writer

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No City of God

In 1857, Melville went on a pilgrimage t o Palestine, in the words of one of his biographers, out of a "still more special longing for the Biblical, the Hebraic, the Judean Past. . . . Few men's minds have been more richly stored than Melville's with the imagery of Biblical stories, of the Old Testament record especially: it had been woven into the fabric of his imagination from earliest childhood . . it was a permanent point of reference for his ~ p i r i t . " ~ The gloomy desolation of the land profoundly oppressed Melville. "The landscape of Judea must have suggested t o the Jewish prophets their ghastly theology," he wrote in his journal of the trip. And again, more ironically and sympathetically: "Is the desolation of the land the result of the fatal embrace of the deity? Hapless are the favorites of h e a ~ e n . " ~Nevertheless, in Clarel, written years later and published in 1876, Melville used many of the sights he had witnessed and the people he had met during his Levantine adventure. Clarel, written in verse, is a difficult book about the search for truth. The story concerns Clarel, a young divinity student tormented by doubts. He arrives in Jerusalem as a kind of "pilgriminfidel." According t o Mumford, he has come "thinking t o find from an older race, the Jews, with a remoter history, some clue t o the unsettled and uneasy state in which he lives, and some path of development which will lead again t o w h ~ l e n e s s . " ~While there, he falls in love with Ruth, an American Jewess. (Mumford feels that Clarel was captivated by a Jewish maid just as Melville had been attracted t o ancient Jewish thought.) Her father is an earlyday Zionist who has settled in Palestine, where he is eventually killed by hostile Arab raiders. During the period of her mourning, Clarel is forbidden t o see his love. In a combination of grief and restlessness, he sets out on a pilgrimage through the countryside with a widely assorted group of companions who represent various points of view about life. O n his return, he finds that Ruth has died of fever and grief. The fulfillment that Clarel had hoped t o

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Newton Arvin, Herman Melville (New York, 1950), p. 212. 4Herman Melville, Journal o f a Vi'isit t o Europe and t h e Levant, Edited b y Howard C. Horsford (Princeton, 1955), p. 140. 'Mumford, p. 310.

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find with her he must now find within himself, with only her memory to comfort him. He faces an even more uncertain future alone, after having discovered that Jerusalem is no city of God. The heroine, Ruth, is the stereotyped beautiful Jewess. Leslie Fiedler feels that this archetype, in general, is part of a "dream of rescuing the desirable elements in the Judaic tradition (maternal tenderness . . . the figure of Mary) from the unsympathetic (paternal rigor and harsh legalism: the figure of the High Priest) . . . ."'j In fact, of all the beautiful Jewesses in American literature, Ruth, who represents virginal love, is probably the most suggestive of Mary's saintliness. She wears a snowy robe and veils. She is Eden before the Fall, all innocence and hope for release from life's complexities: "She looked a legate to insure that Paradise is possible. . . . 'Twas the grace of nature's dawn: an Eve-like face. And Nereid eyes with virgin spell . . . Hebrew the profile every line. . . ."7 Ruth provides a good example of Melville's inability to deal with heterosexual love. She is a reflection of Clarel's nalvetk. She never materializes as a real person, but remains a dream of the female, a symbol rather than a woman. She is half child. Her mother fondles her while she rests her head on her mother's lap like a child. Such love, however, cannot be, and Ruth, the totally innocent, must die. She does not die because she is Jewish, but because she is not really of this world. The other Jewish characters in Clarel, however, are far less conventional. Nathan, Ruth's father, is an American Zionist. His life is a study of American doubt and struggle to believe. (He is patterned after Warder Cresson whom Melville had met in Jerusalem.) Nathan was born of Puritan parents, but deserted Christian orthodoxy. He had read the deists and fallen into pantheism. Then he met and fell in love with Agar, a Jewess. She asked, "Wilt join my people?" To his parched and unsatisfactory paganism, Agar's faith came like rain in a drought. He converted out of love, reasoning that if man looks behind his present crumbling faith " . . . rearwall shows far behind Rome and Luther-what? The crag of Sinai . . . . " And yet his heart was receptive to her words: Leslie Fiedler, The Jew in the American Novel (New York, 1959), p. 7. Herman Melville, Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (New York, 1960), p. 56.

HERMAN MELVILLE

Still as she dwelt on Zion's story All things but these seemed transitoryLove and his love's Jerusalem.

As the years went by, his doubts returned to plague him. To still them, he turned passionately to Zionism: Here was an object; up and do! With seed and tillage help renewHelp reinstate the Holy Land.

Melville perceptively noted that many Jews "loyally maintain the dream" and salute Passover with "Next Year in Jerusalem." Nathan holds on to his dreams fanatically despite attacks by the Arabs, the death of one of his children, and his wife's pleas to return to America.' One gets the feeling that Melville does not like Nathan, but respects the character's singleminded devotion t o an ideal. The fact that the character is a convert does not bother the author at all. Agar, Ruth's mother, left America unwillingly to go with her husband and children to Jerusalem. She is a representative of the good domestic woman, subordinate to her husband's wishes. Her strong points are sentiment and virtue; she lacks any real powers t o reason on her own. She is both an ideal Victorian woman and Jewish mother. To Clarel, who never knew his own mother, she provides a substitute mother figure. The biblical Hagar was a slave, in fact, and the name is understood to mean, "in bondage with her children." Agar is nearer in spirit to Clarel, the American, than t o the religious figures around her. She yearns for freedom. She had been happy at home with her cloth lovingly embroidered in Hebrew, "If I forget Thee, 0 Jerusalem3'-just a nebulous dream for the future. America had been her paradise, but her husband had a need to try "to realize the unreal." This was not Agar's logic: "She did but feel, true woman's way. What solace from the desert win, far from known friends, familiar kin?"g She remains loyal, and when her husband dies, she too dies of grief. She is a unique character in nineteenth-century American fiction (where old men and beautiful daughters had been the norm)-a Jewish mother who 'Ibid., pp. 57-66. 91bid., pp. 8749,530.

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stands for what Melville considered to be the maternal and wifely virtues. Melt In Or Be Separate

There are also several minor Jewish characters who add to the richness of the book. Abdon is the host at the inn in Jerusalem. He is a "Black Jew" from Cochin where ". . . his kin, never from true allegiance torn, kept Moses' law." After a successful career as a trader in Amsterdam, he came t o Jerusalem to end his life at home and to be buried with his ancestors. He carries all the symbols of the Jewish faith: mezuzah, tallit, scroll. Although he is resigned to disillusionment, Abdon is never given to self-pity or cynicism. He represents experience through age and the virtues of ancient orthodoxy. Clarel notices him among the pilgrims at the Wailing Wall and thinks, "Yon Jew has faith, can faith be vain?"'O Then his doubts return. Abdon is the only old Jew in the book, and he is most certainly neither a villain nor a comic miser-nor even a benevolent stereotype. Clarel also encounters a merry young French Jew, a traveling salesman from Lyons. He has come t o Bethlehem to have fun with the pretty girls. Sharing a room with Clarel for a night, he jests about the power of beautiful Jewesses. "There is no tress can thrall one like a Jewess's." Hebrew husbands are "wondrous faithful," he feels, because," as bees are loyal t o the rose, so men t o beauty." In his light-hearted version of history, all of the great beauties and coquettes are described as Jewish. He stands for extravagance, carefree youth and a light-hearted, strangely innocent sensualitywhich in both its homosexual and heterosexual aspects is a temptation to Clarel. Even more interestingly, the Frenchman ignores his Jewish heritage and attempts to hide it, reflecting perhaps Clarel's own need to deny his spiritual inheritance. It is a Russian traveler who later informs Clarel that the bon vivant from Lyons is a Jew. Clarel remarks that he does not look much like a Hebrew. "Enough to badge him," the Russian responds. Clarel, very puzzled, asks, "Very well, but why should he the badge repell?" The Russian explains that society "is not quite catholic, retains some prejudice "Ibid., pp. 8-10,55.

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. . ."-a Jew must "either melt in or be separate."ll In these few words Melville puts his finger on the Jewish dilemma of isolation or assimilation. Clarel begins t o consider the possibility that he has unconsciously stayed away from Ruth because of her Jewishness. The one unpleasant Jewish character in Clarel is the geologist Margoth. More comic than villain, he is a savage dissection of scientific materialism. He is described as short and round-shouldered, as powerful as the hammer which is always in his hand. There are no mysteries t o Margoth: science is everything. He is antagonistic t o all "theologic myth." He drinks of the Jordan River and spits it out in disgust. T o him the Dead Sea is nothing more than a geological fact. He loves t o refute the Bible and suggest the building of railroads in all sorts of sacred sites. He is an enemy t o all the values of the other pilgrims, even the rational Rolfe (who represents Melville himself?. Margoth represents Melville's own quarrel with materialism and atheism. He is first seen carrying limestone: This now is a JewGerman I deem-but readvisedAn Israelite, say HegelizedConvert to science, for but see The hammer, yes, geology.

He is portrayed as . . ." the busy Jew with chemic lamp aflame, trying some shrewd experiment." Considerable point is made of Margoth being a Jew, but Melville specifically states that n o criticism of Jews should be implied, " . . . if stigma then survive, elsewhere let such in satire thrive-Not here." Here, he says, the opposite point is t o be made. "In picturing Margoth, fallen son of Judah. Him may Gabriel mend."l2 In fact, the criticism of Margoth is not that he is a Jew, but that he is an apostate, a cynic, an unbeliever. Melville is particularly effective in describing Jewish customs, rituals, and quality of life. These are not presented as exotic or romantic. Thus, the unextinguished lamp burns, for it may not be quenched on Saturday, "the unaltered Sabbath of the Jew."' "Ibid., pp. 497-98,505. 121bid.,pp. 203,205,267. 131bid.,p. 78.

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Agar's family had maintained its Judaism and clung to Moses' lore though far from the Holy Land. Their Jewish heritage was precious to them: 'Twas Eld's romance, a treasured store Like plate inherited. In fine It graced in seemly way benign That family feeling of the Jew, Which hallowed by each priestly rite, Makes home a temple-sheds delight Naomi ere her trial knew.14

What a contrast this presents to the usual picture in American literature of this period of miserly money-lenders living in secret Oriental splendor! The world has changed. One of the pilgrims remarks that Jews have taken part in science and enlightenment in countries like Holland, "that historic home of erudite Israel." Despite all changes, Rolfe (Melville) believes: Nor less the Jew keep fealty To ancient rites. Aaron's gemmed vest Will long outlive Genevan clothNothing in time's old camphor chest So little subject to the moth.15

Melville shows an awareness of historic movements within Judaism such as the reforms of Hillel and the Essenes and the bold ideas of Moses Mendelssohn. He is particularly sensitive t o early Zionist feelings, even though he appears convinced that the Zionists he met were "preposterous; half melancholy, half farcical."16 In his journal he comments, "In the emptiness of the lifeless antiquity of Jerusalem, the emigrant Jews are like flies that have taken up their abode in a skull." He dismisses dreams of setting up a nation of Jewish farmers in Palestine. "In the first place, Judea is a desert. . . . In the second . . . . the Jews hate farming . . . Besides the numbers of Jews in Palestine is comparatively small. And how are the hosts of them scattered in other lands to be brought here? Only by a

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miracle."17 Clarel, however, cannot help but respond to the sight of pilgrims by the Wailing Wall, shut out from the gate by the Turks. With sighs and groans, they cry, "To be restored! We wait, long wait." They live in Palestine in dismal poverty. Groups hang out in the streets with nothing to do at home. How can they live and get enough bread to survive? In surprisingly modern solutions: "In almost every country known, rich Israelites these kinsmen own: the hat goes round the w ~ r l d . " ' ~ The only condemnation of Jews occurs when Ruth's father dies. Clarel, rushing to her side, is informed. "That never Jewish modes relent; sealed long would be the tenement to all but Hebrews. . . ." No one can verify the existence of any such custom. It would seem to be an invention to further the melodramatic aspects of the story. When Ruth dies, Clarel blames "Your tribe-'twas ye denied me access to this virgin's side." Nevertheless, in his bitterness, he rejects not Judaism, but all belief: "And here's the furl of Nathan's faith: then perish faith-'tis perjured."19 This reflects the fact that Melville himself found it impossible to accept the solutions of either Judaism or historic Christianity. In many ways Clarel is remarkable for a time when Jewish characters were presented as pleasant or unpleasant stereotypes and when Judaism was viewed as an exotic Oriental faith. Here, Judaism, Jewish customs and characters are intertwined with Clarel's search for faith, although they are not central to the book. Clarel exhibits an understanding and tolerance which go beyond any other American book of this period, a reflection perhaps of a great and wide-ranging mind.

"Melville, Journal, pp. 154, 160-61. ''Melville, Clarel, pp. 54, 110. 19Zbid.,pp. 134,513.

Brief Notices Dinnerstein, Leonard, and David M. Reirners. Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration and Assimilation. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1975. xv, 184 pp. $4.75 [Paperback] In this volume, which stresses "the broad themes of [non-Black and non-Amerindian] ethnic history, the problems of the newcomers, their struggles and conflicts, [and] patterns of mobility and assimilation," there is considerable material on Jewish immigrants, including a statistical appendix for the years 1899-1973. There is also an index. Newman, Katharine D., Edited by. Ethnic American Short Stories. New York: Washington Square Press, 1975.254 pp. $1.45 [Paperback] The Jews are represented in this collection by Hugh Nissenson's "The Law," which first appeared in Commentary in 1960 and was republished in Nissenson's A Pile o f Stones in 1965, Rezneck, SamueL Unrecognized Patriots: The Jews in the American Revolution. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1975. xiv, 299 pp. $1 3.95 As Jacob R. Marcus says in a foreword, Professor Rezneck's "book, on the role of the Jews in the American Revolution, attempts t o depict in detail what happened in those decades when the world was young with expectation." The book is well documented and equipped with a bibliography and an index. Shiloh, Ailon, Edited by. By Myself I'm a Book: An Oral History o f the I m m i g r ~ n t Jewish Experience in Pittsburgh. Waltham, Mass.: American Jewish Historical SocietyPittsburgh Section, National Council of Jewish Women, 1972. xxii, 166 pp. $8.50 Working with Dr. Shiloh, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh, and with Ida Cohen Selavan, Research Assistant to the project, the Pittsburgh Section of the National Council of Jewish Women embarked in 1968 on an effort "to collect and synthesize a critical mass of data describing the rich and dramatic immigrant experience as lived, remembered and related by the immigrants themselves in their own words." This fascinating book emerged as a result. It includes an appendix on Pittsburgh Jewish history and a listing of sources. Shiloh, Ailon, and Ida Cohen Selavan, Edited by. Ethnic Groups of America: Their Morbidity, Mortality and Behavior Disorders: Volume I-The Jews. Springfield, IU.: Charles C. Thomas, 1973. xix, 425 pp. $17.50 The purpose of the series, of which this is the initial volume, is "to bring together under one cover current sound, documented, and relevant research articles concerning the morbidity, mortality and behavior disorders of specific ethnic groups of America." The editors have selected research on demography, blood grouping, genetic disorders, carcinoma, morbidity patterns, and behavior disorders. Included are author and subject indices.

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Siegel, Richard; Michael Strassfeld; and Sharon Strassfeld, Compiled and Edited by. The Jewish Catalog: A Do-It-Yourself Kit. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1973. 319 pp. $5.50 [Paperback] Funded largely by the Institute for Jewish Life and Boston's Jewish Student Projects, this remarkable "compendium of tools and resources for use in Jewish education and Jewish livingv-the editors add, "in the fullest sense of these termsv-is at the very least a visual delight. It is not lacking in intellectual and spiritual riches either. Those who cherish a stuffy view of Judaism and Jewishness will most probably discount it as somehow undignified; everyone else will enjoy it immensely and welcome the editors' suggestion that a tosefta (a supplement) might be forthcoming. Silver, Abba Hillel. A Word in Its Season: Selected Sermons, Addresses, and Writings of Abba Hillel Silver: Volume Two. New York: World Publishing Company, 1972. xvii, 422 pp. $15.00 Edited by Herbert Weiner, this volume is a sequel to Therefore Choose Life (1967). evoked by specific occasions "Its emphasis," writes the editor, "is on statements in the cycle of the religious and secular calendar, in the life of a community, in the history of a people or nation." The collection, he adds, testifies to Rabbi Silver's "conviction that the function of the Rabbi was to present not himselfbut anintellectual and spiritual legacy." Ten photographs are included.

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Sklare, Marshall. Conservative Judaism: An American Religious Movement. New York: Schocken Books, 1972.330 pp. $3.95 [Paperback] Professor Sklare offers here a "new, augmented edition" of a work which first appeared in the mid-1950's. The book, which remains something of a classic in the sociology of American Jewish life, is very wen documented and contains an index.

-.America's Jews. New York: Random House, 1971. xiv, 234 pp. [Paperback] His book, writes Professor Sklare, "seeks to make a contribution to what is in many ways the most underdeveloped area of Jewish scholarship: contemporary Jewish studies." He goes on to say: "In studying America's Jews, we are able to clarify the problem of the ethnic minority in modern society. the Jews . . . best exemplify the condition of being a minority group [because] Judaism is the only significant nonChristian religion encountered in American society." As Peter Rose suggests in a foreword, Dr. Sklare "is sensitive both to the uniqueness of his people and to their concern . . . about how others will interpret Jewish pride in this uniqueness-and Jewish clannishness."

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Snetsinger, John. Truman, the Jewish Vote, and the Creation of Israel. Stanford, Cal.: Hoover Institution Press-Stanford University, 1974. xv, 208 pp. $6.95. Initially the Truman administration was indecisive with respect to the establishment of a Jewish state in what was still British Mandatory Palestine, but, as Dr. Snetsinger says, "by the end of 1948 the State of Israel could rightly count on Truman as a good friend." This book offers "an account of the successful effort on the part of American Jews to win [Truman] to the cause to which they were so deeply committed." The work is documented and provided with a bibliography and an index.

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Stearn, Gerald Emanuel, Edited by. Gompers. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1971. 178 pp. $5.95 Samuel Gompers (1850-1924), the founder of the American Federation of Labor, is portrayed in this "Great Lives Observed" volume in terms of his own autobiographical reflections, comments by contemporaries like Bernard Mandel, Joseph Cannon, and .Lenin, and assessments by historians like Philip Foner and Daniel Bell. Included are a chronology of Gompers' life, a bibliographical note, and an index. Sukenick, Ronald. Up: A Novel. New York: Delta, 1970. 330 pp. $2.25 [Paperback] Sukenick's novel first appeared in hardcover in 1968. It is an autobiographical novel, a notable contribution to what one reviewer has called the "American-Jewish-TragicComic-Urban" genre of fiction. Szajkowski, Zosa. Jews, Wars, and Communism- Vol. II: The Impact o f the 1919.20 Red Scare on American Jewish Life. New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1974. 398 pp. $20.00 Vol. I of this work was noted in the November, 1973, issue of American Jewish Archives. The author concludes that, though during the "Red Scare" years "most American Jewish leaders had the courage to associate themselves with American liberalism," their attitude "was not . . . shared by American Jews as a whole."

Tadrich Le-Shabbat: A Shabbat Manual. New York: Ktav Publishing House for the Central Conference of American Rabbis, 1972. iii, 104 pp. $1.50 The manual, writes its editor, Rabbi W. Gunther Plaut, is "a major attempt of the Reform rabbinate to deal directly with Reform Halachah [religious law] in specific form, with guidelines responsive to the needs and realities of Diaspora life." Included are discussions of Sabbath observance as well as home services, Sabbath music, selected readings, a guide to the weekly pentateuchal and prophetic readings, and a glossay. Thomas, Bob. Selznick. New York: Pocket Books, 1972. viii, 386 pp. $1.25 [Paperback] This biography of David 0. Selznick (1902-1965), one of the leading figures of the "Golden Age" of the American motion-picture industry, first appeared in hardcover in 1970. Included are photographs, a listing of films produced by Selznick, and an index. Urofsky, Melvin I. American Zionism from Herzl t o the Holocaust. Garden City, N . Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1975. ix, 538 pp. $1 2.50 "No other ethnic group in American history has had so extensive an involvement with a foreign nation [as have the Jews with Israel] ; no other nation relies upon a body of private individuals . . neither residents nor citizens. . to underwrite a major portion of their budget [as does Israel]. American Jews buy Israel bonds, give generously to the United Israel Appeal, lobby their governmental representatives t o pursue a pro-Israel policy, travel extensively to Israel . . ., respond immediately to every crisis [there], and yet maintain passionately that they are Americans first and Jews afterward. It is a curious, puzzling, and yet totally logical arrangement. . ." Professor Urofsky attempts "to explore the beginnings of that relationship in the growth and development of the Zionist movement" in America. The book is well documented and enhanced by a bibliographical essay as well as an index.

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A Mind o f One Piece: Brondeis and American Reform. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971. xiii, 210 pp. $10.00 The theme of Professor Urofsky's essays o n Louis D. Brandeis "is t o show how seamless life and thought were in this man, how closely action and philosophy could be related in a single personality"-but the essays "are not meant t o be a biography . ." They are meant "to supplement [Alpheus T. Mason's] standard biography with some thoughts o n different aspects of Brandeis's life, and t o illuminate the life of one of the most important figures in the history of American [political] reform." The book is well documented, provided with a bibliographical essay and indexed.

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Urofsky, Melvin I., and David W. Levy, Edited by. Letters o f Louis D. Brondeis. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1971-1975. Four Volumes. xlii, 6 0 9 pp.; xxiv, 750 pp.: xxii, 705 pp.; xxiii, 587 pp. $20.00 per volume. "Many of the letters . . in these volumes," write the editors, "have never been seen by scholars before. . The letters included in this massive undertaking have been chosen from some 14,000 possibilities. Vol. I (1870-1907) focuses o n Brandeis as "Urban Reformer"; Vol. I1 (1907-1912), on Brandeis as "People's Attorney"; Vol, 111 (1 91 3-19 15), o h Brandeis as "Progressive and Zionist"; Vol. IV (1 916-1 921), o n "Mr. Justice Brandeis." Each volume is extensively indexed. No future biographer of Brandeis wiU be anything but immensely indebted to Professors Urofsky and Levy.

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Voss, Carl Hermann, Edited by. A Summons unto Men: An Anthology o f the Writings o f John Haynes Holmes. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971. 256 pp. $7.95 Holmes (1879-1964) was in his day among t h e most important of spokesmen for religious liberalism in America. As James Luther Adams, Dana MacLean Greeley, and Donald S. Harrington say in their preface t o Dr. Voss's anthology, Holmes deserves in particular t o be remembered by "Jews of every persuasion . . . [for] his unique understanding of Jewish thought and customs, his veneration of Judaism as an historic, living faith, his sensitivity t o t h e religious ideals and values of such secular-minded Jews as Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, and Louis Brandeis, his early, informed espousal of Zionism, and . . his defense of Jewry during the Hitler nightmare." Dr. Voss also includes considerable material on the friendship between Holmes and Rabbi Stephen S. Wise (1874-1949), a friendship which Holmes once compared to "the love of David and Jonathan."

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Walden, Daniel, Edited by. On Being Jewish: Americon Jewish Writers from Cahan t o Bellow. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Publications, 1974.480 pp. $1.75 [Paperback] "American Jewish writers," remarks t h e editor in his introduction to this anthology, "have . worked usually in an uncaring or hostile framework." They have "had to deal with a [stereotypical] Jewish image brought into existence by gentiles and Jews and then create what had never existed before-an American Jewish literature," one responsive t o "some essential aspect of the Jewish experience in America." The selections are grouped under four rubrics: "The Immigrant Experience" (represented by Abraham Cahan, James Oppenheim, Mary Antin, and Anzia Yezierska, inter olios); "The American Jews" (including Samuel Ornitz, Ludwig Lewisohn, Henry Roth, Edward Dahlberg, Meyer Levin, et a l . ) ; "The Holocaust" (Ben Hecht, Maxwell Bodenheim, Edward Lewis Wallant, and William Pillin); and "The American Jews, The Jew-

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

ish Americans" (among them Jo Sinclair, Arthur Miller, Delmore Schwartz, Karl Shapiro, Bernard Malamud, Philip Roth, and Saul Bellow). Warembud, Norman H., Selected by. Great Songs of the Yiddish Theater: Arranged for Voice, Piano, and Guitar. New York: QuadrangleIThe New York Times Book Co., 1975.256 pp. $12.50 "In the late twenties," writes Molly Picon in her introduction, "it was not unusual for more than a dozen [Yiddish theatrical] companies to be holding forth in New York, with new productions ranging . . from full-blown opera . . to operetta and musical comedy. . . . To the musical theater were attracted a retinue of composers and lyricists whose compositions were not counted by tens, or even by hundreds, but by thousands." This handsome volume offers some fifty of the best-known of these compositions, their lyrics transliterated. Included is an index of composers and lyricists.

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When Yesterday Becomes Tomorrow: I25th Anniversary Celebration Congregation Emanu-El o f the City o f New York I845-1970. New York: Congregation Emanu-El, 1971. xiii, 205 pp. Included in this anniversary volume are essays by, inter alios, Milton Himmelfarb, Bayard Rustin, Marshall Sklare, Abraham Kaplan, Edward Flannery, Eugene Borowitz, Ellis Rivkin, and Daniel J. Silver. Wiernik, Peter. History of the Jews in America: From the Period of the Discovery of the New World to the Present Time. Third edition. New York: Hermon Press, 1972. xxx, 481 pp. $9.95. Previously published in 1912 and again in 1931, Wiernik's pioneering book appears in its t h u d edition, which includes Irving J. Sloan's "Survey of Forty Years of Jewish Life in America, 1932-1972." Wiernik (1865-1936) was among the first historians to attempt an account of t h e East European immigrant Jewish experience. The volume includes an index. Wood, Robin. Arthur Penn. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Inc., 1969. 143 pp. $4.95 Penn is among America's most eminent motion-picture directors. "Again and again" in his films, writes Robin Wood, "what is felt as most admirable in the characters, their spontaneous-instinctive response to one another. . ., is inextricable from all that is most destructive and disastrous in them. The films very powerfully convey a sense of the tragic impurity of human motivation, of human impulse, o f human existence." The volume is very well illustrated and includes a "filmography." Yaffe, James. So Sue Me!-The Story of a Community Court. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1972. viii, 275 pp. $7.95. Yaffe is best known for his novels, but in this book-as in The American Jews (1968) he turns t o nonfiction. So Sue Me! is a lively account of t h e Jewish Conciliation Board "founded in 1920 by Louis Richman, a lawyer, and Samuel Buckler, a rabbi." T h e Board, he writes, "from t h e beginning . . .represented a union between the complex principles of American law and the rather different b u t equally complex

BRIEF NOTICES

185

principles of the Jewish rabbinical tradition." Yaffe suggests the Board "has [always] been kept alive by rabbis and lawyers working together." Yezierska, Anzia. Bread Givers: A Novel. New York: George Braziller, 1975. xviii, 297 pp. $3.95 [Paperback] Subtitled "A struggle between a father of the Old World and a daughter of the New," Bread Givers was first published in 1925. Alice Kessler Harris, in introducing this Venture Book paperback, declares that none of Anzia Yezierska's works published in the 1920's and early 1930's are more autobiographical than Bread Givers. In this novel, Yezierska "leads us through the days of her childhood t o the impetuous decision to reject her parents' home. Along the way, she lays open the woman's experience of immigration, revealing the ways in which Jewish women encountered the new world and tried to reconcile it with the old. Yowa (nee Nancy McMurray). The Becoming o f Ruth. New York: Crown Publishers, 1972.64 pp. $4.95. Miss McMurray, born and raised in Zaire (as the Belgian Congo is now called), has retained the Congolese name Yowa as a professional signature. In this remarkable and charming little volume, which she has illustrated as well as written, she tells the autobiographical story of a conversion to Judaism. Zagat, Samuel. Jewish Life on New York's Lower Easf Side, 1912-1962. New York: Rogers Book Service, 1972. 108 pp. $15.00. The Lithuanian-born artist and political cartoonist Zagat (1890-1964) worked for the New York Wahrheit until it ceased publication in 1919 and then went to work for the Fowerts (Jewish Daily Forward). Some of his work appeared also in New Masses and the Morgen Zhurnal (Jewish Morning Journal). The present volume, edited by Ida Roji Zagat, includes a "requiem" by J. C. Rich, a poem by Aaron Kramer, and a rich selection of Zagat's work. The selection, notwithstanding the volume's title, is not confined to depictions of Lower East Side Jewry. Zielonka, David M., and Robert J. Wechman. The Eager Immigrants. Champaign, Ill.: Stipes Publishing Company, 1972. iii, 1 0 3 pp. [Soft Cover] Subtitled "A Survey of the Life and Americanization of Jewish immigrants to the United States," the work is d~videdinto chapters on the Sephardic period, the German period, t h e East European period, and what the authors term the American period, i.e., the post-World War 1 years during which "the children and grandchildren of [the] immigrants [became] culturally and emotionally American.. ." Rabbi Zielonka and Dr. Wechman have documented their study and added a selected bibliography and an index.

Index A Alabama; see Birmingham, Mobile AARON, JACOB, 1 2 1 Albany, N. Y., 5 7 ; Department of EducaABERBACH. MOSES. 98 tion, 57 ~bolitionism;8 3 ALDRICH, REVEREND, 139-40 ABRAHAMS, JACOB, 121; MR., 98 ALEXANDER (family), 101 ;MOSES, Academic life, 28-29, 3 8 , 6 1 , 9 7 ; 8 5 ; SAMUEL, 39 Academicians, 1, 25; Academics, 109 ALEXANDER I1 (czar), 1 4 3 Acculturation, 70-7 1 ALEXANDER 111 (czar), 143 Activists, 1 8 Alexandria, Egypt, 131 ADAMS, JAMES LUTHER, 183 ALGER, HORATIO, 157 Adas Jeshurun Congregation, New York Algeria, Algiers, 8 1-82 City, 93-94 Algerine Captive, The (Tyler), 79-84 ADDAMS, JANE, 150 Allen Verbatim: Lectures on Poetry, Addresses, 19, 47, 96-97, 99, 103, 109, Politics, Consciousness (Ginsberg), 88 181 ;see also Sermons, Speeches Allies (Second World War). 5. 13. 116-17 ADLER, AARON, 76; CYRUS, 86; ALPERSTEIN, ABRAHAM E., 148 DELLA RUBENSTEIN (Mrs. J o s p h ALPERT, REBECCA T., 102 G.), 74-78; ELKAN NATHAN, 86; Alumnae Association of the Mt. Sinai FELIX, 106, facing page 162, 162-71 ; School of Nursing, New York City, 55 Creed and Deed, 162; IKE, 76; ISAK, Ambassadors, 104, 109, 11 1, 1 3 2 Ambivalent American Jew, The: Politics, 162; JOSEPH G. (Joe), 74-76, 78; LINA, 76; LOUIS, 78; MANNIE, 74-76; Religion, and Family in American Jewish Life (Liebman), 9 0 MRS., Baltimore, 76-77; NATHAN, America, Americans, 1-2, 5, 8-9, 11, 13, Buffalo, N. Y., 76; NATHAN, Frank15-16, 18, 23-24, 49, 51, 60-64, 66-68, furt-am-Main, Germany, 162; NATHAN 70-71, 73, 79-84, 86-90, 105, 108, 11 1, MARCUS, 162; MOSE, 76; ROBERT 113, 118, 126-27, 1 4 3 , 1 4 5 , 151, 153S., 94-95; 98; SAMUEL, 162; SARAH, 56, 172, 179-80, 182-85; discovery of 76; SELIG, 78 America, 184 see also Latin America, "Adventures in America and the Holy New World, United States, Western Land" (Kerman), 126-41 Hemisphere Aged, the, 50; see also Old Age "America, Whither Are You Going?-A Agudas Achim Synagogue, St. Paul, Centennial Sermon" (David Einhorn), Minn., facing page 145, 1 4 7 , 1 6 0 18-24 Agudat Ha-Rabbanim, 1 0 3 American Association for Jewish EducaAHAD HAAM, 1 3 4 tion, 60 Air Force, 10-11, 16;see also British American Christian Palestine Committee, Royal Air Force, Eighth Air Force, 118 Fifteenth Air Force, German Air American Council for Judaism, 95, 115 Force, Luftwaffe American Emergency Committee for Air raids, 9, 1 5 ; Air raid shelters; see Israel Affairs, 118 Bombardiers American Federation of Labor, 182 Aircrafts, airplanes, 4 , 8 , 15 American Founding Fathers, 61 Akron, Ohio, 9 3 American history, 85, 1 8 2 AKZIN, BENJAMIN, 1 0 9 , 1 1 8

"American Idea," 60-63 American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio, 59,94, 97 American Jewish Committee, 85-86, 94, 96,109 American Jewish Conference, 95, 109 American Jewish Congress, 60,85, 99 American Jewish Historical Society, 86, 103 American Jewish literature, 183 American Jewry, 18, 59-60, 62-63, 65-67, 69,71-73, 85-90,92,96, 102,108, 111, 113,122, 125,172, 181-83,185 "American Jewry 1954-1971" (Karp), 90 American Jews, The (Yaffe), 184 American Jews and the Zionist Idea (Cohen), 86 American Judaism, 9 1, 102 American law, 184 American Legion, 33 American life, 150 American literature, 172, 174-75, 178 American Progressive movement, 67 American Progressive reform, 70 American Reform, 183 American Revolution; see Revolutionary War American Zionism, 37,60, 63-68,70-72, 85-86, 109, 113, 182; see also Zionism American Zionism from Herzl t o the Holocaust (Urofsky), 182 American Zionist Emergency Council, 107, 109-10, 113,116 American Zionist Provisional Executive Committee, 65-66 Americanization, 61-62, 66-67, 149-50, 153-54, 158, 185 Americanized Zionism, 70-72, 86 America S Jews (Sklare), 181 ANDERSON, ELAINE S., 102 Anshe Lubtz Congregation, New York City, 94 Anthologies, 88-89, 183 Anti-intellectuals, 48 ANTIN, MARY, 86,183 Anti-Semitism, 7, 14, 18, 29, 43, 95, 98, 111, 116,143, 155;seealso Prejudice Antislavery, 18 Anti-Zionism, 92, 115 Aphorisms, 50 Apostates, 36, 177

Appellate courts, New York State, 56; Appellate Division, Supreme Court, New York State, 57 Appleton Chapel, 39 AQUINAS, THOMAS, 43 Arabists, 112 Arabs, 115, 117-118 Arbeiterring; see Workmen's Circle ARISTOTLE, 30, 32-33,42, 45; Aristotelianism, 33 Arkansas, 107 Armistice (November, 1918), 132 Army, 134;see also British Army, German Army, United States Army Army (United States), 10, 13, 33,40, 95-96 Arthur Mervyn (Brown), 80 Arthur Penn (Wood), 184 Articles of war, 12 Arts, 30; Artists, 30, 91, 185 Ashkenazim, 119, 122, 142; see also Deutsche Yehudim, German Jews "Asser Levy-A Postscript" (Stern), 142 Assimilation, 62,71-72, 153, 177, 180 Association of Commerce, St. Paul, Minn., 155 Atlanta, Ga., 94, 102 Atonement Day; see Yom Kippur Attorneys; see Lawyers Auschwitz, 3 Austria, 4, 143; see also Vienna; Jews of, 144 Austryn, Russia, 25 Authors, 35, 87,89-91, 166,180,185; see also Writers Autobiographies, 27,45, 51-58, 85, 87, 90-91, 99-100, 126, 182, 185 Autobiography (Russell), 45; "Autobiography" (Solomon), 5 1-58 AVNI, HAIM, 87

B BACHE (family), 54; BACHE, MRS. LEOPOLD, 54 BAGRASH, GEORGE, 95 BALDAUF, MRS. ARTHUR J., 101 Balfour Declaration, 68, 108, 114, 116, 130 Balkans, 117 BALL, GORDON, 88 Baltimore, Md., 18,74, 76-77, 105, 11925; Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, 105, 120-21; Courtland Street, 123;

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Holliday Street, 120-21, 123-24; Lucas brewery, 123 BAMBERGER, SIMON, 85 Bar (the), 54,56-57 BAR KOCHBA, 30 Bar mitzvah, 54 BARACH, MRS. JOSEPH H., 96 Barbary Coast, 81 BARCUS, SANFORD L., 93 BARNARD, HARRY, 8 5 , 9 3 , 9 7 BARON, SALO W., 86 Basements, 52, 54, 76, 126 Bases, military, 3 4 BAUER, MRS., New York City, 53 BAUM, ALBERT G., 99 Becoming of Ruth, The (Yowa [Nancy McMurrayj), 185 Behavior, 90, 180; see also Conduct BEHRENS, HENRIETTA, 125 BEIFIELD, MARTIN P., JR., 102 Belgian Congo (Zaire), 185 Belgium, 5 Belief, beliefs, 20, 46-47, 64, 92, 163 BELL, DANIEL, 182 BELLOW, SAUL, 88-89, 183-84 BEN GURION, DAVID, 131 BEN ZVI, ITZHAK, 131 BENJAMIN, LEVI, 121,125; BENJAMIN, SAMUEL, 121 BERGER, ELMER, 95,115 BERGSON, HENRI, 39,44,49r50; BERGSON, PETER, 115-16 Bernard Revel: Builder o f American Jewish Orthodoxy (Rothkoff), 91-92 BERNSTEIN, MRS. MARTIN, 102; BERNSTEIN, PHILIP S., 102 Bet Talmud Torah, Montreal, Canada, 94 Beth-El Congregation, New York City, 1, 18 Beth Hamedrash Hagadol Congregation, Pittsburgh, Pa., 95 Beth Hamedrash Hagodol Congregation, St. Paul, Minn., 147 Beth Hamedrosh Hagodol, Omaha, Neb., 94 Beth Israel Congregation, Omaha, Neb., 94 Beth Shalome Congregation, Richmond, Va., 119 BETTMANN, BERNHARD, 96 BIALIK, HAYIM NAHMAN, 134 Bialystok, Russia, 51

Bible, 29,47, 61, 136-37, 140, 172-73; see also Hebrew Bible, Old Testament, Scriptures Bible, Christian; see New Testament Bible College (University of Missouri), 130 Biblical commentaries, 135 Bibliography, 29, 44, 85-88, 90, 92, 102, 180-83, 185 Bigotry, 22,61 Biltmore Zionist program (1 942), 109 BINSTOCK, LOUIS, 96; MRS. LOUIS, 96 Biography, 79, 85, 88-89, 91, 98-100, 102-3, 163, 182-83 BIRKHOFF, GEORGE, 43 Birmingham, Ala., 87 "Bishop of the South Plains," 137 Blacks, 18. 77.84.. 89.. 103 lacks shirts, 116 BLANK. SHELDON H.., 97:. SOL H.. 97 BLOCH, AHARON YOSSEL, 74; SHAINA ESTHER, 74 Blood libel, 82, 84 BLOOM, H. L., 86; MRS. ROBERT, 98; SOL, 112 BLUM (family), 99; BLUM, ISIDOR, 120; Blum Saga, The, 1836-1968, 99 BLUMENBERG, LEOPOLD, 95 BLUMENSTIEL, HELEN ALPINER, 9 9 B'nai Abraham Congregation, Butler, Pa., 103 B'nai B'rith, Independent Order of, 136; Monessen Lodge No. 776, Monessen, Pa., 94 B'nai Israel Congregation, St. Paul, Minn., 148 Bnai Sholem Congregation, Omaha, Neb., 94 B'nai Zion Synagogue, St. Paul, Minn., 147 BODENHEIM, MAXWELL, 183 Bombardiers, 16; Bombers, 6 , 8, 14; Bombings, bombs, 4 , 6 , 8-9, 12-13, 15-16; Bomb shelters, 15 BONNARD, SYLVESTRE, 39 Books, 27, 29-30,40,4244,48,64, 85-92, 96-97, 132-33, 137, 179-86 BOROWITZ, EUGENE, 184 Boston, Mass., 4 2 , 4 7 4 8 , 5 0 , 60, 93, 112,181

Boston American, 33-34 Boston Jewish Advocate, 64 BOTEFUHR, RENATE, 102 Bowdoin Prize, 29 BRAHAM, W. WALTER, 139 BRAININ, REUBEN, 30 Brandeis, A Free Man's Life (Mason), 6 4 BRANDEIS, LOUIS D., 38, 64-72, 85, 183 Brandeis on Zionism, 66 Brandeis papers, Zionist Archives, 6 5 Bread, 14,22, 133; see also Leavened bread Bread Givers (Yezierska), 185 Bright Book of Life (Kazin), 15 BRILLING, BERNHARD, 142 BRIN, PHILLlP L., 93 Britain, British Empire, 108, 114, 162; British Mandatory Palestine, 18 1; see also England, Great Britain B'rith Sholom Congregation, Springfield, Ill., 9 4 Brith Sholom Congregation, Troy, N. Y., 94 British, 3, 13, 15-16,68-69, 116, 172; Army, 131; Colonial Office, 112; Government; see Britain; Royal Air Force, 13; White Paper (1939), 1 1 1 , 113, 116 BROMBERG, ISRAEL, 99; MR., St. Paul, Minn., 148 Bronx, The, N. Y., 52-53,91 Brooklyn, N. Y., 93; Jewish Center, 9 3 BROOKS, JUANITA, 85 Brotherhood, 64, 66, 83, 167, 171 BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, 8 0 ; BROWN, GEORGE S., 95,107 Brownsville, Brooklyn, N. Y., 4 BUBER, MARTIN, 9 2 , 9 8 BUBIS, GERALD B., 94 Bucharest, Roumania, 7 0 BUCKLER, SAMUEL, 184 Buddha, Buddhism, 168;see also Zen Buddhism Budgets, 67, 150, 182 Buffalo, N.Y., 74-75, 78, 138 Bureau for Careers in Jewish Service, New York City, 9 4 Bureau of Jewish Education, Cincinnati, Ohio, 136 Burials, 121 Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library, Detroit, 103

Businessmen, business, business life, 7, 2 3 , 7 4 , 101, 107, 143, 146, 157, 160 Butler. Pa.. 103 By Myself I'm a Book: An Oral History of the Immigrant Jewish Experience in Pittsburgh (Shiloh), 180 Byelorussia, 105, 126

C Cabbala, 92 CAHAN, ABRAHAM, 85-86,183 Cairo, Egypt, 131 CAISERMAN, H. M., 93 California, 100; see also Los Angeles Calvinism, 172 Cambridge, Mass., 33, 36, 50; City Hall, 36 Camp Owendigo, Carver's Lake, Minnesota, 158 Camps, 10, 12-13, 16, 33,53-54, 131, 133, 154, 158; see also Concentration camps, Day camps, Death camps Canada, 4 1 , 9 3 , 101, 131, 140;seealso Manitoba, Montreal, Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan, Toronto Canadian Jewish Congress, Montreal. 94-95 CANNON, JOSEPH, 182 Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 7 9 , 8 2 Capital (Marx), 36 Capitol Hill, Washington, D. C., 1 11 , 114, 117; see also Washington, D. C. CARDOZE (family), 102; DAVID, 102; MRS. DAVID, 102 CARDOZO, BENJAMIN N., 5 4 CARSON, ADA LOU, 79-84; HERBERT L., 79-84 Carver's Lake, Minnesota, 158 CARVAJAL, LUIS DE, THE YOUNGER, 86 Catch-22 (Heller), 15 CATHER, WILLA, 4 8 Catholics, 149; Catholic schools, 1 3 8 Cemeteries, 5 , 93, 101, 121, 142 Census (Baltimore, 1830), 123-24; Census (St. Louis, 1915), 151 Centennials, 1, 18-24, 93; "CentennialPredigt," 19 Center for Retarded Children. Houston. Tex., 91 Central Conference of American Rabbis.

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Central Europe, 18,68, 122, 143;see also Europe Century o f Jewish Life in Dixie, A: The Birmingham Experience (Elovitz), 87 Ceremonies, 147, 164, 167; see also Customs, Practices CHALL, MRS. MALKA KLEINER, 101 Chalutzim, 70 Chamber of Commerce, St. Paul, Minn., 144 Champaign-Urbana, Ill., 100 CHANEN, HARRY, 99 Chapels, 5, 39,46, 136 Chaplains, 137 CHAPMAN, ABRAHAM, 85 Characters, 172, 179 Charities, charity, 55, 94, 144, 167-68; see also Contributions, Philanthropy Charleston, S. C., 78 Charters, 120-21, 123-25 Chatham Square Cemetery, New York City, 142 CHAUCER, GEOFFREY, 7 9 , 8 2 Chautauqua, N. Y., 138-39 Chautauqua Hall of Missions, 139; Hebrew Congregation, 140; Institution, 139; Junior Orchestra, 138 CHAZAN, ROBERT, 85-86 Cheder (Cheddar), 63, 148 Chicago, 93, 150 Chief rabbis, 115, 148, 162; see also Rabbis Chiefs of staff, 114, 117 Child Guidance Clinic, Houston, Tex., 91 Children, 5 , 22,26,32-33,53,6061, 69, 76-78, 87, 90-91, 135-37, 144-45, 148-50, 152-60, 169, 185; retarded children, 9 1 China, 37 Choirs, 164; Choir directors, 139 Chosen people, 164 Christian Bible; see New Testament; Christian state, concept of, 22 Christianity, 45, 83, 106, 139, 162-71, 174, 179; see also Calvinism, Gentiles, Lutheran church, Protestants, Unitarianism Christians,43, 81, 109, 112, 118, 133, 137, 140, 167, 169; see also Catholics, Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Gentiles, Methodists, Presbyterians, Protestants Church, the, 62, 169; Churches, 5, 16,

45-46, 109-10, 130, 137-40; Church Fathers, 43; Church schools, 138; Church-state separation, 18 CHYET, STANLEY F., 87, 95-96 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, 33 Cincinnati Historical Society, 103 Cincinnati, Ohio, 99-100, 103, 134, 136 Cities; see Urban areas Citizens, 22, 154, 182; Citizenship, 150, 158 Civic clubs, 110; league, St. Paul, Minn., 153;life, 2 1 , 6 6 , 9 1 , 110 Civil rights, 98, 103, 119 Civil War (United States), 18, 24, 87, 101 Clare1 (Melville), 172-79 Clarion (colony), Utah, 94 Classes (social), class system, 21, 27, 106, 169 see also Masses, the; Middle class, Paupers; Poor, the; Working class Cleveland, Ohio, 75, 109-10 Clothes, clothing, clothing industry, 6 , 12, 23, 27,64, 144 Clubs, 5 , 2 7 , 36,56, 77, 94, 150-5 1, 15 3-54; see also Civic clubs COHEN (family), Philadelphia and Richmond, Va., 122; LEONARD, 89; M.A., 121; MARTIN A., 86; MORRIS R., 29; NAOMI W., 86; NORMAN M., 102 COHN, EDWARD P., 95 COHON, SAMUEL S., 136-37 Colleges, 7,25-27,46,48,57,61, 134, 140, 150, 157 ; Harvard College, 27 ; Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, 3, 96-101, 103, 126, 134-37; Lafayette College, 26; MacAlester College, 150 COLLMUS, LEVY, 12 1 Colonies, 94, 132; Colonists, 8 3 Colorado; see Denver Columbia City Jewish cemetery, Columbia City, Ind., 93 Columbia University School of Law, New York City, 56, 104 Columbus, Ohio, 94, 100 Commandments, 166 Commentaries, biblical; see Biblical commentaries Commentary, 180 Committee for a Jewish Army, 115 Committee of Jewish Delegations, Versailles peace conference, 85 Committee on Foreign Relations, 97

Commonwealth, Jewish; see Israel (state), Jewish commonwealth, Palestine Communal life, 6 0 , 123 Communalism, Jewish, 126 Communion (in Christianity), 169 Communism, Communist Paity, communists, 36-37, 87. 182; see also Reds Community Chest, Houston, Tex., 91 Community and communities, Jewish, 30,62-63,65,67,69,71,74,77, 86-87, 90, 92-94, 96, 109, 137-38, 142,14546,148 Composers, 184; Compositions, musical, 184 COMPTON, RANULF, 116 Concentration camps, 99 Coney Island, New York City, 56 Confederacy (Civil War), 87 Conference of Jewish Women's Organizations, 94-95 Conferences, rabbinical, 134-35 "Confessions of a Harvard Man," 27 Confidential, 42 Congregation of Israel, Omaha, Neb., 94 Congregational unions, 148 Congregationalists, 139 Congregations, 1 , 8 , 18, 45, 92-94,97, 102-3, 105,110-11, 118-26, 134, 137, 139, 145, 147-48, 184;seealso Synagogues, Temples Congress (of the United States), 107, 11 1-17 Congressmen, 31, 34, 95, 110-16;see also Representatives Connecticut, 1 1 6 ; see also Hartford Conservative Judaism; see Judaism, Conservative Conservative Judaism: A n American Religious Movement (Sklare), 181 Constitution (of the United States), 18 "Constitutional Foundations of the New Zion" (Kallen), 68 Constitutions, congregational, 93-94 Contracts; see War contracts Contrast, The (Tyler), 79-80 Contributions, 5 5 ; see also Philanthropy Conversion and converts, 96, 130, 163, 185 CONWAY, G. R. G., 86 COOK (family), 5 4 ; ALFRED A., 5 4 , 5 7 ; DON L., 81 COOK, LEHMAN, GOLDMARK AND

LOEB, 104 COOPERMAN, STANLEY, 89 Cora1 Gables, Fla., 100 CORBETT, BOB, 7 CORCORAN, JIM, 42 CORDES, DOCTOR (The Hague), 45 Correspondence, 6 5 , 7 6 , 93-99, 101-2, 122 ;see also Letters Costa Rica, 11 1 COTLER, IRWIN, 87 Court of Appeals, New York State, 56-57 Courts, 54-56,79,81, 122; Appellate Courts, New York State, 5 6 ; Appellate Division, Supreme Court, New York State, 5 7 ; Court of Appeals, New York State, 56-57; District Court, Dubuque, Iowa, 9 5 ; Ramsey County Probate Court, St. Paul, Minn., 95 ; Supreme Court, New York State, 5 4 ; Supreme Court, United States, 6 4 ; Supreme Court, Vermont, 7 9 , 83 Covenants, 12 COVNER, THELMA C. (Mrs. Bernard J.), 93 Craftsmen, 152 Credits, academic, 135; commercial, 9 8 , 146 Creed, creeds, 2 5 , 4 7 , 157,170 Creed and Deed: A Series o f Discourses, Discourse IX (Adler), 162 Crescas' Critique o f Aristotle (Wolfson), 32.44 CRESCAS, HASDAI, 3 0 , 3 2 , 4 4 CRESSON, WARDER, 174 Crews, 3-4,7-8, 12, 32 Crime, criminality, 2 1 , 169 Criticism, critics, 2 7 , 2 9 , 44, 4 8 , 7 0 , 7 9 , 8 5 , 8 8 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 8 , 146,163 CRITTENDEN, WILLIAM, 139 Croatians, 7 Crosses, crucifixes, 5 , 140 Culture, 23, 32, 36, 6 0 , 62-63, 65, 69-70, 92, 145, 150, 154-55, 159,163, 172, 185; Cultural life, 155; Cultural pluralism, 59, 6 6 , 70-72, 102 Customs, 32, 7 8 , 147, 149-50, 158-59, 177, 179, 183; see also Ceremonies, Practices Cyprus, 108 Czars, 143; Czarist Russia; see Russia

D Dachau, Germany, 6 , 17

192

AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

"Dagda, The-Quincy Life Express," 99 DAGO FRANK, 5 2 DAHLBERG, EDWARD, 183 D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE, 88 DANOFF, HYMAN J., 96; SAM, 9 6 Daughters, 8,76-78, 100, 124, 175, 185 Daughters of Zion, St. Paul, Minn., 147 Davar, 1 3 3 DAVID (biblical character), 163 David Einhorn: Memorial Volume, 19 DAVID, JEROME PAUL, 102 DAVIS, ALLEN F., 86-87; MOSHE, 87; MRS. WILLIAM R., 101 Day camps, 158 Days o f My Years, The (Meyer), 91 DE HAAS, JACOB, 64-65 DE MESQUITA, JOSEPH BUENO; see Mesquita, Joseph Bueno de Death camps, 10 Debates, 69, 109 Debt, 57; Debits, 98 Debuts, 77 Declaration of Independence, 19-22, 62-63 Decrees, 21 Dedications (of buildings, synagogues, and temples), 1 4 7 4 8 Deeds, 122 Degrees, academic, 5 7 , 9 6 , 130, 134-35, 143 Deists, 174 Deities, deity, 39, 173 Delaware; see Sussex County Delegations, 1 1 1 Delinquency, 154; see also Juvenile delinquency Demobilization (First World War), 33, 132 Democracy, 6 2 , 6 8 , 72, 87, 108 Democrats, Democratic Party, 117 Demography, 180 Demonstrations, 38 Denominations, religious, 107 Dental clinics, 157 Denver, Colo., 99 Depression, 36, 158; see also Great Depression DER WILDEN, 142 ~ e ' t e n t e 9, 8 Detroit, Mich., 103; Public Library, 103 Deutsche Yehudim, 145 ;see also Ashkenazim, German Jews

Devotionals, 137 DEWEY, JOHN, 39 Diabetes, 76 Diaries, 90, 96 Diaspora, 69, 182 "Diaspora nationalism," 68 DINNERSTEIN, LEONARD, 180 DIOCLETIAN, 87-88 Diplomas, 26, 54, 96, 135 Directories, 123, 125 Directors (motion pictures), 184 Disabilities, 66, 119 Disarmament and World Peace, 96 Disciples (New Testament), 168-69 Discoverers, 49; Discovery of America, 184 Disputations, religious, 139 District Court, Dubuque, Iowa, 95 Dive bombers, 16; see also Bombardiers Divine right of kings, 2 1 Dixie; see South (United States) Doctors; see Physicians Documents, 19,86-89, 91-92,95, 97-99, 116, 120-22, 180-83, 185 Domestic affairs, 108;life;see Life; services, 77 "Double Jeopardy: What an American Army Officer, a Jew, Remembers of Prison Life in Germany" (Winograd), 3-17 Dramas, 79;see also Plays "Dronzik's School," Pinsk, Russia, 126 Dual loyalty, 62, 65-66, 72 Dubuque, Iowa, 95 Duluth, Minn., 93 Dutch, the, 142 Duty, duties, 67, 150, 153, 168 DYER, JOHN M., 121,125; JOSEPH, 121; LEON, 121

E Eager Immigrants, The (Zielonka and Wechman), 185 East (United States), 126 East European Jews, 1,25,90-92, 143, 156, 184-85 East River, New York, 52 East Side, New York City, 26, 37, 42 Eastern Council of Reform Rabbis, 99 Eastern Europe, 9 1 , 106, 137, 1 4 3 4 4 , 149, 153, 155-56 Easton, Pa., 9 3 EBAN, ABBA, 102

Ecclesiastes [Koheleth] , 172 Ecclesiasticus [Jesus Ben-Sirach] , 172 Economics, 129; Economic life, 18, 23, 37,64,68, 72, 82,92, 143, 158-59 Eddie Cantor Camp, 54 Edgemere, N. Y., 56 Editors, 26, 86-89, 109, 113, 132-33, 180-83 Education, 23,48-49,57,60,69, 72, 80, 84,92, 112, 128, 148, 150-51, 154-55, 157-58, 162, 18l;see also Religious education, Secular education EDWARDS, GRANVILLE D., 130 Egypt, 131, 163; Russian-Egyptian Treaty (1971), 98; see also Alexandria, Cairo, Tel-el-Kebir Eighth Air Force (World War ll), 15 EINHORN (Second World War soldier), 3-4, 16 EINHORN, DAVID, 18-24, facing page 20 EINSTEIN, ALBERT, 35, 183 EISENSTAEDT, ISIDOR, 102 ELAZAR, DANIEL J., 87 "Elbon" (club), New York City, 56 ELIOT, T. S. (TOM), 27, 3 0 , 3 6 , 9 7 Elmira, N. Y., 93 ELOVITZ, MARK H., 87 ELWOOD, CHARLES, 128 Emanu-El B'ne Jeshurun Congregation, Milwaukee, Wis., 93 Emergency Committee of the American Zionist Emergency Council, 107; for Zionist Affairs, 108-9 Emergency Committees (Zionist), 110 Emerson Hall, Harvard University, 37 EMERSON, RALPH WALDO, 27 ENELOW, HYMAN G., 96 England, 3, 15,50,80,82,102, 131;see also Britain, Great Britain, London ENGLANDER, HENRY, 135 English language, 26, 28, 76,91, 102, 126-27, 131-32, 136-37, 149-51, 154 Epikoiros; see Apostates Episcopalians, 138-39 Episcopal-Jewish Colloquium, Cincinnati, Ohio, 103 EPSTEIN, MELECH, 87 "Equality of the different," 65 Eretz Israel; see Israel (state), Palestine ERNST (family), 101 ESHKOL (SHKOLNIK), LEVI, 132 Essays, 28-29, 38-39,41,50,80,86,88, 91, 182-84

Essenes, 178 "Establishment" (American Jewish), 89 Estates, 54-55, 95, 103 Esther (biblical book), 75 Ethical Culture Society, 106, facing page 162, 162; Ethics, 64, 155 Ethnic American Short Stories (Newman), 180 Ethnic Americans: A History o f Immigration and Assimilation (Dinnerstein and Reimers), 180 Ethnic groups, 128, 143, 149-50, 154, 157-58, 180-82;history, 143, 180; Ethnicism, 52, 63, 65, 70-71, 73, 86, 88-89, 107, 180 Ethnic Groups of America: Their Morbidity, Mortality and Behavior Disorders: Volume I-The fews (Shiloh and Selavan), 180 ETTING (family), 121-22 Europe, 22-23, 30, 44,70-72,87,89, 101,113, 117, 151;Jewsof,43,68, 116; see also Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Old World, Southern Europe, Western Europe European Zionism, 6 3 , 6 5 , 6 9 Evangel, 167 Examinations, 57, 131 Extraordinary Conference of American Zionists, 6 5 6 6 EZEKIEL, HERBERT T., 122-23; JACOB, 124; MOSES JACOB, 87-88,96

FACKENHEIM, EMIL L., 87,102-3 Faith, 47, 73, 163, 183 Faithfulness, 24 FALK, MARCIA, 85 Family, families, 23, 25, 32, 41, 51-54, 57, 60, 75-78, 90-92, 99, 101, 103-4, 110, 121-22, 124, 13435,144-47, 151, 154, 157, 159-60 FANE, IRVIN, 96 Farmers, 91, 100, 178; farms, 16 Farmer? Weekly Museum, 8 3 FARRER, DAVID, 104 Fathers, 98, 109, 127, 129, 153, 162, 172, 185 FAULKNER, WILLIAM, 48 Feast of Lots; see Purim Federal census (l83O), 123-24; government, 156; union, 19

194

AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Federation of Jewish charities, Atlanta, Ga., 94 FEIN, ISAAC M., 120-21 FEINGOLD, HENRY L., 88 FELDMAN, ABRAHAM J., 97; IRVING, 89: MRS. J. E.. 102: JACOB S.. 103: PHILIP, 126 FELL. SOLOMON. 96 ~ e m a l e s ,124, 174;'see also Women FERGUSSON, DAVID, 86 Festivals, Jewish, 156; see aIso High Holy Days, Passover, Purim, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur Festung Europa, 117 FEUCHTWANGER, LION, 30 FEUER, LEON I., 96,103, 105,107-18; LEWIS S., 25-50 Fiction, 79-80,85,88-89,91,119, 125, 175; see also Novels, Short stories FIEDLER, LESLIE, 85,88, 174 Fifteenth Air Force (World War II), 15 "Filmography ," 184 Films; see Motion pictures FINEBERG, SOLOMON ANDHIL, 96 FINKELSTEIN, HAIM, 87 First National Bank, St. Paul, Minn., 160 First World War, 30, 33, 36, 5 1 , 6 5 , 6 7 , 72, 192, 105, 131-32, 151 Five Hundred Twelfth Squadron, 376th Heavy Bombardment Group (Second World War), 4 , 8 FLANNERY, EDWARD, 184 Florida; see Coral Gables, JacksonviIle FONER, PHILIP, 182 Food, 5, 8, 14-16,40,75, 126, 144; parcels, 15 Football, 27, 3 1-32 FORD, GERALD R., 107 Foreign ministers, 102 Foreign Ianguages, 150; see also Language Foreign nations, 182 Foreigners, 108, 1 18 Forests, 20 Forging o f an American Jew, The: The Life and Times o f Judge Julian W. Mack (Barnard), 85, 97 Formalism, 168 Fort Leavenworth, Kans., 95 Fort McKinney, Wyoming territory, 96 Fort Wayne, Ind., 93 Fortieth Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (First World War), 13 1-32 Forum, 27 '

Forverts ([Forvitz]Jewish Daily Forward), 156,185 FOSDICK, RAYMOND B., 99 "Founder of Christianity, The" (Adler), 162-71 Founder's Day, 99 Founding Fathers (of the United States), 21-22,61 "Founding of Baltimore's First Jewish Congregation, The: Fact vs. Fiction" (Rosenswaike), 119-25 FRAITAG, MRS. HARRY, 99 FRANCE, ANATOLE, 39 FRANK, WALDO, 8 8 FRANKEL (family), 99; EDWARD M., 99; JUSTIN, 99 FRANKFURTER, FELIX, 4 3 , 8 5 Frankfurtqn-the-Main, Germany, 1 , 9-10, 162 FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, 21 Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N. Y., 103 Free Synagogue, New York City, 99 FREEHOF, SOLOMON B., 9 6 , 1 0 0 French, the, 8-10, 145,152; Jews, 120; language, 136 FREUD, SIGMUND, 44-45,49-50, 183 FREUDMAN, ENRIQUE, 9 9 FRIEDMAN, BRUCE JAY, 85 Friendly Society, The: A History of the Workmen's Circle (Shapiro), 92 FULBRIGHT, J. WILLIAM, 97, 107 "Fundamental law" (American), 66 Funds, 31-32, 5 5 , 6 7 , 144, 181; Fundraising, 71, 96, 139; see also Money

GaIilee, 165, 169-70 Galveston, Tex., 9 9 Gamblers, gambling, 52, 15 1 GANG, MARTIN, 99 Garment industry, garment workers, 91, 146 Gas chambers, 1 12 GEFFEN, DAVID, 102; TOBIAS, 102 Gendarmes, 26 GENDLER, MRS. H. LEE, 94 Genealogy, 99, 10 1 General Motors, Detroit, Mich., I 0 3 Generations, 156, 159 Geneva Convention, 6-7, 10 Gentile Girls Club, St. Paul, Minn., 154

INDEX Gentiles,6, 9, 30, 4 1 , 4 3 , 167, 183; see also Christians GEORGE V (of England), 132 Georgia; see Atlanta, Savannah Georgian Cafeteria, Harvard University, 40 German Air Force, 11 ; army, 9, 131 ; Catholics, 126 German Jews, 7 7 , 8 5 , 90, 125, 137, 142, 144-45, 185;see also Ashkenazim, Deutsche Yehudim German language, 6 , 1 9 , 5 7 , 76, 136 German Orthodox Synagogue, Baltimore, Md., 77 Germanic tribes, 170 Germans, 1 , 3,5-7, 9-13, 15-17, 145; Germany, 1,4-6, 13, 15,60, 102, 120, 1 4 3 , 1 4 9 , 162; Theater Commander, Post-World War I1 period, 102; see also Dachau, Frankfurt-onthe-Main, Moosburg, Nuremberg, Rhineland, Wetzlar, Worms Gestapo, 11-12 Ghetto, 26 GlDEON (biblical character), 2 1 GILLETTE, GUY MARK, 115 GINSBERG, ALLEN, 88 GlNZBERG, LOUIS, 34 Girls' Glee Club, St. Paul, Minn., 15 1 GlTTELSOHN, ROLAND B., 93 GLASER, NATHAN, 129 GLATSTEIN, JACOB, 8 9 GLAZER, B. BENEDICT, 103 Gloversville, N. Y ., 32 GLUECK, HELEN, 9 6 , 1 0 1 ; NELSON, 101 God, 5 , 16, 19-22,26, 32, 39,42,45-47, 49,89,163,168 GOLD, HERBERT, 85 GOLDBERG, CAPTAIN, 1 4 ; DAVID J., 104 Goldberg's Butcher Shop, St. Paul, Minn., 160 Golden Red Club, St. Paul, Minn., 154 GOLDMAN, ALBERT A., 103; JOSEPH, 103; SOLOMON, 66 GOLDWATER, BARRY, 96; MORRIS, 96 Gompers (Stearn), 182 GOMPERS, SAMUEL, 182 GOODENOUGH, ERWIN, 35 GOODMAN, PAUL, 8 5 , 8 8 GORDON (British prisoner of war), 3

Gospels (in Christianity), 163, 166-67, 169 GOTTHElL, RICHARD J. H., 86 GOTTSCHALK, ALFRED, 8 7 , 9 6 , 1 0 3 Government, 18, 23, 34, 86, 107-8, 1 11, 113, 115,117-18, 143, 164, 182; see also Self-government Governors, 85, 164 Goy, Goyim;see Christians, Gentiles, Non-Jews Graduation, graduates, 10, 30, 55, 79, 96, 128, 136-37; Graduate schools, 48; students, 129 GRAFF, TED, 10 Grammar, 28, 135; Grammar schools, 26 Grand Army of the Republic, 102 GRANT, ULYSSES S., 8 8 Great Britain, 68, 109, 130; see also Britain, England Great Depression, 87, 158 Great Songs of the Yiddish Theater (Warembud), 184 Greeks, 27.29, 108 GREELEY, DANA MACLEAN, 1 8 3 GREENBLUM, JOSEPH. 8 6 Greenwich Village, New York City, 28 Grodno, Russia, 5 1 GROSS, THEODORE L., 8 8 Groups, 7, 12, 56, 63-64,67,69-71,86, 9 0 . 9 2 , 107-10, 1 1 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 5 , 129, 135, 137, 145, 147, 149, 151-52, 154, 158-59, 181 seealso Ethnic groups Guerilla warfare, 4 GUSSIE (the Adlers' maid in Baltimore), 76 GUTTMACHER, ADOLF, 120 GUTTMAN, ALEXANDER, 101; MRS. ALEXANDER, 101 GUTTMANN, JOSEPH, 8 7 Gymnasiums, 154, 15 7-58; Gymnastics, 151 GYP THE BLOOD, 5 2

H Hachnosis Orchim, St. Paul, Minn., 147 Hadassah, 94, 110 Haftarah, 1 4 0 4 1 , 182 Hague, The, Holland, 45 HAHN, HAROLD D., 103 Halachah (religious law), 182 HALEVI, JUDAH, 29 HALLER, MARK H., 86-87 HALPERN, MRS. MAURlCE L., 100

196

AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Hamilton, Ohio, 136 HARAP, LOUIS, 80 Harlem Cooperative Preparatory School, New York City, 57 Harmonic Lodge No. 356, Ancient, Free, and Accepted Masons of England, 102 HARRINGTON, DONALD S., 183 HARRIS, ALICE KESSLER, 185 HART, NATHAN, 101 HARTE, BRET, 85 Hartford, Conn., 100-101 Hartsdale, N. Y., 101 Harvard College, 27-28, 61; Divinity Hall, 27,42,46 Harvard Socialist Club, 27, 36 Haward University, 30-33, 36-37, 4 2 4 8 , 50, 59, 70, 79, 130; Campus, 42; Divinity Hall, 42, 46; Emerson Hall, 37; Faculty, 42; Faculty Club, 43; Georgian Cafeteria, 40; Haward Library, 36; Harvard Square, 48; Harvard University Press, 35; Haward Yard, 3 8 , 4 8 4 9 ; Hayes-Bickford Cafeteria, 40; Public Administration Building, 34; Robbins Library, 37; Semitic Museum, 34; Tercentenary, 33; Waldorf Cafeteria, 40; Widener Library, 35, 3 7 , 4 1 , 5 0 Harvard University Press, 35; Yard, 38, 4849 Hasidim, 92 HAUSEN, MAX, 9 4 Hau S ~ ~ Q 77 U , HAYES, SAUL, 87 Hebraic philosophy, 29 Hebraic tradition; see Tradition Hebraism, 60; Hebraists, 136 Hebrew Bible, 61-62, 138, 140 Hebrew Committee for National Liberation, l 15 Hebrew Congregation, Baltimore, Md., 105 "Hebrew embassy," 115 Hebrew Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa., 102 Hebrew Institute, St. Paul, Minn., 148 Hebrew language, 26, 28, 30, 33, 41, 112, 127-28, 130, 132-38, 140-41, 147, 166; see also Modern Hebrew Hebrew Liberation Movement, 116 Hebrew Rehabilitation Centre for Aged, Boston, Mass., 5 0 Hebrew schools, 26, 127-28,134,147; Hebrew teachers, 127,134

Hebrew State, 116 Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, 3, 96-101, 103, 126, 134-37 Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 31, 87, 141 Hebrews, 128, 144, 162 HECHT, BEN, 88,115, 183 HECKSCHER, ALBERT, 10 1 Hellenism, 29 HELLER, MRS. GEORGE, 100; JOSEPH, 15 HENDERSON, LOY, 112 "Herman Melville, the Jew and Judaism" (Mayo), 172-79 HEROD, 164 Heroes, 132 HERVIN, MRS. CARRIE B., 99 HERZEL, GEORGE NATHAN, 99 Herzl Club, St. Paul, Minn., 15 1 HERZL, THEODOR, 64,97, 182 HESCHEL, ABRAHAM J., 85 HESS, EMANUEL, 149 HEXTER, MAURICE B., 104 High Holy Days, 110, 160 High Priest, 174 High School of Commerce, New York City, 5 4 HIGHAM, JOHN, 88-89 Highland Park, St. Paul, Minn., 156-57, 159-60 HILBORN, WALTER S., 101 HILLEL, 166, 168,178 HIMMELFARB, MILTON, 184 HIRSCH, HAROLD, 102 Historians, 43,45, 119, 122, 124, 142, 145, 182, 184 Historiography, 125 History, 20,24, 29, 32, 38,42,44-47, 57, 65, 68, 73, 79, 82, 85-88, 90, 92, 94, 101-2, 105, 119-21, 125, 129, 135, 143, 148, 155, 163-64, 170, 172, 178, 180-81,184; see also American history History o f the Jews in AnIeriCa (Wiernik), 184 History of the Jews in Utah and Idaho (Brooks), 85 HITLER, ADOLF, 3 , 3 6 , 4 3 , 183; see also Nazis HOFFMAN, WILLIAM, 145-46,148, 152, 155-58 HOFHEIMER, HENRY, 99; NATHAN, 103 Holidays, Jewish; see Festivals, Jewish

HOLLANDER, JOHN, 85 HOLLIDAY, JUDY, 109 HOLMES, JOHN HAYNES, 183 Holocaust, 108, 111-12, 182-83 Holy City; see Jerusalem Holy Land; see Israel (state), Palestine Homeland, Jewish; see Israel (state), Palestine, Zionism Honors, 3 4 , 9 7 HOOK, SIDNEY, 36 HOPKINS, MAJOR (First World War), 132 "Horace M. Kallen and the 'Americanization' of Zionism- In Memoriam" (Schmidt), 59-73 HORTON, FRANK, 95 Hospitals, 3, 53, 55, 127 Hotels, 23, 36,47, 74 House Foreign Affairs Comm~ttee,112 House of Representatives (United States), 116,118 Households, 76, 124, Housekeeping, 76 Houston, Tex., 91, 99-100 HUEBSCH, JASON, 94 HUGH O F LINCOLN, 8 2 Hull House, Chicago, 150 Human race, humanity, 49, 84, 163, 169, 184 Human rights, 98 Humanists, 18, 59; Humanitarianism, 117; Humanization, 88 Humiliation, 34-35 Humor, 83-84, 139 Hungarian Jews, 3 ~ u n g e r ,1 5 , 2 2 HUNT, SOLOMON. 121 ~ur1bu.tMemorial church, Chautauqua, N. Y., 1 3 9 4 0 Husbands, 77, 122, 146 "Hyphenated Americans," 62, 72 Hypothetico-deductive method, 44

IBN EZRA, ABRAHAM, 135 IBN SAUD, 117 Idaho, 85 IDELSOHN, ABRAHAM Z., 135 Identity, Jewish, 60-61, 6 3 , 6 6 , 102; see also Jewishness Ideology, 18, 36, 38,47-48, 65 IGNATOW, DAVID, 8 5 , 8 9

Illinois, 102; see also Champaign-Urbana, Chicago, Quincy, Springfield Illustrations, 92, 184-85; Adler, Felix, facing page 162; Agudas Achim Synagogue in St. Paul, facing page 145; Einhorn, David, facing page 20; Kallen, Horace Meyer, facing page 70; Kerman, Rabbi Julius, facing page 126; Lloyd Street Synagogue, Baltimore, facing page 119; Melville, Herman, facing page 172; New York in the days of Asser Levy, facing page 142; Solomon, Joseph, facing page 56; Winograd, Leonard, facing page 6; Winograd, Leonard, with friend, facing page 7 ; Wolfson, Harry Austryn, facing page 30 Immigration, 18, 23, 25, 28-29, 32, 51, 59-62, 64, 68,70-72,74, 87-89,91-92, 99, 101, 103, 106, 108, 112, 122, 125-26, 128, 143-50, 153-56, 178, 180, 183-85; see also Settlers Immigration laws, 156 Immigration Service (United States), 115 Impressionism, 27 In Search: An Autobiography (Levin), 90 Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa., 24 Independent Order of the B'nai B'rith; see B'nai B'rith Indiana, 93; see also Columbia City, Fort Wayne, Terre Haute, Wabash Indiana Jewish Historical Society, Fort Wayne,Ind., 9 3 Industrial Park, St. Paul, Minn., 160 Inland Steel Company, 27 Inquisition; see Mexican Inquisition Institute for Jewish Life, 181 Institute of Jewish Affairs, 99 Integration, 90 Intellectual life, intellectuals, 29, 42, 44, 4 7 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 6 9 , 8 8 , 9 5 , 1 0 9 , 165,181 Intelligence, military, 4 Interfaith activities, 47 Intermarriage, 32 "International Aspects of Zionism, The" (Kallen), 6 5 Internationalism, 65 Interrogators, 10-11;Interrogation centers, 10-11, 1 3 Intolerance, 8 4 Investigators, 155; Investigations, 114 Iowa, 115; see also Dubuque Ireland, 14

198

AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Irgun Z'vai Leumi, Irgunists, 115 Irish, the, 145, 152 Iroquois Hotel, Buffalo, N. Y., 74 ISAACS, NATHAN, 34 Islam, 81 Israel (biblical period), 163, 167 Israel (state), Israelis, 4 1, 48, 67, 69, 71-73, 85, 87, 89-91,96, 98, 102-3, 105, 107-10, 114, 116, 118, 129-32, 181-82; Israel bonds, 182; Yom Kippur War, 87; see also Zionism ISRAEL, ISAAC, 103 Israelites, 23, 103, 123; see also Jews Italy, Italians, 3, 5, 7, 15,30, 87 Ivy League schooIs, 55

J JABOTINSKY, VLADIMIR, 37, 133 JACKSON, HENRY M., 98 Jackson, Miss., 98 Jacksonville, Fla., 78 JACOBS, JOSEPH, 125 JACOBSON, CHARLOTTE, 87 JAMES (rebel), 165 ; HENRY, 40; WILLIAM, 2 8 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 6 3 Jamestown, N. Y., 138-39 JARRETTE, ALFRED Q., 8 9 JEFFERSON, THOMAS, 2 , 2 1 , 6 2 Jerusalem (Palestine and Israel), 24, 31, 82, 87, 133-35, 141, 174; Western Wall, 134 JESUS (of Nazareth), 8-9, 45, 106, 162-71 JESUS BEN-SIRACH [Ecclesiasticus] , 172 Jewesses, 174 Jewish Agency, 129 Jewish-American Literature: An Anthology of Fiction, Poetry, Au tobiography. and Criticism (Chapman), 85 Jewish Americans, 183-84; see also American Jewry Jewish Catalog, The: A Do-It-Yourself Kit (Siege1 and Strassfeld), 181 Jewish-Christian relations, 85, 103 Jewish commonwealth, 109, 113, 116-17 Jewish communalism; see Communalism, Jewish Jewish community, Jewish communities; see Community and communities, Jewish Jewish Community, Duluth, Minn., 93 Jewish Community ReIations Council, 94

Jewish Conciliation Board, New York City, 184-85 Jewish culture; see Culture Jewish Daily Forward (Forverts) , 26, 185 Jewish Day Nursery, St. Paul, Minn., 149 Jewish Defense League, 89 Jewish Experience, The, in Latin America: Selected Studies from the Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, 86 "Jewish Farmers in Upper New York State" (Sverdlik), 100 Jewish festivals; see Festivals, Jewish Jewish Historical Society, West Hartford, Conn., 101 Jewish history; see History "Jewish idea," 62 Jewish identity; see Identity, Jewish Jewish Institute of Religion, New York, 31,99 Jewish Labor Committee, 109 Jewish Legion (First World War), 105, 131,133 Jewish life, 85, 87, 90,92, 126, 172, 181, 184-85 Jewish Life on New York's Lower East Side, 1912-1962 (Zagat), 185 "Jewish Lobby," 105, 107-18 Jewish Morning Journal (Morgen Zhurnal [Zhournalf), 185 Jewish nation, 66; see also Israel (state), Zionism Jewish National Home, 108, 116; see also Israel (state), Palestine Jewish observance; see Observance, Jewish Jewish opinion, 110 Jewish Palestine, 117; see also Israel (state), Jewish commonwealth, Palestine, Zionism Jewish people; see Jews Jewish philosophy; see Philosophy Jewish Quarterly Review, 29 Jewish question, 90 Jewish Relief Society, Mount Zion Temple Ladies Hebrew Benevolent Society, St. Paul, Minn., 148-49 Jewish Review, 5 0 "Jewish Settlement on St. Paul's Lower West Side, The" (Pierce), 143-61 Jewish State; see IsraeI (state), Zionism Jewish Student Projects, Boston, Mass., 181

Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 98 Jewish vote, 181 Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America, 95 Jewish Welfare Board, 132 Jewishness, 61, 88, 137, 181; see also Identity, Sewish Jews, 1-2,4-7,9-11, 13-15, 17, 23, 25, 27, 30-32, 34, 37,42,46-50, 59-64, 66, 7073, 79-85, 87-92, 95-96, 102-4, 106-8, 110-17, 119, 124, 126, 128-29, 133, 13840,14246,149-50,15241, 163-64, 167, 172-85; see also American Jewry, Austria, East European Jews, Europe, France, Hungarian Jews, Israelites, Latin America, Russian Jews, RussianPolish Jews, Secular Jews, Southern Jewry, Soviet Jewry Jews in America. 7be: A History (Learsi), 90 "Jews, The, RoyallTyler, and America's Divided Mind" (Herbert L. and Ada Lou Carson), 79-84 Jews, Wars, and Communism- Vol. I1 (Szajkowski), 182 JOB (biblical character), 172 JOHNSON, LYNDON B., 96,114 JOHNSTOWN, BOBBIE, 8 Joint Chiefs of Staff, 95, 107 Jordan Valley, 132 JOSELOFF, SAMUEL HART, 89 Joseph and His Brethren (Tyler), 79-80 Joseph Solomon Chair in Wills, Trusts and Estates, Columbia University School of Law, 103-4 Joseph Solomon Professorship of Law, New York Law School, 57 Josephus (Feuchtwanger), 30 Journalism, journals, 7, 25,41-42,44, 48, 69, 80,83, 130, 178;seealso Newspapermen, Periodicals JOYCE, JAMES, 103 JUDAH (family), 122; JUDAH (rebel), 165; MANUEL, 124; MOSES, 124 Judaism, 18, 39, 54, 61, 66, 89, 96, 99, 112, 138, 162-63, 167, 172, 174, 178-79,181, 183, 185 Judaism, Conservative, 181 Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era (Moore), 29

Judaism, Orthodox, 32, 36,60, 74, 77, 91, 140, 145, 1 4 7 4 8 Judaism, Reconstructionist, 60 Judaism, Reform, 1 8 , 6 2 , 8 5 , 1 0 2 , 126, 134, 145, 162, 182; American Reform, 183; Eastern Council of Reform Rabbis, 99; Radical Reform, 140 Judaism, Ultra-Orthodox; see UltraOrthodoxy "Judaist" tradition, 61 Judea, 173,178 Judgement o f Solomon, The (Tyler), 80 Judges, 31, 35,55-57, 79,83-85, 97, 139; see also Jurists Judgment, 49 Julius Rosenwald: Son of a Jewish Immigrant, A Builder o f Sears, Roebuck and Company, Benefactor o f Mankind (Jarrette), 8 9 Junk dealers, 146,155,157 Juries, 5 6 Jurists, 84-85 Justice, 19-20, 22-24, 61-62, 113, 171; see also Social justice Justices, 5 4 , 6 4 , 7 9 "Justification by faith" (in Christianity), 170 Juvenile delinquency, 15 3-54 Kabbalah; see Cabbala KAFKA, FRANZ, 89 KAHANE, MEIR; 89 KAHN. NAT M.. 103; ROBERT I.. 99 KALLEN, HORACE M., 2, 28-29,.41, 50, 59-73, 85, 97, 102; MRS. HORACE M., 97 Kansas; see Fort Leavenworth, Prairie Village Kansas City, Mo., 96, 130, 134 Kansas City Star, 130 KAPLAN, ABRAHAM, 184; ISRAEL, 99; MORDECAI M., 60,103 KAPLUN (family), 97; MORRIS J., 97 KARP, ABRAHAM J., 9 0 , 1 0 3 Kashrut, 154; see also Kosher food KASTOR, ROBERT, 103 Katherine Pitts' Mother's Club, St. Paul, Minn., 150 KATZ, ROBERT L., 96 KATZENELSON, BERL, 133 KATZENSTEIN, MR., 5 3

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KATZIR, EPHRAIM, 97 KAUFMANN, ERNEST, 98 Kaufman's (department store), Pittsburgh, Pa., 6 KAYSERLING, MORITZ, 8 6 KAZIN, ALFRED, 1 5 , 8 5 , 8 8 KEMPNER, HARRIS, 99; HENNIE B., 9 9 KENEN, ISAIAH L., 109, 118 KENNEDY, EDWARD M., 97; JOHN F., 47 KEPES, EDITH R., 8 7 KERMAN, DANIEL, 134, 136-38; DAVID, 137; JULIUS C., 105, facing page 126, 1 2 6 4 1 KEROUAC, JACK, 88 Kessel's Bakery, St. Paul, Minn., 160 Kibbutz Management and Research Center, 72 KIEV, I. EDWARD, 9 4 , 9 7 , 9 9 "Kikes," 3-4 KING, ALEXANDER, 56; MARTIN LUTHER, Jr., 103 Kingdom of Heaven, 1 6 4 , 1 6 7 Kingston, Jamaica, 103 KISSINGER, HENRY A., 97 KLASS, RAYMOND N., 99; MRS. RAYMOND N., 99 KLEIN, JOSEPH, 97 KLEINER, MORRIS, 101 KNOPP, JOSEPHINE ZADOVSKY, 8 9 Know-Nothing Party, 2 3 KOENIGSBERG, SOL, 103 Koheleth [Ecclesiastes] , 172 Kohen (priest), 96 KOHLER, KAUFMANN, 9 7 , 9 9 KOHLHAGEN, ERIC E., 99; MRS. ERIC E., 9 9 KOHUT, GEORGE ALEXANDER, 8 6 KOOK, ABRAHAM I., 115 KOPALD, S. L., Jr., 100 KOPPEL (family), 101 KOPPLEMANN, ABRAHAM, 100; HERMAN, 100 KORN, BERTRAM W., 98, 1 0 2 Kosher food, 74-75, 154; see also Kashrut K. P. (Kitchen Police), 33 Krakow, Poland, 7 0 KRAMER, AARON, 185 KRAUSKOPF, JOSEPH, 9 7 , 1 0 2 KREUGER, PAUL, 8 KROSS, ANNA M., 97 KUHN, NETTER, AND CO., 1 0 3 KUNITZ, STANLEY, 8 9

Labor, labor movement, 92, 107, 109, 144; Laborers, 15 3 Ladies' Aid Society, St. Paul, Mlnn., 147 Ladies Hebrew Benevolent Society, Columbia City, Ind., 93 Lafayette College, 26 Lafayette School (public school), St. Paul, Minn., 152-54 Lake Gennesareth, 168 Lake Rest Vacation Home Camp, White Bear Lake, Minn., 154 LAMM, NORMAN, 8 7 LANDESCO, ALEX A., 98 Language, languages, 4 4 , 6 5 , 150, 156, 168; see also English language, Foreign languages, French language, German language, Yiddlsh language Lantsmen, 70 LASKI, HAROLD J., 45 Latin America, 86; Jews of, 8 6 LAURENS, LEVY L., 119 LAUTERBACH, JACOB Z., 1 3 5 , 1 3 7 LAVITZ, MRS. IRVING, 94 LAVONSKY, REBECCA (Mrs. Abraham Solomon), 5 1 Law, 20-21,54-57,73, 118, 133, 162, 166-67,170,180; "Fundamental law" (American), 66; see also Lawyers Law, American, 184 Law enforcement, 15 1 Law offices, 54-5 7 Law, religious, 182 Law schools, 5 5 , 5 7 Law suits; see Trlals Laws, 61, 164; see also Immigration laws, May Laws, "Quota" laws Lawyers, 1 2 , s 1 , 5 4 4 7 , 64, 75, 112, 116, 157, 183-85; see also Law LAZARON, MORRIS S,, 9 5 LAZARUS, EMMA, 85, 88; FRED, Jr., 100; RALPH, 100 League of Nations, 108, 114 LEARSI, RUFUS, 9 0 Leavened bread, 133 LEAVI'IT, DOROTHY, 100 LEBOLD, DONALD A., 101 ; FOREMAN M., 101; LEE, ROBERT E., 8 8 LEESER, ISAAC, 105,120-22 LEFTY LOUIE, 5 2

Legacy, 18 1 Legal profession, Legalism, 174; see also Law, Lawyers Legality, 113, 116 Legislation, 97, 107, 163 Legislature (Maryland), 121, 125 LEHMAN, IRVING, 31,56 LEIKIND, MIRIAM, 107 LENIN, VLADIMIR ILYICH, 182 LERNER, NATAN, 87 Letters, 31, 34, 40,45,49-50, 55, 64-65, 75-76, 80, 95-99, 102, 124, 131, 133-36, 183; see also Correspondence, Newsletters Letters of Louis D. Brandeis (Urofsky and Levy), 183 LEVENTRITT, COOK, NATHAN & LEHMAN (law firm), 54; DAVID, 54 LEVERTOV, DENISE, 89 LEVI, EDWARD H., 18 LEVIN, MAURICE, 99; MEYER, 90, 183 LEVINTHAL, ISRAEL, 93 Levites, 164 LEVY, ASSER, facing page 142, 142; DAVID W., 183; J. LEONARD, 96; LEONARD, 121; MYER, 100 LEWIS, WHITEY, 5 2 LEWISOHN, LUDWIG, 85,88,183 Libels, 79; Libel suits, 56 Libraries, 27, 30, 35-37, 39, 76, 103, 132-33; Librarians, 39-41, 107, 132, 150 LICHTENBERG, ISAAC, 26 LICHTENSTEIN, GASTON, 122-23 LIEBMAN, CHARLES S., 90 Life, 22, 45,48, 51, 59-60,78, 86,92, 123, 133, 145, 148, 150, 155, 158-59, 163, 166, 171, 177, 183, 185; American life, 150; Civic life, 21, 66, 91, 110; Communal life, 60, 123; Congregational life, 94; Cultural life, 155; Diaspora life, 182; Domestic life, 23; Jewish life, 85, 87, 90, 92, 126, 172, 181-82, 184-85; Modern life, 89; Secular life, 62; Spiritual life, 18, 20,22, 155,165,168, 176,181; Traditional life, 156 Life o f Poetry, The (Rukeyser), 92 LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, 24; BENJAMIN, 79 LIPPMANN, WALTER, 27,45 LIPSKY, LOUIS, 70 LISZT, FkANZ, 88

Literary criticism; see Criticism Literature, 28-30, 38,44, 61, 65, 79, 85, 88, 164, 172; American Jewish literature, 183; American literature, 172; Secular literature, 136 Literature o f American Jews. The (Gross), 88 Lithuania, 143,185; see also Vilna LITMAN, SIMON, 100 LITTAUER, LUCIUS L., 31, 34; NATHAN, 33 LITTMAN, LEWIS C., 96 Litvaks, 142 Lloyd Street Synagogue, Baltimore, Md., facing page 119 Loans, 145-46; Loan associations, 146 Lobbies. 107. 118. 182; Lobbyists, 105, 107-8, 118 "Lobbv. Jewish"; see "Jewish Lobby" ~ o d g e ~129; s ; Lodgings, 5 1 Logos, 170 London, England, 80, 131, 133, 144 Looking Back, 100 Los Angeles, 99 Louis Dembitz Brandeis (de Haas), 64 LOURIE, ARTHUR, 109 LOWELL, A. LAWRENCE, 32-33 LOWENTHAL, B., Chicago, 93; JACOB, 100; MARVIN, 109; MAURICE, 100 Lower East Side, New York City, 51, 91, 155,185 Lower West Side, St. Paul, Minn., 106, 143-61; see also West Side, St. Paul, Minn. Loyalty, 33, 61, 64-66, 72; see also Dual loyalty Lubbock, Tex., 137-38 LUBIN, DAVID, 100; ISADORE, 103; ISIDOR, 129 Luftwaffe (German Air Force), 11 LUTHER, MARTIN, 170 Lutheran church, 45 LUTSKY, C. ISRAEL, 103 Lydda, Palestine, 131 LYON, DAVID GORDON, 30 Lyrics, Lyricists, 184

MacAlester College, St. Paul, Minn., 150 Maccabees, 164

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MacDonald White Paper, 108; see also British White Paper, White Paper (Britain) MACK, JULIAN W., 31-32, 8 5 , 9 7 ; RICHARD J., 97 Magazines; see Journalism, Periodicals Magen david, 1 3 1 MAGNES, JUDAH L., 31 Mail, 15, 17, 97, 110-11, 137; see also Correspondence, Letters MAILER, NORMAN, 88 "Maimonides and Halevi" (Wolfson), 29, 38 MAIMONIDES, MOSES, 26, 29,43 Majority, 70-73 MALAMUD, BERNARD, 88-90, 184 Malaria, 132 Males, 124; see also Men Man, mankind, 21-22,24, 3 9 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 4 9 , 66, 89, 163, 169-70 Man in Ferment (Wesson), 104 Manchester Historical Association, Manchester, N. H., 101 Mandate for Palestine, 108, 114, 116; British Mandatory Palestine, 181 MANDEL, BERNARD, 182 Manhattan,New York City, 53 Manitoba, Canada, 90 MANNERS, ANDE, 90 MANSON, HAROLD, 109, 115 Manuals, 10,182 Manufactures, manufacturers, 3 1, 125 Manuscripts, 30, 33, 35,48, 104, 124, 126 MARCUS, JACOB R., 95,97-98, 180; MOSE, 101 MARGHERITA (Queen of Savoy), 88 Marriage, 40-41, 51, 76-78, 96, 101-2, 125,129, 132, 134, 157; see also Weddings Marshall Collection, 97 MARSHALL, GEORGE C., 114,117; JAMES, 98; LOUIS, 97 MARSHUTZ, WILHELM, 125 MARTIN, BERNARD, 98 Martyr, The: The Story o f a Secret Jew and the Mexican Inquisition in the Sixteenth Century (Cohen), 86 MARX, GROUCH0 (JULIUS), 85; KARL, 36,49 Marxism, 25, 36 MARY (in Christianity), 174 Maryland, 77, 123;see also Baltimore

MASON, A. T. (ALPHEUS T.), 64,183; PERRY, 48 Masonic Order, 102 Mass (Catholic), 13 Massachusetts, 33, 112; see also Boston, Cambridge, Salem Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 34 Massacres, 143 Masses, the, 64, 70, 72, 86, 169 Materialism, 19, 23, 30, 155, 177 Mathematics, 33, 45 Matthew (gospel), 166 MAUSKOPF, THOMAS, 87 Maxims, 45,170 May Laws (1882), 143 MAYER, JOHN, 101 MAYNARD, FREDELLE BRUSER, 9 0 MAYO, LOUISE ABBIE, 172-79 Mayors, 1 16,144 Mayor's Emergency Fund, St. Paul, Minn., 144 MCCORMACK, JOHN, 112 McDougall Street, New York City, 28 MCGOVERN, GEORGE, 98 MCINTOSH (family), 97 McKeesport, Pa., 3 MCMURRAY, NANCY, 185 MEADOWS, ROBERT, 98 Media, 7, 62, 107, 110; see also Press, the Mediators, 64 Medical care, 144 Medical organizations, 107 Medical soldiers, 8 Medicine, 30,53, 69, 80 Medieval period, 29-30, 33,44, 82 MEDINA, HAROLD, 57 Meetings, 37, 113-14, 117-20, 123, 128-29,137 Megillah, 75 MEIR, GOLDA, 90-91 "Melting pot," 4 8 , 6 2 , 7 2 , 151, 154 MELVILLE, HERMAN, facing page 172, 172-79 Memoirists, 85 Memoirs, 74, 87-88, 90-91, 96, 99-100, 124, 126,155 Memoirs from the Baths o f Diocletian (Ezekiel), 87-88 Memoranda, 65-66 Memphis, Tenn., 100 Men, 2 0 , 4 7 , 6 4 6 5 , 7 2 , 77-78,83, 110, 121,167,169

MENDELE MOCHER SEFORIM, 8 9 MENDELSON, SYMA R., 9 4 MENDELSSOHN, MOSES, 3 9 , 1 7 8 MENDERSON. TED, 101 MENDES, A. PIZA, 9 7 MENDES. H. PEREIRA., 97:. SAMUEL PEREIRA, 97 Menorah Journal, 2 5 , 4 1 , 4 8 Menorah Society, 128 Merchants, Merchandise, merchandising, 128,146 MESQUITA, JOSEPH BUENO DE, 142 Messengers, 5 4 , 5 7 MESSING, RICHARD D., 101 Messiah, 19, 36, 81, 163-66 Methodists, I37 Mexican-Americans, 157-59 Mexican Inquisition, 86 Mexico; see New Spain MEYER, LEOPOLD L., 91; MICHAEL A., 9 9 MEZEY, ROBERT, 8 9 Michigan State University, 143 Middle Ages; see Medieval period Middle class, 165 Middle East, 6 2 Midwest (United States), 126 Migration; see Immigration Mikveh Israel Congregation, Philadelphia, Pa., 122 MILES, STANLEY R., 9 5 Military, 79, 115, 117, 130; military training, 131-32; Military police, 133-34; Military service, 3 3 , 5 1 , 95-96, 105 Militia, 6 9 MILLEM, MOSES, 125 Millennium, 164, 167 MILLER, ARTHUR, 184; JUDEA B., 95,97 Milwaukee, Wis., 9, 93 Mind o f One Piece, A : Brandeis and American Reform (Urofsky), 6 4 , 1 8 3 Mines, miners, mining, 26 MINIS, ABRAM, 97; H. PHILIP, 97-98; PHILIP, 97-98 Ministers, 138-40 Minneapolis, Minn., 100 Minnesota, 145; see also Duluth, Minneapolis, St. Paul, White Bear Lake Minnetonka Playground, St. Paul, Minn., 154 Minorities, 107, 145, 181

Minyan, 34, 120-21 Mishnah, 135 Missions, military, 3-4 Missions, religious, 139, 167 Mississippi; see Jackson, Tupelo Mississippi River, 128, 1 4 3 Missouri, 114; see also Kansas City, St. Louis Missouri School of Religion, 130 Missouri Union, 1 3 0 Missourian, 13 0 Mizrachi, 110 Mobile, Ala., 101 Modern Hebrew, 134 Modern Jewish History: A Source Reader (Chazan and Raphael), 85-86 Modern period, modernism, modernity, 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 6 - 6 7 , 6 9 , 87, 89,181 MOHAMMED, 81 Monasteries, 37 Monessen, Pa., 94 Monessen Lodge No. 776, B'nai B'rith, Monessen, Pa., 94 Money, 3 4 , 5 4 , 6 7 , 1 0 8 , 127-28, 132, 135, 145-46, 151, 155, 158; see also Funds Money lenders, 8 4 , 1 7 8 Monotheism, 163 MONTEFIORE, MOSES, 103 Montefiore Sanitarium Hospital, The Bronx, N. Y., 53 MONTOR, HENRY, 109; MONTOR, MARTHA NEUMARK, 9 7 Montreal, Canada, 9 4 Monumental City; see Baltimore, Md. MOON, ANNA K., 89 MOORE, GEORGE FOOT, 2 9 , 3 2 Moosburg, Germany, 1 6 Morality, morals, 23, 29, 37, 155, 165, 167-68, 170 MORDECAI, MORDECAI M., 1 0 3 Morgen Freiheit, 87 Morgen Zhournal [Zhurnal], Der (Jewish Morning Journal), 156, 1 85 MORGENSTERN, JULIAN, 98,134-36 MOSES (lawgiver), 20, 166; MOSES, SEMON, 121 MOSKOVITS, JOSEYEHUDA, 87 Moslems, 81, 8 4 Mosquitos (bombers), 1 3 "Most-favored nation" status, 9 8 Mothers, 149-50, 154, 157, 172

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MOTHERWELL, IRA, 36 Motion pictures, 5 , 9 , 4 1 - 4 2 , 182, 1 8 4 Mount (Mt.) Sinai Hospital, New York City, 2,53-55,127; Department of Social Service, 53-55 Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York City, 55; School of Nursing, New York City, 55 Mount Zion Temple, St. Paul, Minn., 144-45, 148-50 Mount Zion Temple Ladies Hebrew Benevolent Society's Jewish Relief Society, St. Paul, Minn., 148-49, 154 MOYLE, PETER-SHIMON O., 98 Mr. Republican (Robert A. Taft), 116 MUMFORD, LEWIS, 172-73 Music, Musical comedy, 135,154, 184; Sabbath music, 182; see also Opera Mutual-aid societies, 9 2 My Life (Meir), 90-91

NAROT, JOSEPH R., 100 NASSY (family), 98 NATHAN (family), 54; HAROLD, 54-55,57 National Archives, Washington, D.C., 95 National Conference of Christians and Jews, 47 National Conference of Jewish Charities, 149 National Council of Jewish Women, 94-95, 180; Columbus, Ohio, 94 National homeland for Jews, 69; see also Israel (state), Zionism National interests, 108 National student organizations, 37 Nationalism, 28, 37, 65, 1 13; see also "Diaspora nationalism" Nationality, 65, 147, 151-52, 154, 1 5 8 Nations, 22, 65, 108, 128, 163, 1 8 1 Navigation School, San Marcos, Tex., 1 0 Nazi Germany, 13; see also Germany Nazi-Soviet pact (1939), 8 7 Nazis, 6, 10-1 1 , 33, 99; see also Hitler, Adolf NCO; see Noncommissioned officers Near East, 1 1 2 Nebraska; see Omaha

Needle trades, needlework industries, 9 1, 146 Needy, the, 169; see also Poor, the Negro Americans, 89; see also Blacks "Negroes"; see Blacks Negro-Jewish relations, 1 0 3 Neighborhood House, St. Paul, Minn., 148-51, 153-54, 157-58, 161 Neighborhoods, 52, 87, 143,146, 151, 153-61 Neighbors, 127, 150, 158, 168 NEMEROV, HOWARD, 89 Netherlands, The, 37, 125 NETTER, JACOB, 1 0 3 Neumann Memorial Publication Fund, 2, 106 New England, 114 New Castle, Pa., 9 3 New Jersey; see Roosevelt New Masses, 185 New Mexico, 137-38 New Spain, 86 New Testament, 23, 1 6 3 New World, 91, 155, 184-85 New Year; see Rosh Hashanah New York City, 1, 18, 25-26, 29, 31, 51-52, 79, 91, 93-94, 97, 99, 103, 106, 110-13, 116, 122,126, 132, facing page 142, 142, 144, 155-56, 184-85; East Harlem, 5 1 ; East River, 52; East Side, 26, 37, 42; Greenwich Village, 28; Harlem College Preparatory School, 5 7 ; Lower East Side, 51, 91, 106, 155, 185; Manhattan, 53; McDougall Street, 28; Mount Sinai Hospital, 2, 53-55; New York Law School, 57 New York Clothing Workers' Union, 6 4 New York State, 54, 100; Court of Appeals, 56; Supreme Court, 54; see also Albany; Bronx, The; Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chautauqua, Coney Island, Edgemere, Elmira, Gloversville, Hartsdale, Jamestown, New York City, Riverdale, Troy, Williamsburg New York Times, 5 4 , 5 6 "New Zion," 6 8 Newfoundland, 9 3 NEWMAN, JULIEN W., 100; KATHARINE D., 180 Newsletters, 1 0 3 Newspapermen, 112; see also Journalism

Newspapers, 26, 33-34, 37,42, 53-54, 56,64, 75, 93, 98, 130-31, 144, 15657; see also Media, Periodicals; Press, the Nidhe (Nidche) Israel Congregation, Baltimore, Md., 120-21 NIEBUHR, REINHOLD, 102 NIEGER, S., 103 Night schools, 127, 150-5 1 NISSENSON, HUGH, 85,180 Nomads, 26 Noncommissioned officers, 7, 11-12, 134 Nonfiction, 184 Non-Jews, 32, 63, 110-11, 132 Nonsectarianism, 149 Non-Zionists, 69, 109 N o t Free t o Desist: The American Jewish Committee, 1906-1966 (Cohen), 86 Nova Scotia, Canada, 131 Novelists, 2, 29, 90-91 Novels, 15, 30, 39, 48, 79-80, 89, 182, 184-85; see also Fiction, Stories Numerus clausus, 33 NUNEZ, DANIEL, 95 HANNAH, 95 Nuns, 5, 17 Nuremberg, Germany, 14,16 Nurseries, Nursery Schools, 149, 158 NUSSBAUM, PERRY E., 98

Observance, Jewish, 61, 77, 165; see also Sabbath observance Occupation Army (post-World War I), 95 Officers, 3, 5-7, 11-12, 14, 33, 132-33; see also Noncommissioned officers Offices, 76,81, 111-12, 115, 118, 136, 160; see also Public Office Ohio, 94, 116, 140; see also Ada, Akron, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Hamilton, Sylvania, Toledo Ohio Historical Society,, Columbus, Ohio, 94 Oil Lobby, 118 Oil refineries, 4 OLAN, LEV1 A., 98,103 Old age, 41; see also Aged, the Old age homes, 41, 101 Old Country, 145.; see also Europe, Lithuania, Old World, Russia

Old Testament, 79, 172-73; see also Bible Old, the, 105, 175 ;see also Aged, the; Old age Old World, 20, 185; see also Europe Omaha, Neb., 94 Omaha Hebrew Club, Omaha, Neb., 94 On Being Jewish: American Jewish Writers from Cahan t o Bellow (Walden), 183-84 Opera, 6, 184 Operations, 127 Opinion, Jewish; see Jewish opinion OPPENHEIM, JAMES, 183 Oregon; see Portland, Salem Organizations, 37, 65, 67-69, 71, 107, 109, 118-19; see also Groups Orientalism, 179 Origin, origins, 20-21, 61, 64 Origin o f the Feast of Purim, The (Tyler), 79 ORNITZ, SAMUEL, 183 Orthodox, the, 36 Orthodoxy, 172,174 OSTERMAN, JOSEPH, 121,125 Ostjuden, 137; see also East European Jews Our Challenge: The Chosen Land (Kahane), 89 "Our Literary Courtship" (Adler), 7478 Overcrowding, 15 1-52, 154 OWEN, ROBERT, 68

P Pages from a Colorful Life: A n Autobiographical Sketch (Epstein), 87 Painters, Paint shops, 51,91 Pale of Settlement (Russia), 143 Palestine, 29, 64-65, 67-71,97,108-9, 112-16, 128-30, 132-33, 164, 173, 178; see also Jerusalem, Lydda, Sarafand, Tel Aviv Pantheism, 174 Parents, 16, 32,40,49, 51, 53-54, 60-62, 74,76,89, 131, 144, 151, 153, 159, 185 PARKER, DOROTHY, 85 Parliament (British), 69 Parochial schools, 127 Party system, 24

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Passover (Pesach), 14, 76-77, 133. 156 Passports, 95, 126 Patriotism, patriots, 21, 23-24, 61-62, 84,117, 122,180; lack of patriotism, unpatriotic spirit, 72 PATTERSON, HENRY, 133 Paupers, 169,171;see also Poor, the Pawtucket, R.I., 100 "Peace strikes," 37; see also Strikes Peddlers, 26,49,52, 146, 157 PELADEAU, MARIUS B., 83 PENN, ARTHUR, 184 Pennsylvania, 26, 103, 116; see also Butler, Easton, McKeesport, Monessen, New Castle, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Scranton Pentateuch, 140, 182 People, peoples, 19-21, 26, 159, 161, 163, 165,181, 183 People, Jewish; see Jews Peoples o f Philadelphia, The: A History o f Ethnic Groups and Lower-Class Life (Davis and Haller), 86-87 PERELMUTER, HAYIM GOREN, 99 PERES, SHIMON, 96 PERETZ, ISAAC LOEB, 89 Periodicals, 27, 29,50,93, 133, 136, 180, 185; see also Newspapers Persecutions, 143, 166 Persia, 163 Pesach; see Passover Pews, 77-78,93 Phariseeism, Pharisees, 165-66 Pharmacy, 14 Phi Beta Kappa, 27 Philadelphia, Pa., 17-18, 86-87, 122; "Philadelphia's Jewish Neighborhoods" (Whiteman), 87 Philanthropy, 2 4 , 9 l ; see also Charities, Contributions PHILLIPS, JACOB, 95 PHILO, 43,48 Philo (Wolfson), 35 Philology, 35 Philosophy, philosophers, 18, 28-33, 3739,4146,59-63,65-66, 70, 103, 155, 183; Jewish philosophy, 29-31; social philosophy, 47; see also Thinkers, Thought Philosophy o f Spinoza, The: Unfolding the Latent Processes o f His Reasoning, 41,4446 Photographers, 1 1 , 9 1

Photographs, 47, 85, 89-91,97, 181-82 Physicians, 14,40, 157 PICON, MOLLY, 184 PIERCE, LORRAINE E., 143-61 Pile o f Stones, A (Nissenson), 180 Pilgrim Fathers, 70 PILLIN, WILLIAM, 183 Pilots, 3, 7, 13 PINCUS, GREGORY, 98 Pinsk, Russia, 126, 131 Pioneers, 49,61, 124 Pittsburgh, Pa., 6, 74, 94-95, 102-3, 180; Jews of, 180 Pittsburgh Section, National Council of Jewish Women, 180 Pittsburgh Zionist District, 95 Planes; see Aircrafts PLAUT, W. GUNTHER, 144-49,156,182 Plays, 79, 99, 153; see also Dramas Pluralism, 62-63, 66, 71 Poale Zion, 110 Poalei Zion Society, 129 Poalei Zionists, 129 PODHORETZ, NORMAN, 85 Poetry, poets, 27-30, 80, 85, 88-89, 92,104,185 Pogroms, 91, 143-44 Poland, 10, 101, 143; see also Krakow, Warsaw Poles, 9, 13, 87, 104 Police, 126 Political life, politicians, politics, 18, 3638,44,66-68, 72, 87-88, 90, 92, 107, 109,112, 115-16,131, 164, 185 Political reform; see Reform, political Poor Cousins (Manners), 90 Poor, the, 53,106, 134, 155, 165, 168-69, 17 1;see also Poverty, Want POPPER, SAMUEL, 155-56 Population, 82, 85, 151, 157-59 Portland, Or., 99 Postcards; see Mail POTOCKI, COUNT, 104 POUND, EZRA, 88 Poverty, 145; see also Poor, the; Want POW, P. 0. W.; see Prisoners Practices, 145, 150, 167;see also Ceremonies, Customs Pragmatism, 2 9 , 5 9 , 6 1 Prairie Village, Kans., 100 Prayer, prayers, 16,45, 137 Prayer books, 140

INDEX Prayer shawls; see Taleisim Preachers, preaching, 1 9 , 4 5 , 138, 162, 165, 168; see also Sermonettes, Sermons Prejudice, 2, 23,45, 79-80, 82-84, 172 Presbyterians, 137-38 Presidency, Presidents (of the United States), 23, 62, 96, 107, 11.1, 114; (of Israel), 131 Press, the, 26, 91, 96, 107, 110, 115; see also Media, Newspapers, Periodicals, Yiddish language Priests, priesthood, 5, 21, 165, 170 Principals, principalships, 26-27, 127, 134 Prison camps; see Camps Prisoners, prisoners of war (P. 0. W.), 1, 3-4,9-17 Prisons, 6-7, 10, 15, 2 2 , 5 2 Professions, 38, 43, 56, 69, 80 Professors, professorships, 25, 28, 30, 32-33, 35-36,42-43,45, 56,59, 61, 128-31, 135-37, 140-41, 180-83; Joseph Solomon Professorship of Law, New York City, 57 Progressive reform (political), 67-68; see also American Progressive movement Progressives, 67, 183 Pro-Israel, 96, 182 Propaganda, 67, 113 Property, 2 1 , 6 9 , 8 4 Prophetic portion (of the Bible); see Haftarah Prophets, 19, 24, 128, 162-63, 167-68, 170,173 Prose o f Royal1 Tyler, The (Peladeau), 83 Proselytes, 99 PROSKAUER, JOSEPH M., 55 Protestants, Protestantism, 17, 62, 149, 162 Pro-Zionism, 129 Psychoanalysis, 44 Psychology, Psychologists, 45, 128 Public affairs, 48, 92, 109 Public office, 23, 8 1 Public opinion, 105, 108, 110, 118 Public relations, 109-1 1, 115 Public schools, 23, 5 2 , 5 4 , 6 1 , 1 3 8 , 152 Publications, 33, 35,49-50, 59, 97, 102, 120,124,162, 185

Publications o f the American Jewish Historical Society, 86 Pupils, 128, 147, 151-52, 154 Purim, 75, 79 Puritans, 61, 174 PYTHAGORAS, 4 2

Q Quarterly o f the American Jewish Historical Society, 86 Quincy, Ill., 99 "Quota" laws (1921 and 1924), 156

R Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, New York City, 26, 9 1 Rabbi Israel Levinthal Synagogue, Brooklyn, N.Y., 9 3 Rabbinical conferences; see Conferences, rabbinical Rabbinical seminaries, 25-26,91, 134, 162 Rabbis, rabbinate, 1, 1 3 , 1 6 , 18,25-26, 3 1 , 3 9 , 5 4 , 6 0 , 6 2 , 7 4 , 89, 93, 9599, 102-3, 105, 107, 115, 122, 126, 134-39,142,144-45, 148-50,162, 181-82, 184-85; Eastern Council of Reform Rabbis, 99; see also Reb, Rebbe; Chief rabbis RABIN, NEHEMIAH, 132-33; YITZHAK, 132 Race, Racism, 21, 157 RADAK, 135 Radicals, Radical Reform, 37, 140 Ragpickers, 15 3, 157 Railroad Immigration House, St. Paul, Minn., 144 RaiIroads, 9-10, 15-16 Raisins and Almonds (Maynard), 90 Ramsey County Probate Court, St. Paul, Minn., 95 RANDALL, CLARENCE, 27; DR., 139 RANKIN, JOHN E., 111 RAPHAEL, LAWRENCE W., 102 RAPHAEL, MARC LEE, 85-86,94 RASHI, 135 Rationalizers, rationalization, 46-47, 66 Reading Myself and Others (Roth), 91 Reb, Rebbe, 92; see also Rabbis REBECCA (literary characgr), 172 Rebels, rebellions, 46-47, 79

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

RECKSEIT, BERNARD, 103 "Recollections of Harry Austryn Wolfson" (Feuer), 25-50 Reconstructionist Judaism; see Judaism, Reconstructionist Records (congregational), 94-95, 119, 121, 125, 142,148 Records (courts), 122 Records (marriage), 96 Records (of societies and institutions), 94-95 Records (war), 16, 95-96 Red Cross, 8, 12-15 Red scare, 182 Reds, 4; see also Communism REED, JOHN, 27 Reform, economic, 64, 68 Reform Judaism; see Judaism, Reform Reform, political, 67-68, 183 Reform, social; see Social reform Reform, socio-political, 67 Reformation, 46, 170 Reformers, 170-71, 183 Reforms, 178 Refugees, 3, 33,43,144-45, 153 REHINE, RACHEL, 124; ZALMA, 105, 119-22 REIMERS, DAVID M., 180 REIS, JEANETTE, 101 Re-Judaization, 61 Relatives, 9, 16, 51, 5 4 , 5 6 , 7 0 , 74, 101, 105,120-22,124,127-28,142,145-46,

162 RELHAM, JULIUS, 96 Religion, 6-7, 13, 17, 22, 39,4 1 , 4 7 , 183; universal religion, 164 Religious denominations; see Denominations, religious Religious disputations; see Disputations, religious Religious education, 54 Religious intolerance; see Intolerance Religious law; see Halachah; Law, religious Religious liberalism, 183 Religious life, religious circles, 110, 140 Religious schools, 94 Religious toleration; see Toleration Rembrandt's Hat (Malamud), 90 Reminiscences, 25-50, 145 Reports, congregational, 94

Reports, institutional, 151, 153, 158 Representatives, 110-11, 114, 116; see also Congressmen Republicanism, 2 3 Republicans, Republican party, 116-17 "Requiem," 185 Research, 34-35,40,47,49, 85-86, 109, 180 RESNlCK, B. NATHAN, 100 Resolutions, 112-14, 116-18 Responsa, 96 Retarded children, 91 REVEL, BERNARD, 9 1-92 Revisionist Zionism, 37, 115 Reverence, I70 Revolution, revolutionaries, 27, 36 Revolutionary War (American), 79, 122, 180 REZNECK, SAMUEL, 9 5 , 1 8 0 REZNIKOFF, CHARLES, 8 5 , 8 9 Rhine River, 13 Rhineland, Germany, 162 Rhode Island; see Pawtucket RIBICOFF, ABRAHAM, 98 RICH, ADRIENNE, 85; J. C., 185 Rich, the; riches; see Wealth RICHARDSON, ELLIOT, 103 RICHMAN, LOUIS, 184 Richmond, Va., 100, 119-20, 122-24; Beth Shalome Congregation, 119; Monroe ward, 124 Ritua1,61,64,77,122,140,142,167,177 Riverdale, N. Y., 100 RIVKIN, ELLIS, 184 Robbins Library, Harvard University, 37 ROBLES, JACOB A., 102 Rockdale Temple, Cincinnati, Ohio, 102-3 Rodef Shalem Congregation, Wabash, Ind., 93 Rodef Sholom Sisterhood, Monessen, Pa., 94 ROGERS, GINGER, 4 2 ROGOFF, HILLEL, 26 Rome, Italy, 87, 100 ROOSEVELT, ELEANOR, 115; FRANKLIN D., 36, 111,114,117; THEODORE, 62 Roosevelt, New Jersey: Big Dreams in a Small Town & What Time Did to Them (Rosskam), 9 1 Rosa Coplon Jewish Home and Infirmary, Buffalo, N. Y., 78

ROSE, ALAN, 87; EMANUEL, 99; PETER, 181 ROSENSWAIKE, IRA, 105, 119-25 ROSENTHAL, HERMAN, 52; JULIUS, 101 ROSENWALD, JULIUS, 89; LESSlNG J., 115 Rosh Hashanab (New Year), 156 Rosh yeshivah, 162 ROSKOLENKO, HARRY, 9 1 ROSSKAM, EDWIN, 9 1 ROTH, HENRY, 183; PHILIP, 85, 88-89, 91,184 ROTHKOFF, AARON, 91-92 Roumania, 143; Jews of, 98; see also Bucharest Royal Air Force (British), 16 Royal Arcaneum Hall, St. Paul, Minn., 148 Royal Fusiliers (First World War), 1 31 ROYCE, JOSIAH, 2 9 , 4 3 , 5 9 RUBENSTEIN, EMIL, 73; ETHEL (Bobby), 74-75; MRS., 74; SADIE, 75 RUBIN, ALVAN D., 100; ISRAEL, 92 RUBINSTEIN. ARYEH. 102 RUDIN, A. JAMES, 98; JACOB P., 99 RUKEYSER, MURIEL, 88-89,92 RUSSELL, BERTRAND, 4 5 Russia, Russians, 3, 7, 9, 2 6 , 5 1 , 8 7 , 99, 143-44;see also Byelorussia, Soviet Union Russian Brotherhood, St. Paul, Minn., 147 Russian-Egyptian Treaty (1971), 9 8 Russian Jews, 3 , 8 5 , 90, 144, 147 Russian language, 132, 136 Russian-Polish Jews 145 "Russian" Zionists, 85 RUSTIN, BAYARD, 184 Rutchik's Hay and Feed Store, St. Paul, Minn., 147 RYPINS, FREDERICK I., 98; ISAAC L., 14849

S Sabbath, 34, 7 4 , 1 0 3 , 137-38, 182; Sabbath music, 182 Sabbath observance, 1 8 2 SACHS, AVROM DAVID, 99; NELLY, 89

SACK, LEO, 1 11-12, 114 St. John's Landing Camp, Minnesota, 158 St. Louis, Mo., 100, 128, 132-35 St. Paul, Minn., 95, 106, 143-44, facing page 145, 145-61; Highland Park, 15657, 159-60; Lower West Side, 106, 143-61; West Side, 148, 153, 155-60 St. Paul Hebrew Institute and Sheltering Home, St. Paul, Minn., 148 St. Paul Institute of Letters and Science, St. Paul, Minn., 1 5 0 St. Paul Public Library, St. Paul, Minn., 150 SALE, SAMUEL, 134 Salem, Mass., 4 1 Salem, Or., 99 Salvage, salvagers, 157 Samaritans, 167 SAMUEL (prophet), 21 SAMUEL, MAURICE, 85 San Marcos, Tex., 1 0 San Pancrazio, Italy, 1 0 SANTAYANA, GEORGE, 28-29,59 SAPERSTEIN, HAROLD I., 1 0 0 Sarafand, Palestine, 131; 1 3 3 Saskatchewan, Canada, 9 0 Satmar: An Island in the City (Rubin), 92 Satmarer Rebbe; see Teitelbaum, Joel Saudi Arabia, 117 Savannah, Ga., 97 SAXBE, WILLIAM B., 9 5 SAXE, EMANUEL, 1 0 0 SCHECHTER, SOLOMON, 9 8 SCHERMER, ALFRED A., 95 SCHIFF, JACOB H., 67-68,98 . SCHINDLER, ELIEZER, 98; M ~ S SALI, 98 SCHLESINGER, ISRAEL MOSES, 1 0 0 SCHMIDT, SARAH, 59-73 Scholars, 25, 27, 34-35, 3 9 , 4 9 , 6 0 , 6 4 , 70,119,121,183 Scholarship, 26, 29-30, 35, 38, 4 5 , 4 7 , 49, 136, 181;see also Education School of Business Administration, 7 Schools, 7, 13, 25, 53, 126-27, 144, 152, 159; see also Catholic schools, Church schools, Graduate schools, Grammar schools, Hebrew schools, Law schools, Night schools, Nursery schools. Parochial schools, Public schools, Religious schools SCHWARTZ, BESSIE, l o o ; DELMORE,

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

184; MAX, 100 SCHWARTZMAN, SYLVAN D., 96 Science, 38, 44,47, 67-68, 92, 98, 177 SCOTT, THOMAS PARKIN, 121 Scranton, Pa., 26 Scranton High School, Scranton, Pa., 26-27 Scripps-Howard, 11 1 Scriptures, 29, 39,47, 140, 165; see also Bible, Pentateuch, Torah Sculptors, Sculptures, 87-88 SEARS, ROEBUCK AND COMPANY, 89 SEASONGOOD, MURRAY, 101 Second Temple, 24 Second World War, 1 , 3 4 , 4 2 4 3 , 108-9, 111, 159 Second Zionist Congress, 98 Secular education, secular learning, secular life, 18, 26, 62 Secular Jews, 183 Secular literature; see Literature Sedarim, 77 SEGAL,ROBERT E., 96 SEIXAS. DAVID, 98: GERSHOM MENDES, 122 SELAVAN, IDA COHEN, 180 Self-government, 20; see also Government Selznick (Thomas), 182 SELZNICK, DAVID O., 182 Seminaries, rabbinical; see Rabbinical seminaries Semitic Museum, Hamard University, 34 Semitics, 32 Senate (United States), 116-18 Senators, 47,97-98, 107, 110-1 1, 114-16 Send These T o Me: Jews and Other Immigrants in Urban America (Higham), 88-89 Separation of church and state; see Church-state separation Sephardim, 119,122,142, 185 Sermon on the Mount, 166 Sermonettes, 39; see also Preaching Sermons, 18-24,4546,96-98,138,140, 165, 181;see also Addresses, Preachers, Speeches Services, religious; see Worship Servitude, 20-21; see also Slavery Settlement, Jewish, 143-61 Settlement houses, 157 Settlers, 62, 91, 143, 145, 153, 156, 161; see also Immigration

SHAHN, BEN, 9 1 SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM. 79 SHANKMAN, JACOB K., 99 SHAPIRO, HARRY, 109; HARVEY, 92; JUDAH J., 92; KARL, 88-89, 184 SHARETT (SHERTOK), MOSHE, 132 Sharey Hesed Woemet Congregation, St. Paul, Minn., 148 Shays' Rebellion, 79 Shearith Israel Congregation, Atlanta, Ga., 102 Shearith IsraeI Congregation, New York City, 94, 122 SHEFFER, HENRY MAURICE, 31,4445,49 SHEFTALL, MORDECAI, 97-98 Sheldon Traveling FelIowship, 30 SHELKOWSKY (original name of the Joseph Solomon family), 5 1 Sheltering Home, St. Paul, Minn., 148 Shelters; see Bomb shelters SHERTOK (SHARETT), MOSHE, 132 SHESTOV, LEV, 98 SHEVA (literary character), 172 SHILOH, AILON, 180 SHINE, BETTY, 138 SHINEDLING, ABRAHAM I., 19,120-21 SHKOLNIK (ESHKOL), LEVI, 132 SHOLEM ALEICHEM, 137 Shomer Emunim Congregation, Sylvania, Ohio, 107 Shopkeepers, 69, 126, 146-47, 160 Short stories, 10 1, 180; see also Novels, Stories SHPALL, LEO, 86 Shul, 14748, 160; see also Synagogues SHYLOCK (Shakespearian character), 79,172 SIEGEL, RICHARD, 18 1 SILVER, ABBA HILLEL, 109,112-13, 116,181; DANIEL J., 184; LEMS, 121, 125; SAMUEL M., 100 Silver Archives, The Temple, Cleveland, Ohio, 107 SILVERBERG, BARRY, 95 SILVERMAN, B.D., 94 SIMON (rebel), 165 ; HERMAN, 148 SIMONS, LEONARD N., 101 Sin, 169-70 Sinai Congregation, Chicago, Ill., 93 SINCLAIR, JO., 184 SINGER, ISAAC BASHEVIS, 85,88-89 Sing Sing Prison, New York State, 52

INDEX Sisterhoods, 77,94 Six-Day War (1967),132 Skilled workers, 144 SKIRBALL, JACK H., 103 SKLARE, MARSHALL, 86,181,184 Skull caps; see Yarmelkes Slavery, slaves, 18,28,77,80-81, 83-84, 124;see also Servitude SLIMMER, ABRAHAM, 95 SLOAN, IRVING J., 184 Slobodka, 25 Slums, 155 SNETSINGER, JOHN, 181 So Sue Met-The Story o f a Community Court (Yaffe), 184-85 Social action, 18;control, 69;Gospel, 162;halls, 140;history, 143 Social justice, 18,66-68 Sociallife,society, 2-3,18,21,27,36-37,

Southern Jewry (United States), 104 Southwest (United States), 126 Soviet Jewry, 89-90, 98 Soviet Union, 98;see also Russia Spanish language, 57 Speaker of the House (United States), 112 Speeches, 27,64,66,100,102-3; see also Addresses, Sermons SPICEHANDLER, EZRA, 96 SPINOZA, BENEDICT, 37,4142,4446,

48 Spiritual life, 18,20,22,155,165,168,

176,181

Springfield, Ill., 94 SS men, 8 STAHL, SAMUEL M., 103 State Department (United States), 112 State, Jewish; State of Israel; see Israel (state), Zionism 4446,48,62-64, 67,69-71, 77,82, State office; see Public office 86-88,90,92,99, 106,145,148, States (of the United States), 19,104,140 150-51,155,169,171,18l;inequality, Statistics, 19,27,54,56,67,100-101, 28;philosophy, 47;reform, 92;respon126,130,132,14447,149-52,?54, sibility, 67;scientists, 88;service, 2, 157,159,180;see also Population 53-54,94;welfare, 85,97,103; statistics workers, 62,149 Statler Hotel, Boston, Mass., 47 Socialism, socialists, 27,36-37, 68 STEARN, GERALD EMANUEL, 182 Societies, 36,94-95,128-29, 147 STEARNS, HAROLD E., 27-28 Society, social life; see Social Life STEINER, PHILIP, 101 Sociology, Sociologists, 25,36,47,68, Stereotypes, 80,84,172,174,179,183 102-3,129,155,181 STERN, MRS. HAROLD H., 98;MALSocio-political reform; see Reform, socioCOLM H., 142 STERN, MAYER & CO., 103 political STERN, NOAH, 29-30 Soldiers, 5,9,13,33,95,132;see also Medical soldiers, Troops Stetl, 91 STEUER, MAX D., 56 SOLOMON (biblical character), 172; (family name), 51 ; ABRAHAM, 51 ; STEWART, DAVID, 121 STONE, ELIHU, 112,114 PHILIP, 53;REBECCA, 51; RITA Stores; see Shopkeepers (Mrs. Joseph), 56 Stories, 48,79,90;see also Novels, SOLOMON, JOSEPH, 2,51-58, 103Short stories 4;Joseph Solomon Chair in Wills, Story of Herman Kopplemann, The 100 Joseph Trusts and Estates, 103-4; Story of the Jewish Defense League, The Solomon Professorship of Law, New York Law School, 57 (Kahane), 89 Strangers, 21,46,70,74 SOLOTAROFF, THEODORE, 85 STRASSFELD, MICHAEL, 181; Sophie Wuth Camp, 154 SOSLAND, MARTIN I., 103 SHARON, 181 South (United States) (Dixie), SouthernSTRATTON, SAMUEL, 34 STRAUS, MAX, 100;NATHAN, 85 ers, 77,87,104 112,126,137 STRAUSS, CAROLINE, 77-78; JOSEPH, South Africa, South Africans, 3,7-8 South Carolina; see Charleston 98;MOSES, 77 Street I Know, The (Stearns), 27 Southeast (United States), 104 Streets, 54,77,152,157,161 Southern Europe, 156

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Strikes, 64, 91 ;see also "Peace strikes" Students, 14, 26-27, 29,36-37,42,47, 59, 61, 128-29, 134-36, 140, 150, 152, 159; see also Graduate students Study, studies, 25-26, 33,40,59,79, 85-87,91, 127,132-33, 181, 185 STUYVESANT, PETER, 142 Suburbs, 48 Suicide, 23 SUKENICK, RONALD, 182 SULLIVAN, LOUIS H.. 93 Summons unto Men, A : A n Anthology o f the Writings o f John Haynes Holmes (Voss), 183 Supernatural, 164 Supreme Court, New York State, 54 Supreme Court, United States, 64 Surinam, 98 Sur~riseLake cam^. . . New York State. 53-54 Survevs. 93. 151, 157 sussex county, Del., 95 SVERDLIK, HARRY, 100 Sweatshops, 91 Switzerland, 15 Sylvania, Ohio, 107 Symbols, 163, 170 Synagogue of Amalgamated IsraeIites, Kingston, Jamaica, 103 Synagogues, 25,46,75, 77, 92-94,99, 103, 119,121, facing page 145, 147, 160-6 1;see also Congregations, TempIes Syria, Syrians, 152, 163 SYRKIN, MARIE, 87 SZAJKOWSKI, ZOSA, 182 SZOLD, HENRIETTA, 98, 119-20,12324 SZYLKOWSKI, ABRAHAM (Abraham SoIomon), 5 1

T Tacoma, Wash., 101 Tadrich Le-Shabbat: A Shabbat Manual, 182 TAFT, ROBERT A. (Mr. Republican), 116; WILLIAM HOWARD, 88 Taft-Wagner Resolution, 116, 118 Taleisim, 140 Talmud, 25, 44, 135, 147; TaImudists, 26 Talmud Torah, St. Paul, Minn., 148 TARSHISH, MRS. ALLAN, 100 Tax deductions, 118 TAYLOR, ALVA, 130

Teachers, 1, 25-26, 2 9 , 4 8 , 5 9 , 6 2 , 80, 128,135, 138,149-50, 169;seealso Hebrew teachers Teachings, 163, 168, 170 TEITELBAUM, JOEL (Satmarer Rebbe), 92 Tel Aviv, Palestine, 132 Tel-el-Kebir, Egypt, 131 Telephone, 110, 137-40, 152 Temple (of Jerusalem), 164-65 TempIe Beth Am, Buffalo, N. Y., 138; TempIe Beth Am, Jamestown, N. Y., 138; Temple Beth El, Religious School, Winchester, Va., 94; Temple Beth Zion, Buffalo, N. Y., 138; Temple B'nai Israel, EImira, N. Y., 93; Temple B'nai Israel, McKeesport, Pa., 3; Temple Covenant of Peace, Easton, Pa., 93; Temple Emanu-El B'ne Jeshurun, Milwaukee, Wis., 93; Temple Emanu-EI, New York City, 162, 184; TempIe IsraeI, Akron, Ohio, 93; Temple Israel, Boston, Mass., 93; Temple Shaare Emeth, St. Louis, Mo., 134 Temples, 3,46, 93, 102-3, 134, 138, 150, 162;see also Congregations, Synagogues Tenements, 51-52, 5 4 , 9 1 Tenets, 167 Tennessee; see Memphis Tercentenary (Harvard University), 33 Terre Haute, Ind., 94-95 Terrorists, 6, 10-1 1 Testimonials, 102 Texas, 91, 114, 137-38; see also Galveston, Houston, Lubbock, San Marcos Texas Medical Center, 9 1 Texas Street Shul, St. Paul, Minn., 147 Texas Technological College, 137 Text, Textbooks, 4 3 4 4 Theatre, 91, 132, 184;seealso Yiddish theatre Theology, Theological seminaries, 36, 45,61,91,173 Therefore Choose Life (Silver), 181 Thimble Bee CIub, St. Paul, Minn., 151 Thinkers, 39,60; see also Philosophy, Thought Thirtyeighth and Thirty-ninth Jewish Battalions, Royal Fusiliers (First World War), 131-33 This World: Poems (Shapiro), 92 THOMAS, BOB, 182

Thought, 2 9 , 4 4 , 5 9 , 6 2 , 6 4 , 6 6 , 173, 183; see also Philosophy, Thinkers Three hundred Seventy-sixth Heavy Bombardment Group, 4 , 8 , 1 0 Tifereth Israel Congregation, New Castle, Pa., 93 TILLICH, PAUL, 39 TIMBERG, BERNARD, 101 Time That Was Then, The (Roskolenko), 91 Time to Seek, A: An Anthology of Contemporary Jewish American Poets (Joseloff), 89 TIT0 (Yugoslavian head), 4 Tog, Der , 156 Toledo, Ohio, 102, 110-11 Toleration, tolerance, 2, 79-81, 83-84, 158,179 TOMASHEFSKY, BORIS, 132 Tomashefskys (First World War), 132 TOMPKINS, MRS. JEAN, 9 3 Torah, 25,63, 96-97; see also Pentateuch Toronto, Canada, 25,48 Touchstone, The, or a Humble, Modest Inquiry into the Nature o f Religious Intolerance (Tyler), 84 TOWNE, OLIVER, 156-57,160 Towns, Townspeople, 8, 13,25,91, 102, 129,132, 134, 138; see also Urban areas Tradition, traditions, 2 0 , 4 7 , 4 9 , 6 1 6 3, 70-71, 133,150, 154, 15860,174; Hebraic tradition., 61 ,:rabbinical tradition, 185 Traditional life, 156 Traditionalists, 4 6 4 8 Tragedy, 28,53,71, 169, 182 Trains, 3, 9, 12-14,78, 133-34 Translations, translators, 6-7, 19, 28, 30, 33,132,136-37,147 Transliterations, 184 Travel, 31, 35,78, 82,96, 182 Trial o f Judaism in Contemporary Jewish Writing, The (Knopp), 89 Trials, 55-56 TRILLING, LIONEL, 88 Troops, 133; see also Soldiers Troy, N. Y., 94 TRUMAN, HARRY S., 114, 181 Truman, the Je wish Vote,and the Creation o f Israel (Snetsinger), 181 Trust, Trusts, 69, 103 Truth, truths, 20,47,49, 165, 170, 173 TSUR, YAAKOV, 87

Tuition, 27, 57 Tupelo, Miss., 111-12 Turks, 108, 131-32 TUVIM, ABE, 109 TYLER, ROYALL, 2,79-84; THOMAS, 81

UHLMANN, R. HUGH, 100 Ukrainians, 8 Ultra-Orthodoxy, 92 Un-Americanism, 72 Underground, 10 Underprivileged, 5 3 Unemployed, Unemployment, 158 Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 95-96 Union Prayer Book, 137, 1 3 9 4 0 Unions, congregational; see Congregational unions Unitarianism, 172 United Hebrew Congregation, Terre Haute, Ind., 94 United Israel Appeal, 182 United Israel World Union, 98 United Jewish Appeal, 109 United Jewish Charities, 103 United Palestine Appeal, 109 United States, 1 , 1 6 , 18, 22,25, 30,51, 64,67,69,71,85, 87,90,98-101, 109, 111,126,131-134,149,162,185;Executive Department, 113, 117; Immigration Service, 115; State Department, 112; Supreme Court, 64; see also East, Midwest, South, Southeast, Southwest, Upper Mid-West United States Army, 10, 13, 33,40, 95-96 United States Grant Post No. 28, Department of Illinois, Grand Army of the Republic, 102 Universal religion, 164 Universities, 1, 25-27, 30-33, 3 6 , 4 8 4 9 , 59, 87, 91, 128, 143, 180; City University, 172; Haward, 26,30-33, 36; Hebrew University, 87; Michigan State University, 143; Maryland, 59; Missouri, 128, 130; Pittsburgh, 180; Toronto, 25; Wisconsin, 26; Yale, 35; Yeshiva University, 9 1 University of Houston Library, Houston, Tex., 9 1 University of Maryland, 59

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

University of Missouri, 128, 130; School of Agriculture, 128; Missouri Union, 130; Bible College, 130 University of Pittsburgh, 180 University of Toronto, 25 University of Wisconsin, 26 Un-kosher food, 4 0 Unrecognized Patriots: The Jews in the American Revolution (Rezneck), 180 Unskilled workers, 144 Up: A Novel (Sukenick), 1 8 2 Upper Mid-West (United States), 155 Urban areas, 6 , 8 6 , 88,104, 116, 121, 124-25, 132, 134, 1 4 3 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 152, 157, 159, 165, 182-84; see also Towns, Villages UROFSKY, MELVIN I., 64,182-83 Utah, 85, 94; see also Clarion (colony) Utopia, 4 7 , 6 7 , 7 2 Utopians A t Bay (Kallen), 7 2

v Vacations, vacationists, 136, 140, 154 Values, 47, 62, 90, 150, 155, 157, 170, 183 VAN DER WILDEN, SIMON, 142; VALENTINE, 142 Vermont, 79, 84; Supreme Court, 79, 83 Vermont Supreme Court, 7 9 , 8 3 Versailles peace conference, 85 Vestry rooms, 149 VETA, SAMUEL, 101-2 Vice-presidents, 149 Victory, 117, 163 Vienna, Austria, 6,9-10, 14, 70 Vietnam, 8 8 Villages, 25-26,91 Vilna, 7 0 Violin, 154 Virginia, 87, 124; see also Richmond, Winchester Visas, 115 Visitors, visits, 115, 150 VOGEL, ETHEL, 134; DAN, 8 9 Volunteers, 131-32, 149-50 VOSS, CARL HERMANN, 183 Vote, voting, 36, 114, 117-18; see also Jewish vote

W WACHOLDER, BEN-ZION, 1 0 2 WAGNER, ROBERT F., 1 16 Wahrheit (New York City), 185

WALDEN, DANIEL, 183-84 WALDMAN, MORRIS D., 104 Waldorf Cafeteria, Harvard University, 40 WALLANT, EDWARD LEWIS, 1 8 3 Want, 145; see also Poverty War, wars, 1 , 4 , 7 , 9-10, 14, 17, 21, 47, 71, 164, 182; see also Civil War; First World War, Revolutionary War, Second World War, Six-Day War (Israel), Yom Kippur War (Israel) War contracts, 114 WARBURG (family), 104; EDWARD M. M., 104; ERIC, 104 Warburgs, The: The Story o f a Family (Farrer), 104 WAREMBUD, NORMAN H., 184 WARNER BROTHERS, 9 Warsaw, Poland, 7 0 Washington (state); see Tacoma Washington, D. C., 105, 107, 110-13, 115 , 118; see also Capitol Hill WASHINGTON, GEORGE, 21 WASKOW, SAMUEL MORRIS, 1 0 0 Wasteland (Eliot), 30 WATERMAN, S. A., 121 WAX, JAMES A., 100 WAXMAN, MORDECAI, 87 Wealth, 7 , 1 9 , 23, 3 1 , 6 9 , 8 1 , 8 4 , 135, 155,169 WECHMAN, ROBERT J., 185 WECHSLER, BENJAMIN, 101 Weddings, 148; see also Marriage WEINBERG, WERNER, 102 WEINER, HERBERT, 181 WEINGART, SAMUEL, 100 WEISS, HIRAM B., 1 0 2 WEIZMANN, CHAIM, 70-71,97, 109 Welfare, 21; see also SociaI welfare WENDELL, BARRETT, 5 9 , 6 1 WESSON, NEIL, 104; MRS. R., 104 West Side, St. Paul, Minn., 148, 153, 15560; see also Lower West Side, St. Paul, Minn. West Side Congregations, St. Paul, Minn., 148 Western Europe, 122; see also Europe Western Hemisphere, 87; see also America, Latin America, United States Western Wall, Jerusalem, 133 Westphalia, Germany, 120-21 Wetzlar, Germany, 13-14 When Yesterday Becomes Tomorrow:

125th Anniversary Celebration Congregation Emanu-El o f the City of' New York (1845-1 9 701, 184 White Bear Lake, Minnesota, 154 White Paper (Britain), 108, 116; see also British White Paper WHITEHEAD, ALFRED N., 39 WHITEMAN, KALMAN, 128; MAXWELL, 87 Whites, 62, 77 WHITLOCK, PHILIP, 100 WICE, DAVID H., 96 Widener Library, Harvard University, 35, 37,41 Widows, 7 4 , 7 6 WIENER, LEO, 35; NORBERT, 33 WIERNIK, PETER, 184 WIESEL, ELIE, 88-89 WILCOX, HENRY, 36 Wildernesses, 19-20,49 WILHELM I1 (Kaiser), 88 WILLIAM O F NORWICH, 82 Williamsburg, Brooklyn, N. Y., 91-92 Wills, 95, 100, 103 Winchester, Va., 94 WINDMUELLER, FRED W., 100 WINOGRAD, LEONARD, 3-17 WINOKUR, HARVEY J., 102 WIRTH, MRS. SOPHIE, 149,154 Wisconsin; see Milwaukee Wisdom, 20-21,39,49 WISE, ISAAC M., 88; STEPHEN S., 31, 85-86,97,99, 102,109, 117, 183 Wives, 28, 33-34,41, 56, 74, 77, 121,124, 134, 1 3 6 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 5 4 6 ; seealso Women WIZNITZER, ARNOLD, 86 WOLF, ALFRED, 100 WOLFSON, BARBARA, 138; HARRY AUSTRYN, 1,25-50 Women, 1 6 , 2 7 , 4 0 4 1 , 5 4 , 6 9 , 7 2 , 76-77, 93-95, 110, 122, 137-38, 147, 149-50, 174, 185; see also Wives, Youth Women's suffrage, 38 WOOD, ROBIN, 184 WOODS, JAMES HAUGHTON, 32-33 Word in Its Season, A : Selected Sermons, Addresses, and Writings o f Abba Hillel Silver, Volume Two, 181 Work, 27,53-55, 76,91, 126-27, 134, 136, 1 4 4 4 7 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 Working class, workers, 4 8 , 9 1 , 146, 150; see also Labor, Skilled workers, Unskilled workers

Workmen, 69, 126 Workmen's Circle (Arbeiterring), 92 Workshops, 40 World, 29, 3 7 , 4 6 4 7 , 61-62,72, 180; exposition, 22; Jewry, 87-88; peace, 96 World Union for Progressive Judaism, 95 World War I; see First World War World War 11; see Second World War World Zionist movement, World Zionists, World Zionist Organization, 65, 69-70, 109 see also Zionism Worms, Germany, 162 Worship, 13, 3 4 , 4 5 4 6 , 75, 78, 9 3 , 9 6 , 103,119-23,125, 13640,147, 160, 1 6 3 6 4 , 1 6 9 ; freedom of, 83 Worshippers, 122, 1 3 9 4 0 WORTMAN, DAVID A., 102 WRENCH, JESSE E., 129-30 Wright-Compton Resolution, 118 WRIGHT, JAMES A., 116 Writers, 26, 29-30, 59, 79, 84-85, 88-90, 105, 109,115, 119-22, 124-25, 132, 147, 172, 183; see also Authors Writings, writing, 36, 40-41, 44, 79, 86, 8 9 , 9 1 , 166,181, 183;seealso Books, Publications Wyoming (territory and state), 96, 101-2; see also Fort McKinney

X Xenophobia, 18 Xeroxing, 30

Y Y AFFE, JAMES, 184 Yahrzeit, 100 Yale University, 35 "Yankees," 61, 70 Yankey in London, The (Tyler), 80 Yarmelkes, 140 Yeshiva University (College). New York City, 91 Yeshivah bachur, 26 Yetev Lev Congregation, Williamsburg, N. Y., 9 2 YEZIERSKA, ANZIA, 1 8 3 , 1 8 5 Yiddish language, 6 , 87, 102, 112, 126, 132, 136, 156; Yiddish press, 91; theater, 184 Yiddishisms, Yiddishists, 28, 132 YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, 97

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AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1976

Yom Kippur (Atonement Day), 156 Yom Kippur War (Israel), 98 Yorn Kippur War, The: Israel and the Jewish People (Davis), 87 Young Boys Aurora Club, St. Paul, Minn., 151 Young Men's Aid Society, St. Paul, Minn., 147 Young Men's Hebrew Association (92nd Street), New York City, 56 Young Men's Hebrew Association (23rd Street and Seventh Avenue), New York City, 57 Youth, young women, the young, 1 9 , 2 3 , 25,27,47, 50,52,56,69,74-75,87, 1 0 5 , 1 1 5 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 6 , 1 5 1 , 154 Y OWA (Nancy McMurray), 185 Yugoslavia, Yugoslavs, 4, 7-8

z ZABROSKY, FRANK A,, 95 ZAGAT, IDA ROJI, 185; SAMUEL, 185 Zagreb, Yugoslavia, 7 Zaire (Belgian Congo), 185 ZALESKY, MOSES, 97 ZANGWILL, ISRAEL, 151

ZEDEK, MICHAEL, 101 Zen Buddhism, 8 8 ZIELONKA, DAVID M., 93,185; MARTIN, 86 ZIMMERMAN (Harvard man), 4 3 Zion, 7 0 Zion in America: The Jewish Experience from Colonial Times to the Present (Feingold), 88 Zionism, 2,37,59-73, 8 6 , 9 1 , 9 5 , 97, 102,105,107-10,112-19, 126, 128-29, 132, 151, 174-75, 178, 182-83; see also American Zionism, American Zionist Emergency Council, Americanized Zionism, Anti-Zionism, Biltmore Zionist Program, Emergency Committee for Zionist Affairs, Emergency Committee of the American Zionist Council, European Zionism, Mizrachi, Non-Zionists, Poale Zion, Revisionist Zionism, "Russian" Zionists, Second Zionist Congress, World Zionist movement, Zionist Organization of America Zionism and World Politics (Kallen), 6 8 Zionist Archives, 6 5 Zionist Organization of America, 70-72, 85, 111

The American Jewish Archives . o n the Cincinnati Campus of the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion Alfred Gottschalk, President