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Vancouver Model

United Nations

The 12th Annual Conference • February 1–3, 2013

Background Guide Economic and Social Council

Vancouver Model United Nations The 12th Annual Conference • February 1–3, 2013

Dear Delegates, Zach Hauser & Stuart Warren Secretaries-General • Eric Liu Chief of Staff Catherine Chou Director-General • Aliya-Nur Babul USG Committees Adam Chandani USG Conference Parker Nann USG Delegate Affairs 1 Eden Lee USG Delegate Affairs 2 Brian Kwok USG Finance Andy Lee USG Marketing Catherine Wang USG Marketing Kevin Chien USG Simulations Jennifer Yoon USG Sponsorship

My name is Brian Kwok and, as your Director, it is my pleasure to welcome you to the Economic and Social Council of VMUN 2013. With a mixed passion for business economics and public speaking, I have worked at Vancity Credit Union as well as Edwards, Kenny & Bray LLP. I strive to maintain an international mindset with a global perspective that looks beyond the Western framework I have lived within all my life. VMUN has helped shape my world perception and continues to be the event I look forward to. I hope that my passion for VMUN will translate, through my actions, into a positive experience for everyone in ECOSOC. While ECOSOC is a beginner-friendly committee, I challenge all delegates to prepare to the best of their abilities. Delegates should note that while diplomacy often involves flexibility, they should always strive to adhere to the policies of their states. Furthermore, all delegates should pay close attention to international affairs, from news about finance to issues of reconstructing nations such as Syria. Some technical terms are used in this backgrounder; I thus encourage all delegates to familiarize themselves with the basics of economics (this video is an excellent introduction). Such preparation will foster insightful and meaningful discussions on the two important, pressing, and fascinating issues my staff and I have selected. With the disastrous financial crisis of 2008–09, countries have steadily eroded freedom of trade in order to protect state interests. Much work needs to be done to reverse this detrimental trend. How to effectively fund the redevelopment of a war-torn country is another issue of rising importance. With the recent Arab Spring, the world is now host to more post-conflict countries that do not have the legitimacy or the funding to truly jump-start their economies. Without international assistance and an agenda for aid, these new regimes are in danger of returning to conflict. Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions or concerns. I look forward to reading your position papers and meeting you all at the conference. Best of luck in your preparations! Regards, Brian Kwok Director, Economic and Social Council

Position Paper Policy What is a Position Paper? A position paper is a brief overview of a country’s stance on the topics being discussed by a particular committee. Though there is no specific format the position paper must follow, it should include a description of the positions your country holds on the issues on the agenda, relevant actions that your country has taken, and potential solutions that your country would support. At Vancouver Model United Nations, delegates should write a position paper for each of the committee’s topics. Each position paper should not exceed one page, and should all be combined into a single document per delegate. For the Economic and Social Council, position papers are mandatory.

Formatting Position papers should: —— Include the name of the delegate, his/her country, and the committee —— Be in a standard font (e.g. Times New Roman) with a 12-point font size and 1-inch document margins —— Not include illustrations, diagrams, decorations, national symbols, watermarks, or page borders —— Include citations and a bibliography, in any format, giving due credit to the sources used in research (not included in the 1-page limit)

Due Dates and Submission Procedure All position papers must be submitted by midnight on Friday, January 18, 2013, two weeks prior to the conference. Once your position paper is complete, please save the file as your last name, your first name and send it as an attachment in an email, to your committee’s email address, with the subject heading as your last name, your first name — Position Paper. Please do not add any other attachments to the email or write anything else in the body. Both your position papers should be combined into a single PDF or Word document file; position papers submitted in another format will not be accepted. Each position paper will be manually reviewed and considered for the Best Position Paper award. The email address for this committee is [email protected].

Topic A: Trade Barriers Introduction Trade barriers are government-imposed restrictions on international trade, such as government-imposed tariffs and quotas. A form of protectionism, trade barriers impose some sort of cost on trade that raises the price of imported products, making them more expensive, less accessible, or generally, less competitive than domestically produced goods. A trade war results when two or more nations repeatedly employ trade barriers against each other. Trade liberalization seeks to facilitate relatively unrestricted trade transactions by reducing most trade barriers, except possibly those necessary for health or national security. However, in practice, different countries possess different outlooks towards opening their domestic markets to foreign competition. Because of this, even countries that promote free trade often heavily subsidize certain industries, such as agriculture and steel; roughly 60 countries, including the members of the European Union and Gulf Cooperation Council, have mechanisms in place restricting trade with the rest of the world.1 Most economists view trade barriers negatively because the sanctions decrease economic efficiency, as explained by the theory of comparative advantage. Comparative advantage occurs when a country can produce a particular good or service at a lower marginal and opportunity cost than another. When nations restrict trade, inefficiencies arise as the nature of comparative advantage is hindered — countries cannot freely sell the products they are best at producing. In addition, trade barriers dampen competition between countries, which leads to a limited selection of products, often leaving consumers with no choice but to accept higher prices for inferior quality. For much of history, it has been the wealthiest nations that dominate the global economy and who therefore set trade policies; the developing world is often forced to deal with the consequences of these decisions. For example, crops that developing countries are best at producing still face high barriers, while subsidies for farmers in developed economies lead to overproduction and saturated markets.2 In a more general sense, tariffs tend to be inherently disadvantageous to less industrialized nations, as they result in lower rates for raw commodities and higher prices for processed goods.

Timeline October 29, 1929

This day, nicknamed Black Tuesday, marks the start of the Great Depression.

“Annual report of United States Trade Representative.” USTR. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. . 2 “Trade : Center for Global Development : Initiatives: Active: Commitment to Development Index: Components.” Center for Global Development (CGD). N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 1

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council 1933

1933–1946 1948 1948–1958 1960

1960 1964 1973 1986–1994

1994 1995 2002 2002

2008 2008

The World Monetary and Economic Conference opens in London with the purpose of monitoring the world depression by means of currency stabilization and economic agreements. As delegates came in with the mindset of protectionism, no agreements were made and the meeting was a total failure. The Bretton Woods System, a planned international economic structure to prevent further depressions and wars, comes into effect. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) comes into force. The European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union, is established. The European Free Trade Association is formed by Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, to promote closer economic cooperation and free trade in Europe. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is formed. The first United Nations Conference on Trade & Development (UNCTAD) is held to address concerns of developing countries. OPEC places an embargo on oil exports to nations allied with Israel during the Yom Kippur War. The eighth round of the GATT is held in Uruguay. Delegates convene to discuss fifteen issues including tariffs, intellectual property, and dispute settlement. The round also leads to the creation of the World Trade Organization. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) takes effect. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is created to foster trade. The European Union launches the euro, which instantly becomes the second most-used currency in the world. The WTO rules in favour of the EU in a row with the Washington over tax breaks for US exports, allowing the EU to impose sanctions worth 4 billion dollars against the US. This verdict marks the highest amount of damages ever awarded by the WTO. The GATT’s ninth round of negotiations in Doha stall due to disagreements on a number of issues, including agricultural subsidies. A global financial crisis precipitated by a loss of confidence in world’s financial and banking systems occurs. This is the most serious financial crisis since the Great Depression.

Explanation of Key Concepts Outsourcing Outsourcing refers to the practice of sub-contracting some or all of a company’s internal operations/ jobs to a third party. Outsourcing can refer to something as broad as handing over all management of information technology services to a company such as International Business Machines (IBM) or Electronic Data Systems (EDS), to contracting for a specific service such as disaster recovery —5—

Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council services.3 Trade liberalization has greatly increased the popularity of outsourcing. This system works on the theory of comparative cost advantage, wherein the opportunity cost of production is lower. Sometimes these functions are also outsourced to third party organizations outside the geographical boundary of the parent organization, which is referred to as offshore outsourcing. However, this type of outsourcing poses a serious threat to the labour market: while outsourcing may provide benefits to less developed countries or the global society as a whole, in the form of rising wages or increasing standards of living, these benefits are not secure. Further, in the process of outsourcing, an internal department’s equipment and personnel are sold to a service provider, who may retain the workforce on worse conditions or discharge them in the short term. Outsourcing is a difficult proposition and clearly comes with its advantages and disadvantages. At best, clients can get better service at lower costs than they could manage to do themselves, while the vendor still makes a profit. However, these cases are rare, and the failure rate of outsourcing relationships is high. This committee may wish to consider measures to promote a successful outcome for both client and vendor.

Protectionism Protectionism is the economic policy of limiting trade to protect domestic industries by imposing tariffs and quotas on imported goods. Many developed countries hope to eradicate protectionism through agreements, international treaties, and forums such as the World Trade Organization. However, many of these countries still place protective and/or revenue tariffs on foreign products to protect some industries that are favoured or have significant political influence, such as agriculture or construction, where developing countries may a comparative advantage. While economists fervently oppose protectionism, many governments feel such measures are necessary.4

Subsidies In order to facilitate the growth of a certain sector, many governments provide concessions and incentives to producers in the form of tax waivers, enhanced credit, etc. Sometimes, this is used to boost a country’s economy by encouraging consumption of possibly inferior domestic goods and discouraging imports. Furthermore, in order to encourage export of goods, exporters are provided with special subsidies, which reduce the costs for both the exporter and foreign importers.5 This substantially increases the profit margins of the producers of the domestic country and adds to the domestic GDP. However, this practice handicaps the domestic industries of the importing nations by forcing their domestic producers to compete with foreign goods at depressed prices below market value, thereby posing a serious threat to the importing country’s labour market and simultaneously intensifying the competition faced in the global export market. “Strategic Outsourcing.” Trade Liberalization and Strategic Outsourcing. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 4 “Protectionism.” National Protectionism. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 5 “[DOC] III. trade policies and practices by measure.” WTO. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Aug. 2012. . 3

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council

Consumers vs. Producers Trade liberalization provides the consumer with access to a variety of international goods, most of which are available at prices cheaper than those that are domestically manufactured. The consumer stands to gain by choosing the best quality product at the lowest possible price. However, the flip side to this is that the local producers may fold under such stiff competition, as the goods they produce may not be as sought after in local markets. Though such intense competition may appear to be an incentive for domestic industries to be innovative, in reality, it seldom has this effect, often rendering many unemployed and pushing the poverty line even lower instead.

Dumping If a company exports a commodity at a lower price than what that commodity is being sold for domestically, it is said to be dumping that particular commodity. Opinions differ on whether this is unfair competition or not. While the WTO has not explicitly prohibited it, most governments take action against dumping to protect their domestic industries. The Anti-Dumping Agreement under the WTO allows governments to act against dumping where there is genuine (“material”) injury to the competing domestic industry.6 Specifically, in order to take action, the government has to be able to show that dumping is taking place, calculate the extent of dumping (how much lower the export price is compared to the home market price), and prove that the dumping is causing actual damage or is threatening to do so. Therefore, a detailed investigation has to first be conducted according to regulations. If the investigation does conclude that dumping is taking place and domestic industries are suffering as a result, the exporting company may be asked to raise the price of the commodity in question to an agreed-upon level in order to avoid the imposition of an anti-dumping import duty.

Historical Analysis International trade has been documented for centuries. Since the time when the domestication of the camel made possible the creation of the silk and spice roads, nation-states have practiced what we now call trade barriers. In antiquity, tariffs took the forms of fees imposed on goods transported using public facilities such as roads, bridges, and harbours. Over time, as state bureaucratic capabilities increased, tariffs became used less as sources of revenue but instead as economic tools.7 For example, many European powers abolished internal tariffs in the heyday of mercantilism in order to encourage trade between the homeland and colonies, but tariffs were maintained when trading with other countries. Economic treaties promoting trade by abolishing tariffs have flourished in the post-war and postUSSR years. Famous examples include the North American Free Trade Agreement and the European Economic Community that preceded the European Union.8 “WTO | Understanding the WTO - Anti-dumping, subsidies, safeguards, contingencies, etc.” World Trade Organization - Home page. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 7 Li, Alan. “The History of Taxes & Tariffs | eHow.com.” eHow | How to Videos, Articles & More - Discover the expert in you. | eHow.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 8 . http://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact4_e.htm 10 “GATT.” WTO. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 11 Region. “Cotton prices jump as India bans exports - FT.com.” World business, finance, and political news from the Financial Times - FT.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 12 Voisin, Frank. “India’s Cotton Ban: What Does It Mean For You? | Frankly Speaking.” FrankVoisin.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 13 “Foreign Affairs Blog - House Committee on Foreign Affairs.” House Committee on Foreign Affairs - Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Chairman. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . “WTO | dispute settlement - the disputes - DS394.” World Trade Organization - Home page. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2012. . 15 “World Trade Report.” WTO. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Aug. 2012. . 16 “12th Five Year Plan .” The Economist. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Aug. 2012. 17 “Trade.” EU. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Aug. 2012. . 14

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council It is important to note that the examples provided in this document do not represent the most pressing or important issues to every country, and serve to provide only examples of trade barriers. To prepare for the conference, all delegates must identify the trade barriers that affect their country the most and focus on those issues.

Possible Solutions The aim of the ECOSOC in this session is to bridge the divide between the developed and the developing nations through trade liberalization and globalization. Unfortunately, history has shown that developing and underdeveloped countries lack a voice when it comes to trade. A reversal of this trend will be a critical step towards a successful resolution. Delegates should seek to work and reach a consensus wherein the interests of all countries are taken into account. History has also shown that there are no easy solutions to many of the barriers that exist today. Removal of these barriers will require persistent and concerted action by member states. A successful resolution should address the following issues: —— Concerns surrounding barriers to free trade —— Ways to engage both third world countries and first world countries in order to dampen discrimination/exploitation and foster international economic growth —— Potential changes and exceptions to agreed-upon trade practices under certain exceptional circumstances (e.g. should a nation be able to protect its own interests more vigorously if it has just suffered an economic collapse?) —— Methods of resolving disputes between two or more nations —— Respectful recourse or well-targeted punishments for members who do not respect their international trade obligations

Questions to Consider 1. Should all trade barriers be removed or regulated? Consider that trade barriers may be essential for emerging economies. What other arguments are there to justify trade restrictions? 2. What are appropriate consequences for a state that violates trade agreements? 3. How can the world tackle and regulate outsourcing? 4. What regulations are necessary to prevent large disparities of wealth between rich and poor nations and to prevent exploitation in trade? 5. How does the currency battle between the US and China relate to the rest of the world?

Additional Resources http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news12_e/ddg_03jul12_e.htm http://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/tariff-trade-barrier-basics.asp#axzz28g0lRT— 10 —

Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council nM http://www.economist.com/topics/trade-barriers http://www.economist.com/node/21557766?zid=295&ah=0bca374e65f2354d553956ea65f756e0 http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2012/february/tradoc_149143.pdf http://www.globalissues.org/issue/38/free-trade-and-globalization http://www.un.org/esa/ffd/ecosoc/springmeetings/2012/index.htm

Sources http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/truth-about-trade-history http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/02/protectionism?zid=295&ah=0bca374e65f2354d553956ea65f756e0 http://www.economist.com/node/21551064?zid=295&ah=0bca374e65f2354d553956ea65f756e0 http://www.economist.com/node/21532288?zid=295&ah=0bca374e65f2354d553956ea65f756e http://www.ehow.com/info_7853960_history-taxes-tariffs.html http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2012/february/tradoc_149143.pdf http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact4_e.htm

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Topic B: Sustainable Reconstruction Introduction Two of the United Nations’ primary responsibilities are to mediate in conflicts and to launch reconstruction efforts afterwards. While important, however, these tasks can prove to be daunting. The nature of conflict in the world is changing, impacting communities in very different ways than in the past. Environmental change and urbanization are relatively modern forces of conflict and displacement, in addition to traditional causes: weak or poor governance, ethnicity, religion and nationalistic ideologies. Modern wars no longer take place on a real battlefield. In the wars of the 1950s, the death rate of soldiers to civilians was 9 to 1; today, for every soldier killed, nine civilians die.1 In modern warfare, countries are not only physically destroyed, but human capital is decimated and the social fabric is torn apart. Because of this reality, peacebuilding requires far more funding, attention, and care than before. International support is vital for national efforts across the broadest range of activities: monitoring ceasefires, demobilizing and reintegrating combatants, assisting the return of refugees and displaced persons, helping to organize and monitor elections, supporting justice and security sector reform, enhancing human rights protections, and fostering reconciliation after past atrocities.2

Timeline 1992 1995 1996 2000

2001 2003 2004 2006

An Agenda for Peace introduces peacebuilding as a UN tool. The Supplement to an Agenda for Peace emphasizes the need for the institutionalization of peace. The Inventory of Peacebuilding Activities identifies the building blocks of post-conflict peacebuilding. The Brahimi Report defines peacebuilding as “activities undertaken on the far side of conflict to reassemble the foundations of peace and provide the tools for building on those foundations something that is more than just the absence of war.” No Exit without Strategy outlines three key peacebuilding objectives. A review of technical cooperation in the United Nations concludes that greater coordination in peacebuilding within the UN is needed. A More Secure World calls for the creation of the Peacebuilding Architecture. The UN Peacebuilding Capacity Inventory provides a snapshot of the wide range of peacebuilding activities undertaken by 31 UN agencies.

“Post Conflict Development Aid Recovery | International Rescue Committee (IRC).” Rescue and Refugee Support | International Rescue Committee (IRC). N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 2 “WDRs - World Development Report 2011.” World Bank Group. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. 1

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council 2008 2009

The Capstone Doctrine includes peacebuilding as part of the UN’s comprehensive approach to addressing violent conflict. The Report of the Secretary-General on Peacebuilding in the Immediate Aftermath of Conflict sets out basic principles for peacebuilding in the first two years after conflict.

Historical Analysis While the number of conflicts has diminished since the end of the Cold War, there are still approximately 55 armed conflicts in progress around the world.3 Inevitably, these hostilities will result in post-conflict societies suffering from substantial collateral damage that may hinder progress for several years. Scattered populations, a ruined economy, and the destruction of infrastructure lead to the disappearance of any semblance of normality. Unfortunately, many nations remain trapped in the cycle of violence — countries that have just emerged from conflicts are extremely likely to fall back into conflict, and also have a very difficult road to recovery. Ultimately, the stability of a state is contingent on its ability to offer secure opportunities for societal and economic development. Ensuring sustainable development in post-conflict zones thus requires the early coordination of an agenda to prioritize international support and aid.

Explanation of Key Concepts Cycle of Violence One of the main hindrances to sustainable development is the cycle of violence. In a post-conflict society, the residual tensions, combined with a weak capacity to ensure order and a lack of legitimacy of key national institutions (e.g. army, police), lead to high risks of a return to violence. This is illustrated in many regions of the Middle East and of northern Africa, where terrorist groups have infiltrated multiple armed rebel brigades, perpetuating conflict, causing societal harm, and significantly reducing the success of development goals. The notion of a cycle of violence has also been substantiated by the World Bank, whose ignorance of a state’s ethnic and political cleavages led it to make poor decisions about where to allocate funds until recently.4 Choosing where and when to build the infrastructure needed for recovery has become a highly politicized issue with major security implications, since merely distributing aid between formerly hostile combatants will not have a significant impact. It is therefore extremely important that infrastructure projects are viewed as not merely a form of development, but also as a mechanism to coalesce previously fractured societies. The UK’s Department for International Development, for one, noted that aid should not automatically go towards rebuilding destroyed infrastructure.5 Indeed, the poor distribution of aid may be partly to blame for a society's descent “Wars in the World » List of ongoing Conflicts.” Wars in the World. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 4 “Breaking Cycles of Violence.” OECD. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . 5 “ DFID - How UK aid is spent.” DFID - UK aid from the Department for International Development (DFID). N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 3

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council into conflict. For instance, Sierra Leone’s civil war stemmed from the systematic exclusion of rural areas from enjoying developmental assistance.6 Actors involved in armed violence often combine political, criminal and commercial purposes. For example, many armed groups are associated with the trafficking of arms, drugs and people, all illegal activities that further jeopardize an already precarious situation.7 Criminal groups in Jamaica and Nairobi, for instance, are hired to engage in political violence.8 Because armed violence highlights new cycles of violence and insecurity, the fusion of political conflict and criminal violence only further destabilizes a society. Long-term peace is only possible with a civil society and opportunities for legitimate economic and societal activity. Therefore, aid to war-impacted communities cannot solely consist of the provision of humanitarian assistance. Rather, the international community must also attempt to strengthen physical and social institutions, as well as to rebuild and restore cohesion, trust and confidence among citizens.

Coordination Coordinating multi-billion-dollar capital projects across different nations and UN agencies has proven to be an obstacle to development in stable countries. Post-conflict societies and the associated security issues only compound these challenges. Successful development projects will require security, financing, and conflict sensitivity — inevitably, such projects will heighten tensions between the haves and have-nots. These diverse requirements have led to frustration and delays in many reconstruction efforts. UN projects in Sierra Leone, Burundi, and the Central African Republic all faced initial difficulties in establishing cogent strategies and in coordinating the many involved actors.9 Intervention should dampen, not reignite, hostilities, but doing so is a difficult task for foreign entities. The legitimacy of an existing government is immediately called into question during a conflict. Regardless of whether a state has suffered civil war or a unilateral genocide, a majority of citizens will likely view the state government as illegitimate. Therefore, choosing to directly engage the government in reconstruction efforts is not always the best decision; unsurprisingly, UN resolutions routinely mention private investment as an alternative to involving the official government. Other organizations (beside the United Nations and national governments) that are capable of providing development aid include NGOs, regional bodies, and foreign agencies. For instance, after the 2001 American invasion of Afghanistan, the vehicle of choice to distribute development funds was not the new Afghan government led by Harmid Karzai, but rather two more reputable organizations: Shah, Anup. “Sierra Leone — Global Issues.” Global Issues : social, political, economic and environmental issues that affect us all — Global Issues. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 7 Lewis, Mike, and September 2009. Working Paper No. 18 (also available in Arabic. “Small Arms Survey - Illicit Trafficking.” Small Arms Survey - Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 8 “Nairobi: Perspectives on Political Violence from Popular Settlements.” urbantippingpoint. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. 9 “Second International Conference on DDR and Stability in Africa Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo.” UN Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . 6

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council the international assistance arm of the US State Department (USAID), and the United Nations. This approach allowed for the provision of aid while sidestepping the intractable issue of corruption in politics.10 Efficient coordination of foreign nations, private donors, the government of the affected state, and other involved organizations is vital in any developmental effort, in order to reduce cultural insensitivities and avoid the reignition of violence.

Commitment The UN has struggled to modernize its conflict resolution framework, as it has lacked a peacebuilding imperative. International intervention occurred only as means to monitor a conflict zone and mediate a peaceful resolution; only after the Cold War did the international community begin to recognize the end of a conflict was merely the first step towards peace building and societal improvement. Cost and scale are among the largest obstacles to post-conflict development efforts. The large amount of funding needed presents several acute problems. International donors are loath to commit large sums of aid to post-conflict zone that may regress into conflict. At the same time, waiting too long for violence to subside and for increased certainty of stability will reduce the efficacy of reconstruction efforts and increase the risk of a return to conflict. In addition, there are four inherent issues. First, as discussed, any form of post-conflict-government is unlikely to have the institutional capacity or the creditworthiness to carry out major projects. Second, individual donors — whether organizations or individuals —lack the resources to carry out such major projects alone. Third, the large sums of money required heighten the risk of corruption. Fourth, development projects can stretch out for long periods of time, often over a decade, and considerable effort is required to keep donors committed. Corruption, in particular, is considered one of the largest barriers to development. Though it can occur in any situation where the amount of funds involved are this high, it is especially prevalent in post-conflict societies where the rule of law is weak and institutions are still entrenching their power.11 Hence, aid providers are reluctant to offer large sums of money that are often difficult to track. Because of the nature of infrastructure projects, foreign donors eschew lending through governments and instead prefer to fund projects through international and reputable organizations such as the UN. Moreover, regardless of whether aid comes from foreign agencies, NGOs, or private firms, donor fatigue is an important concern. Immediately after a conflict, countries often receive lots of support as aid providers across the world, horrified by reports of war and tragedy in the media, pledge thousands of dollars. However, as time passes, the influx of donations begin to slow down, along with media attention and ambitious infrastructure projects. Countries such as Haiti that have been afflicted by disasters have yet to return to prosperity and are at risk of becoming largely forgotten.12 “USAID Projects.” USAID. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . “Corruption and Post-Conflict Peace-Building.” Yale Law. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. 12 “Donor fatigue hampers Haiti’s recovery - thestar.com.” News, Toronto, GTA, Sports, Business, Entertainment, Can10 11

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council

Current Situation Providing the foundations for future economic development is a serious challenge for post-conflict societies. International support is a necessity in this area for two reasons. Firstly, the region’s infrastructure is usually destroyed during the conflict, often targeted because it is critical to society. Many examples in the past decade highlight the vulnerability and importance of these structures. When the US invaded Iraq in 2003, for example, it targeted power substations and bridges in order to cripple the regime’s military capabilities.13 Three years later, Israel targeted Lebanon’s transportation systems for similar reasons.14 Because infrastructure is one of the first and most costly casualties of conflict, recovering regions require significant amounts of aid to rebuild it. Second, conflict-ridden societies lack capital and simply do not have the resources to embark on any large projects to spark growth. Newly formed governments do not have the financial power, legitimacy, or operational capacity to oversee multi-billion dollar projects, be it in infrastructure, health, or education. Emergent societies also lack a robust private sector (e.g. construction companies or banks) able to fund and execute these projects. For these reasons, post-conflict states are in dire need of international involvement.

Case Study: Afghanistan The situation in Afghanistan offers many lessons for handling post-conflict societies. Never truly at peace, Afghanistan has been the host of several conflicts waged by foreign powers, beginning with the Soviet invasion of 1979. Up until that point, UN assistance (since the 1950s) meant the country was relatively prosperous. After the Soviet Union withdrew a decade later, a civil war ensured, “[leaving] many parts of every major city in rubble.”15 The evaporation of international support to Afghanistan following the end of the Soviet occupation ultimately allowed the nation to become a safe haven for extremists. Even large sums of American aid had little impact — largely due to corruption and misallocation of founds. By 1996, the vast majority of the country was in the hands of the Taliban. Because of the cycle of violence, lack of international support, and significantly weakened government, the terrorist organization al-Qaeda was also able to set up bases in Afghanistan, where it planned the September 11 attacks.16 By November of that year, Afghanistan was occupied by yet another global power — this time, the United States, which launched the invasion as part of its war on terrorism. The constant violence has led to a shortage of logistical capabilities and capital within the country, ada, World, Breaking - thestar.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 13 “Iraq’s Faltering Infrastructure .” Council on Foreign Relations. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . 14 Symonds, Peter. “Amnesty International details Israeli war crimes in Lebanon.” World Socialist Web Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 15 Sharp, Trueman W., Frederick M. Burkle, Jr., Andrew F. Vaughn, Rashid Chotani, and Richard J. Brennan. “Challenges and Opportunities for Humanitarian Relief in Afghanistan.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 34.S5 (2002): S215-228. Print. 16 Hayes, Laura, Borgna Brunner, and Beth Rowen. “The Taliban — Infoplease.com.” Infoplease — Free Online Encyclopedia, Almanac, Atlas, and more — Infoplease.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. .

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council impeding recovery.17 Today, the majority of the population lives without access to basic services; in 1998, Afghanistan had a mere 25 kilometers of railways and 3,000 kilometers of roads, while, by comparison, the similarly sized Texas has more than half a million kilometers of roads. Most people seeking career opportunities leave the country; indeed, nearly a third of the population has emigrated since 1979. Evidently, Afghanistan never rebuilt itself successfully following a period of violence, and it serves as an unfortunate example of how the international community’s failure to properly assist a post-conflict society had serious consequences for the entire world.

UN Involvement The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) has so far played an avant-garde role in developing mechanisms in response to the problems faced by countries emerging from conflict. An example of an initiative currently being overseen by the Council is the development of long-term strategy to promote socio-economic recovery and stability in Haiti, undertaken at the request of the Security Council.18 The Council also discussed recently the role of the United Nations and the international community in supporting South Sudan. In Resolution 2011/43, the Council “[invited] the governing bodies of the United Nations funds and programmes to pay particular attention to the situation in South Sudan and to the coordination of their activities in the country…recognizing that development, peace, security, and human rights are interlinked.”19 Another example of involvement by the Council is the Ad-Hoc Advisory Committee established in Guinea-Bissau, whose mandate is: To examine its humanitarian and economic needs, and review relevant programs of support and prepare recommendations for a long-term program of support, based on its development priorities through the integration of relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and development into a comprehensive approach to peace and stability, as well as provide advice on how to ensure that the assistance of the international community was adequate, coherent, well coordinated and effective and promoted synergy.20

Apart from ECOSOC, the UN has many other, somewhat disparate, resources dedicated to rebuilding states after conflicts. In 2005, the UN Security Council approved Resolution 1645, which created the Peacebuilding Commission. Designed as a body that would interface with the Security Council and discuss “integrated strategies for post conflict peacebuilding and recovery,” the Peacebuilding Commission has largely fallen short of the goals envisioned at the time of its creation.21 Acting to extend this initiative, then-Secretary-General Kofi Annan subsequently launched a Pea“Monthly press briefing.” NATO. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . “UN Economic and Social Council.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 19 “Support to the Republic of South Sudan.” UN ECOSOC. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. 20 Office for ECOSOC Support and Coordination. "ECOSOC Ad-Hoc Advisory Group on African Countries Emerging from Conflict: The Silent Avant-Garde." UN. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2006. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. 21 “United Nations, UN, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, DESA, About DESA.” UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2012. . 17 18

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council cebuilding Fund (PBF) in 2006, specifically designed to facilitate the quick funding of projects in post-conflict societies that meet one of two criteria:22 they have just emerged from a conflict and need funds to start rebuilding, or they are unable to acquire funding from alternate sources relatively easily.23 The inherent risk associated with post-conflict societies means these two categories often overlap. The fund is only intended to act as a method of providing short-term relief, however, and cannot be used to support a country in the long run — most projects must last shorter than three years. Additionally, the Peacebuilding Fund receives funding only on a voluntary basis by member states. Hence, while the PBF serves as a short-term respite for post-conflict societies, it likely has no bearing on the long-term solutions that are required for the issue of infrastructure in post-conflict societies. Essentially, the PBF acts as a first-responder funding vehicle to help countries immediately after the end of a conflict, something the UN has struggled with historically. The World Bank’s International Development Association (IDA) is another example of an organization that specializes in financing development projects for the world’s poorest countries. The DPA works to resolve deadly conflicts, offering electoral assistance and coordinating efforts with regional bodies (e.g. the African Union). While the case of Afghanistan shows there is much work to be done, there have been some improvements over the past few years. In light of considerable enhancements in the private sector, the General Assembly has invited governments to consider public-private partnerships as well as aid from foreign agencies.24 The UN has also expressed support for an international infrastructure consortium involving regional bodies and the World Bank.

Possible Solutions & Controversies World Bank President Robert B. Zoellick insightfully notes that: If we are to break the cycles of violence and lessen the stresses that drive them, countries must develop more legitimate, accountable and capable national institutions that provide for citizen security, justice and jobs. Children living in fragile states are twice as likely to be undernourished and three times as likely to be out of school. And the effects of violence in one area can spread to neighboring states and to other parts of the world, hurting development prospects of others and impeding economic prospects for entire regions.25

Therefore, a successful resolution should include measures concerning the security of citizens, the legitimacy of the law, and employment. A recent shift away from the generic one-size-fits-all approach to more country-specific, or at least “Peacebuilding and Reconciliation.” ICD Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . 23 “Who we are – United Nations Peacebuilding Fund.” United Nations Peacebuilding Fund. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 24 “The United Nations Development Agenda: Development for All.” UN. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . 25 “WDRs - World Development Report 2011.” World Bank Group. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . 22

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council adaptable, solutions only adds to the complexity of the task faced by the Council. The goal of ECOSOC is to suggest institutions and ideas that, combined with other UN resources, will allow the United Nations to best rebuild a post-conflict society — indeed, there is already “a vibrant community of agencies and organizations working in the field of peace building, but…[they have] no overarching structure.”26 A successful solution for the construction of post-conflict infrastructure should describe the priorities for UN missions when entering war-torn states in a fragile state of peace. Specifically, the committee needs to address four items of varying significance: 1. Coordination and marshaling of different resources. The Council should examine the UN’s vast global network of resources; the capabilities of NGOs, who can provide quick assistance; the convenience of private companies, which may be willing to invest in infrastructure projects with foreign direct investment; and regional bodies and foreign agencies that can provide additional assistance in rebuilding a country (e.g. the AU in Somalia). Delegates should consider how best these resources can be used. 2. Violence. The Council should address the cycle of violence, considering both ways to avoid a return to conflict and strategies to mitigate the effects if violence does indeed break out again. 3. Funding. The Council should consider viable sources of funding, and the best systems to distribute and allocate these funds. 4. Long-term viability. The Council should discuss the issue of donor fatigue and how longterm reconstruction efforts can be supported.

Bloc Positions n.b. Delegates should note that not all countries approve of the use of NGOs or desire the use of private investment.

Least Developed Countries & Countries in Conflict Nations in this bloc, having experienced conflict at one point or another, typically look to the UN, as well as individual foreign nations, private companies, and NGOs, for infrastructure aid. These countries therefore support large-scale investment programs and other reconstruction efforts.

Developing Countries Many developing countries attempt to support post-conflict societies through investment in infrastructure and thus have a vested interest in the long-term success of reconstruction. In 2006, for example, Chinese companies advanced to Angola a 4-billion-dollar line of credit to be used for infrastructure, such as railway roads and fibre optic networks; in return, they received access to the country’s oil reserves.27 The abundance of natural resources in African countries is especially ap“United Nations Publications.” United Nations Publications. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2012. . 27 Zafar, Ali. “The Growing Relationship Between China and Sub-Sahara Africa: Macroeconomic Trade, Investment, and Aid Links.” The World Bank Research Observer 22 (Spring, 2007): 103-130. doi:10.1093/wbro/lkm001 26

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council pealing to major firms throughout Asia; abundant supplies of copper in Zambia, iron ore in Gabon, and oil in Angola have fuelled considerable investment from countries in this bloc.28

Developed Countries These countries have historically spearheaded operations in conflict zones — examples include Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2004) — to eliminate terrorism and possibly to secure access to foreign oil. In some cases, they have also given aid to countries in need. Sometimes, aid workers may work in tandem with armed forces, undermining their neutrality, as was the case with the US-employed Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan.29

Discussion Questions 1. How do we maintain peace while conducting development programs? 2. Is a foreign peacekeeping force justified? 3. What organizations can effectively fund a development program that may initially require a large pool of donations along with committed donors? How can the issue of donor fatigue be addressed? 4. How much say should NGOs have in development projects, taking into consideration their expertise in particular fields? 5. Who has the final say on whether a certain mission should take place? 6. How can international missions best be conducted as to minimize discontent from local citizens?

Additional Resources http://www.un.org/esa/ffd/ecosoc/springmeetings/2012/index.htm http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_nsds/nsds_pdfs/guidancenotes.pdf http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp30.pdf http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/update-report/lookup-c-glKWLeMTIsG-b-4124009.php http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/documents/instructionalmaterial/ wcms_141270.pdf http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/docs/Paper_Protection_ESCR.pdf http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/6/27306/sps123_lcl2613.pdf

Sources “The Heart of Darkness: What’s Really Behind Asian Investment in Africa.” A Money Morning. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2012. . 29 “Provincial Reconstruction Teams and Security Assistance: Comments on an Evolving Concept.” Cobane. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Sept. 2012. . 28

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Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council “Breaking Cycles of Violence.” OECD. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . “Corruption and Post-Conflict Peace-Building.” Yale Law. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . “DFID - How UK aid is spent.” DFID — UK aid from the Department for International Development (DFID). N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Donor fatigue hampers Haiti’s recovery — thestar.com.” News, Toronto, GTA, Sports, Business, Entertainment, Canada, World, Breaking — thestar.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . Hayes, Laura, Borgna Brunner, and Beth Rowen. “The Taliban — Infoplease.com.” Infoplease — Free Online Encyclopedia, Almanac, Atlas, and more — Infoplease.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Iraq’s Faltering Infrastructure.” Council on Foreign Relations. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . Lewis, Mike, and September 2009. Working Paper No. 18. “Small Arms Survey — Illicit Trafficking.” Small Arms Survey — Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Monthly press briefing.” NATO. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . “Nairobi: Perspectives on Political Violence from Popular Settlements.” urbantippingpoint. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . “Peacebuilding and Reconciliation.” ICD Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . “Peacebuilding: October 2010 Monthly Forecast: Security Council Report.” Security Council Report. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Post Conflict Development Aid Recovery | International Rescue Committee (IRC).” Rescue and Refugee Support | International Rescue Committee (IRC). N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Provincial Reconstruction Teams and Security Assistance: Comments on an Evolving Concept.” Cobane. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Sept. 2012. . “Second International Conference on DDR and Stability in Africa Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo.” UN Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . Shah, Anup. “Sierra Leone — Global Issues.” Global Issues : social, political, economic and en— 21 —

Vancouver Model United Nations 2013 Economic and Social Council vironmental issues that affect us all — Global Issues. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . Sharp, Trueman W., Frederick M. Burkle, Jr., Andrew F. Vaughn, Rashid Chotani, and Richard J. Brennan. “Challenges and Opportunities for Humanitarian Relief in Afghanistan.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 34.S5 (2002): S215-228. Print. Simpkins, Jason. “The Heart of Darkness: What’s really behind Asian investment in Africa.” Money Morning. April 18, 2008. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. . “Support to the Republic of South Sudan.” UN ECOSOC. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . Symonds, Peter. “Amnesty International details Israeli war crimes in Lebanon.” World Socialist Web Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “The United Nations Development Agenda: Development for All.” UN. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. . “UN Economic and Social Council.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “UN Economic and Social Council.” Welcome to the United Nations: It’s Your World. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “USAID Projects.” USAID. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . “WDRs — World Development Report 2011.” World Bank Group. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Who we are — United Nations Peacebuilding Fund.” United Nations Peacebuilding Fund. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . “Wars in the World » List of ongoing Conflicts.” Wars in the World. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. . Zafar, Ali. “The Growing Relationship Between China and Sub-Sahara Africa: Macroeconomic Trade, Investment, and Aid Links.” The World Bank Research Observer 22 (Spring, 2007): 103-130. doi:10.1093/wbro/lkm001

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